Folse - 2009 - Keys To Teaching Grammar - CH 2

Folse, K. (2009). Keys to teaching grammar to English language learners: A practical handbook.
University of
Michigan Press.
Basic English Grammar:

Usage and Terminology
Section 1 Common Grammar Errors Made by Native Speakers
Section 2 Eight Parts of Speech
Section 3 Basic Grammar Labels for Sentence Structure
Section 4 Why the Twelve English Verb Tenses Matter
Before examining ELL grammar issues, it is important to have a solid understanding of

grammar usage and key terminology. This chapter explores some of the most common
errors made by native speakers of English as a way to help all teachers develop a solid
understanding of their native language. As you speak to your ELLs, you must be able
to easily differentiate Standard English from incorrect English. While regional varia
tions of English do exist, learners hope to attain proficiency in Standard English. Sec
tion 1 includes a short pre-test of 20 common errors made by native speakers in
spoken and/or written English. More information about each error can be found in
Appendix 1.
Section 2 reviews the eight parts of speech, the basic building blocks of the
English language. ELL grammar makes use of seven of the traditional eight parts of
speech, but ELL grammar is not organized around the parts of speech in the same way
that the grammar of native speakers is.
31
32 ·=:=· 2: Basic English Grammar
Because some grammar terms are applicable only to native English grammar
while others are used primarily in ELL grammar, basic grammar terminology is
reviewed in Section 3. Leaming the labels for grammatical concepts, however, is not
the same as understanding the underlying patterns within a language. Labels can be
useful tools for teachers and students, but grammar is much more than labels. There
fore, you should exercise great care when using these labels in the classroom. Section
3 also contains a brief overview of sentence structure.
In observing grammar classes over the years, I have seen teachers confuse provid
ing a grammar label with giving a good grammar explanation. They are not the same.
In one class, a student asked the teacher a grammar question about a sentence that
someone had told him was incorrect. Logically, he wanted to know why his sentence
was incorrect.
Student: Why is it wrong to say, "I wish I studied more for today's test"?
Why do I have to say, "I wish I had studied more for today's test"?
Teacher: Because had studied is past perfect tense.
Student: Excuse me? What?
Teacher: Had is the auxiliary verb, and studied is the past participle. When
you use had as an auxiliary verb with the past participle, that's
called past perfect tense.
Student: Okay. !clearly not understanding!
The label past perfect is in fact the correct label for the words had studied. However,
the label past perfect is not the grammar explanation here. The correct explanation is
that native speakers use past perfect tense of a verb after the word wish when we are
wishing now about something in the past. Thus, the key component of the explana
tion is that the word wish triggers a mandatory verb form, which happens to be past
perfect tense.
Because verbs occupy a special place in English grammar, Section 4 focuses on the
twelve verb tenses in English. Just as native speakers of English often have bad memo
ries of verb conjugations in the various tenses in Spanish, French, or other foreign lan
guage, ELLs find the many English verb tenses to be confusing and at times seemingly
incomprehensible.
Sec. 1: Grammar Errors Made by Native Speallers •:::• 33
SECTION 1
Common Grammar Errors Made by Native Speakers
At one point or another, all of us make grammatical mistakes in our speech and writ
ing. When we say or write something very quickly, our minds are so focused on the
content of our message that we might pay less attention to our language and inadver
tently make a grammatical error. A good example of this scenario occurs with email
messages; we may have to answer so many messages daily that we aren't always as
careful as we should be. However, in formal reports, academic writing, and public
speeches, it is imperative that we use correct language so that our audiences pay atten
tion to our message and are not distracted by our errors.
Teachers expect their ELL students to make mistakes with grammar. Students are
in class to improve their language skills. As teachers, however, we are in a different cat
egory. What is the impression given when a teacher consistently makes a grammar
mistake not because of time constraints but because of lack of knowledge about the
language? When teachers make grammatical errors on a class handout, quiz, or note
to a student, it does not reflect well on them or their credibility. (Like it or not, teach
ers are held to a high degree of language accountability.}
To assess your ability with 20 of the most common errors made by native speakers
in spoken and written English, a pre-test follows. Use your results to review the
detailed information on these grammar points, which can be found in Appendix 1.
Take the pre-test on pages 34-35 now, before reading on.
Why Grammar Matters

Many people have a negative image of grammar because they tend to associate gram
mar lessons with reprimands and warnings about not making certain kinds of errors.
In fact, many of us associate the word grammar with the word don't. Don't say me and
my friend. Don't use ain't. Don't misuse bro1w for broken.
N
"What's the big deal with grammar anyway? some might ask. The style of lan
guage that you speak does matter in many situations, and grammar is a key compo
nent of that style. When we first meet people, we are already forming an opinion
about them. Do they sound educated? Do they sound professional? Do they sound
friendly? The list of questions goes on, and the answers to many of these questions are
based on the kind of language being used, including the number and type of errors in
a person's speech.
To be sure, some errors are judged-fairly or unfairly-as more serious than oth
ers. Language is spoken by humans, and human perceptions are very subjective. Soci
ety tells us that some errors are bad, but others are not so serious. For instance, most
people would agree that hearing a person that we do not know say ain't or it don't mat
ter lowers our perception of that speaker much more than adding the unnecessary
(and incorrect) preposition at in Where do you live at? (Note that all three examples are
incorrect.}
34 •:::• 2: Basic English Grammar
Pre-Test 1: Common Grammar Errors Made by Native Speakers

You will read 25 sentences that contain grammar points that are problematic for
many native speakers. Five of these sentences are correct. For the 20 that have a
grammatical error, circle the common error made by native speakers and write a
correction above it. (NOTE: Individual stylistics vary considerably, so all 25 of
these statements could be rewritten with different grammar and vocabulary. Your
task, however, is to identify parts of the sentences that are obvious errors.) Sug
gested time limit: 15 minutes. (Answers are on pp. 86-87.)
1. It's essential to get the message out to parents that they have to know at all
times exactly whom their loved ones associate with and where they are at.
2. I've encountered a problem when I'm trying to insen a record. Sometimes
while I'm trying to build a menu list, I'll get an error message telling me some
thing about too much recursion. What does this mean?
3. Between you and I, this situation is going to have a very unhappy ending.
4. My wife and I look forward to working more with the Matthew Community
Program. Founded a decade ago by Theodore Jabil and myself, this organiza
tion serves children and families in the Brooklyn area.
5. I had went to different therapy services, but Pressure Point was the best ever.
6. The DC-10 jet cracked into two pieces and came to rest with the front section
laying on its side.
7. The campus police department is proud to announce the publication of the

long-awaited and revised Student Safety Guide. Note that the name has been
changed to the Annual Report & Safety Guide to reflect its content more
appropriately.
8. Team captains are receiving this article because they might want to pass it on
to whomever would benefit from it the most.
9. What the boss don't know won't matter in the end.
10. If it wouldn't have been raining, the kids could have played in the backyard.
11. The jurisdiction that includes these seven heavily populated metropolitan
areas should have its boundaries redrawn.
12. The school board's new plan will not hardly affect the students at this elemen
tary school.
13. According to the author, when people feel suessed, angry, or ashamed, we give
off negative energy. This is why viewing negative events causes us to feel badly.
Similarly, witnessing acts of kindness causes us to feel good.
Sec. 1: Grammar Errors Made by Native Speahers ·=:=· 3!
14. We cannot let them people vote. If we let them vote, they're not going to make
the right decision.
15. My opinion is that the manager should of fired those employees on the spot.
16. Care should be taken when attempting to remove a tick from human skin.
Cover the tick with this liquid for a few seconds. If you apply enough liquid,
the tick will let go on it's own.
17. A clear advantage that this particular electronic dictionary software has over its
competitors is the incredible number of words that can be quickly looked up.
18. If you want to play on the team, please send me an email letting me know that
your interested. I need your response no later than Saturday.
19. Krashen came up with the concept of i + 1 to help describe the distance
between a persons language proficiency and the level of the language in the
material.
20. If you are an employee who's contract expires annually and a renewal is done
at the beginning of a semester, you may not be entered into the data system
yet.
21. Yes, I'm looking for something that is more stable than my current job, but I
haven't been going to job interviews to much.
22. Your place was terrific, but I want to say that your warm hospitality and great
facilities are what we enjoyed the most and what made the trip so special to
Kate and me.
23. Applicants may submit their papetwork either in person or via email. Note
that the submission method will not effect the committee's decision regarding
any application.
24. This plant can withstand temperatures to five degrees Fahrenheit, which is the
point at which the plant may loose some or all of its leaves (but still not kill
the plant).
25. In a recent ruling by five of the Supreme Court justices, there conclusion was
that police should have more authority in some cases.
Your Score: __/2_5__

