Editors: Aaron C. Palke | James E.

Shigley

Inclusions in Gemstones
James E. Shigley, Aaron C. Palke, John I. Koivula, and Nathan D. Renfro

Gem inclusions are mineral crystals or cavities filled with amber, for instance. By observing insects trapped in amber,
fluid and/or gas that occur in a host gemstone. Many gems Pliny the Elder was able to conclude that amber represents
contain microscopic inclusions (ranging in size from >1 fossilized tree resin (Ball, 1950) (figure 1).
mm down to submicroscopic nanoscale inclusions) that However, it was only much later that inclusions began
can reveal much about the host material. As a result, the to be classified and studied in a more systematic fashion.
use of the microscope (or loupe) to examine these inclu- The pioneering scientist Robert Boyle was perhaps one of
sions offers one of the most important methods available the first to describe inclusions in gems—“a specimen of
for gem identification. quartz with a cavity containing a fluid with a moveable gas
Inclusions are important for determining the natural, bubble, and reddish brown hair-like inclusions in
synthetic, or treated character of a gem, and for establishing amethyst” (Boyle, 1672). With the improvements in design
the likely geographic origin of a valuable colored stone. In and functionality of optical microscopes beginning in the
addition to their usefulness for identification, inclusions late 1700s, scientists started to use them to examine tiny
cause certain distinctive and desirable optical phenomena features in rocks and minerals (Kile, 2003, 2013). Déodat
such as asterism and chatoyancy, as well as some of the fea-
tures used in clarity grading. In this new installment of
“Colored Stones Unearthed,” we will discuss inclusions in Figure 1. Inclusions of insects entombed in amber,
gems—how they form, how they are studied, and what they such as these two wasps captured in an eternal em-
mean not only for gemologists but also for geoscientists. brace, offered ancient naturalists a clue to the geolog-
ical origins of this gemstone. Photomicrograph by
Brief History of Inclusion Studies John I. Koivula.

While the study of inclusions might seem to be a modern

concept requiring the use of advanced microscopes with
sophisticated optical lenses, early naturalists did have
some basic knowledge of how inclusions could be used to
understand the geological history of a gem. Consider

Editors’ note: Questions or topics of interest should be directed to Aaron

Palke ([email protected]) or James Shigley ([email protected]).

GEMS & GEMOLOGY, VOL. 58, NO. 2, pp. 234–242.

© 2022 Gemological Institute of America

234 COLORED STONES UNEARTHED GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2022

 Figure 2. Oriented in-
clusions such as the ru-
tile needles in this ruby
were recognized as the
cause of asterism early
on in the study of inclu-
sions. Photomicrograph
by Nathan Renfro; field
of view 1.80 mm.

de Dolomieu discussed the presence of a hydrocarbon fluid 1862 article by Gustav Rose identified the presence of ori-
(petroleum oil) in quartz in 1792. In 1819, Chester Dewey ented, needle-like inclusions, such as those seen in the star
detailed a quartz specimen from Massachusetts that dis- ruby in figure 2, as the cause of asterism in minerals. The
played a cavity containing a liquid with a moveable bubble first descriptions of inclusions specifically in gem minerals
and several black or brown particles (1818, pp. 345–346). were published in several articles by Henry Sorby in 1869
Noted scientists Humphry Davy (1822), David Brewster and by Isaac Lea between 1866 and 1876. Other reports on
(1826, 1827, 1844, 1845a,b, 1863), and William Nicol (1828) solid and fluid inclusions in various minerals followed (e.g.,
each described minerals that contained inclusions consist- Hartley, 1876, 1877).
ing of one or more fluids and moveable gas bubbles. In The use of inclusions to understand a gem’s geological
1854, Johann Reinhard Blum and his coauthors published growth environment can be understood with the examples
a book discussing various mineral inclusions they had ob- shown in figures 3–6. Ruby derived from extremely pure
served. By linking observations on mineral inclusions and calcite (CaCO3) marble, as in the deposits of Mogok, Myan-
host rock formation, Henry Clifton Sorby (1858) became mar, often contains calcite inclusions (figure 3), whereas
one of the founders of the geological science of petrography magnesium-rich spinel from the same geological region in
with an article titled “On the microscopical structure of Mogok will likely contain magnesium-rich dolomite
crystals, indicating the origin of minerals and rocks.” An [CaMg(CO3)2] (figure 4). Similarly, emeralds from mica-rich

Figure 3. The geological growth environment of marble-hosted rubies from Myanmar (left) is reflected in their in-
ternal features, such as calcite inclusions (right). Photos by Robert Weldon (left; courtesy of William F. Larson) and
Nathan Renfro (right; field of view 1.44 mm).

