Chapter 4: Routing Concepts
Chapter 4: Routing Concepts
Chapter 4: Routing Concepts
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Chapter 4: Routing Concepts
1. Routing Concepts
Routing is the process of transferring data across the internetwork from a source host to a
destination host. Routing can be understood in terms of two processes: host routing and router routing.
Host routing occurs when the sending host forwards a packet. Based on the destination network address,
the sending host must decide whether to forward the packet to the destination or to a router. In the
Figure, the Source Host forwards the packet destined for the Destination Host to Router 1.
Router routing occurs when a router receives a packet that is to be forwarded. The packet is forwarded
between routers (when the destination network is not directly attached to the router) or between a router
and the destination host (when the destination network is directly attached). In the Figure, Router 1
forwards the packet to Router 2. Router 2 forwards the packet to the Destination Host.
✓ Networks allow people to communicate, collaborate, and interact in many ways. Networks are used to
access web pages, talk using IP telephones, participate in video conferences, compete in interactive
gaming, shop using the Internet, complete online coursework, and more.
✓ At the core of the network is the router. A router connects one network to another network. The router is
responsible for the delivery of packets across different networks. The destination of the IP packet might
be a web server in another country or an email server on the local-area network.
✓ The router uses its routing table to determine the best path to use to forward a packet. It is the
responsibility of the routers to deliver those packets in a timely manner. The effectiveness of
internetwork communications depends, to a large degree, on the ability of routers to forward packets in
the most efficient way possible.
✓ When a host sends a packet to a device on a different IP network, the packet is forwarded to the default
gateway because a host device cannot communicate directly with devices outside of the local network.
The default gateway is the destination that routes traffic from the local network to devices on remote
networks. It is often used to connect a local network to the Internet.
✓ This chapter will also answer the question, “What does a router do with a packet received from one
network and destined for another network?” Details of the routing table will be examined, including
connected, static, and dynamic routes.
✓ Because the router can route packets between networks, devices on different networks can
communicate. This chapter will introduce the router, its role in the networks, its main hardware and
software components, and the routing process.
Characteristics of a Network
Networks have had a significant impact on our lives. They have changed the way we live, work,
and play.
Networks allow us to communicate, collaborate, and interact in ways we never did before. We
use the network in a variety of ways, including web applications, IP telephony, video conferencing,
interactive gaming, electronic commerce, education, and more.
There are many terms, key structures, and performance-related characteristics that are referred to
when discussing networks. These include:
• Topology: There are physical and logical topologies. The physical topology is the arrangement of the
cables, network devices, and end systems. It describes how the network devices are actually
interconnected with wires and cables. The logical topology is the path over which the data is transferred
in a network. It describes how the network devices appear connected to network users.
• Speed: Speed is a measure of the data rate in bits per second (b/s) of a given link in the network.
• Cost: Cost indicates the general expense for purchasing of network components, and installation and
maintenance of the network.
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• Security: Security indicates how protected the network is, including the information that is transmitted
over the network. The subject of security is important, and techniques and practices are constantly
evolving. Consider security whenever actions are taken that affect the network.
• Availability: Availability is a measure of the probability that the network is available for use when it is
required.
• Scalability: Scalability indicates how easily the network can accommodate more users and data
transmission requirements. If a network design is optimized to only meet current requirements, it can be
very difficult and expensive to meet new needs when the network grows.
• Reliability: Reliability indicates the dependability of the components that make up the network, such as
the routers, switches, PCs, and servers. Reliability is often measured as a probability of failure or as the
mean time between failures (MTBF).
These characteristics and attributes provide a means to compare different networking solutions.
While the term “speed” is commonly used when referring to the network bandwidth, it is not
technically accurate. The actual speed that the bits are transmitted does not vary over the same medium.
The difference in bandwidth is due to the number of bits transmitted per second, not how fast they travel
over wire or wireless medium.
Why Routing?
How does clicking a link in a web browser return the desired information in mere seconds?
Although there are many devices and technologies collaboratively working together to enable this, the
primary device is the router. Stated simply, a router connects one network to another network.
Communication between networks would not be possible without a router determining the best path to
the destination and forwarding traffic to the next router along that path. The router is responsible for the
routing of traffic between networks.
When a packet arrives on a router interface, the router uses its routing table to determine how to reach
the destination network. The destination of the IP packet might be a web server in another country or an
email server on the local area network. It is the responsibility of routers to deliver those packets
efficiently. The effectiveness of internetwork communications depends, to a large degree, on the ability
of routers to forward packets in the most efficient way possible.
Routers As Computers
Most network capable devices (i.e., computers, tablets, and smartphones) require the following
components to operate:
A router is essentially a specialized computer. It requires a CPU and memory to temporarily and
permanently store data to execute operating system instructions, such as system initialization, routing
functions, and switching functions.
Cisco devices use the Cisco Internetwork Operating System (IOS) as the system software.
• Random Access Memory (RAM): Provides temporary storage for various applications and processes,
including the running IOS, the running configuration file, various tables (i.e., IP routing table, Ethernet
ARP table), and buffers for packet processing. RAM is referred to as volatile because it loses its
contents when power is turned off.
• Read-Only Memory (ROM): Provides permanent storage for bootup instructions, basic diagnostic
software, and a limited IOS in case the router cannot load the full featured IOS. ROM is firmware and
referred to as non-volatile because it does not lose its contents when power is turned off.
• Non-Volatile Random Access Memory (NVRAM): Provides permanent storage for the startup
configuration file (startup-config). NVRAM is non-volatile and does not lose its contents when power is
turned off.
• Flash: Provides permanent storage for the IOS and other system-related files. The IOS is copied from
flash into RAM during the bootup process. Flash is non-volatile and does not lose its contents when
power is turned off. Contents of flash may be overwritten.
Table 4-1 provides a summary of the types of router memory, their volatility, and examples of what is
stored in each.
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Unlike a computer, a router does not have video adapters or sound card adapters. Instead, routers have
specialized ports and network interface cards to interconnect devices to other networks. Figure 4-1
displays the back panel of a Cisco 1941 ISRG2 and identifies those special ports and interfaces.
Most users are unaware of the presence of numerous routers on their own network or on the
Internet. Users expect to be able to access web pages, send emails, and download music regardless of
whether the server accessed is on their own network or on another network. Networking professionals
know that it is the router that is responsible for forwarding packets from network to network, from the
original source to the final destination.
A router connects multiple networks, which means routers support a variety of interface types, unlike
switches that typically support Ethernet interfaces. When a router receives an IP packet on one interface,
it determines which interface to use to forward the packet to the destination. The interface that the router
uses to forward the packet may be the final destination, or it may be a network connected to another
router that is used to reach the destination network.
Each network that a router connects to typically requires a separate interface. These interfaces are used
to connect a combination of both local-area networks (LANs) and wide-area networks (WANs). LANs
are commonly Ethernet networks that contain devices, such as PCs, printers, and servers. WANs are
used to connect networks over a large geographical area. For example, a WAN connection is commonly
used to connect a LAN to the Internet service provider (ISP) network.
Notice that each site in Figure 4-2 requires the use of a router to interconnect to other sites. Even the
Home Office requires a router. In this topology, the router located at the Home Office is a specialized
device that performs multiple services for the home network.
• Path selection
• Packet Switching
The router uses its routing table to determine the best path to use to forward a packet. When the router receives
a packet, it examines the destination address of the packet and uses the routing table to search for the best path
to that network. The routing table also includes the interface to be used to forward packets for each known
network. When a match is found, the router encapsulates the packet into the data link frame of the outgoing or
exit interface, and the packet is forwarded toward its destination.
It is possible for a router to receive a packet that is encapsulated in one type of data link frame, and to forward
the packet out of an interface that uses a different type of data link frame. For example, a router may receive a
packet on an Ethernet interface, but must forward the packet out of an interface configured with the Point-to-
Point Protocol (PPP). The data link encapsulation depends on the type of interface on the router and the type of
medium to which it connects. The different data link technologies that a router can connect to include Ethernet,
PPP, Frame Relay, DSL, cable, and wireless (802.11, Bluetooth).