Language always involves people, so these judgments are based on the value that
educated native speakers in our English-speaking society have assigned to certain
errors. This does not suggest that anyone has actually made a list of the worst to not
so-bad errors, but English speakers as a group tend to recognize that certain errors
seem to be made more often by uneducated speakers who are in a lower socio
economic group and that committing these errors tends to identify a speaker as a
member of these groups-rightly or wrongly. (This judgment of a person's education
or personality based on the language used is a universal; it is in no way confined to
English with English speakers.) To be certain, ELLs need to learn standard English.
We also need to make a distinction between a true error and informal language.
All speakers use different varieties, or levels, of a language when interacting with dif
ferent people. The language that I use in telling a joke to a good friend has a different
tone, vocabulary, and level of formality than when I am writing a document for publi
cation. The key point is that I know the difference between these two extremes and
have not only sufficient situational awareness but, more important, sufficient English
proficiency to use one kind of language instead of the other. In sum, I can use both
extremes when I wish because I know the difference. I know my options and have
made an informed, conscious choice.
A good concrete example of this distinction is with the usage of w1w and wltom.
Grammatically, who is a subject and whom is an object. Therefore, we would ask, Who
1,elped you? and Whom did you help? This grammatical difference between wlto and
whom is clear. Current usage in the real world, however, is different.
First, no native speaker would ever misuse whom for who: • Whom helped you? A
native speaker would never say this, so the question is when to use whom, not when to
use who.
Language is not spoken in a vacuum; we use it to interact with people in very dif
ferent situations, ranging from the very formal to the very informal. In formal lan
guage, yes, we could ask, W11om did you help? However, in informal language, most of
us rarely if ever use whom-even in a sentence like this one where whom is actually cor
rect. For most of us, using whom sounds very formal, possibly even pretentious or
"stuck up." In fact, I have never used (or heard) the word whom around my family or
in my immediate circle of friends. In contrast, it is quite easy to imagine a switchboard
operator at a large firm answering the phone by asking, Good afternoon. Whom did you
wisli w speall wit11 today? If the operator used who, suddenly the initial greeting might
not seem so formal.
Because it is natural to want to bond with other humans, we use certain levels of
language to try to fit in. When applying for a job at a large company, we use the most
formal language possible to sound educated and capable. However, if we stopped at a
gas station to get our car repaired, we would probably ask, W1w do I talll to about get
ting my car repaired? instead of Whom do I speall with about having my car repaired? Using
who instead of whom is appropriate in informal situations; it is a way of establishing
rapport in our conversations.
Sec. 1: Grammar Errors Made by Native Spealwrs •:::• 37
Prescriptive and Descriptive Grammar

The usage of who/whom illustrates prescriptive grammar vs. descriptive grammar. Pre
scriptive grammar prescribes, or dictates, exactly what should or should not be said or
used. In contrast, descriptive grammar describes how the language is actually being used.
For instance, prescriptive grammar says to use whom for all object positions: Whom
would you lifw to spealt with? In contrast, descriptive grammar notes that in current
usage, Whom would you lilte to speall with? is correct, formal language. Descriptive gram
mar would also note that in a very formal situation, we would probably begin the
question with the preposition (With whom would you lille to spealt?) and that in more
informal settings, people would use who (Who would you lilte to speall with?). Note the
levels of formality in this series of questions posed by an operator at a business.
Most Formal Wit11 whom would you Wte to spealt?

Whom would you lilw to spealt with?
Whom do you want to speall wit11?
Who would you Wte to spealt with?
Who do you want to spealt with?
Who do you want to speall to?
Who do you want to tal1t with?
Most informal Who do you want to talll to?
Table 2.1 shows how prescriptive grammarians and descriptive grammarians

might treat three grammar topics.
Table 2.1 Examples of Prescriptive vs. Descriptive Grammar
Grammar Topic Prescriptive Grammar Descriptive Grammar

w1ro /whom Always use who as a I. We always use who as a subject.
subject and whom as 2. In everyday language, people
an object. also use who as an object. In
very formal language, we always
use whom in the object position.
3. When directly preceded by a
preposition, people usually use
whom.
splitting an Never split an infinitive. I. People often split infinitives
infinitive (Few people would with adverbs of manner (to
dare to change the quicllly exit) or adverbs of
opening lines of the 1V degree (to almost double).
N
show NStar Trek from
to boldly go to to go
boldly, but from a
prescriptive viewpoint,
only the second option
is correct.)
38 -:::• 2: Basic English Grammar
Table 2.1 Examples of Prescriptive vs. Descriptive Grammar (continued)
Grammar Topic Prescriptive Grammar Descriptive Grammar

----t-------------------------1
possessive Indefinite pronouns 1. People often use their to refer
adjective such as everyone and to indefinite pronouns.
agreement somebody are always 2. When trying to sound more
with everyone singular. When correct-especially in formal
referring to indefinite writing, people often use the
pronouns, use his. phrase his or her even though
(Many people find the its repetitiveness can sound
use of his to be sexist. awkward.
To sound less sexist, it
is possible to use the
phrase his or her.)
Does this mean that if enough people say something, it will become part of
descriptive grammar and acceptable to say? Every language has certain prescribed
usage rules (hence the term prescriptive grammar). These rules are based on what is con
sidered normal by educated speakers within that language group. Prescriptive gram
mar views language as finite; descriptive grammar accounts for current usage and
consequently acknowledges that over time, language usage will change. Who knows?
Maybe some day whom will disappear completely, and all speakers will ask, Does every
one have their ID? without any grammar guilt pangs.
Having discussed and acknowledged the two camps of prescriptivism and descrip
tivism, the bottom line is that in professional settings and, in particular, in the aca
demic settings in which we teach, language accuracy does matter considerably. While
spoken language allows more flexibility, written language does not. Mistakes made in
writing are right there in front of our readers' eyes. Readers will judge us on our educa
tion, socio-economic status, professionalism, and even intelligence based on the types
of errors we make in our writing.
The pre-test on pages 34-35 and Appendix 1 examine 20 typical errors made by
native speakers. The errors are presented in two groups. The first group includes errors
that appear in both spoken and written English, while the second group includes
errors that appear more commonly in written English. The errors in the two groups
occur for different reasons, but all are considered grammatical errors because they vio
late some aspect of grammar (as opposed to spelling or pronunciation errors).
Sec. 1: Grammar Errors Made by Native Speakers -:::• 39
-•
-- 20- Common -Grammar Errors Made by-Native Speakers -
Errors that Occur in Errors that Occur

Writing and Speaking Predominantly in Writing
l. unnecessary prepositions 12. have, of
(e.g., Wl1ere do you live at?*) 13. it's, its, its'*
2. /, me 14. your, you're
3. myself (reflexive pronouns) 15. 's
4. past participles and past tense 16. who's, whose
(e.g., gone, went) 17. to, too, two
5. lie, lay 18. affect, effect
6. whoever, whomever ( or who, whom) 19. lose, loose
7. he/she/it don't* 20. they're, there, their
B. if I would l1ave lmown*
9. double negatives
10. bad, badly
1 I. them, those
NOTE: More detailed information about these 20 language issues can be found in
Appendix 1.
While it is true that some of these errors are considered more egregious than oth
ers, no real effort has been made to rank these 20 topics in terms of severity. When you
are applying for a teaching job, any error in your CV-even just one-will be glaring
and will impact your chances of getting the job that you want.
Your goal is to recognize these usages as incorrect English. You are an extremely
important source of English input for your ELLs. Because your students will look to
you as a model of good language usage, your ultimate goal is to avoid making these
common errors.
40 ·===· 2: Basic English Gramma r
SECTION 2
Eight Parts of Speech
For many people, the eight parts of speech are the cornerstone of English grammar.
Native speakers from elementary school to high school learn the definitions of the
eight parts of speech along with numerous examples and usages. In this section, we
will review the traditional eight parts of speech. To determine what you already know,
two pre-tests follow to help you recognize where to concentrate your efforts.
Pre-Test 2: Eight Parts of Speech
Without looking ahead, list the eight parts of speech. Define each and give an
example. Suggested time limit: 10 minutes. (Answers are on p. 87.)
1. -----------------------------
2. -------�---------------------
3. -----------------------------
4. -----------------------------
5. -----------------------------
6. -----------------------------
7. ---�-------------------- -----
8. -----------------------------
Sec. 2: Eight Parts of Speech -:;":- 41
Pre-Test 3: Eight Parts of Speech

Write the part of speech above each of the 25 underlined words in this book
review. Suggested time limit: 15 minutes. (Answers are on p. 88.)
Formative Years:
Children's Health in the United States, 1880-2000
Alexandra Minna Stem and Howard Marlzel, Editors
Much has changed in (D 1hg lives of children, and in the health
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illuminates some of the most important @transformations in @ children's
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mulation of normal growth curves, Better Babies contests @ at county fairs,
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One of the first long-term historical and analytical @overviews of
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Why the Parts of Speech Matter

The eight {traditional) parts of speech are nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pro
nouns, conjunctions, prepositions, and interjections. In reality, the English language
can be divided into many more than eight parts of speech, but the approach in the
past has almost always been to name only eight categories. Adjectives, for example,
include articles {a, an, the), determiners (some, any), demonstrative adjectives (this,
that, these, those), and possessive adjectives {my, your, his, her, its, our, tl1eir). Some
grammar books for native speakers actually consider these groups to be separate cate
gories. Because all of these categories modify a noun, which is a normal function of
adjectives, these four categories are traditionally not considered separate parts of
speech but rather types of adjectives in grammar books for native speakers. {For ELLs,
these subcategories are important because their grammatical behaviors are different.)
Unlike other countries that rely on a central Ministry or Department of Education
that is in charge of producing a national curriculum, the United States relegates most
of its control of content to state and local school commissions. As a result, there is
much more diversity in what is actually taught in U.S. schools nationwide. Despite
this diversity, the eight parts of speech are taught pretty much the same from coast to
coast, and the definitions that are taught-from a multitude of books provided by
numerous publishers-tend to be very similar.
Before reading further, let's consider the example of just four of the eight parts of
speech-namely nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. On Pre-Test 2 on page 40, what
did you write for the definitions of a noun, a verb, an adjective, and an adverb?
Once you have done this, discuss your responses. If you are in a class, first find out
the state, province, or country where everyone in class went to middle school. In most
groups, you will be amazed at the geographical distribution. You will probably find
that no matter whether you went to school in Colorado or Florida, your definitions
tend to be fairly uniform.
What did you write for the meaning of a noun? Most people-regardless of where
they studied this concept years ago-invariably say that a noun is "the name of a per
son, place, or thing." Some people may also add uor a feeling or idea." By contrast,
how many people in your group said "a word that names something"? This definition
is also possible, but hardly anyone says this.
What about a verb? How many people said, Na word that shows action"? Some
people may say, uaction, being, or state of being." No one says "movement" even
though this definition is also possible.
In traditional grammar, an adjective is usually defined as "a word that describes a
noun," but another good definition would be "a word that describes or limits a noun
or pronoun. n
Adverbs are extremely tricky. This category seems to be a dumping ground for a lot
of very different kinds of words, and adverbs could in fact be six to eight different
parts of speech! Did you say an adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or
11
other adverb"? Why did you say modify instead of describe?