COLORED STONES UNEARTHED GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2022 235

Figure 4. Left: Magnesium-rich spinel often forms in impure marbles where the magnesium-rich mineral dolomite
is present. Right: These spinels contain inclusions where carbonate minerals are more likely to be dolomite than
calcite, as seen in this dolomite-filled negative crystal. Photos by Robert Weldon (left) and Nathan Renfro (right;
field of view 1.30 mm).

rocks called schists, such as Russian emeralds, often con- matches the mineralogy seen in many emerald-bearing
tain mica inclusions (figure 5). On the other hand, emeralds hand samples from Colombia.
from the hydrothermal deposits in Colombia, where the Beginning in the 1940s, the well-known European
gems occur in veins rich in carbonate, quartz, and pyrite, gemologist Eduard Gübelin began publishing a series of im-
often contain inclusions of carbonate minerals. Figure 6 portant articles in Gems & Gemology and Journal of Gem-
shows an exceptional example of a carbonate inclusion, mology on inclusions and the evidence they could provide
which itself contains a pyrite inclusion that perfectly on the geologic and geographic origin of the host gemstone

Figure 5. Emeralds from mica-rich schists, such as Russian emeralds (left), display inclusions that give away their
geological origins, such as fields of dark mica platelets (right). Photos by Robert Weldon (left; courtesy of R.T. Boyd
Limited) and Nathan Renfro (right; field of view 2.04 mm).

236 COLORED STONES UNEARTHED GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2022

Figure 6. Left: Emerald from Chivor, Colombia, on carbonate and pyrite matrix. Right: Inclusions in Colombian
emeralds provide evidence of their unique geological origins, such as this pyrite within a carbonate inclusion. Pho-
tos by Robert Weldon (left; courtesy of Cornerstone Minerals and Greg Turner) and Jonathan Muyal (right; vertical
field of view 2.34 mm).

(e.g., Gübelin, 1944–1946, 1948, 1950, 1953, 1969, 1974). crystal forms of the host. For this reason, these fluid inclu-
Dr. Gübelin’s publications were followed by several impor- sions are often referred to as “negative crystals.”
tant books on gem inclusions coauthored by John Koivula While either solid or liquid at the time of their original
(1986, 2005, 2008) that have been widely used and appre- entrapment in crystals at high temperatures in the earth,
ciated by the gemological community. Hollister and Craw-
ford (1981), Roedder (1984), Samson et al. (2003), and Chi
et al. (2020) contributed technical summaries on fluid in-
clusion research. Figure 7. Fluid inclusions with exsolved gas bubbles and
daughter crystals in a beryl host. These fluid inclusions
entered the host through a fracture. The fracture healed
Inclusions in Minerals and Gems itself, trapping blebs of this fluid with the negative crys-
tal form seen here. Photomicrograph by Nathan Renfro.
Minerals frequently contain small inclusions of foreign ma-
terials (solids, liquids, and gases) that were trapped during
mineral formation, and these can be seen with magnifica-
tion. Crystals that formed during metamorphism by solid-
state recrystallization, or almost entirely in the solid state
without significant involvement of fluids, can display solid
inclusions. Those that occur in igneous and sedimentary
rocks were formed in the presence of a geological fluid and,
as a result, can contain single or multiphase inclusions of
that fluid (as well as solid or vapor inclusions). These geo-
logical fluids consist of high-density silicate or carbonatite
melts, low-density water-rich fluids or vapors, and, in rare
cases, organic hydrocarbons (oils). Following crystallization,
the mineral crystals in all of these rock types can become
cleaved or fractured one or more times, and these cleavages
and fractures can later become healed in the presence of liq-
uid or gaseous fluids. Tiny amounts of these fluids can re-
main as inclusions along the healed zone (figure 7). The
crystal form of the host mineral typically determines the
morphology of these fluid inclusions. Fluid inclusions usu-
ally have a geometric, angular shape that reflects the typical

COLORED STONES UNEARTHED GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2022 237

Figure 8. This glassy melt inclusion within a Montana sapphire (left) was originally trapped as a fluid magma that
quenched to a glass upon cooling. This can be seen when these inclusions are polished down to the surface. The
material inside the inclusion does not flow away, indicating it has quenched to a solid, glassy state (right). Photo-
micrographs by Aaron Palke; fields of view 1.26 mm (left) and 0.72 mm (right).