Routers use static routes and dynamic routing protocols to learn about remote networks and build their routing
tables.
• Process switching: An older packet-forwarding mechanism still available for Cisco routers. When a
packet arrives on an interface, it is forwarded to the control plane, where the CPU matches the
destination address with an entry in its routing table, and then determines the exit interface and forwards
the packet. It is important to understand that the router does this for every packet, even if the destination
is the same for a stream of packets. This process-switching mechanism is very slow and rarely
implemented in modern networks. Figure 4-3 illustrates how packets are process-switched.
• Fast switching: This is a common packet-forwarding mechanism which uses a fast-switching cache to
store next-hop information. When a packet arrives on an interface, it is forwarded to the control plane,
where the CPU searches for a match in the fast-switching cache. If it is not there, it is process-switched
and forwarded to the exit interface. The flow information for the packet is also stored in the fast-
switching cache. If another packet going to the same destination arrives on an interface, the next-hop
information in the cache is re-used without CPU intervention. Figure 4-4 illustrates how packets are fast-
switched.
• Cisco Express Forwarding (CEF): CEF is the most recent and preferred Cisco IOS packet-forwarding
mechanism. Like fast switching, CEF builds a Forwarding Information Base (FIB) and an adjacency
table. However, the table entries are not packet-triggered like fast switching but change-triggered such
as when something changes in the network topology. Therefore, when a network has converged, the FIB
and adjacency tables contain all the information a router would have to consider when forwarding a
packet. The FIB contains pre-computed reverse lookups and next-hop information for routes, including
the interface and Layer 2 information. Cisco Express Forwarding is the fastest forwarding mechanism
and the preferred choice on Cisco routers. Figure 4-5 illustrates how packets are forwarded using CEF.
Figures 4-3 to 4-5 illustrate the differences between the three packet-forwarding mechanisms. Assume a traffic
flow consisting of five packets all going to the same destination. As shown in Figure 4-3, with process
switching, each packet must be processed by the CPU individually. Contrast this with fast switching, as shown
in Figure 4-4. With fast switching, notice how only the first packet of a flow is process-switched and added to
the fast-switching cache. The next four packets are quickly processed based on the information in the fast-
switching cache. Finally, in Figure 4-5, CEF builds the FIB and adjacency tables, after the network has
converged. All five packets are quickly processed in the data plane.
• Process switching solves a problem by doing math long hand, even if it is the identical problem.
• Fast switching solves a problem by doing math long hand one time and remembering the answer for
subsequent identical problems.
• CEF solves every possible problem ahead of time in a spreadsheet.
Connect to a Network
Network devices and end users typically connect to a network using a wired Ethernet or wireless connection.
Refer to the sample reference topology in Figure 4-6. The LANs in the figure serve as an example of how users
and network devices could connect to networks.
• Corporate resources (i.e., file servers and printers) connect to Layer 2 switches using Ethernet cables.
• Desktop PCs and voice over IP (VoIP) phones connect to Layer 2 switches using Ethernet cables.
• Laptops and smartphones connect wirelessly to wireless access points (WAPs).
• The WAPs connect to switches using Ethernet cables.
• Layer 2 switches connect to an Ethernet interface on the edge router using Ethernet cables. An edge
router is a device that sits at the edge or boundary of a network and routes between that network and
another, such as between a LAN and a WAN.
• The edge router connects to a WAN service provider (SP).
• The edge router also connects to an ISP for backup purposes.
• Desktop PCs and VoIP phones connect to Layer 2 switches using Ethernet cables.
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• Layer 2 switches connect redundantly to multilayer Layer 3 switches using Ethernet fiber-optic cables
(orange connections).
• Layer 3 multilayer switches connect to an Ethernet interface on the edge router using Ethernet cables.
• The corporate website server is connected using an Ethernet cable to the edge router interface.
• The edge router connects to a WAN SP.
• The edge router also connects to an ISP for backup purposes.
In the Branch and Central LANs, hosts are connected either directly or indirectly (via WAPs) to the
network infrastructure using a Layer 2 switch.
Default Gateways
To enable network access, devices must be configured with IP address information to identify the
appropriate:
When a host sends a packet to a device that is on the same IP network, the packet is simply forwarded out of
the host interface to the destination device.
When a host sends a packet to a device on a different IP network, then the packet is forwarded to the default
gateway, because a host device cannot communicate directly with devices outside of the local network. The
default gateway is the destination that routes traffic from the local network to devices on remote networks. It
is often used to connect a local network to the Internet.
The default gateway is usually the address of the interface on the router connected to the local network. The
router maintains routing table entries of all connected networks as well as entries of remote networks, and
determines the best path to reach those destinations.
For example, if PC1 sends a packet to the Web Server located at 172.16.1.99, it would discover that the
Web Server is not on the local network and it, therefore, must send the packet to the Media Access Control
(MAC) address of its default gateway. The packet protocol data unit (PDU) in Figure 4-7 identifies the
source and destination IP and MAC addresses.
A router is also usually configured with its own default gateway. This is sometimes known as the
Gateway of Last Resort.
When designing a new network or mapping an existing network, document the network. At a minimum,
the documentation should identify:
• Device names
• Interfaces used in the design
• IP addresses and subnet masks
• Default gateway addresses
• Topology diagram: Provides a visual reference that indicates the physical connectivity and logical Layer
3 addressing. Often created using software, such as Microsoft Visio.
• Addressing table: A table that captures device names, interfaces, IPv4 addresses, subnet masks, and
default gateway addresses.
Figure 4-8 displays the sample topology diagram, while Table 1-2 provides a sample addressing table for the
topology.
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Enable IP on a Host
A host can be assigned its IP address information in one of two ways. A host can get a:
• Statically Assigned IP Address: The host is manually assigned the correct IP address, subnet mask, and
default gateway. The DNS server IP address can also be configured.
• Dynamically Assigned IP Address: IP address information is provided by a server using the Dynamic
Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP). The DHCP server provides a valid IP address, subnet mask, and
default gateway for end devices. Other information may be provided by the server.
Figures 4-9 and 4-10 provide static and dynamic IPv4 address configuration examples.
Statically assigned addresses are commonly used to identify specific network resources, such as network
servers and printers. They can also be used in smaller networks with few hosts. However, most host
devices acquire their IPv4 address information by accessing a DHCP server. In large enterprises,
dedicated DHCP servers providing services to many LANs are implemented. In a smaller branch or
small office setting, DHCP services can be provided by a Cisco Catalyst switch or a Cisco ISR.
Device LEDs
Host computers connect to a wired network using a network interface and RJ-45 Ethernet cable. Most
network interfaces have one or two LED link indicators next to the interface. Typically, a green LED
means a good connection while a blinking green LED indicates network activity.
If the link light is not on, then there may be a problem with either the network cable or the network
itself. The switch port where the connection terminates would also have an LED indicator lit. If one or
both ends are not lit, try a different network cable.
Similarly, network infrastructure devices commonly use multiple LED indicators to provide a quick
status view. For example, a Cisco Catalyst 2960 switch has several status LEDs to help monitor system
activity and performance. These LEDs are generally lit green when the switch is functioning normally
and lit amber when there is a malfunction.
Cisco ISRs use various LED indicators to provide status information. The LEDs on the router help the
network administrator conduct some basic troubleshooting. Each device has a unique set of LEDs.
Consult the device-specific documentation for an accurate description of the LEDs.
The LEDs of the Cisco 1941 router shown in Figure 4-11 are explained in Table 1-3.
Console Access
In a production environment, infrastructure devices are commonly accessed remotely using Secure Shell
(SSH) or HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS). Console access is really only required when
initially configuring a device, or if remote access fails.
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The cable is connected between the serial port of the host and the console port on the device. Most
computers and notebooks no longer include built-in serial ports. If the host does not have a serial port,
the USB port can be used to establish a console connection. A special USB-to-RS-232 compatible serial
port adapter is required when using the USB port.