For whatever reason, no matter where we learned the eight parts of speech, we all
tend to know a very similar wording of the definition. We say what a noun is (i.e., a
Sec. 2: Eight Parts of Speecl1 •:::• 43
noun is the name of . .. ), but we tell what an adjective does (i.e., an adjective describes,
modifies, or limits a noun or pronoun ... ). Similar patterns exist for all eight parts of
speech.
Multiple Approaches to Explaining the Parts of Speech

As we have just seen (and have been taught all our school lives), the most common
way to teach someone about a given part of speech is to give a definition. In addition
to a traditional definition, teachers can also provide an example phrase or sentence
where only one part of speech can be used. This kind of approach is called "slot and
filler" grammar because we create a slot that could usually-if not (ideally) only
be filled with one part of speech. (Sometimes even just a portion of a word can be
used in lieu of a phrase or full sentence to create the slot.)
We already said that a noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or feeling. What
are some slots that would allow for nouns but not verbs or adjectives or another part
of speech? What are some slots that will help ELLs visualize what a noun is? (In each
slot, we assume we are putting only one word.)
1. I have a __.
2.a
3.the __
4. five __
5. My favorite hobby is __.
Sometimes what looks like a good slot for one part of speech is problematic for
teaching because another part of speech can also fit. For example, a seemingly good
slot of nouns is ___s because we can insert nouns such as cat (➔ cats), booll
( ➔ boo/ls), and car (➔ cars). However, we can also insert verbs such as eat ( ➔ eats) and
talle ( ➔ taltes). Since our goal is to help learners understand what makes each part of
speech unique, we need slots that do not overlap or that have as little room for over
lap as possible.
Sometimes slots that seem logical to you as a native speaker of English will not
produce the same conceptualization in the mind of ELLs because that part of speech
works differently in their languages.In Japanese, for example, adjectives have negative
forms and past (tense) forms, which means that for Japanese speakers learning Eng
lish, the line between verbs and adjectives may be obscured. A slot such as "Yesterday
I ___ed" works in English for verbs only, but to a Japanese ELL, this slot could
also hold an adjective. It is not essential that you know all of these linguistic nuances
regarding how different languages treat the parts of speech. However, when you are
coming up with slots that are appropriate for your learners, keep in mind that the con
fused faces of your Ells might be due to interference between their native language
and your particular example slot, so be prepared to present multiple example slots.
For each of the parts of speech, we will look at traditional definitions as well as
common, productive slots to illustrate their usages. Skilled teachers are able to explain
parts of speech (or any aspect of grammar) in multiple ways to accommodate ELLs'
learning styles.
--- - -
Nouns
Common EU Errors I Examples

omission of plural -s •five girl
unnecessary plural -s •every girls
wrong noun ending •enjoyation

L-...:-
plural of non-count nouns •many equipments
no article with count nouns • 1 have cat.
the with abstract nouns Be brave. *You must have the patience and the hope.
not capitalizing proper nouns I was born in guadalajara in mexico.
What is a nounl
A noun is the name of a person, place, thing. or quality.
person: a girl, a drivet Kevin
place: a park, a city, Boston
thing: tennis balls, milk, a Toyota
quality: friendship, joy, confidence
What questions does a noun answer?

A noun answers the questions who or what.
Question Answer ( = noun)
Who took the money? l2hn took the money.
What did you eat? I ate salmon.
What are possible slots for a nounl
Slot Examples
I see an - apple, igloo, Audi, ostrich
She is a driver, grandmother, mechanic, swimmer I
There are four reasons, people, assignments, reports
the title, money, equator, Philippines
is important oxygen, kindness, exercising, New York

Sec. 2: Eight Parts of Speech •::=- 45
Details of Nouns
• What is the difference between common nouns and proper nouns?

Nouns can also be divided into common nouns and proper nouns. A common
noun is the name of any person, place, or thing. A proper noun is the name of
a specific person, place, or thing. A proper noun always begins with a capital let
ter, and a common noun begins with a lowercase letter.
- - - -
Common Nouns Proper Nouns

a princess Princess Diana
a city Los Angeles
a day Friday
a product a Toyota
A common ELL error is to use lowercase letters with proper nouns. Ells
write sentences such as • My parents grew up in miami and •The most important
document is the declaration of independence.
• What is the difference between concrete nouns and abstract nouns?

Nouns can be further divided into concrete and abstract nouns. A concrete
noun is a noun that you can perceive with your five senses. That is, you can see
it, hear it, smell it, taste it, or feel (physically touch) it. In contrast, an abstract
noun names an emotion, idea, or quality. An abstract noun cannot be per
ceived with any of the five senses.
- - - - -
Concrete Nouns Abstract Nouns

( I saw a) sunset. patience
{I heard some) cats. childhood

{I smelled your) cologne. justice
(I tasted the) doughnut. humor
(I felt a gentle) breeze. success
A common ELL error is to use the definite article the with abstract nouns.
Ells write sentences such as, • You must have the patience and • We really value the
justice for everyone.
• What is the difference between count and non-count nouns?

Nouns can also be divided into count and non-count nouns. As its name
implies, a count noun is a noun that you can count, which means that it has a
singular form and a plural form. Count nouns include cat (1 cat, 15 cats) and
child (1 child, 15 children). In contrast, a non-count noun is a noun that you
cannot count. A non-count noun has only one form and cannot have a number
in front of it. Non-count nouns include homeworlz, machinery, money, infonna
lion, and traffic. (NOTE: Non-count nouns are also called mass nouns.)
-- - - -
Count Nouns Non-Count Nouns

assignment homework
fact information
machine machinery
A common error occurs when ELLs assume that it is possible to count a

noun that is actually a non-count noun. They write sentences such as, • We have
many homeworllS and *11,anlz you for the advices.
-- - -- --
Verbs I
-
Common BU Errors Examples
-
misuse of have for be
lack of verb endings for 3rd

•we have hungry now. Let's eat.
*The teacher drive a Toyota.
-
person singular
problems with auxiliary verbs • My sister no lives in Texas now.
in negating
problems with auxiliary verbs *Why you need more medicine?
in questions
---
wrong verb tense: present *She can't go now because she cooks the dinner.
tense for present progressive
wrong verb tense: present *How long do you live here?
tense for present perfect
verb tense switches *In this story, the main character (Bill Newton)
-
married his sweetheart (Carrie Sommers). Later,
they have three children. Their oldest son became
a famous doctor, but the youngest son decides to
go to medical school, too.
--
lack of direct object for a The dinner was great. •we enjoyed very much.
transitive verb
use of infinitives after modals • I believe that everyone should to learn a second
language.
Sec. 2: Eight Parts of Speech ·===· 41
What is a verb?
A verb shows action or being (existence). A verb is the heart of any English
sentence.
action: run, eat, prepare, destroy, ask
being (existence): be (am, is, are, was, were)
What question does a verb answert

A verb answers the question, What does/did [the subject} do?
Question Answer(= verb)
What does a dog do? It ha[b.

What do you do? IleiKb..
What did Jo and Bob do? They complained to the manager.
What are possible slots for a verb?

You can conjugate a verb, so possible slots include:
Slot Examples
I / you / we / they work, worked, take, took
he/ she/ it s works, takes, needs, seems
Yesterday I ed worked, wanted, needed, seemed
I didn't it have, take, need, like
Details of Verbs
• What are the principal parts of verbs?
Verbs have four principal parts: base form, past, past participle, and present
participle. For regular verbs, the past and past participle forms use the suffix
-ed. Irregular verbs use a variety of forms, including the suffixes -en and -ne as
well as internal vowel changes or no change at all.
Regular Verbs Base Past Past Participle Present Participle

work worked worked working
rob robbed robbed robbing
flash flashed flashed flashing
copy copied copied copying
Irregular Base Past Past Participle Present Participle
Verbs take took taken taking
go went gone going
sing sang sung singing
cut cut cut cutting
• What are verb tenses?

Verb tenses are verb structures that tell the time of the action expressed by the
verb. There are twelve verb tenses in English: simple present tense, simple past
tense, simple future tense, present progressive tense, past progressive tense,
future progressive tense, present perfect tense, past perfect tense, future perfect
tense, present perfect progressive tense, past perfect progressive tense, and future
perfect progressive tense. (See pp. 74-83 for example.)
• What is the difference between transitive and intransitive verbs?

