Chap 4. Superconductor

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CHAPTER-4

Q(a): What is superconductivity? Mention some applications of superconductors. (3)


Ans: Superconductivity is a phenomenon where certain materials exhibit zero electrical resistance
when cooled at absolute zero temperature. This means that current can flow through a
superconductor without any loss of energy which makes it an extremely efficient conductor of
electricity.

Applications of superconductors:

i. Superconducting magnets are used in MRI machines to create strong magnetic fields that are used
to produce detailed images of internal body structures.

ii. Superconducting magnets are used in particle accelerators to create strong magnetic fields that
guide charged particles through the accelerator.

iii. Superconductors can be used to transmit electricity with zero loss of energy which makes them
an attractive option for power transmission over long distances.

Q(b): Describe the phenomenon of Meissner effect. Why superconductors are perfect
diamagnetic materials? (2+2)
Ans: The Meissner effect is a phenomenon in which a superconductor, cooled below its critical
temperature, repels all magnetic fields from its interior and exhibits zero electrical resistance. This
expulsion of magnetic fields occurs because in a superconductor, electrons form pairs known as
cooper pairs, which move through the material without any resistance. When a magnetic field is
applied to the superconductor, it induces a current in the material that produces an opposing
magnetic field. This opposing field repels the external magnetic field. This repulsion of the magnetic
field is known as the Meissner effect.

Superconductors are perfect diamagnetic materials because they exhibit perfect diamagnetism
below their critical temperature. Diamagnetism is the property of a material that causes the
material to be repelled by a magnetic field, i.e. magnetic susceptibility is equal to −1.

Mathematically, it can be described as following,

We know,

B = μ (H + M) ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (i)

where, B = magnetic flux density, H = magnetic field strength, μ = permeability of free space
and M =magnetization of the material.

In a superconductor, the magnetization to be exactly opposite to the applied magnetic field,


resulting in a net magnetization of zero, i.e. B = 0,

∴ from eq (i), μ (H + M) = 0

or, M = −H

∴ the magnetic susceptibility, χ = = = −1

which is true for a perfect diamagnet. Thus, superconductors are perfect diamagnetic materials.

Q(c): What are Type I and Type II superconductors? (4)


Ans: Depending upon the behavior in an external magnetic field, superconductors are divided into
two types:
i. Type-I superconductor: Type-I superconductors are
those superconductors that lose their superconductivity
very easily when placed in the external magnetic field.
Type-I superconductors perfectly obey the Meissner
effect. From the following graph of the intensity of
magnetization (μ M) vs applied magnetic field (H), it
can be seen that when the type-I superconductor is
placed in the magnetic field, it suddenly loses its
superconductivity at the critical magnetic field (Hc).

ii. Type-II superconductor: Type-II superconductors


are those superconductors that lose their
superconductivity gradually when placed in the
external magnetic field. Type-II superconductors
partialy obey the Meissner effect. From the following
graph of the intensity of magnetization (μ M) vs
applied magnetic field (H), when the type-II
superconductor is placed in the magnetic field, it
gradually loses its superconductivity. Type-II superconductors start to lose their superconductivity
at the lower critical magnetic field (Hc1) and completely lose their superconductivity at the upper
critical magnetic field (Hc2). After Hc2, the type-II superconductor will become a normal conductor.

Q(d): Write down the properties of type-I and type-II superconductors. (3)
Ans: Properties of type-I superconductors are given below:

i. Perfectly obey the Meissner effect, i.e. magnetic field can't penetrate inside the material.

ii. Low critical temperature (0 K to 10 K) and low critical magnetic field(<1T).

iii. Easily lose the superconducting state by low-intensity magnetic field. Therefore, type-I
superconductors are also known as soft superconductors.

iv. Due to the low critical magnetic field, type-I superconductors can't be used for manufacturing
electromagnets.

Properties of type-II superconductors are given below:

i. Partly obey the Meissner effect, i.e. magnetic field can penetrate inside the material.

ii. High critical temperature (>10 K) and high critical magnetic field (>1T).

iii. Doesn't easily lose the superconducting state by external magnetic field. Therefore, type-II
superconductors are also known as hard superconductors.

iv. Due to the high critical magnetic field, type-II superconductors can be used for manufacturing
electromagnets.

Q(e): Define critical magnetic field of a superconductor. (2)


Ans: For a given temperature, the critical magnetic field refers to the maximum magnetic field
strength below which a material remains superconducting.

When the magnetic field exceeds the critical field, the superconductor will undergo a transition to a
normal, resistive state, in which it will no longer exhibit zero electrical resistance and other unique
properties associated with superconductivity. The critical magnetic field is dependent on the type of
superconductor and its temperature.

Q(f): Briefly describe the basic properties of superconductor. [4]


Ans: Basic properties of superconductor are described below:

i. Critical temperature: The temperature below which the material changes from conductors to
superconductors is called critical temperature. The transition from conductors to superconductors
is sudden and complete.

ii. Zero electric resistance or infinite conductivity: In the superconducting state, the material has
zero resistance. When the temperature of the material is reduced below the critical temperature, its
resistance suddenly reduces to zero.

iii. Repulsion of magnetic field: Below the critical temperature, superconductors don’t allow the
magnetic field to penetrate inside it. This phenomenon is called Meisser effect.

iv. Critical magnetic field: The certain value of the magnetic field beyond which the superconductors
return to conducting state is called the critical magnetic field. The value of the critical magnetic field
is inversely proportional to the temperature. As the temperature increases, the value of the critical
magnetic field decreases.