The Cisco ISR G2 supports a USB serial console connection. To establish connectivity, a USB Type-A
to USB Type-B (mini-B USB) is required, as well as an operating system device driver. This device
driver is available from http://www.cisco.com. Although these routers have two console ports, only one
console port can be active at a time. When a cable is plugged into the USB console port, the RJ-45 port
becomes inactive. When the USB cable is removed from the USB port, the RJ-45 port becomes active.
Table 1-4 summarizes the console connection requirements, while Figure 4-12 displays the various ports and
cables required.
Enable IP on a Switch
Network infrastructure devices require IP addresses to enable remote management. Using the device IP
address, the network administrator can remotely connect to the device using Telnet, SSH, HTTP, or
HTTPS.
A switch does not have a dedicated interface to which an IP address can be assigned. Instead, the IP
address information is configured on a virtual interface called a switched virtual interface (SVI).
Step 2. Configure the SVI. This makes the switch accessible for network management.
Step 4. Configure the default gateway for the switch. Packets generated by the switch and destined for an
address other than its management network segment will be forwarded to this address. This default gateway is
used by the switch only for the packets it generates, not any hosts connected to the switch.
For example, the following commands would configure the management VLAN interface and default gateway
of switch S1 shown in Figure 4-13.
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In the example, the switch SVI is configured and enabled with the IP address 192.168.10.2/24 and a
default gateway of the router located at 192.168.10.1. Packets generated by the switch and destined for
an address outside of the 192.168.1.0/24 network segment will be forwarded to this address. In the
example, the address is that of the G0/0 interface of R1.
Cisco routers and Cisco switches have many similarities. They support a similar modal operating
system, similar command structures, and many of the same commands. In addition, both devices have
similar initial configuration steps.
When initially configuring a Cisco switch or router, the following steps should be executed:
• Step 1. Name the device. This changes the router prompt and helps distinguish the device from others.
• Step 2. Secure management access. Specifically, secure the privileged EXEC, user EXEC, and Telnet
access, and encrypt passwords to their highest level.
• Step 3. Configure a banner. Although optional, this is a recommended step to provide legal notice to
anyone attempting to access the device.
Data Communications and Networking 2 (Cisco 2)
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For example, the following commands would configure the basic settings for router R1 shown in Figure 4-14.
The use of password protection to control or restrict access to the command line interface (CLI) of your
router is one of the fundamental elements of an overall security plan.
Protecting the router from unauthorized remote access, typically Telnet, is the most common security
that needs configuring, but protecting the router from unauthorized local access cannot be overlooked.
Note: Password protection is just one of the many steps you should use in an effective in-depth network
security regimen. Firewalls, access-lists, and control of physical access to the equipment are other
elements that must be considered when implementing your security plan.
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Command line, or EXEC, access to a router can be made in a number of ways, but in all cases the
inbound connection to the router is made on a TTY line. There are four main types of TTY lines, as seen
in this sample show line output:
2509#show line
Tty Typ Tx/Rx A Modem Roty AccO AccI Uses Noise Overruns Int
* 0 CTY - - - - - 0 0 0/0 -
1 TTY 9600/9600 - - - - - 0 0 0/0 -
2 TTY 9600/9600 - - - - - 0 0 0/0 -
3 TTY 9600/9600 - - - - - 0 0 0/0 -
4 TTY 9600/9600 - - - - - 0 0 0/0 -
5 TTY 9600/9600 - - - - - 0 0 0/0 -
6 TTY 9600/9600 - - - - - 0 0 0/0 -
7 TTY 9600/9600 - - - - - 0 0 0/0 -
8 TTY 9600/9600 - - - - - 0 0 0/0 -
9 AUX 9600/9600 - - - - - 0 0 0/0 -
10 VTY - - - - - 0 0 0/0 -
11 VTY - - - - - 0 0 0/0 -
12 VTY - - - - - 0 0 0/0 -
13 VTY - - - - - 0 0 0/0 -
14 VTY - - - - - 0 0 0/0 -
2509#
The CTY line-type is the Console Port. On any router, it appears in the router configuration as line con
0 and in the output of the show line command as cty. The console port is mainly used for local system
access using a console terminal.
The TTY lines are asynchronous lines used for inbound or outbound modem and terminal connections
and can be seen in a router or access server configuration as line x. The specific line numbers are a
function of the hardware built into or installed on the router or access server.
The AUX line is the Auxiliary port, seen in the configuration as line aux 0.
The VTY lines are the Virtual Terminal lines of the router, used solely to control inbound Telnet
connections. They are virtual, in the sense that they are a function of software - there is no hardware
associated with them. They appear in the configuration as line vty 0 4.
Each of these types of lines can be configured with password protection. Lines can be configured to use
one password for all users, or for user-specific passwords. User-specific passwords can be configured
locally on the router, or you can use an authentication server to provide authentication.
There is no prohibition against configuring different lines with different types of password protection. It
is, in fact, common to see routers with a single password for the console and user-specific passwords for
other inbound connections.
2509#show running-config
Building configuration...
line con 0
line 1 8
line aux 0
line vty 0 4
!
end
To specify a password on a line, use the password command in line configuration mode. To enable
password checking at login, use the login command in line configuration mode.
Note: To find additional information on the commands used in this document, use the Command
Lookup Tool (registered customers only) .
Configuration Procedure
In this example, a password is configured for all users attempting to use the console.
1. From the privileged EXEC (or "enable") prompt, enter configuration mode and then switch to line
configuration mode using the following commands. Notice that the prompt changes to reflect the current
mode.
2. router#configure terminal
3. Enter configuration commands, one per line. End with CNTL/Z.
4. router(config)#line con 0
router(config-line)#
Note: Do not save configuration changes to line con 0 until your ability to log in has been verified.
Note: Under the line console configuration, login is a required configuration command to enable
password checking at login. Console authentication requires both the password and the login commands
to work.
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Examine the configuration of the router to verify that the commands have been properly entered:
Certain show commands are supported by the Output Interpreter Tool (registered customers only) ,
which allows you to view an analysis of show command output.
To test the configuration, log off the console and log in again, using the configured password to access
the router:
router#exit
router>
Note: Before performing this test, ensure that you have an alternate connection into the router, such as
Telnet or dial-in, in case there is a problem logging back into the router.
If you cannot log back into the router and you have not saved the configuration, reloading the router will
eliminate any configuration changes you have made.
If the configuration changes were saved and you cannot login to the router, you will have to perform a
password recovery. See Password Recovery Procedures to find instructions for your particular platform.
To establish a username-based authentication system, use the username command in global configuration
mode. To enable password checking at login, use the login local command in line configuration mode.
Configuration Procedure
In this example, passwords are configured for users attempting to connect to the router on the VTY lines using
Telnet.
1. From the privileged EXEC (or "enable") prompt, enter configuration mode and enter
username/password combinations, one for each user for whom you want to allow access to the router:
2. router#configure terminal
3. Enter configuration commands, one per line. End with CNTL/Z.
4. router(config)#username russ password montecito
5. router(config)#username cindy password belgium
6. router(config)#username mike password rottweiler
7. Switch to line configuration mode, using the following commands. Notice that the prompt changes to
reflect the current mode.
8. router(config)#line vty 0 4
router(config-line)#
Note: In order to disable auto Telnet when you type a name on the CLI, configure no logging preferred
on the line that is used. While transport preferred none provides the same output, it also disables auto
Telnet for the defined host that are configured with the ip host command. This is unlike the no logging
preferred command, which stops it for undefined hosts and lets it work for the defined ones.
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Examine the configuration of the router to verify that the commands have been properly entered:
To test this configuration, a Telnet connection must be made to the router. This can be done by
connecting from a different host on the network, but you can also test from the router itself by telnetting
to the IP address of any interface on the router that is in an up/up state as seen in the output of the show
interfaces command.
router#telnet 10.1.1.1
Trying 10.1.1.1 ... Open
Username: mike
Password:
router
Usernames and passwords are case-sensitive. Users attempting to log in with an incorrectly cased
username or password will be rejected.
If users are unable to log into the router with their specific passwords, reconfigure the username and
password on the router.
In order to specify a password on the AUX line, issue the password command in line configuration
mode. In order to enable password checking at login, issue the login command in line configuration
mode.