inclusions can undergo phase changes during cooling of the tion relationship cannot always be clearly established
host crystals as the host rocks are brought toward the based on visual or other evidence. Protogenetic primary
earth’s surface. Near the surface, inclusions of fluids nor- solid inclusions were present before the host mineral
mally remain as fluids, while melt inclusions normally so- formed, and the mineral grew around and entrapped
lidify to some type of glass or other solid (figure 8). In some them—these may display irregular or partly dissolved
cases, a fluid can separate into two fluids that are immis- shapes. Syngenetic primary solid, liquid, or gas inclusions
cible (i.e., do not mix with one another at cooler tempera- formed at the same time as the host mineral by being
tures). Solid inclusions can also undergo changes to trapped on growing crystal faces. Solid inclusions some-
lower-density or secondary alteration phases. times have well-formed crystal shapes that represent either
At elevated temperatures in the earth, minerals can ac- their morphology or a morphology imposed on them by the
commodate greater amounts of foreign impurity elements host. Epigenetic secondary inclusions formed after the host
in their crystal structures. But when the minerals cool in by exsolution along a rehealing cleavage or fracture.
the earth’s crust, these impurity elements can no longer be
contained, and they are usually expelled from the structure
(exsolved) as inclusions of different minerals (such as rutile Scientific Study and Geological Importance of
needles in sapphire). At lower pressures and temperatures Inclusions
near the earth’s surface, gases originally dissolved in inclu-
sion fluids can also be exsolved as distinct gas bubbles The study of solid and fluid inclusions provides a way for
within water or carbon dioxide or some other fluid. Sec- the scientist to reconstruct events and processes in the ge-
ondary or “daughter” crystals can also form by coming out ological past. Fluid inclusions represent actual, and often
of the solution from the fluid in the inclusion (figure 7). quite rare, samples of the geological fluids that existed at
Inclusions occur either individually or in small groups. some time in the history of rocks and minerals. As such,
Sometimes they are abundant enough to affect the trans- they can provide information on the physical and chemical
parency of the host mineral. They often occur randomly in conditions that were present during and after rock forma-
the host crystal. But they may also form along certain crys- tion. In particular, studies of inclusions can reveal infor-
tallographic directions, color zones, or healed fractures, or mation on:
they can occur in geometric patterns related to the crystal Temperature: When a mineral and the fluid inclusions
symmetry of the host. Solid inclusions can exhibit their within it cool over geologic time, they shrink at different
own crystal shape, have a rounded or irregular appearance, rates. The inclusion fluid shrinks faster than the solid crys-
or adopt the negative crystal shape of the host mineral. tal host, and this difference is evident in the exsolution
Gemologists categorize inclusions based on their appear- over time of a gas bubble within the fluid at temperatures
ance (shape, size, transparency, color, luster, contrast with existing near the earth’s surface (see figure 9). Through
the host, and orientation) and their association with other gradual, controlled heating of the crystal sample and ob-
mineral inclusions. serving when the gas bubble disappears back into the fluid
Inclusions and their host gemstones can have various (homogenizes), one can estimate the temperature that ex-
age relationships with one another, although this forma- isted when the inclusion itself first formed.

238 COLORED STONES UNEARTHED GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2022

Figure 9. When warmed slightly by the well light of a microscope, the carbon dioxide and gas bubble fluid inclu-
sion in this quartz will homogenize to a single fluid (left). When cooled slightly, this fluid separates into distinct
gas and fluid phases (right). Photomicrographs by Nathan Renfro; field of view 2.56 mm.

Pressure: Once the chemical composition of the fluid in- Chemical Composition: The liquids, the solids, and in
clusions is identified, scientists can use experimental lab- some cases the gases present in inclusions can be analyzed
oratory data on similar fluids to get a sense of the pressures to obtain information on the chemical environment of in-
that existed at the time and the environment in which the clusion formation in the earth’s crust and mantle. Inclu-
inclusions were trapped in the host mineral. sions provide important geological information on the deep
earth that may not be available from any other source.
Density: With data on chemical composition, along with
the density and individual volume of the various phases Geologic Age Dating: When solid inclusions in mineral
present in a fluid inclusion, the total average density of all crystals contain small amounts of radioactive trace ele-
the phases in the inclusion can be calculated. This result ments, it is possible to determine the geologic age of the
is important for understanding the types of fluids and their inclusion (figure 10). Radioactive elements undergo a spe-
circulation in the earth’s crust. cific decay over known periods of geologic time, so careful

Figure 10. A zircon inclusion polished down to the surface of the host sapphire, viewed in backscattered electron
imaging (left) and cathodoluminescence imaging (right) using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Secondary ion
mass spectrometry (SIMS) analysis pits are seen in the image on the left. These analytical tools are able to deter-
mine the age of the zircon inclusion, giving an upper limit on the age of the sapphire host. Images by Rachelle
Turnier, University of Wisconsin/GIA.