Transitive verbs must have an object for their action, and intransitive verbs can
never have an object for their action. For example, lille is a transitive verb
because you must put an object after it. You cannot say l lilw or I didn't lilw at the
restaurant. You must say I like the booll or I didn't lihe the food at the restaurant.
Likewise, consist is an intransitive verb because you cannot put an object after it.
You cannot say *The story consisted three parts or *The exam consisted 20
questions.
In a dictionary, verbs that are only transitive are usually marked with the let
ters vt, verbs that are only intransitive by the letters vi, and a verb that can be
both transitive and intransitive by the letter v. Consider these examples of the
three categories:
transitive verbs (vt): lilze, love, llill, talle, maize, furnish, persuade, put, sense
intransitive verbs (vi): die, occur, liappen, arrive, thrive, travel
both (v): read, moue, study, watch, operate
There is a special category of intransitive verbs called linking verbs. Linking

verbs do not express action. As their name implies, linking verbs connect the
subject to additional information in another part of the sentence. (Linking
verbs are followed by adjectives, not adverbs.)
Linking verbs: appear, become, feel, get, go, grow, loo/(, prove, remain, seem,
smell, sound, stay, taste, turn, and {any form ot) be
• What are auxiliary ( or helping) verbs?
Most sentences have verbs that consist of one word, as seen in these two
examples:
The earth reveals much about its past through natural records such as fossils.
Together with southern Mexico, Belize, Honduras, and Guatemala, the
small Central American nation of El Salvador is home to some intriguing
Mayan ruins.
In other cases, the verb is actually a verb phrase consisting of more than one
word, such as in The cost of living has been risit1g sharply. In these cases, there is
a main verb (rising), which is usually the word that carries the meaning of the
verb phrase, and one or more helping or auxiliary verbs (11as been). We will
study the most common helping verbs, which are forms of be, have, and do, as
well as modals.
Sec. 2: Eight Parts of Speech ·=;=• 49
• Examples of Be
There are eight forms of be that are possible as auxiliary verbs: am, is, are, was,
were, be, being, and been. Remember that a form of be can also be the main verb
in a sentence. (See pp. 77-78 and 81-83 for more information on progressive
tenses.) Initially, ELLs have a problem remembering the different forms of be.
Later, ELLs internalize the forms of be so well, especially l am, you are, he is, that
they end up learning to use SUBJECT+ be when in fact they really mean just
subject. Therefore, it is common for ELLs at the intennediate level to say a sen
tence such as, • J am drive this hind of car because it is get really good mileage.
He as Auxiliary Verb He as Main Verb

(la) Our fifth-graders are studying ( 1 b) For bulk buying at warehouse
the chemical properties of water dubs, non-perishable items are
this week. (main verb= studying, often at unbeatable prices.
from study) (main verb= are, from be)
(2a) Medical scientists have been (2b) Oil has been the main export of
worlling on better ways to use Saudi Arabia for several decades
ocean plant life to produce mir- now. ( main verb = been, from
acle drugs against cancer. (main be)
verb= wor1ling, from wor1t)
(3a) In the experiment, the water {3b) Together with southern Mexico,
is heated in the dish for Honduras and Guatemala, the
approximately twelve minutes. small Central American nation
(main verb= heated, from heat) of El Salvador is home to some
intriguing Mayan ruins. (main
verb = is, from be)
( 4a) Arizona was admitted to the ( 4b) Arizona was the 48 th state to
U.S. in 1912. (main verb= enter the U.S. (main verb= was,
admitted, from admit) from be)
50 -:::• ·2: Basic English Grammar
• Examples of Do
There are three forms of do that are possible as auxiliary verbs: do, does, and did.
A form of do is used as an auxiliary verb when the verb phrase is interrogative
(a question), negative, negative imperative (command), or emphatic (for
emphasis, as in I do need more money). Remember that a form of do can also be
the main verb in a sentence. The use of the auxiliary do is very difficult for ELLs .
� .. ·- • . ..
Do as Auxiliary Verb Do as Main Vcrh '�
{la) How many cups of sugar does ( 1 b) According to my grandfather,
the recipe call for? ( main verb he doe5 gardening because it
= call, from call) (interrogative) relaxes him. (main verb= does,
from do)
(2a) We took the bus, but we did (2b) The taxi driver did us a favor
not save much money at all. by taking our bags to the
(main verb= save, from save) lobby. (main verb = did,
(negative) from do)
(3a) Don't do the dishes now! (3b) Do your work! (main verb=
(main verb= the second do, do, from do)
from do) (negative imperative)
(4a) Yes, you do need a jacket today. (4b) Parents give sage advice, but
Put it on! (main verb= need, some children do what they
from need) ( emphatic) want. ( main verb = do, from
do)
• Examples of Have
There are three forms of have that are possible as auxiliary verbs: 1iave, has, and
had. (See pp. 79-80 for more information on perfect tenses.) Remember that
have can be a main verb as well. ELLs are confused by the auxiliary have. ELLs
have problems when have is used as both auxiliary and main verb, as in, He has
had several meetings today or If I had had a cell phone, I would have called you.
- - - - - - - -
lltwe as Auxiliary Verb lltwe as Main Verb
(la) Without a doubt, my parents (lb) My cats have several toys. (main
1,ave been the most important verb= have, from have)
influence in my !ife. (main
verb = been, from be)
(2a) Nicole Kidman has devised a (2b) Consisting of only crystals, a
strategy to keep herself in the cirrus cloud has an altitude of
public eye. (main verb = approximately five miles above
devised, from devise) sea level. ( main verb = has, from
have)
(3) Scientists in Hawaii say that Mars l,as had at least 40 major ice ages
during the past five million years. ( auxiliary verb = has; main verb =
/tad, from have}
Sec. 2: Eight Pares of Speech •::::- 51
• Examples of Modals
Modals are a special category of auxiliary verbs that express feelings, attitudes,
or opinions in a verb phrase. Modal verbs include: can, could, may, might, must,
will, would, should, and shall. Modal verbs are never main verbs; they are always
used with a verb. (Modal verbs are difficult for Ells and are covered extensively
in Key 12.)
---- -- ----- .---------- - ---------.

• Modal I
_ ·: Examples
' - .,
I
can You can do anything if you uy.
I-could
-t
Could you tell me where the produc�
may You may go to see the park if you want.
might t might rai,r tomorrow.
must -l --
You must have been Joki,ig when you told him that.
..
I
I
should Should we eat now or wait till later?
--
will How will you get from the airport to your apartment?
-
I
1would I would not eat that if I were you.
-- I
shall Shall we sit here for a while?
- - - - -
Pronouns
I
Common EU Errors &amples

omission of subject pronouns My favorite city is Boston. * Is very special place
to me.
confusion of he and she Do you know my uncle? *I think that she is your
I neighbor.
pronoun reference Cars are important. *People need it in today's
world.
double subject pronoun • My sister she is a good swimmer.
unnecessary object pronoun • A computer is something that all students

need it.
plural of indefinite pronouns • Everyone were very happy.
What is a pronoun?
A pronoun is a word that can replace, or substitute for, a noun.
Vrego· is on the western coast of the United States.@is in the Pacific Time Zone.
noun pronoun
What questions does a pronoun answer?

A pronoun performs the same function as a noun, so a pronoun answers the
same questions that a noun answers, namely who or what.
Question Answer ( = pronoun)
Who lives there? �do.

What is the answer? ll is 42.
What are possible slots for a pronoun?

Pronouns occur in similar slots as nouns, so possible slots include:
Slot Examples
(a person) am/is/are hungry.
��--- want/wants to eat now. I, You, He, She, We, They
Maria sees (a person).

Can Maria see _____, too? me, you, him, her, us, them
Dr. Smith is the professor ____ whom, that

we like the most.
Dr. Smith is the professor ____ who, that
helped us the most.
The flight arrived late, ____ which

caused us many problems.
Details of Pronouns
• What are some of the different kinds of pronouns?

A subject pronoun is a pronoun that can be the subject of a sentence: f, you, he,
sl1e, it, we, or they. A common ELL error is to confuse he and site, as in, Maria is
from Morocco. • He speaks French and Arabic.
An object pronoun is a pronoun that can be the direct object, indirect object,
or object of a preposition: me, you, him, her, it, us, or them. A common ELL error i
to use a subject pronoun in an object slot, as in, •111ese shirts are for they.
A relative pronoun is a pronoun that connects a clause to the rest of the
sentence: who, tliat, which, and whom. A common ELL error is to use what
instead of that in adjective clauses, as in, • f want to borrow the booll wliat you
bouglit last weell.
Sec. 2: Eight Parts of Speech ·=== 53
An indefinite pronoun does not refer to a specific person or thing: anyone,

anything, anybody, everyone, everything, everybody, someone, something, somebodJ� no
one, nothing, or nobody. A common ELL error is to confuse the various indefinite
pronouns. An ELL might say, • 1 needed help, but anyone helped me or * 1 read any
thing interesting in today's paper. In addition, ELLs mistakenly assume that indef
inite pronouns are plural. so they say • Everyone have a 1V
A reflexive pronoun is used when a word refers to the same subject: myself,
yourself, ltimself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, and tl1emselves.
A demonstrative pronoun stands in lieu of a specific thing (or person):
t11is, that, these, or those. ELLs make mistakes with number such as Here is your
gift. "'11zese is from Joshua.
A possessive pronoun refers to a thing or person and its owner: mine, yours,
his, hers, ours, and tlieirs. Sometimes ELLs use the definite article with possessive
pronouns and say, • Your shirt is new, but the mine is really old. Note that all pos
sessive pronouns except mine end in -s, but one form is used for both singular
and plural: my booh = mine, my boolis = mine; her boo1z = hers, 11er boo1is = hers.
Two common reciprocal pronouns that cause problems for ELLs are each
other and one another. ELLs may write • Romeo and Juliet loved themselves.
Adjectives
Common ELL Errors Examples

misplacement after nouns •china is a country big.
-- --
making adjectives plural
wrong comparative form

-
*These books are very cheaps.
*China is more big than India.
lack of adjective ending * In the summer, the weather here is very rain.
What is an adjective?
An adjective is a word that describes a noun or pronoun.
good, tallest, green, slow, Russian, delicious, problematic, national, expensive
What questions does an adjective answert

An adjective answers the questions which, how many, how muc11, or what kind.
Question Answer(= adjective)
Which? The gre_rn book is mine.

How many? There are SIB children in her family.
How much? No one received w mail today.
What kind? B@! milk can be dangerous.
What are possible slots for an adjective?

In English, adjectives have two general locations in a sentence. Adjectives
precede nouns (a difficult test) or they come after to be (the test is difficult)
or a linking verb (the test seems difficult).
Slot Examples
a/an ____ person happy, honest, short, smart
____ book a, the, my, this, thick, which
____ books some, the, my, these, French, purple
itis ____ awake, important, essential, blue
you look ____ tired, good, nervous, different
Details of Adjectives
• What makes articles difficult for ELLs?