Configuration Procedure
In this example, a password is configured for all users attempting to use the AUX port.
1. Issue the show line command in order to verify the line used by the AUX port.
2. R1#show line
3.
4. Tty Typ Tx/Rx A Modem Roty AccO AccI Uses Noise Overruns Int
5. * 0 CTY - - - - - 0 0 0/0
-
6. 65 AUX 9600/9600 - - - - - 0 1 0/0
-
7. 66 VTY - - - - - 0 0 0/0
-
67 VTY - - - - - 0 0 0/0
-
8. In this example, the AUX port is on line 65. Issue these commands in order to configure the router AUX
line:
9. R1# conf t
10. R1(config)# line 65
11. R1(config-line)#modem inout
12. R1(config-line)#speed 115200
13. R1(config-line)#transport input all
14. R1(config-line)#flowcontrol hardware
15. R1(config-line)#login
16. R1(config-line)#password cisco
17. R1(config-line)#end
R1#
Verify Configuration
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Examine the configuration of the router in order to verify that the commands have been properly entered:
• The show running-config command displays the current configuration of the router:
• R1#show running-config
• Building configuration...
• !
•
• !--- Lines omitted for brevity.
•
• line aux 0
• password cisco
• login
• modem InOut
• transport input all
• speed 115200
• flowcontrol hardware
•
•
• !--- Lines omitted for brevity.
•
• !
• end
To enable authentication, authorization, and accounting (AAA) authentication for logins, use the login
authentication command in line configuration mode. AAA services must also be configured.
Configuration Procedure
In this example, the router is configured to retrieve users' passwords from a TACACS+ server when
users attempt to connect to the router.
Note: Configuring the router to use other types of AAA servers (RADIUS, for example) is similar. See
Configuring Authentication for additional information.
Note: This document does not address configuration of the AAA server itself. Refer to Security Server
Protocols for information on configuring the AAA server.
1. From the privileged EXEC (or "enable") prompt, enter configuration mode and enter the commands to
configure the router to use AAA services for authentication:
2. router#configure terminal
3. Enter configuration commands, one per line. End with CNTL/Z.
4. router(config)#aaa new-model
5. router(config)#aaa authentication login my-auth-list tacacs+
6. router(config)#tacacs-server host 192.168.1.101
7. router(config)#tacacs-server key letmein
8. Switch to line configuration mode using the following commands. Notice that the prompt changes to
reflect the current mode.
9. router(config)#line 1 8
router(config-line)#
Examine the configuration of the router to verify that the commands have been properly entered:
• !
end
banner motd
• To define and enable a message-of-the-day (MOTD) banner, use the banner motd global configuration
command. To delete the MOTD banner, use the no form of this command.
• banner motd d message d
• no banner motd
• Syntax Description
d Delimiting character of your choice—a pound sign (#), for example. You
cannot use the delimiting character in the banner message.
message Message text. You can include tokens in the form $(token) in the message text.
Tokens will be replaced with the corresponding configuration variable.
• Defaults
• Disabled (no MOTD banner is displayed).
• Command Modes
• Global configuration
• Command History
Release Modification
• Usage Guidelines
• Follow this command with one or more blank spaces and a delimiting character of your choice. Then
enter one or more lines of text, terminating the message with the second occurrence of the delimiting
character.
• This MOTD banner is displayed to all terminals connected and is useful for sending messages that affect
all users (such as impending system shutdowns). Use the no exec-banner or no motd-banner command
to disable the MOTD banner on a line. The no exec-banner command also disables the EXEC banner
on the line.
• When a user connects to the router, the MOTD banner appears before the login prompt. After the user
logs in to the router, the EXEC banner or incoming banner will be displayed, depending on the type of
connection. For a reverse Telnet login, the incoming banner will be displayed. For all other connections,
the router will display the EXEC banner.
• To customize the banner, use tokens in the form $(token) in the message text. Tokens will display
current Cisco IOS configuration variables, such as the router's host name and IP address. The tokens are
described in Table 12.
Information
Displayed in the
Token Banner
• Examples
• The following example configures an MOTD banner. The pound sign (#) is used as a delimiting
character.
• Router# banner motd # Building power will be off from 7:00 AM until 9:00 AM this
coming
• Tuesday. #
•
• The following example configures an MOTD banner with a token. The percent sign (%) is used as a
delimiting character.
• darkstar(config)# banner motd %
• Enter TEXT message. End with the character '%'.
• Notice: all routers in $(domain) will be upgraded beginning April 20
• %
•
• When the MOTD banner is executed, the user will see the following. Notice that the $(token) syntax is
replaced by the corresponding configuration variable.
You can configure three main types of banners on your Cisco switch, as shown here:
• Message of the Day (MOTD): This type of logon message has been around for a long time on Unix and
mainframe systems. The idea of the message is to display a temporary notice to users, such as issues
with system availability.
However, because the message displays when a user connects to the device prior to login, most network
administrators are now using it to display legal notices regarding access to the switch, such as
unauthorized access to this device is prohibited and violators will be prosecuted to the full extent of the
law and other such cheery endearments.
• Login: This banner is displayed before login to the system, but after the MOTD banner is displayed.
Typically, this banner is used to display a permanent message to the users.
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• Exec: This banner displays after the login is complete when the connecting user enters User EXEC
mode. Whereas all users who attempt to connect to the switch see the other banners, only users who
successfully log on to the switch see this banner, which can be used to post reminders to your network
administrators.
One distinguishing feature between switches and routers is the type of interfaces supported by each. For
example, Layer 2 switches support LANs and, therefore, have multiple FastEthernet or Gigabit Ethernet
ports.
Routers support LANs and WANs and can interconnect different types of networks; therefore, they
support many types of interfaces. For example, G2 ISRs have one or two integrated Gigabit Ethernet
interfaces and High-Speed WAN Interface Card (HWIC) slots to accommodate other types of network
interfaces, including serial, DSL, and cable interfaces.
• If using IPv4, configured with an address and a subnet mask: Use the ip address ip-address subnet-
mask interface configuration command.
• Activated: By default, LAN and WAN interfaces are not activated (shutdown). To enable an interface,
it must be activated using the no shutdown command. (This is similar to powering on the interface.)
The interface must also be connected to another device (a hub, a switch, or another router) for the
physical layer to be active.
Optionally, the interface could also be configured with a short description. It is good practice to
configure a description on each interface. The description text is limited to 240 characters. On
production networks, a description can be helpful in troubleshooting by providing information about the
type of network to which the interface is connected. If the interface connects to an ISP or service carrier,
it is helpful to enter the third-party connection and contact information.
Depending on the type of interface, additional parameters may be required. For example, in the lab
environment, the serial interface connecting to the serial cable end labeled DCE must be configured with
the clock rate command.
Accidentally using the clock rate command on a DTE interface generates a “%Error: This command
applies only to DCE interface” message.
• Step 1. Add a description. Although optional, it is a necessary component for documenting a network.
• Step 2. Configure the IPv4 address.
• Step 3. Configure a clock rate on Serial interfaces. This is only necessary on the DCE device in our lab
environment and does not apply to Ethernet interfaces.
• Step 4. Enable the interface.
For example, the following commands would configure the three directly connected interfaces of router R1
shown in Figure 4-14 (in the previous section):
Configuring an IPv6 interface is similar to configuring an interface for IPv4. Most IPv6 configuration
and verification commands in the Cisco IOS are very similar to their IPv4 counterparts. In many cases,
the only difference uses ipv6 in place of ip in commands.
• Configured with IPv6 address and subnet mask: Use the ipv6 address ipv6-address/prefix-length
[link-local | eui-64] interface configuration command.
• Activated: The interface must be activated using the no shutdown command.
An interface can generate its own IPv6 link-local address without having a global unicast address by
using the ipv6 enable interface configuration command.
Unlike IPv4, IPv6 interfaces will typically have more than one IPv6 address. At a minimum, an IPv6
device must have an IPv6 link-local address but will most likely also have an IPv6 global unicast
address. IPv6 also supports the ability for an interface to have multiple IPv6 global unicast addresses
from the same subnet. The following commands can be used to statically create a global unicast or link-
local IPv6 address:
• Step 1. Add a description. Although optional, it is a necessary component for documenting a network.