Q(g): How are cooper pairs formed?


Ans: Superconductivity is typically observed in certain materials at very low temperatures where
the electrical resistance drops to zero. This phenomenon is due to the formation of cooper pairs
which are pairs of electrons that are bound together by an attractive force mediated by lattice
vibrations (phonons).

The process of cooper pair formation can be described as following:

i. At low temperatures, the electrons in the material occupy the lowest energy levels available.
However, due to the presence of phonons, there is a small amount of energy associated with the
motion of the atoms.

ii. Occasionally, an electron in the material will interact with a phonon, absorbing or emitting
energy in the process. This interaction creates a small disturbance in the lattice which can be
thought of as a localized increase or decrease in the density of positive charges.

iii. Another electron in the material can then interact with this disturbance, experiencing an
attractive force due to the opposite charge density. This attraction can be strong enough to
overcome the repulsion between the electrons due to their mutual negative charge.

iv. If two electrons are close enough together and experience this attraction, they can form a bound
state known as a cooper pair. This pair of electrons has a lower energy than two separate electrons,

due to the attractive force between them. The size of cooper pair is, r = , where v =
characteristic velocity of an electron, E = binding energy of electron pair.

v. Once a cooper pair is formed, it can move through the material as a single entity. This is because
the phonons that mediate the attraction between the electrons also interact with the motion of the
pair as a whole, creating a superconducting state with zero resistance.

Q(j): Discuss d.c. and a.c. Josephson effects and explain their importance. [4]
Ans: The Josephson effect is a phenomenon in which a supercurrent flows between two
superconductors that are separated by a thin insulating barrier (1 − 5nm).

There are two types of Josephson effect:

i. DC Josephson effect: Due to the wave nature of moving particles, the electrons tunnel through the
barrier. As a result, there is net current across the junction. This current flows without any potential
difference. This is called dc Josephson effect.
ii. AC Josephson effect: When a dc potential difference, V is applied between the two sides of the
junction, there will be an oscillation of the tunneling current with angular frequency, ϑ = ℏ
Hz/v.
This is called the ac Josephson Effect.

Importance of DC Josephson effect:

i. The dc Josephson effect is a fundamental phenomenon in superconductivity and plays a crucial


role in the development of superconducting devices, such as SQUID (superconducting Quantum
Interference Device), qubits for quantum computing and high-precision voltage standards.

ii. It provides a direct measurement of the superconducting energy gap.

iii. The dc Josephson effect is also used in the detection of small magnetic fields and in the
development of superconducting microwave detectors.

Importance of AC Josephson effect:

i. The ac Josephson effect is used in the development of ultra-precise voltage standards, which have
important applications in meterology and measurement science.

ii. It is also used in the development of superconducting digital circuits.

iii. The ac Josephson effect is used in the development of superconducting qubits for quantum
computing.

Q(k): Describe the principle of a superconductive quantum interference device (SQUID).


List out their uses and their engineering applications. (6)
Ans: A superconductive quantum interference device (SQUID) is a type of sensor that uses
superconducting materials to measure extremely weak magnetic fields. The SQUID consists of a thin
superconducting loop with two weak links, which can be made of a non-superconducting material
or a narrow region of superconducting material that is intentionally made to be less
superconducting than the rest of the loop. The principle of SQUID is as following,

i. When the SQUID is cooled to a temperature below


its critical temperature, it becomes superconducting,
allowing the current to flow through the loop with
zero resistance.

ii. If a magnetic field is applied to the loop, the


magnetic flux through the loop will change, which
induces a voltage in the loop.

iii. Due to the unique properties of superconducting


materials, the induced voltage is proportional to the
rate of change of magnetic flux through the loop,
rather than the strength of the magnetic field.

iv. The voltage induced in the SQUID is extremely


small, but it can be amplified using a low-noise
amplifier.

v. By measuring the voltage across the weak links in the loop, the SQUID can detect extremely weak
magnetic fields, such as those produced by the human brain or heart.

Uses and applications of SQUID:

i. Magnetic imaging: SQUIDs are used in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) machines to produce
detailed images of internal structures of the body.
ii. Geophysical exploration: SQUIDs are used to detect tiny variations in the earth's magnetic field,
which can be used to study the geological structure of the earth's crust and to locate buried metal
objects.

iii. Non-destructive testing: SQUIDs are used to detect defects and cracks in metals and other
materials without damaging the materials.

iv. Precision metrology: SQUIDs can be used to measure extremely small distances and forces, such
as the distance between atoms or the force between molecules.

v. Quantum computing: SQUIDs can be used as qubits in quantum computers, where they can be
used to store and manipulate quantum information.

vi. Particle physics: SQUIDs are used to detect and measure the magnetic fields of subatomic
particles in particle accelerators.

vii. Astrophysics: SQUIDs are used to measure the magnetic fields of stars and galaxies.