Articles are a difficult type of adjective. There are three kinds of articles, includ
ing indefinite articles (a, an), the definite article (the), and the zero article,
which simply means no article is used, as in I like tea or Tigers are wild animals.
Articles are very difficult for ELLs to acquire and are covered in greater depth on
pp. 179-84.
• What makes possessive adjectives diffirult for ELLs?

Possessive adjectives include my, your, l1is, her, its, our, their. Sometimes ELLs con
fuse his and her or they attempt a plural form before a noun, such as •ours boo1ts.
• What makes demonstrative adjectives difficult for ELLs?

Demonstrative adjectives include this, tltat, these, those. Common ELL errors
include using this or that with a plural noun (e.g., •chat numbers) or using tllese
or using tllose with a singular noun ( e.g., • these woman) or a non-count noun
( e.g., • those infon11ation ).
• What makes quantity adjectives difficult for ELLs?

Quantity adjectives include numbers and words such as many, much, a few,
a little. Common ELL errors include omission of a plural marker (e.g., •many
animal) or using the wrong quantity word for a count or non-count noun ( e.g.,
• many mone]', • much ideas).
• What makes descriptive adjectives difficult for ELLs?

Examples of descriptive adjectives include beautiful, stormy, green. Common
errors include using a noun as a descriptive adjective (•You have a beauty baby) or
using the wrong suffix to create an adjective ( • sconned weather). The most com
mon error is placing descriptive adjectives after nouns (e.g., •a booll interesting).
Sec. 2: Eight Parts of Speech -:::• 55
• What is the correct sequencing for multiple adjectives before a noun?

Which is correct: the baby's small white soclzs OR the baby's white small soclzs?
Native speakers were never taught any rule for sequencing adjectives, but they
rarely have a problem with this grammar. The general rule is that adjectives
come in this order: (1) opinion, (2) size, (3) age, (4) shape, (5) color, (6) ori
gin, (7) material. In actual English samples from native speakers, only one
or two adjectives is used, so ELI..s should generally be told to use no more than
two adjectives in a row.
- - - -- --
1 Adverbs
Common EU Errors 'Examples

lack of adverb ending • He plays the violin very beautiful.
misplacement of adverbs • I like very much this food.

-
�
wrong adverb forms •The professor explained the lesson detailly.
underuse of advanced I not advanced: Gas prices have risen a lot.

adverbs of degree advanced: Gas prices have risen sharply.
--
use of much and very much not usual: I want to learn Spanish very much.
in affirmative statements I more usual: I really want to learn Spanish.
What is an adverb?
An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
Modifying a verb: Gas prices have risen sharply.
Modifying an adjective: The company reported sharply lower profits.
Modifying an adverb: Gas prices have risen � sharply.
What questions does an adverb answer?

An adverb answers the questions how (manner), when, where, how often, and
how much (to what degree).
Question Answer ( = adverb)
How? Evidence indicates that ocean levels are� rising.

When? The news was announced yesterday.
Where? The accident happened downtown at dusk.
How often? The library usually has story hours for children at noon.
How much? The exam was extremely difficult for the students.
What are possible slots for an adverb?

Adverbs can vary in location in a sentence.
-------------+
Slot Examples
-------------+
She walked ____ slowly, strangely, here, yesterday
The movie was ____ sad. very, extremely, somewhat, so
We ____ drink coffee. always, never, sometimes
--------------t
__, it began to rain. Fortunately, Unexpectedly, Amazingly
Details of Adverbs
• What are adverbs of manner?

Adverbs of manner tell how something happens. Examples include quicldy, sllill
fully, and rudely. They usually end in -ly; some common exceptions include fast,
slow, and hard. Both slow and slowly are correct adverb forms, but only slowly may
fit some situations, as in People are slowly feeling tlte effects of the medicine. ELI.s
may confuse the adverbs hard and hardly, which have very different meanings.
A common ELL error involves placement of these adverbs in a sentence. In
general, adverbs of manner occur after the main verb if there is no direct object
but after the direct object if there is one. ELI.s often mistakenly place the adverb
of manner between the verb and the direct object and produce incorrect sen
tences such as, •You lmow very well Spanish or •Tite students finished quicldy the
exam.
• What are adverbs of frequency?
Adverbs of frequency include always, usually, often, sometimes, seldom, rarely, and
never. A common ELL error involves placement of these adverbs in a sentence.
In general, adverbs of frequency come before main verbs (Congress usually meets
for several months in a row) but after be, modals, and auxiliary verbs (Our meet
ings are usually held in the morning).
• What are adverbs of degree?

Adverbs of degree include almost, hardly, extremely, and very. One common ELL
problem is the overuse of very instead of other adverbs of degree. The most com
mon error is with placement in a sentence. Adverbs of degree are usually placed
before an adjective or adverb (the plans are extremely complicated) or before the
main verb (she almost spilled the soup).
Sec. 2: Eigltt Parts of Speech •:::• 57
Conjunctions
Common EU Errors &amples

lack of conjunction --+, •The exam was difficult, I did not do wel_l._
lack of punctuation
extra conjunction
(double)
r• •The exam was difficult so I did not do well.
A_lth�ugh I watched the movie, but I did not

en1oy 1t.
fragment Our flight to Bolivia was delayed. • Because the
I weather was really bad.
What ls a conjunction?
A conjunction is a word that connects parts of a sentence together.
Conjunctions link words, phrases, and clauses.
linking words: I seela catj.an.d!a dogj.
linking phrases: The cat might be,....
o_n l ....,th,_e....,b_e...,,d) m: !under the sofa!.
linking clauses: !The cat couldn't walklbecauselit had a broken leg!.
What are possible slots for a conjunction?
Slot Examples
We want a (noun) ____ a (noun) and, or
The food was cheap good. and, but
i went inside _____ it began to rain. because, when, as soon as,
after, before
We want __ tea __ coffee. both ... and, either ... or,
neither ... nor
Common conjunctions include:
coordinating and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet

conjunctions
subordinating after, although, before, because, even if, if, now
conjunctions that, since, though, unless, until, when, while
correlative Both ...and ... , either ... or ... , not only ... but
conjunctions also ...
58 ·===· 2: Basic English Grammar
Details of Conjunctions
• What are coordinating conjunctions?
A coordinating conjunction is a conjunction that joins words, phrases, or
independent clauses: for, and, nor, but, or; yet, and so. (An easy way to remember
these seven conjunctions is the mnemonic device FANBOYS.) One common
error is to omit a comma between two independent clauses. An ELL might mis
takenly write, • Mexicans use the word tu for you but Argentineans use the word vos.
• What are subordinating conjunctions?

A subordinating conjunction is a conjunction that introduces a dependent
clause and explains its relationship to the main part of the sentence: after,
although, as, because, before, how, if, once, since, than, though, till, unless, until, when,
where, whether, or while. Some ELl.s incorrectly attempt to use a subordinating
conjunction and a coordinating conjunction in the same sentence: • Although the
factory was profitable, but the company has dedded to relocate it to another site. A com
mon ELL (and native speaker) writing error occurs when students have only one
clause. A subordinating connector with a dependent clause only is called a
sentence fragment: •*Because the restaurant did not have any fresh vegetables. (See
p. 73 for more information on fragments.)
• What are conjunctive adverbs?

Conjunctive adverbs are transitional devices that connect two main ideas:
consequently, however; likewise, moreover; nevertheless, nonetheless, otherwise, simi
larly, or therefore. These adverbs are used in the second of the two ideas. 1\vo of
the correct punctuation options include
Punctuation Pattern F.xamples

Sentence 1; conjunctive adverb, Great minds devised the plan;
sentence 2. however, it failed miserably.
Sentence 1. Conjunctive adverb, Great minds devised the plan.
sentence 2. However, it failed miserably.
• What are correlative conjunctions?

Correlative conjunctions occur in pairs and connect equivalent sentence parts:
both . . . and, either . . . or, neither . . . nor, not only . . . but also, so . . . as, or
whether ... or. ELl.s make few errors with these conjunctions because ELLs do
not make use of them enough.
Sec. 2: Eight Parts of Speech •:::• 59
Prepositions
Common EU Errors Examples -

confusion of at/on/in with *in Monday, •on June, •at 1990
times
confusion of at/on/in with • in McDonald's, • in Main Street, • on her office
places
lack of preposition • 1 am waiting the bus.
-
extra preposition • How can we avoid for any problems?
wrong preposition •The car is full from gasoline right now.
What is a preposition 1
A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between a noun (or pro
noun) and the rest of the sentence. A preposition is usually one short word
(at, on, with), but some prepositions consist of two words (according to) or
three words (in spite of). Many people mistakenly assume that prepositions
are easy because prepositions are often one-syllable words that are very com
mon. The truth is that prepositions are perhaps one of the most difficult
grammatical points in English because they have multiple meanings that do
nouranslate well from language to language.
The combination of a preposition with its object (and any modifiers or
describing words) is called a prepositional phrase (in the room, on my birth
day, from the sixth floor). Prepositions have many purposes, but they often give
us information about place (in Canada), time (at 9 PM), and direction (from
the ocean).
A longer list of prepositions can be found on pp. 164-67, but here is a list
of some of the more common prepositions: about, after, a4 because of, before,
between, by, except, for, from, in, in front of, in place of. in spite of, instead of, like,
of, on, on top ofi since, to, and with.
What are the possible slots of a preposition?
Slot Examples
The squirrel ran ___ the tree. up, down, through
The ant is __ the bottle. under, by, before -
The bird flew -- the bushes. around, over, under
--
What is the name_ the book? of, on, in -
--
-
60 ·===· 2: Ba.sic English Grammar
Details of Prepositions
• Why are prepositions difficult for ELL s?
A simple explanation is that prepositions are notoriously polysemous, which sim
ply means that a preposition can have numerous meanings-sometimes more
than 30. Table 2.2 shows the eight most common English prepositions from the
General Seivice List (West, 1953) along with their respective number of meanings
from the unabridged dictionary.com reference tool. (No overt idiomatic mean
ings are included; thus, from an ELL's point of view, the actual number of
meanings is certainly higher.)
Table 2.2 The Polysemy of the Most Frequent Prepositions
Number of
Rank Preposition Meanings
1 of 16
2 in 8
3 to 22
4 for 32
5 with 17
6 on 30
7 at 10
8 by 24
To be certain, other pans of speech can also be polysemous. (For example,