• Step 2. Configure the IPv6 global unicast address. Configuring a global unicast address automatically
creates a link-local IPv6 address.
• Step 3. Configure a link-local unicast address which automatically assigns a link-local IPv6 address and
overrides any previously assigned address.
• Step 4. Configure a clock rate on Serial interfaces. This is only necessary on the DCE device in our lab
environment and does not apply to Ethernet interfaces.
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In the example topology shown in Figure 4-15, R1 must be configured to support the following IPv6 global
network addresses:
• 2001:0DB8:ACAD:0001:/64 (2001:DB8:ACAD:1::/64)
• 2001:0DB8:ACAD:0002:/64 (2001:DB8:ACAD:2::/64)
• 2001:0DB8:ACAD:0003:/64 (2001:DB8:ACAD:3::/64)
When the router is configured using the ipv6 unicast-routing global configuration command, the router
begins sending ICMPv6 Router Advertisement messages out the interface. This enables a PC connected
to the interface to automatically configure an IPv6 address and to set a default gateway without needing
the services of a DHCPv6 server. Alternatively, a PC connected to the IPv6 network can get its IPv6
address statically assigned, as shown in Figure 4-16. Notice that the default gateway address configured
for PC1 is the IPv6 global unicast address of the R1 Gigabit Ethernet 0/0 interface.
For example, the following commands would configure the IPv6 global unicast addresses of the three
directly connected interfaces of the R1 router shown in Figure 4-15:
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The loopback interface is a logical interface internal to the router. It is not assigned to a physical port
and can therefore never be connected to any other device. It is considered a software interface that is
automatically placed in an “up/up” state, as long as the router is functioning.
The loopback interface is useful in testing and managing a Cisco IOS device because it ensures that at
least one interface will always be available. For example, it can be used for testing purposes, such as
testing internal routing processes, by emulating networks behind the router.
Additionally, the IPv4 address assigned to the loopback interface can be significant to processes on the
router that use an interface IPv4 address for identification purposes, such as the Open Shortest Path First
(OSPF) routing process. By enabling a loopback interface, the router will use the always available
loopback interface address for identification, rather than an IP address assigned to a physical port that
may go down.
• Step 1. Create the loopback interface using the interface loopback number global configuration
command.
• Step 2. Add a description. Although optional, it is a necessary component for documenting a network.
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For example, the following commands configure a loopback interface of the R1 router shown in Figure 4-14
(shown earlier in the chapter):
A loopback interface is always enabled and therefore does not require a no shutdown command. Multiple
loopback interfaces can be enabled on a router. The IPv4 address for each loopback interface must be unique
and unused by any other interface.
A name server is used to keep track of information associated with domain names. A name server can
maintain a database of hostname-to-address mappings. Each name can map to one or more IP addresses.
In order to use this service to map domain names to IP addresses, you must specify a name server.
The name lookup system can be statically configured using the commands described in this task. Some
other functions in Cisco IOS software, such as DHCP, can dynamically modify the state of the name
lookup system. Use the show hosts command to display the cached hostnames and the DNS
configuration.
SUMMARY STEPS
1. enable
2. configure terminal
DETAILED STEPS
Command or Action Purpose
Step 1 enable Enables privileged EXEC mode.
Example:
Device# configure
terminal
Step 3 ip host name [tcp-port- Defines a static hostname-to-address mapping in the hostname
number] address1 cache.
[address2 ... address8]
• The host IP address can be an IPv4 or IPv6 address.
• Typically, it is easier to refer to network devices by
Example:
Device(config)# ip symbolic names rather than numerical addresses (services
host cisco-rtp such as Telnet can use hostnames or addresses).
192.168.0.148 Hostnames and IP addresses can be associated with one
another through static or dynamic means.
• Manually assigning hostnames to addresses is useful
when dynamic mapping is not available.
Step 4 Do one of the following: (Optional) Defines a default domain name that the Cisco IOS
software will use to complete unqualified hostnames.
• ip domain name
name
or
• ip domain list
name (Optional) Defines a list of default domain names to complete
unqualified hostnames.
Example:
Device(config)# ip • You can specify a default domain name that the Cisco
domain name
cisco.com IOS software will use to complete domain name requests.
You can specify either a single domain name or a list of
Example: domain names. Any hostname that does not contain a
complete domain name will have the default domain name
you specify appended to it before the name is looked up.
Example:
Device(config)# ip If there is no domain list, the domain name that you
domain list specified with the ip domain name global configuration
cisco1.com command is used. If there is a domain list, the default
domain name is not used. The ip domain list command is
Note
similar to the ip domain name command, except that with
the ip domain list command you can define a list of
domains, each to be tried in turn until the system finds a
match.
Step 5 ip name-server server- Specifies one or more hosts (up to six) that can function as a
address1 [server-address2 name server to supply name information for DNS.
... server-address6]
Example:
Device(config)# ip
name-server
172.16.1.111
172.16.1.2
Example:
Device(config)# ip
domain lookup
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Customizing DNS
In a multiple server configuration without the DNS round-robin functionality, many programs will use
the first host server/IP address for the whole time to live (TTL) of the cache and use the second and third
host servers/IP addresses only in the event of host failure. This behavior presents a problem when a high
volume of users all arrive at the first host during the TTL time. For example, the network access server
(NAS) sends out a DNS query. The DNS servers reply with a list of the configured IP addresses to the
NAS. The NAS then caches these IP addresses for a given time (for example, five minutes). All users
that dial in during the five minute TTL time will land on one host, the first IP address in the list.
In a multiple server configuration with the DNS round-robin functionality, the DNS server returns the IP
address of all hosts to rotate between the cache of hostnames. During the TTL of the cache, users are
distributed among the hosts. This functionality distributes calls across the configured hosts and reduces
the number of DNS queries.
In a scheduling algorithm, processes are activated in a fixed cyclic order. Processes that are waiting for
other events, like termination of a child process or an input or output operation, cannot proceed and
hence they return control to the scheduler. If the TTL of the process times out just before the event (for
which it was waiting) occurs, then the event will not be handled until all the other processes are
activated.
The DNS round-robin functionality is applicable only for the DNS lookups on a device and is not
applicable to another client pointing to the device.
SUMMARY STEPS
1. enable
2. configure terminal
5. ip domain round-robin
DETAILED STEPS
Command or Action Purpose
Step 1 enable Enables privileged EXEC mode.
Example:
Device# configure
terminal
Step 3 ip domain timeout seconds (Optional) Specifies the amount of time to wait for a response
to a DNS query.
Step 4 ip domain retry number (Optional) Specifies the number of times to retry sending DNS
queries.
Example:
Device(config)# ip
domain round-robin
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DNS spoofing is designed to allow a device to act as a proxy DNS server and “spoof” replies to any
DNS queries using either the configured IP address in the ip dns spoofing ip-address command or the IP
address of the incoming interface for the query. This feature is useful for devices where the interface
toward the Internet service provider (ISP) is not up. Once the interface to the ISP is up, the device
forwards DNS queries to the real DNS servers.
This feature turns on DNS spoofing and is functional if any of the following conditions are true:
SUMMARY STEPS
1. enable
2. configure terminal
3. ip dns server
DETAILED STEPS
Command or Action Purpose
Step 1 enable Enables privileged EXEC mode.
Example:
Device# configure
terminal
Example:
Device(config)# ip dns
server
A Cisco IOS device can provide service to DNS clients, acting as both a caching name server and as an
authoritative name server for its own local host table.
When configured as a caching name server, the device relays DNS requests to other name servers that
resolve network names into network addresses. The caching name server caches information learned
from other name servers so that it can answer requests quickly, without having to query other servers for
each transaction.
When configured as an authoritative name server for its own local host table, the device listens on port
53 for DNS queries and then answers DNS queries using the permanent and cached entries in its own
host table.
An authoritative name server usually issues zone transfers or responds to zone transfer requests from
other authoritative name servers for the same zone. However, the Cisco IOS DNS server does not
perform zone transfers.
