Chap 4. Superconductor
Chap 4. Superconductor
Chap 4. Superconductor
Applications of superconductors:
i. Superconducting magnets are used in MRI machines to create strong magnetic fields that are used
to produce detailed images of internal body structures.
ii. Superconducting magnets are used in particle accelerators to create strong magnetic fields that
guide charged particles through the accelerator.
iii. Superconductors can be used to transmit electricity with zero loss of energy which makes them
an attractive option for power transmission over long distances.
Q(b): Describe the phenomenon of Meissner effect. Why superconductors are perfect
diamagnetic materials? (2+2)
Ans: The Meissner effect is a phenomenon in which a superconductor, cooled below its critical
temperature, repels all magnetic fields from its interior and exhibits zero electrical resistance. This
expulsion of magnetic fields occurs because in a superconductor, electrons form pairs known as
cooper pairs, which move through the material without any resistance. When a magnetic field is
applied to the superconductor, it induces a current in the material that produces an opposing
magnetic field. This opposing field repels the external magnetic field. This repulsion of the magnetic
field is known as the Meissner effect.
Superconductors are perfect diamagnetic materials because they exhibit perfect diamagnetism
below their critical temperature. Diamagnetism is the property of a material that causes the
material to be repelled by a magnetic field, i.e. magnetic susceptibility is equal to −1.
We know,
B = μ (H + M) ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (i)
where, B = magnetic flux density, H = magnetic field strength, μ = permeability of free space
and M =magnetization of the material.
∴ from eq (i), μ (H + M) = 0
or, M = −H
which is true for a perfect diamagnet. Thus, superconductors are perfect diamagnetic materials.
Q(d): Write down the properties of type-I and type-II superconductors. (3)
Ans: Properties of type-I superconductors are given below:
i. Perfectly obey the Meissner effect, i.e. magnetic field can't penetrate inside the material.
iii. Easily lose the superconducting state by low-intensity magnetic field. Therefore, type-I
superconductors are also known as soft superconductors.
iv. Due to the low critical magnetic field, type-I superconductors can't be used for manufacturing
electromagnets.
i. Partly obey the Meissner effect, i.e. magnetic field can penetrate inside the material.
ii. High critical temperature (>10 K) and high critical magnetic field (>1T).
iii. Doesn't easily lose the superconducting state by external magnetic field. Therefore, type-II
superconductors are also known as hard superconductors.
iv. Due to the high critical magnetic field, type-II superconductors can be used for manufacturing
electromagnets.
When the magnetic field exceeds the critical field, the superconductor will undergo a transition to a
normal, resistive state, in which it will no longer exhibit zero electrical resistance and other unique
properties associated with superconductivity. The critical magnetic field is dependent on the type of
superconductor and its temperature.
i. Critical temperature: The temperature below which the material changes from conductors to
superconductors is called critical temperature. The transition from conductors to superconductors
is sudden and complete.
ii. Zero electric resistance or infinite conductivity: In the superconducting state, the material has
zero resistance. When the temperature of the material is reduced below the critical temperature, its
resistance suddenly reduces to zero.
iii. Repulsion of magnetic field: Below the critical temperature, superconductors don’t allow the
magnetic field to penetrate inside it. This phenomenon is called Meisser effect.
iv. Critical magnetic field: The certain value of the magnetic field beyond which the superconductors
return to conducting state is called the critical magnetic field. The value of the critical magnetic field
is inversely proportional to the temperature. As the temperature increases, the value of the critical
magnetic field decreases.
i. At low temperatures, the electrons in the material occupy the lowest energy levels available.
However, due to the presence of phonons, there is a small amount of energy associated with the
motion of the atoms.
ii. Occasionally, an electron in the material will interact with a phonon, absorbing or emitting
energy in the process. This interaction creates a small disturbance in the lattice which can be
thought of as a localized increase or decrease in the density of positive charges.
iii. Another electron in the material can then interact with this disturbance, experiencing an
attractive force due to the opposite charge density. This attraction can be strong enough to
overcome the repulsion between the electrons due to their mutual negative charge.
iv. If two electrons are close enough together and experience this attraction, they can form a bound
state known as a cooper pair. This pair of electrons has a lower energy than two separate electrons,
ℏ
due to the attractive force between them. The size of cooper pair is, r = , where v =
characteristic velocity of an electron, E = binding energy of electron pair.
v. Once a cooper pair is formed, it can move through the material as a single entity. This is because
the phonons that mediate the attraction between the electrons also interact with the motion of the
pair as a whole, creating a superconducting state with zero resistance.
Q(j): Discuss d.c. and a.c. Josephson effects and explain their importance. [4]
Ans: The Josephson effect is a phenomenon in which a supercurrent flows between two
superconductors that are separated by a thin insulating barrier (1 − 5nm).
i. DC Josephson effect: Due to the wave nature of moving particles, the electrons tunnel through the
barrier. As a result, there is net current across the junction. This current flows without any potential
difference. This is called dc Josephson effect.
ii. AC Josephson effect: When a dc potential difference, V is applied between the two sides of the
junction, there will be an oscillation of the tunneling current with angular frequency, ϑ = ℏ
Hz/v.