the noun boolz can be something to read, a written record at a business, or a set
of items, such as stamps or matches). Consider these ten usages of in: in the box,
in the parlling lot, in January, in time, in the hospital, in this report, in five minutes,
in a hurry, in love, and in the universe. From an ELL point of view, the differences
in meaning here are more nebulous and therefore harder to grasp. In many
cases, the umeaning" of a preposition is really based on its usage and must be
seen in context.
Different languages handle prepositions differently. In some languages,
they come after the noun, and are therefore postpositions, and in other lan
guages, the meaning of the preposition may be expressed by a suffix rather than
a separate word. Though these differences exist, what generally causes preposi
tion problems for Ells is usage, not location, of the preposition. For example,
Japanese ELLs, whose native language uses postpositions [e.g., tsukue no ue ni
= desk on = on (the) desk!, rarely write ""The boolz is the deslz on. Instead, like all
ELLs, they are more likely to make a mistake in usage and write "'T11e boolz is at
the deslz or "'The boolz is in the deslz (when the book is clearly on the desk).
Each of these umeanings," or usages, of prepositions requires a different
word in another language. Therefore, when a teacher teaches a preposition to
an ELL by giving one meaning or definition-"Class, in means the opposite of
Sec. 2: Eight Parts of Speech ·===· 61
out-the ELL's job is hardly complete. The ELL and the ELL's teacher still have at
least seven other meanings to cover-in addition to the numerous idiomatic
usages that often include prepositions.
• What are the different kinds of prepositions?

There are many specific kinds of prepositions, including prepositions of loca
tion (in tlie box), prepositions of time (at 10:30), and prepositions of movement
(from the office). The choice of preposition depends on the type of location, the
type of time, or the type of movement. Other prepositions are determined by
the adjective, noun, or verb that comes before them: the exact adjective (inter
ested in, fond of, perplexed by), the exact noun (the center of, the reason for, the rise
of/in), or the exact verb (excel in, forget about, tire of). However, a more helpful
way for teachers (not students) to analyze prepositions is whether they indicate
a concrete, lexical meaning or a more abstract, grammatical meaning.
Lexical prepositions include across, before, down, on top of, under, and with.
From a teacher's point of view, lexical prepositions are easy to explain or illus
trate. Lexical prepositions pose few grammar problems. ELLs do not confuse
down and with or across and under. If a mouse is in a tree and runs from the top
of the tree to its base, we say, The mouse ran down tl1e tree. We use down; Ells can
easily understand the meaning of down and produce original sentences mirror
ing this pattern.
Grammatical prepositions include many usages of at, in, and on. The
usage of grammatical prepositions is less predictable and therefore less teach
able. For example, when talking about time, we say at 1 PM, on Monday, in June,
i11 tl1e spring, in 1975, in this decade, in the 2l51 century. There is a pattern in Eng
lish that smaller points of time use at, Nmedium" points of time use on, and
w
larger points of time use in. However, what is a Nmedium point of time? In
order to use at correctly with time, an ELL really has to know the various usages.
When talking about places, at, on, and in can be both lexical usages and
grammatical usages. We can dearly see lexical prepositions in the phrases at
Gate 7, on the table, and in the box because, in these examples, at means "a very
specific location,• on means "touching the surface of, n and in means "inside."
However, the situation is less clear when we say at McDonald's, on Green Street,
on Parll Lane, in my neighborhood, in London, in Canada, or in Nort11 America. To
be sure, there is a similar pattern of using at with smaller places, on with
Nmedium" places, and in with larger places. Again, how can ELl..s know what is
N
a "medium place? ELLs will definitely make seemingly logical and predictable
mistakes such as •jn McDonald's, •at Green Street, and •on North America.
Interjections
Common EU Errors I Examples

For the most part, interjections are not a problem for ELl..s (or native speakers), so
ELL grammar books never cover this part of speech. (In fact, native speakers rarely
study how to diagram an interjection.) An ELL teacher might need to discourage
ELLs from repeating the informal interjections that they hear in the real world. ELI..s
may use interjections to fit in, not realizing that sometimes profanity is contained in
a given interjection.
What is an interjection?
An interjection is a word that expresses strong feeling or emotion. Interjec
tions are more common in spoken language than in written language. Inter
jections often appear in fiction, especially when authors are uying to recreate
natural dialogue. Examples include:
Wow! Great! Gosh! Ouch!
Interjections are perhaps the least important of the eight parts of speech, espe
cially for teaching English language learners how to construct good sentences.
Interjections are more of a vocabulary issue than a grammar issue.
- -- - - --- -
Changeable Parts of Speech: Form vs. Function
This chapter has tried to classify words according to one part of speech, but in
reality, a word can be more than one part of speech depending on how it is used in a
sentence. This free variation primarily affects nouns, verbs, and adjectives, but to a
lesser extent, adverbs and prepositions. Very few conjunctions can change parts of
speech. Pronouns are usually pronouns. Interjections are not considered here.
Consider these usages of the word booll:
She wanted to booll a flight. (verb)
We had to read that book for class. (noun)
Our library has a boolz problem. (adjective)
Consider these usages of the word well:
Is there a lot of water in this well? (noun)
Tears began to well up in his eyes. (verb)
You play tennis very well. (adverb)
The doctor says that I will get well soon. (adjective)
Sec. 2: Eight Pans of Speech -::=· 63
Details of Changeable Parts of Speech

Focusing on the eight parts of speech individually may have given the impression that
a given word form always belongs to only one part of speech. The part of speech of a
word is more accurately determined by the function of that word in a sentence, not its
form, although the ending (e.g., -ly) can be a clue.
For ELls, the problem with word forms is that we have many ways of marking any
given part of speech, yet that marking does not guarantee that the word will be used as
that part of speech. For example, the suffix -lion generally forms a noun from a
verb (produce ➔ production), but a noun can also be formed from a verb with the
suffix -ment (enjoy ➔ enjoyment) or -ing (clean ➔ cleaning). It is no wonder that ELls
invent words such as •enjoyation or •cleanment. However, even after the correct suffix
has yielded a noun, that word with the supposedly distinct noun marker can some
times serve as an adjective (the production vs. the production problem).
Review of Parts of Speech
Post-Test. In this excerpt about vocabulary, write the part of speech above each of
the 40 underlined words. Suggested time limit: 15 minutes. (Answers are on p. 88.)
(D I.gaming vocabulary in a second language is (D � a (D daunting
task because of the© number of ® � words, phrases, idioms, colloca

tions, © and other 0 kxka.l chunks that exist. In addition, learners must
learn multiple aspects ® fur ® ea.cil of these, including @) � form of a

word (e.g., its spelling), its pronunciation, its meaning(s), its connotations, its
most common ® � and @ ili register. All of this is @ � @ .m.rue

@complicated for the skill of @writing in a second language. Writers often
depend @ Q!l the nuance of a word, and nuances can @ � be learned
@.afkr you @haYs: learned the basic meaning(s) of a word. A@� of
writing often stands out @ because the writer has used a @ � @m

vocabulary @ � that are not @ SQ common. At times, it is @ �
rarity of the words that makes @ them effective @ communicators for the
writer. However, a rare word is usually learned after @ � @ l1llKh
@ � @ common synonyms have been learned. In @21ru:! words, an
@ advanced writer needs a@ repertoire of words for a@� concept.

@ Clearly, vocabulary with regard to second language writing, @ especially
at the upper proficiency levels, is a @ hl.!.gg task.
Source: Reid, J. (2008). Writing myths: Appl}'ing seconcl language research to classroom teaching.
Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
SECTION 3
Basic Grammar Labels for Sentence Structure
This section contains ten key concepts regarding sentence structure in English. Key
grammar terms relevant to sentence structure are explained.
1. In English, a sentence consists of a subject and a predicate. The subject is the

person or thing that does the action of the verb. Simply put, the predicate is
everything else, including the verb and all other sentence components.
Sometimes we talk about the simple subject, the complete subject, the sim
ple predicate, and the complete predicate. The simple subject is the main noun
or pronoun, and the complete subject is the simple subject and all modifiers.
The simple predicate is the verb ( or verb phrase if there are several verb com
ponents, have been eating), and the complete predicate is the verb and all
modifiers.
--- --- - - - - - --
Sentence Analysis
The brown [oxes jumped quicllly. complete subject the brown foxes
simple subject foxes
complete predicate jumped quicldy
simple predicate jumped
The brown foxes jumped quicldy complete subject the brown foxes
over tl1e la...,1 dog. simple subject foxes
complete predicate jumped quicllly
over the lazy dog
simple predicate jumped
-- - - - - -- -
l:rrors that ELLs Make with Subject-Verb Combinations
Errors Examples
Error 1. leaving out the I like tennis very much. • 1s my favorite sport.
subject completely, espe- I like tennis very much . .!.tis my favorite sport.
dally when the subject
is a pronoun The police arrested the man.
•The police did this because robbed a store.
•The police did this because he robbed a store.
Error 2. inverting the • 1 am not sure where is Calcutta.

subject and verb I am not sure where Cali;:uu11 is.
(putting the verb before • Cairo is more populated than tlii,i1u }m:.
the subject) Cairo is more populated than Im: tliinlu.
Sec. 3: Basic Grammar Labels •:::- 65
2. The verb may be followed by an object. The object may be a noun or a pronoun.
The children played a /game/. subject+ verb +/objectj (noun)

The children played[!!]. subject+ verb+� (pronoun)
3. When the object is the receiver of the action, it is called a direct object. When
the object is the person ( or thing) to wlrom or for wliom the action was done, it
is called an indirect object.
l2hn read a/story!. What did John read?

a story - direct object
l2hn read the children a� . For whom or to whom did John read a
story?
the children = indirect object
4. A verb in English can be transitive, intransitive, or both.