When it receives a DNS query, an authoritative name server handles the query as follows:
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• If the query is for a domain name that is not under its zone of authority, the authoritative name server
determines whether to forward the query to specific back-end name servers based on whether IP DNS-
based hostname-to-address translation has been enabled via the ip domain lookup command.
• If the query is for a domain name that is under its zone of authority and for which it has configuration
information, the authoritative name server answers the query using the permanent and cached entries in
its own host table.
• If the query is for a domain name that is under its zone of authority but for which it does not have any
configuration information, the authoritative name server does not forward the query elsewhere for a
response; instead the authoritative name server simply replies that no such information exists.
Unless Distributed Director is enabled, the TTL on locally defined resource records will always be ten
seconds, regardless of any authority record parameters that may have been specified for the DNS name
server by the use of the ip dns primary command.
SUMMARY STEPS
1. enable
2. configure terminal
3. ip dns server
6. ip host [vrf vrf-name] [view view-name] hostname {address1 [address2 ... address8] | additional
address9 [address10 ... addressn]}
DETAILED STEPS
Command or Action Purpose
Step 1 enable Enables privileged EXEC mode.
Example:
Device# configure terminal
Example:
Device(config)# ip dns server
Step 5 ip dns server queue limit {forwarder (Optional) Configures a limit to the size of the
queue-size-limit | director queue-size- queues used by the DNS server processes.
limit}
• The director keyword was removed in
Cisco IOS Release 12.4(24)T.
Example:
Device(config)# ip dns server
queue limit forwarder 10
Step 6 ip host [vrf vrf-name] [view view-name] (Optional) Configures local hosts.
hostname {address1 [address2 ...
address8] | additional address9 [address10
... addressn]}
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Example:
Device(config)# ip host
user1.example.com
192.168.201.5 192.168.201.6
Step 7 ip dns primary domain-name soa Configures the device as the primary DNS name
primary-server-name mailbox-name server for a domain (zone) and as the start of
[refresh-interval [retry-interval [expire-ttl authority (SOA) record source (which designates
[minimum-ttl]]]] the start of a zone).
Examples
This section provides examples of debugging output that is logged when a device is configured as an
authoritative name server for its own local host table and the debug domain command is in effect:
For DNS-based X.25 routing, the debug x25 events command supports functionality to describe the
events that occur while the X.25 address is being resolved to an IP address using a DNS server. The
debug domain command can be used along with debug x25 events to observe the whole DNS-based X.25
routing data flow.
• Debugging Output for Relaying a DNS Query to Another Name Server Example
• Debugging Output for Servicing a DNS Query from the Local Host Table Example
Debugging Output for Relaying a DNS Query to Another Name Server Example
The following is sample output from the debug domain command that corresponds to relaying a DNS query to
another name server when the device is configured as an authoritative name server for its own local host table:
Debugging Output for Servicing a DNS Query from the Local Host Table Example
The following is sample output from the debug domain command that corresponds to servicing a DNS query
from the local host table when the device is configured as an authoritative name server for its own local host
table:
Perform this task to disable DNS queries for International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
Connectionless Network Service (CLNS) addresses.
If your device has both IP and ISO CLNS enabled and you want to use ISO CLNS network service
access point (NSAP) addresses, you can use the DNS to query these addresses, as documented in RFC
1348. This feature is enabled by default.
SUMMARY STEPS
1. enable
2. configure terminal
DETAILED STEPS
Command or Action Purpose
Step 1 enable Enables privileged EXEC mode.
Example:
Device# configure terminal
Step 3 no ip domain lookup nsap Disables DNS queries for ISO CLNS
addresses.
Example:
Device(config)# no ip domain lookup
nsap
Verifying DNS
1. enable
2. ping hosts
3. show hosts
SUMMARY STEPS
1. enable
2. ping hosts
3. show hosts
DETAILED STEPS
Command or
Purpose
Action
Step 1 enable Enables privileged EXEC mode.
• After the DNS configuration is set, you can verify the DNS
Example: server by using a hostname to ping or telnet to a device.
Device# ping
cisco-rtp
Step 3 show hosts Displays the default domain name, the style of name lookup service, a
list of name server hosts, and the cached list of hostnames and addresses.
Example: • After a name is resolved using DNS, use the show hosts
Device# show command to view the cached hostnames and the DNS
hosts
configuration.
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There are several show commands that can be used to verify the operation and configuration of an
interface. The following three commands are especially useful to quickly identify an interface status:
• show ip interface brief: Displays a summary for all interfaces, including the IPv4 address of the
interface and current operational status.
• show ip route: Displays the contents of the IPv4 routing table stored in RAM. In Cisco IOS 15, active
interfaces should appear in the routing table with two related entries identified by the code 'C'
(Connected) or 'L' (Local). In previous IOS versions, only a single entry with the code 'C' will appear.
• show running-config interface interface-id: Displays the commands configured on the specified
interface.
Figure 4-17 displays the output of the show ip interface brief command.
The output reveals that the LAN interfaces and the WAN link are all activated and operational as
indicated by the Status of “up” and Protocol of “up.” A different output would indicate a problem with
either the configuration or the cabling.
In Figure 4-17, the Embedded-Service-Engine0/0 interface is displayed because Cisco ISRs G2 have dual-core
CPUs on the motherboard. The Embedded-Service-Engine0/0 interface is outside the scope of this course.
The entire output of the show ip route command in Figure 4-18 can be viewed in the online course on page
1.1.4.1 graphic number 2.
Notice the three directly connected network entries and the three local host route interface entries. A
local host route has an administrative distance of 0. It also has a /32 mask for IPv4, and a /128 mask for
IPv6. The local host route is for routes on the router owning the IP address. It is used to allow the router
to process packets destined to that IP.
Figure 4-19 displays the output of the show running-config interface command. The output displays
the current commands configured on the specified interface.
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The following two commands are used to gather more detailed interface information:
• show interfaces: Displays interface information and packet flow count for all interfaces on the device
• show ip interface: Displays the IPv4-related information for all interfaces on a router
The commands to verify the IPv6 interface configuration are similar to the commands used for IPv4.
The show ipv6 interface brief command in Figure 4-20 displays a summary for each of the interfaces.
The entire output of the show ipv6 interface brief command in Figure 4-20 can be viewed in the online
course on page 1.1.4.2 graphic number 1.
The “up/up” output on the same line as the interface name indicates the Layer 1/Layer 2 interface state.
This is the same as the Status and Protocol columns in the equivalent IPv4 command.
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The output displays two configured IPv6 addresses per interface. One address is the IPv6 global unicast
address that was manually entered. The other address, which begins with FE80, is the link-local unicast
address for the interface. A link-local address is automatically added to an interface whenever a global
unicast address is assigned. An IPv6 network interface is required to have a link-local address, but not
necessarily a global unicast address.
The show ipv6 interface gigabitethernet 0/0 command output shown in Figure 4-21 displays the
interface status and all of the IPv6 addresses belonging to the interface. Along with the link-local
address and global unicast address, the output includes the multicast addresses assigned to the interface,
beginning with prefix FF02.
The show ipv6 route command shown in Figure 4-22 can be used to verify that IPv6 networks and
specific IPv6 interface addresses have been installed in the IPv6 routing table. The show ipv6 route
command will only display IPv6 networks, not IPv4 networks.
The entire output of the show ipv6 route command in Figure 4-22 Within the routing table, a ‘C’ next to
a route indicates that this is a directly connected network. When the router interface is configured with a
global unicast address and is in the “up/up” state, the IPv6 prefix and prefix length is added to the IPv6
routing table as a connected route.
The IPv6 global unicast address configured on the interface is also installed in the routing table as a
local route, as indicated with an ‘L’ next to the route entry. The local route has a /128 prefix. Local
routes are used by the routing table to efficiently process packets with the interface address of the router
as the destination.
The ping command for IPv6 is identical to the command used with IPv4 except that an IPv6 address is
used. As shown in Figure 4-23, the ping command is used to verify Layer 3 connectivity between R1
and PC1.