Q(l): Derive the London equations and explain the term penetration depth. [6]
Ans: From Meissner effect, we know that the magnetic flux of an external magnetic field, can’t
penetrate inside the superconductor. But experimentally, it is not so. In a superconductor, there
must exist a uniform magnetic field. The phenomenon of flux penetration inside the
superconductors was explained by H. London and F. London.
Derivation of London’s first equation:
Let, n and v⃗ be the number density and velocity of superconducting electrons respectively.
The eq of motion of electrons in the superconducting state is given by,
dv⃗
m = −eE⃗
dt

dv⃗ eE⃗
or, = − ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (i)
dt m

Where, m and e are the mass and charge of the electrons.

Again, current density, ⃗J = −env⃗


Differentiate it with respect to time,

dJ⃗ dv⃗
= −en
dt dt

dJ⃗ e nE⃗
= ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (ii)
dt m
This eq (ii) is known as London’s first eq .
Derivation of London’s second equation:
Taking curl of eq (ii),

dJ⃗ e n
∇⃗ × = ∇⃗ × E⃗ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (iii)
dt m

We know, from Maxwell’s eq s, ∇⃗ × E⃗ = −

dJ⃗ e n dB⃗
∴ eq (iii)becomes, ∇⃗ × =−
dt m dt
Integrating both sides,

e nB⃗
∇⃗ × ⃗J = − ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (iv)
m
This eq (iv) is known as London’s second eq .
Penitration depth: Penetration depth is a characteristic length scale that describes how far magnetic
fields can penetrate into a superconductor. The penetration depth is an important characteristic of
a superconductor that determines how quickly magnetic fields decay inside the material.
Expression for penitration depth can be derived as following,

We know, from Maxwell’s eq s, ∇⃗ × B⃗ = μ ⃗J

Taking curl at both sides, ∇⃗ × ∇⃗ × B⃗ = μ (∇⃗ × ⃗J) ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (v)

Here, ∇⃗ × ∇⃗ × B⃗ = ∇⃗ ∇⃗ ∙ B⃗ − ∇ B⃗

But from Maxwell’s eq s, we know, ∇⃗ ∙ B⃗ = 0

∴ ∇⃗ × ∇⃗ × B⃗ = −∇ B⃗

∴ eq (v) becomes, −∇ B⃗ = μ ∇⃗ × ⃗J ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (vi)



Equating eq s (iv) and (vi), ∇ B⃗ =

B⃗
or, ∇ B⃗ = ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (vii)
λ
where, λ = Penitration depth =

The sol of eq (vii) is, B = B e ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (viii)

where, B = field at the surface of the super conductor, x = depth inside the superconductor.

The eq (viii) shows that in a superconductor, there must exist a uniform magnetic field.

Q(m): Lead in the superconducting state has critical temperature of 6.2 K and a critical
magnetic field of 0.064 Mam-1 at 0 K. Determine the critical field at 4 K. (3)
Ans: Given critical temperature, T = 6.2 K; critical field, H (0) = 0.064 Mam ; given temperature,
T = 4 K.

T
We know, H = H (0) 1 −
T

or, H = 0.064 1 − .
Mam = 0.037 Mam (Ans.)

Q(n): The transition temperature of mercury with an average atomic mass of 200.59 amu is
4.153 K. Determine the transition temperature of one its isotopes, 𝟐𝟎𝟒
𝟖𝟎𝐇𝐠. (3)

Ans: Given, Atomic mass of mercury, M = 200.59 amu; transition temperature of mercury, T =
4.153 K; atomic mass of isotop, M = 204 amu; transition temperature of mercury, T =?

We know, =

.
or, T = T = 4.153 K = 4.118 K(Ans.)

Q(o): Write a short note on BCS theory. (3)


Ans: BCS theory explains the phenomenon of superconductivity, in which certain materials exhibit
zero electrical resistance when cooled to very low temperatures.
The BCS theory suggests that superconductivity arises due to the formation of cooper pairs which
are pairs of electrons that are bound together by exchanging phonons. The binding of electrons in
cooper pairs leads to the formation of a condensed state of electrons which behaves as a single
entity and can flow through the material without any resistance.

One of the key predictions of the BCS theory is that the critical temperature for superconductivity is
related to the strength of the electron-phonon interaction in the material. This prediction has been
supported by experimental observations.

Q(h): Explain d.c. Josephson’s effect. Show that the supercurrent of superconducting pairs
across the junction depends on the phase difference. [6]
Ans: Due to the wave nature of moving particles, the electrons tunnel through the barrier. As a
result, there is net current across the junction. This current flows without any potential difference.
This is called dc Josephson effect.
Q(i): Discuss a.c. Josephson’s effect. Show that the current oscillates with frequency, 𝛝 =
𝟐𝐞𝐕
. (6)

Ans: When a dc potential difference, V is applied between the two sides of the junction, there will be
an oscillation of the tunneling current with angular frequency, ϑ = ℏ
Hz/v. This is called the ac
Josephson Effect.

NB: Derivation from the hand written note till equation 8.

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