Some verbs must be followed by an object to be correct English. These
verbs that have to have an object are called transitive verbs. Common transi
tive verbs are bring, climb, contain, discuss, enjoy, lilw, prepare, put, rob, steal, and
tahe.
-
I:rrors that 1:1.Ls Make with Tr,msitive Verbs

Errors Examples
Error 1. leaving out the Tennis is my favorite sport. • 1 W,e very much.
direct object entirely Tennis is my favorite sport. l lilte @]very much.
•The police arrested the man because he
ru: robbed
robbed.
The police arrested the man because
thelbank/.
Error 2. inserting unnec• • In the meeting, � discussed a e1r ideas.

�h
essary prepositions In the meeting, .l:£e discussed her ideas .
( usually a result of • Many � enjoyed)>f::15.er innovative ideas.
translating or native Many� enjoyed her innovative /ideas/.
language interference)
Some verbs can never be followed by an object in English. These verbs are
called intransitive verbs. Common intransitive verbs are complain, consist, die,
emerge, happen, occur, resemble, and seem. After an intransitive verb, you might
find an adverb (He died quicltly), or a prepositional phrase (He died at home), or
nothing (He died).
66 -:::- 2: Basic English Grammar
,. - .. - •
Errors that El.Ls Malec with Intransitive
�
Verbs
'...,# -�-...--(1\
. - ' ___...... _. - - 3'.� ...-1
Errors Examples
-
Error I. treating the •� consists hydrogen and oxygen.
intransitive verb as if it � cotisists of hydrogen and oxygen.
were a transitive verb • At the finish line, the winner emerged the
{by leaving out the runners.
required preposition, At the finish line, the winner emerged from
usually the result of the runners.
translating or native
Error 2. inserting incor- • In the meeting, � complained)6(the new
rect prepositions rules.
( usually the result of In the meeting,� complained about the new
translating or native rules.
*What happened� your car?
What 11appened to your car?
Finally, many verbs can be either transitive or intransitive, including begin, change,
close, drinlt, eat, end, finish, guess, leave, move, open, run, spealt, start, and study.
Verbs with Hoth Transitive and lnlransili\•c Usages

- -.
Verb Transitive Usage Intransitive Usage
begin YiJ; began the !meeting lat noon. The m��ting began at noon.
move The lriru! moved thelboxes!. The ru moved slightly due to
the noise.
spealz Can � speall !Frenchjwell? Cati � speak at the meeting?
study I am studyinglbusiness!at college. I am studying in the library
these days.
5. Beyond a word, the next grammatical unit is called a phrase. A phrase is a

group of words that does not contain both a subject and a verb. A phrase acts
as one pan of speech. The three most common types of phrases are noun
phrases, verb phrases, and prepositional phrases.
The sentence The red grammar booll is lying on the coffee table contains the
following phrases: tire red grammar booll (noun phrase), is lying on the coffee
table (verb phrase), on the coffee table (prepositional phrase), and the coffee table
(noun phrase).
Sec. 3: Basic Grammar Labels •::;• 67
four small cats

Noun
flowers tiny edible flowers
are eating Verb Phrase are eating some fisl1

Verb
arrived arrived late yesterday afternoon
under Prepositional under the table
Preposition Phrase
on on the table
6. Beyond a phrase, the next grammatical unit is called a clause. A clause is a

group of words with both a subject and a verb. There are two kinds of clauses:
independent and dependent.
An independent clause has a subject and a verb and expresses a complete
thought and can therefore stand on its own. (An independent clause can be a
sentence.)
A dependent clause has a subject and a verb but does not express a com•
plete thought and cannot stand on its own.
I.· ---�- ..,-��1:ndcn�

- - - -- -
r
- -
..
•' �� - • • -. , • -...- -,-. -- rii/'-P,V� --..!"'I,.; - -:: . - ...,.. �---·
)ndcpcndcnt Clause . - 9ausc , • '_;.· Ji
-.;-
J
,t. -! _._.�___ �•.._ �.. -·-
Many young driJ!fil1 avoid driving because Ih.cy do not ltave enough experi•
in rainy weather ence driving under such conditions.
� of the first airlines in Asia was Yillifh. began as Tata Airlines in 1932.
Air India,
1 want to give you the booll that 1 boug11t at a garage sale yesterday.
7. Dependent clauses can be adverb clauses, adjective clauses, or noun clauses.

Adverb clauses answer questions such as when, where, why, with what result,
and under which condition(s). Adverb clauses usually modify the verb. Adverb
clauses begin with subordinating conjunctions. Examples of subordinating
conjunctions include after, although, as soon as, because, before, if, when, and
while. Adverb clauses can come either before or after the main clause. However,
adverb clauses that begin a sentence are always set off from the main clause by
a comma.
Independent clause + adverb clause. They stopped the game because

(No comma) the min started.
Adverb clause + , + independent clause. Because the min started, Ih.cy
stopped the game.
68 -;::• 2: Basic English Grammar
Study these examples of sentences with adverb clauses:
a. The term "staycation" became popular after the price of gasoline sllyrocl,eted.
b. Although the beginning of Cinderella is sad, chis fairy tale has a happy ending.
c. The soccer players walked bacll on the field as soon as the ligl,tning had stopped.
d. Because vitamins are so important, man,, people talle them every day.
e. It is important to finis1t che match wliile the sun is shining.
Adjective clauses tell which one. Adjective clauses modify nouns ( or pro
nouns). Adjective clauses begin with one of the five relative pronouns (who,
whom, whose, that, and which) or one of two subordinating conjunctions ( when
and where). A special problem for ELLs occurs with whom, that, and which
because they can be omitted in English at certain times. Maria is the girl whom
we saw or Maria is the girl (-- - ) we saw.
---
Original Sentences Sentences with Adjective Clause

I
The� was correct. The � that l!filL gave was correct.

YmA gave the answer. The � (- - - ) l!fil! gave was correct.
The woman was Dr. Stans. The woman 1J1hQ wrote the speech was
The woman wrote the speech. Dr. Stans.
The woman !hill wrote the speech was
Dr. Stans.
Study these examples of sentences with adjectives clauses:
f. People who live in glass houses should not throw stones.

g. Consumers often prefer to watch movies of celebrities whom they lmow something
about.
h. One of tl1e main reasons tltat the accident happened was the weather.
i. No one wants to stay in a hotel room where a murder l,as been committed.
j. On September 11 of each year, t11ere is a moment of silence in New Yorh City at
the exact minute when a plane ltit the first of the twin towers.
Noun clauses answer questions such as who, whom, or what. Some words
that commonly introduce noun clauses include that, what, who, why, when,
where, and whether. A special problem for ELLs is that sometimes these intro
ductory words are optional: / believe that she is in the office OR I believe she is in
the office.
Study these examples of sentences with noun clauses:
k. It is better to lleep what you l1ave than to risk losing it by loo1ling for something better.
I. Why tlie accident happened is still under investigation.
m. Do you really believe tl,at tl1e price of gasoline might go down?
n. I do not lmow where Deanna lives.
o. A true pessimist is never caught off guard by what goes wrong.
Sec. 3: Basic Grammar Labels •:1:- 69
8. There are four kinds of sentences: simple sentences, compound sentences,

complex sentences, and compound-complex sentences. The type of sentence
is determined by the number and type of clauses in the sentence.
A simple sentence has one independent clause. It is possible to have mul
tiple subjects and multiple verbs, but there is still only one subject-verb
relationship.
- --
' -
- - - - �
Simple Sentences
,_I - --- - - -- -.
(a) Washington was the first U.S. president.
• subject: Washington
• verb: was
(b) Washington and Lincoln were U.S. presidents.
• subject: Washington and Lincoln
• verb: were
(c) Washington was president in 1789 and served for eight years.
• subject: Washington
• verb: was and served
(d) Washington and Lincoln dedicated their lives to the U.S. and worl,ed
hard to build a better country.
• subject: Washington and Lincoln
• verb: dedicated and worl,ed
A compound sentence contains two independent clauses. (In other words,

it contains two simple sentences.) The two independent clauses are connected
by one of seven coordinating conjunctions: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. (A
mnemonic device to remember these seven is FANBOYS.) A comma should
always be inserted before coordinating conjunctions between two independent
clauses.
- - -- -
Compound Sentences
(e) Washington died in 1799, and Lincoln was born in 1809.
• independent clause: Washington died in 1799
• independent clause: Lincoln was born in 1809
---------------i
(t) Washington died in 1799 before Lincoln's birth, so these two famous
citizens never met each other.
• independent clause: Washington died in 1799 before Lincoln's birth
• independent clause: these two famous citizens never met each other
A complex sentence has one independent clause and at least one depen
dent clause.
(g) The last � collapsed at the finish line because file had run for
more than two hours.
• independent clause: The last runner collapsed at the finish line
• dependent clause: because she had run for more than two hours
(adverb clause)
(h) The�� crossed the finish line last had nm for more than two
hours.
• independent clause: tlie runner had run for more than two liours
• dependent clause: who crossed the finish line last (adjective clause)
A compound-complex sentence contains two independent clauses and at