• show interface
• show ipv6 routers
Commands that generate multiple screens of output are, by default, paused after 24 lines. At the end of
the paused output, the --More-- text displays. Pressing Enter displays the next line and pressing the
spacebar displays the next set of lines. Use the terminal length number command to specify the number
of lines to be displayed. A value of 0 (zero) prevents the router from pausing between screens of output.
Another very useful feature that improves the user experience in the command-line interface (CLI) is the
filtering of show output. Filtering commands can be used to display specific sections of output. To
enable the filtering command, enter a pipe (|) character after the show command and then enter a
filtering parameter and a filtering expression.
The filtering parameters that can be configured after the pipe include:
• section: Shows entire section that starts with the filtering expression
• include: Includes all output lines that match the filtering expression
• exclude: Excludes all output lines that match the filtering expression
• begin: Shows all the output lines from a certain point, starting with the line that matches the filtering
expression
Figures 4-24 through 4-27 provide examples of the various output filters. The example in Figure 4-24 uses the
pipe character and the section keyword.
The example in Figure 4-25 uses the pipe character and the include keyword.
The command history feature is useful, because it temporarily stores the list of executed commands to
be recalled.
To recall commands in the history buffer, press Ctrl+P or the Up Arrow key. The command output
begins with the most recent command. Repeat the key sequence to recall successively older commands.
To return to more recent commands in the history buffer, press Ctrl+N or the Down Arrow key. Repeat
the key sequence to recall successively more recent commands.
By default, command history is enabled and the system captures the last 10 command lines in its history
buffer. Use the show history privileged EXEC command to display the contents of the buffer.
It is also practical to increase the number of command lines that the history buffer records during the
current terminal session only. Use the terminal history size user EXEC command to increase or
decrease the size of the buffer.
For example, the following displays a sample of the terminal history size and show history commands:
4. Routing Decisions
The key to understanding the role of a router in the network is to understand that a router is a Layer 3
device responsible for forwarding packets. However, a router also operates at Layers 1 and 2.
A primary function of a router is to forward packets toward their destination. This is accomplished by
using a switching function, which is the process used by a router to accept a packet on one interface and
forward it out of another interface. A key responsibility of the switching function is to encapsulate
packets in the appropriate data link frame type for the outgoing data link.
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In this context, the term “switching” literally means moving packets from source to destination and
should not be confused with the function of a Layer 2 switch.
After the router has determined the exit interface using the path determination function, the router must
encapsulate the packet into the data link frame of the outgoing interface.
What does a router do with a packet received from one network and destined for another network? The
router performs the following three major steps:
• Step 1. De-encapsulates the Layer 3 packet by removing the Layer 2 frame header and trailer.
• Step 2. Examines the destination IP address of the IP packet to find the best path in the routing table.
• Step 3. If the router finds a path to the destination, it encapsulates the Layer 3 packet into a new Layer 2
frame and forwards the frame out the exit interface.
addresses. For example, PC1 is configured with IPv4 address 192.168.1.10 and an example MAC address
of 0A-10. As a packet travels from the source device to the final destination device, the Layer 3 IP addresses
do not change. However, the Layer 2 data link addresses change at every hop as the packet is de-
encapsulated and re-encapsulated in a new frame by each router. It is very likely that the packet is
encapsulated in a different type of Layer 2 frame than the one in which it was received. For example, an
Ethernet encapsulated frame might be received by the router on a FastEthernet interface, and then processed
to be forwarded out of a serial interface as a Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) encapsulated frame.
Send a Packet
PC1 must determine if the destination IPv4 address is on the same network. PC1 determines its own
subnet by doing an AND operation on its own IPv4 address and subnet mask. This produces the network
address that PC1 belongs to. Next, PC1 does this same AND operation using the packet destination IPv4
address and the PC1 subnet mask.
If the destination network address is the same network as PC1, then PC1 does not use the default
gateway. Instead, PC1 refers to its ARP cache for the MAC address of the device with that destination
IPv4 address. If the MAC address is not in the cache, then PC1 generates an ARP request to acquire the
address to complete the packet and send it to the destination. If the destination network address is on a
different network, then PC1 forwards the packet to its default gateway.
To determine the MAC address of the default gateway, PC1 checks its ARP table for the IPv4 address of
the default gateway and its associated MAC address.
If an ARP entry does not exist in the ARP table for the default gateway, PC1 sends an ARP request.
Router R1 sends back an ARP reply. PC1 can then forward the packet to the MAC address of the default
gateway, the Fa0/0 interface of router R1.
A similar process is used for IPv6 packets. Instead of the ARP process, IPv6 address resolution uses
ICMPv6 Neighbor Solicitation and Neighbor Advertisement messages. IPv6-to-MAC address mappings
are kept in a table similar to the ARP cache, called the neighbor cache.
The following processes take place when R1 receives the Ethernet frame from PC1:
1. R1 examines the destination MAC address, which matches the MAC address of the receiving interface,
FastEthernet 0/0. R1, therefore, copies the frame into its buffer.
2. R1 identifies the Ethernet Type field as 0x800, which means that the Ethernet frame contains an IPv4
packet in the data portion of the frame.
3. R1 de-encapsulates the Ethernet frame.
4. Because the destination IPv4 address of the packet does not match any of the directly connected
networks of R1, R1 consults its routing table to route this packet. R1 searches the routing table for a
network address that would include the destination IPv4 address of the packet as a host address within
that network. In this example, the routing table has a route for the 192.168.4.0/24 network. The
destination IPv4 address of the packet is 192.168.4.10, which is a host IPv4 address on that network.
The route that R1 finds to the 192.168.4.0/24 network has a next-hop IPv4 address of 192.168.2.2 and
an exit interface of FastEthernet 0/1. This means that the IPv4 packet is encapsulated in a new Ethernet
frame with the destination MAC address of the IPv4 address of the next-hop router.
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Because the exit interface is on an Ethernet network, R1 must resolve the next-hop IPv4 address with a
destination MAC address using ARP:
1. R1 looks up the next-hop IPv4 address of 192.168.2.2 in its ARP cache. If the entry is not in the ARP
cache, R1 would send an ARP request out of its FastEthernet 0/1 interface and R2 would send back an
ARP reply. R1 would then update its ARP cache with an entry for 192.168.2.2 and the associated MAC
address.
2. The IPv4 packet is now encapsulated into a new Ethernet frame and forwarded out the FastEthernet 0/1
interface of R1.
Packet Routing
The following processes take place when R2 receives the frame on its Fa0/0 interface:
1. R2 examines the destination MAC address, which matches the MAC address of the receiving interface,
FastEthernet 0/0. R2, therefore, copies the frame into its buffer.
2. R2 identifies the Ethernet Type field as 0x800, which means that the Ethernet frame contains an IPv4
packet in the data portion of the frame.
3. R2 de-encapsulates the Ethernet frame.
4. Because the destination IPv4 address of the packet does not match any of the interface addresses of R2,
R2 consults its routing table to route this packet. R2 searches the routing table for the destination IPv4
address of the packet using the same process R1 used.
5. The routing table of R2 has a route to the 192.168.4.0/24 network, with a next-hop IPv4 address of
192.168.3.2 and an exit interface of Serial 0/0/0. Because the exit interface is not an Ethernet network,
R2 does not have to resolve the next-hop IPv4 address with a destination MAC address.
6. The IPv4 packet is now encapsulated into a new data link frame and sent out the Serial 0/0/0 exit
interface.
When the interface is a point-to-point (P2P) serial connection, the router encapsulates the IPv4 packet into the
proper data link frame format used by the exit interface (HDLC, PPP, etc.). Because there are no MAC
addresses on serial interfaces, R2 sets the data link destination address to an equivalent of a broadcast (MAC
address: FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF).
The following processes take place when the frame arrives at R3:
Because the exit interface is a directly connected Ethernet network, R3 must resolve the destination IPv4
address of the packet with a destination MAC address:
1. R3 searches for the destination IPv4 address of the packet in its Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
cache. If the entry is not in the ARP cache, R3 sends an ARP request out of its FastEthernet 0/0
interface. PC2 sends back an ARP reply with its MAC address. R3 then updates its ARP cache with an
entry for 192.168.4.10 and the MAC address that is returned in the ARP reply.