COLORED STONES UNEARTHED GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2022 239

determination of these elements can be used to calculate • Using gases trapped in inclusion fluids to study the
mineral formation ages. ancient atmosphere

Application of Inclusion Research: The abundance and

frequent occurrence of inclusions in a variety of geologic Gemological Importance of Inclusions
samples offers numerous opportunities for inclusion stud- For the gemologist, inclusion studies combined with doc-
ies that support a multitude of geological investigations, umentation of standard physical properties provide the
such as: basis for gem identification. In some instances, particular
inclusions uniquely identify a gemstone and its geographic
• Verifying the geologic conditions of formation of ore origin. Observation of inclusions is carried out using a
deposits, providing a tool for the field exploration of gemological microscope and various lighting configura-
new deposits tions. These may include brightfield, darkfield, fiber-optic
• Determining the conditions of formation, mineral- lighting at different orientations to the sample, shadowing,
ogy, and geologic history of rocks found in many use of polarizing or colored filters, and other image-pro-
types of crustal and upper mantle environments cessing techniques. Since the 1950s, inclusion photography
(some results cannot be obtained any other way) has been an essential part of gemological education (see
• Inspecting fluid inclusions that contain hydrocar- Koivula, 1981, 2003; Renfro, 2015a,b).
bons, which can be important for oil exploration Inclusions are often the key to determining the geo-
• Determining the metamorphic or magmatic prove- graphic origin of gemstones. Some gems contain inclusions
nance of certain minerals found today in sediments that are very specific to certain localities. Parisite inclu-
and sedimentary rock formations sions in an emerald are a diagnostic indicator of Colombian
origin (figure 11). In other cases, inclusions are one piece
• Ascertaining the conditions and geological ages of
of the puzzle, such as the long, slender rutile silk seen in a
diamonds and coexisting mineral phases in the
Sri Lankan sapphire (figure 12).
lower crust and mantle
Inclusions are an important clue in identifying treat-
• Hypothesizing the conditions of geotectonic events ments applied to gemstones. The observation of internal
such as crustal formation and subduction, mountain diffusion of blue color around relict rutile silk in a sapphire
building and erosion, volcanism, metamorphism, offers evidence of high-temperature heat treatment meant
and sedimentation to enhance the stone’s blue color (figure 13). Microscopy is
• Studying trapped organisms and vegetation found as arguably the most important way to identify many treat-
fossil inclusions in amber to provide information on ments such as heat treatment, dyes, and clarity enhance-
the ancient biosphere ment through fracture filling.

Figure 11. Parisite in-

clusions in emerald are
a diagnostic indicator
of a Colombian origin.
Photomicrograph by
Jonathan Muyal; field
of view 0.82 mm.

240 COLORED STONES UNEARTHED GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2022

Figure 12. Long, slender rutile silk inclusions in sap- Figure 13. The rutile silk in this sapphire has been
phire are an indicator, although not diagnostic, of a Sri dissolved into the corundum lattice by heat treat-
Lankan origin. Photomicrograph by Nathan Renfro. ment at high temperature, creating blue coloration
around the partially dissolved silk. Photomicrograph
by Nathan Renfro.

Inclusions as Natural Art Gems & Gemology since 2016 (Renfro et al., 2016;
Inclusions in gems serve as visual works of natural art 2017a,b; 2018; 2019; 2021).
(figure 14). Fortuitous geological processes in the earth The field of gemological research exists at a fascinating
created these inclusions in natural, untreated gems with- intersection between the cold, dispassionate scientific
out any human intervention. Their shape, appearance, method and the impassioned and provocative world of aes-
color(s), and in some cases the constraints imposed by the thetics and art. So perhaps it is fitting that these inclusions
crystal symmetry of the mineral host all combine to cre- that tell us so much about the history and genesis of gems
ate an inclusion “scene” that is entirely unique and never can also move and touch us as works of art. Future install-
to be repeated. The artistic nature of inclusions is perhaps ments will further explore the ways in which scientific in-
best illustrated by a series of photomicrograph charts cre- quiry of the geology of colored stones can deepen our
ated by Nathan Renfro and others that have appeared in appreciation of these gems.

Figure 14. Rutile needle

inclusions in a quartz
host. Cross-polarized
light shows off the
Brazil-law twinning in
the quartz, creating a
spectacular display of
light. Photomicrograph
by Nathan Renfro; field
of view 20.05 mm.

COLORED STONES UNEARTHED GEMS & GEMOLOGY SUMMER 2022 241

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