This is called the ac Josephson Effect.
iii. The dc Josephson effect is also used in the detection of small magnetic fields and in the
development of superconducting microwave detectors.
i. The ac Josephson effect is used in the development of ultra-precise voltage standards, which have
important applications in meterology and measurement science.
iii. The ac Josephson effect is used in the development of superconducting qubits for quantum
computing.
v. By measuring the voltage across the weak links in the loop, the SQUID can detect extremely weak
magnetic fields, such as those produced by the human brain or heart.
i. Magnetic imaging: SQUIDs are used in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) machines to produce
detailed images of internal structures of the body.
ii. Geophysical exploration: SQUIDs are used to detect tiny variations in the earth's magnetic field,
which can be used to study the geological structure of the earth's crust and to locate buried metal
objects.
iii. Non-destructive testing: SQUIDs are used to detect defects and cracks in metals and other
materials without damaging the materials.
iv. Precision metrology: SQUIDs can be used to measure extremely small distances and forces, such
as the distance between atoms or the force between molecules.
v. Quantum computing: SQUIDs can be used as qubits in quantum computers, where they can be
used to store and manipulate quantum information.
vi. Particle physics: SQUIDs are used to detect and measure the magnetic fields of subatomic
particles in particle accelerators.
vii. Astrophysics: SQUIDs are used to measure the magnetic fields of stars and galaxies.
Q(l): Derive the London equations and explain the term penetration depth. [6]
Ans: From Meissner effect, we know that the magnetic flux of an external magnetic field, can’t
penetrate inside the superconductor. But experimentally, it is not so. In a superconductor, there
must exist a uniform magnetic field. The phenomenon of flux penetration inside the
superconductors was explained by H. London and F. London.
Derivation of London’s first equation:
Let, n and v⃗ be the number density and velocity of superconducting electrons respectively.
The eq of motion of electrons in the superconducting state is given by,
dv⃗
m = −eE⃗
dt
dv⃗ eE⃗
or, = − ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (i)
dt m
dJ⃗ dv⃗
= −en
dt dt
dJ⃗ e nE⃗
= ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (ii)
dt m
This eq (ii) is known as London’s first eq .
Derivation of London’s second equation:
Taking curl of eq (ii),
dJ⃗ e n
∇⃗ × = ∇⃗ × E⃗ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (iii)
dt m
⃗
We know, from Maxwell’s eq s, ∇⃗ × E⃗ = −
dJ⃗ e n dB⃗
∴ eq (iii)becomes, ∇⃗ × =−
dt m dt
Integrating both sides,
e nB⃗
∇⃗ × ⃗J = − ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (iv)
m
This eq (iv) is known as London’s second eq .
Penitration depth: Penetration depth is a characteristic length scale that describes how far magnetic
fields can penetrate into a superconductor. The penetration depth is an important characteristic of
a superconductor that determines how quickly magnetic fields decay inside the material.
Expression for penitration depth can be derived as following,
Here, ∇⃗ × ∇⃗ × B⃗ = ∇⃗ ∇⃗ ∙ B⃗ − ∇ B⃗
∴ ∇⃗ × ∇⃗ × B⃗ = −∇ B⃗
B⃗
or, ∇ B⃗ = ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (vii)
λ
where, λ = Penitration depth =
where, B = field at the surface of the super conductor, x = depth inside the superconductor.
The eq (viii) shows that in a superconductor, there must exist a uniform magnetic field.
Q(m): Lead in the superconducting state has critical temperature of 6.2 K and a critical
magnetic field of 0.064 Mam-1 at 0 K. Determine the critical field at 4 K. (3)
Ans: Given critical temperature, T = 6.2 K; critical field, H (0) = 0.064 Mam ; given temperature,
T = 4 K.
T
We know, H = H (0) 1 −
T
or, H = 0.064 1 − .
Mam = 0.037 Mam (Ans.)
Q(n): The transition temperature of mercury with an average atomic mass of 200.59 amu is
4.153 K. Determine the transition temperature of one its isotopes, 𝟐𝟎𝟒
𝟖𝟎𝐇𝐠. (3)
Ans: Given, Atomic mass of mercury, M = 200.59 amu; transition temperature of mercury, T =
4.153 K; atomic mass of isotop, M = 204 amu; transition temperature of mercury, T =?
We know, =
.
or, T = T = 4.153 K = 4.118 K(Ans.)
One of the key predictions of the BCS theory is that the critical temperature for superconductivity is
related to the strength of the electron-phonon interaction in the material. This prediction has been
supported by experimental observations.
Q(h): Explain d.c. Josephson’s effect. Show that the supercurrent of superconducting pairs
across the junction depends on the phase difference. [6]
Ans: Due to the wave nature of moving particles, the electrons tunnel through the barrier. As a
result, there is net current across the junction. This current flows without any potential difference.
This is called dc Josephson effect.
Q(i): Discuss a.c. Josephson’s effect. Show that the current oscillates with frequency, 𝛝 =
𝟐𝐞𝐕
. (6)
ℏ
Ans: When a dc potential difference, V is applied between the two sides of the junction, there will be
an oscillation of the tunneling current with angular frequency, ϑ = ℏ
Hz/v. This is called the ac
Josephson Effect.