2. The IPv4 packet is encapsulated into a new Ethernet data link frame and sent out the FastEthernet 0/0
interface of R3.
3. When PC2 receives the frame, it examines the destination MAC address, which matches the MAC
address of the receiving interface, its Ethernet network interface card (NIC). PC2, therefore, copies the
rest of the frame into its buffer.
4. PC2 identifies the Ethernet Type field as 0x800, which means that the Ethernet frame contains an IPv4
packet in the data portion of the frame.
5. PC2 de-encapsulates the Ethernet frame and passes the IPv4 packet to the IPv4 process of its operating
system.
5.Path Determination
This section discusses the best path to send packets, load balancing, and the concept of administrative distance.
Routing Decisions
A primary function of a router is to determine the best path to use to send packets. To determine the best path,
the router searches its routing table for a network address that matches the destination IP address of the packet.
• Directly connected network: If the destination IP address of the packet belongs to a device on a network
that is directly connected to one of the interfaces of the router, that packet is forwarded directly to the
destination device. This means that the destination IP address of the packet is a host address on the same
network as the interface of the router.
• Remote network: If the destination IP address of the packet belongs to a remote network, then the packet
is forwarded to another router. Remote networks can only be reached by forwarding packets to another
router.
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• No route determined: If the destination IP address of the packet does not belong to either a connected
or remote network, the router determines if there is a Gateway of Last Resort available. A Gateway of
Last Resort is set when a default route is configured on a router. If there is a default route, the packet is
forwarded to the Gateway of Last Resort. If the router does not have a default route, then the packet is
discarded. If the packet is discarded, the router sends an ICMP Unreachable message to the source IP
address of the packet.
The logic flowchart in Figure 4-29 illustrates the router packet-forwarding decision process.
Best Path
Determining the best path involves the evaluation of multiple paths to the same destination network and
selecting the optimum or shortest path to reach that network. Whenever multiple paths to the same
network exist, each path uses a different exit interface on the router to reach that network.
The best route is selected by a routing protocol based on the value or metric it uses to determine the
distance to reach a network. A metric is the quantitative value used to measure the distance to a given
network. The best path to a network is the path with the lowest metric.
Dynamic routing protocols typically use their own rules and metrics to build and update routing tables.
The routing algorithm generates a value, or a metric, for each path through the network. Metrics can be
based on either a single characteristic or several characteristics of a path. Some routing protocols can
base route selection on multiple metrics, combining them into a single metric.
The following lists some dynamic protocols and the metrics they use:
• Open Shortest Path First (OSPF): Cisco routers use a cost based on cumulative bandwidth from
source to destination
• Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP): Bandwidth, delay, load, reliability
Load Balancing
What happens if a routing table has two or more paths with identical metrics to the same destination
network?
When a router has two or more paths to a destination with equal cost metrics, then the router forwards
the packets using both paths equally. This is called equal cost load balancing. The routing table
contains the single destination network, but has multiple exit interfaces, one for each equal cost path.
The router forwards packets using the multiple exit interfaces listed in the routing table.
If configured correctly, load balancing can increase the effectiveness and performance of the network.
Equal cost load balancing can be configured to use both dynamic routing protocols and static routes.
By default, Cisco routers can load balance up to four equal cost paths. The maximum number of equal
cost paths depends on the routing protocol and IOS version.
EIGRP supports equal cost load balancing and is also the only routing protocol to support unequal cost
load balancing. Unequal cost load balancing is when a router distributes traffic over network interfaces,
even those that are different distances from the destination address.
EIGRP supports unequal cost load balancing by using the variance command.
Administrative Distance
It is possible for a router to be configured with multiple routing protocols and static routes. If this
occurs, the routing table may have more than one route source for the same destination network. For
example, if both RIP and EIGRP are configured on a router, both routing protocols may learn of the
same destination network. However, each routing protocol may decide on a different path to reach the
destination based on that routing protocol’s metrics. RIP chooses a path based on hop count, whereas
EIGRP chooses a path based on its composite metric. How does the router know which route to use?
Cisco IOS uses what is known as the administrative distance (AD) to determine the route to install into
the IP routing table. The AD represents the “trustworthiness” of the route; the lower the AD, the more
trustworthy the route source. For example, a static route has an AD of 1, whereas an EIGRP-discovered
route has an AD of 90. Given two separate routes to the same destination, the router chooses the route
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with the lowest AD. When a router has the choice of a static route and an EIGRP route, the static route
takes precedence. Similarly, a directly connected route with an AD of 0 takes precedence over a static
route with an AD of 1.
Table 4-5 lists various routing protocols and their associated ADs.
Metric
If two routing updates for same network have same AD value then metric will use to choose the best
path. Metric is a measurement to calculate best path. Route with the lowest metric will be chosen.
Different routing protocols use different metrics. It may use single metric or multiple metrics. For
example EIGRP uses bandwidth, delay, load, MTU and reliability while RIP only uses hop count as
metric.
6. Routing Protocols
There are three types of routing protocols:
1. Distance Vector
2. Link State
3. Hybrid
Distance Vector
Distance vector routing protocol uses distance (metric value) and direction (vector) to find the best path
to destination network. Router receives routing update from neighboring router and these neighboring
routers receive updates from their neighboring routers until the destination network. Every router in the
way of destination network called hop. Each time a packet goes through a router, it add one in hop count
value. Route with the least hop count value will be chosen as best path and will be placed in routing
table. RIP is the example of distance vector routing protocol. These protocol shares entire routing table
to the directly connected neighbors.
Link State
Link state routing protocols use more composite metric to locate the best path for destination network. It
maintains three separate tables. First table keeps track of directly connected neighbors. Second table
determines the entire network topology. Third is the routing table that keeps actual path. OSPF is the
example of link state protocol. Link state protocols share their own links to all other routers in network.
Hybrid
Hybrid routing protocols are the mix of distance vector and link state protocol. To locate more accurate
path, it uses aspect from both distance vector and link state. EIGRP is the example of hybrid routing
protocols.
All three types of protocol have their own advantage and disadvantage. They take different approach in
sharing routing updates and in choosing the best path. In next articles of this section we will explain
these protocols in details with examples.
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Summary
This chapter introduced the router. The main purpose of a router is to connect multiple networks and
forward packets from one network to the next. This means that a router typically has multiple interfaces.
Each interface is a member or host on a different IP network.
Cisco IOS uses what is known as the administrative distance (AD) to determine the route to install into
the IP routing table. The routing table is a list of networks known by the router. The routing table
includes network addresses for its own interfaces, which are the directly connected networks, as well as
network addresses for remote networks. A remote network is a network that can only be reached by
forwarding the packet to another router.
Remote networks are added to the routing table in one of two ways: either by the network administrator
manually configuring static routes or by implementing a dynamic routing protocol. Static routes do not
have as much overhead as dynamic routing protocols; however, static routes can require more
maintenance if the topology is constantly changing or is unstable.
Dynamic routing protocols automatically adjust to changes without any intervention from the network
administrator. Dynamic routing protocols require more CPU processing and also use a certain amount of
link capacity for routing updates and messages. In many cases, a routing table will contain both static
and dynamic routes.
Routers make their primary forwarding decision at Layer 3, the network layer. However, router
interfaces participate in Layers 1, 2, and 3. Layer 3 IP packets are encapsulated into a Layer 2 data link
frame and encoded into bits at Layer 1. Router interfaces participate in Layer 2 processes associated
with their encapsulation. For example, an Ethernet interface on a router participates in the ARP process
like other hosts on that LAN.
The Cisco IP routing table is not a flat database. The routing table is actually a hierarchical structure that
is used to speed up the lookup process when locating routes and forwarding packets.
Components of the IPv6 routing table are very similar to the IPv4 routing table. For instance, it is
populated using directly connected interfaces, static routes, and dynamically learned routes.
Reference:
• http://www.ciscopress.com/articles/article.asp?p=2180208