least one dependent clause.
!i.�
�-
-
--
-
-
�
- Compound-Compll'X Sl'nll'nccs
•
(i) The last !l.lD.Mr collapsed at the finish line because file had run for
more than two hours, so a medical k.afil. examined her.
• independent clause: the last runner collapsed at the finish line
• independent clause: a medical team examined her
• dependent clause: because she had run for more than two hours ( adverb
clause)
(j) Washington died in 1799 before Lincoln's birth, which was in 1809, so
these two famous citizens never met each other.
• independent clause: Washington died in 1799 before Lincoln's birth
• dependent clause: which was in 1809 (adjective clause)
• independent clause: these two famous citiz.ens never met each other
Sec. 3: Basic Grammar Labels ·===· 71
9. In sentences, the subject must agree with the verb. Subject-verb agreement
means that a singular subject needs a singular verb and a plural subject needs a
plural verb. The most problematic point with subject-verb agreement is with
3rd person singular in simple present tense verbs, which must have an -s end
ing. Ells have learned that -s makes nouns plural, so they are confused by
adding -s to make some verbs singular.
�,- • si�r1�·r·a:.c�;x1't�ili1,�we,,-. T ,�
singular plural
1 51 person I need we need
2nd person you need you need
3rd person he needs they need
she needs they need
it needs they need
One important rule for subject-verb agreement is that the object of a

prepositional phrase can never be the subject of a sentence because it is already
an object. The prepositional phrases are in boxes.
is green.
(b) The .b.QX Ion the papers! box-is I on the papersjis irrelevant
is green.
(c) The �Ion the paperl boxes-are /on the paper!is irrelevant
are green.
(d) The �Ion the papers! boxes-are Ion the papers!is irrelevant
are green.
10. Three common errors in writing involve incorrect sentence composition:

fragments, run-on sentences, and comma splices.
A run-on sentence has two parts that the writer has pushed together with
out a proper conjunction or punctuation. For this reason, run-on sentences are
also called fused sentences.
Correcting Run-On Sentences

run-on sentence • Each country desperately needed the other's
natural resources a serious war brolze out.
Correction I: add a comma Each country desperately needed the other's
and a coordinating conjunc- natural resources, so a serious war brolze out.
tion
Correction 2: add a A serious war brolle out beetmse each country
subordinating conjunction desperately needed tlle other's natural
(no punctuation) resources.
Correction 3: add a Each country desperately needed the other's
semi-colon natural resources; " serious war brolze out.
Correction 4: make two Each country desperately needed the other's
sentences natural resources. A serious war brolle out.
Correction 5: add a transi- Each country desperately needed the other's
tional word or phrase; note natural resources; thus, a serious war brohe
the two punctuation out.
options (; or . ) Each country desperately needed the other's
natural resources. 11ms, a serious war brolze
out.
A comma splice has two parts, but the writer has put a comma in between
them without any connector word.
--- - --
Correcting Comma Splices

comma splice sentence • Each country desperately needed the other's
natural resources, a serious war brohe out.
Correction 1: add a coordi Each country desperately needed the other's
nating conjunction (after natural resources, so a serious war brolte out.
the comma)
Correction 2: add a A serious war brolte out beetmse each country
subordinating conjunction desperately needed tl1e other's natural
( no punctuation) resources.
Correction 3: change the Each country desperately needed the other's
comma to a semi-colon natural resources; ,1 serious war brohe out.
Correction 4: make two Eac11 country desperately needed tl1e other's
sentences natural resources. A serious war broke out.
Correction 5: add a transi Each country desperately needed the other's nat
tional word or phrase; note ural resources; tlms, a serious war brolle out.
the two punctuation Each country desperately needed the other's nat
options (; or . ) ural resources. 11111s, a serious war brolze out.
Sec. 3: Basic Grammar Labels <=· 73
A fragment is an incomplete sentence. In writing, a fragment is frequently

a phrase or a dependent clause that is not properly connected to the main
clause. There are several ways to correct a fragment. In many cases, however,
fragments can be corrected by removing the period and connecting the frag
ment to the main clause properly.
I
- - -
Correcting Fragments
Fragments Possible Corrections
Age discrimination is an important facwr Age discrimination is an important facwr
in today's society. "Because the number in today's sodety beamse the number of
of senior dtizens is increasing eacl1 year. senior citizens is increasing eacl1 year.
The man whose shirt was on fire ran The man whose shirt was on fire ran
out of the building into the street and out of the building into the street and
began to jump up and down. *Which began to jump up and down, whiclr is
is one of the worse things tl1at he could one of the worst things that he could
have done in this situation. have done in this situation.
Without realizing it, the criminal Without realizing it, the criminal
entered the building through a door entered the building through a door
that had a very sensitive motion detec- that 1,ad a very sensitive motion detec-
tor. • Setting off a silenl alann that tor, setting off a silent alarm chat
alerted the police that there was a alerted the police that there was a
crime in progress. crime in progress.
SECTION 4
Why the Twelve English Verb Tenses Matter
The verb is arguably the central part of any English sentence. In English, there are
twelve tenses that express different combinations of time (present, past, future) and
aspect (simple, perfect, progressive). Verb tense errors are one of the most common
errors in ELL writing and speaking. Errors occur in form (lack of -ing: *right now I am
eat my lunch) or usage (wrong tense, here simple present for present progressive: •right
now I eat my luncl1 ).
Languages handle verb tenses differently. In languages such as Chinese, there are
no verb tenses per se; instead, adverbs of time-yesterday, before then-indicate when
actions happened. Other languages such as Spanish and German have verb tenses that
look similar to those in English with some overlap in meaning with those in English,
but the usages vary. For example, simple present tense (1 accompany) in English is used
for habitual actions. While this tense also has that usage in Spanish, this same tense is
commonly used for future events. In Spanish, you can say, *Tomorrow l accompany you
if you want, but in English we need to use future tense to say, Tomorrow l will accompany
you if you want.
In addition to the cross-linguistic interference, there are difficulties even within
English because any given verb tense in English can have multiple usages. A common
example is the use of present progressive tense. We primarily use it for actions that
are happening at this moment (Brian is driving to Vancouver), but this same verb tense
can also be used for a future event (Brian is driving to Vancouver tomorrow) and even as
a habitual action (Brian is always driving to Vancouver). However, when we use present
progressive for a habitual action, it often implies anger, disapproval, or annoyance.
Principal Parts of a Verb:

Base, Past, Past Participle, Present Participle
In English, verbs have four principal forms: the base, the past, the past participle, and
the present participle. These four principal parts allow us to make all twelve verb
tenses.
The verb to grade is a regular verb because both the past and past participle forms
are formed with -ed. In contrast, the verb to talle is an irregular verb because its past
and past participle forms are not formed with -ed.
Verb Base Past Past Participle Present Participle

to grade grade graded graded grading
to take take took taken taking
Note that many grammar books do not include the present participle as one of the
principal parts of a verb because it is always formed by adding -ing to all verbs,
whether the verb is regular or irregular.
J
Sec. 4: 1lvelve Verb Tenses ·=:=· 15
ELLs do not generally have problems with regular verb forms in English; their
problems often occur with the irregular verbs because these forms must be memorized
individually. Many languages have irregular verb forms, and many-but certainly not
all-of the irregular verbs in English are also irregular in other languages. For example,
to be, to have, to go, and to do are irregular in English, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and
German. (I remember Mrs. de Montluzin telling us on the first day of French to mem
orize the forms of etre, avoir, aller, and faire, which are to be, to l1ave, to go, and to do.
These four verbs, which are essential to conversation in any language, are irregular in
French. From the first day, we knew that we had to memorize certain verb forms.)
Review these examples for regular and irregular verbs in all twelve tenses.
Regular verbs: the past tense and past participle forms end in -ed (grade, graded,
graded)
Present I grade I am grading I have graded I have been grading

Past I graded I was grading I had graded I had been grading
Future I will grade I will be grading I will have I will have been
graded grading
Irregular verbs: the past tense and the past participle forms do not both end
in -ed (ta/le, tooll, tallen)
present he tahes he is talzing he has talzen he has been tailing

past he toolz he was taking he had talzen he had been tailing
future he will talze he will be taking he will have he will have been
talwn taking
Common irregular verbs include be, begin, do, drinll, eat, find, get, have, leave, maize,
run, send, spealz, think, and wear. A longer list can be found in Appendix 2.
?6 •:::• 2: Basic Englisli Grammar
Simple Tenses
-- - -
- - -
I
- Sim�lc �r�scnt ·�nsc
-
Form Usages Examples

VERB (a) a fact that is true ( 1) The U.S. lias 50 states.
now (2) Kaylin speallS six
or languages.
(b) a recurring event (3) The people vote for
VERB+ -s (for lie, she, it) the president every
four years.
(c) state or condition ( 4) He seems very angry.
i {d) a planned future (5) The meeting is

action (with a future tomorrow.
time word) ( 6) This plane leaves in
an hour.
IQuestionl How many pens does each person need?
do/does + subject + VERB
• 1 Negative I Houses do not always liave a dining room.
do/does+ not+ VERB Houses don't always have a dining room.
(Contractions are possible.)
ELL Error ELL Issue
including be: • Every day I am ELLs learn / am, you are, he is, etc., so well
worlz here. that they unconsciously include a form of be
after the subject pronoun.
Simple Past Tense

VERB+ -ed (a) a completed action (1) I lived in Brownsville in 2000.
(Irregular verbs use (2) In the 1990s, I tooll the bus to
(b) an activity that
different patterns: took place regu- work almost every day.
run-ran, go-went, larly in the past
brealz-brolze)
(c) a completed (3) The temperature/ell ten
condition degrees last night.
IQuestionl When did you arrive at the meeting?
did + subject + VERB
!Negative I The committee did not select a winner.
did + not + VERB The committee didn't select a winner.
ELL Error ELL Issue
including be: •Yesterday I was ELLs learn I was, you were, he was, etc., so well
, worlz /Jere. that they unconsciously include a form of be
after the subject pronoun.
Sec. 4: 'Iwelve Verb Tenses •:::• 77
-
-
- -- --
Simple 1:"iiturc _Tense'. -

-. • � ... ·' ..... -- .

will+ VERB (a) a prediction about a {1) The price of gasoline will go
future event up.
(b) a decision at the time (2) !The phone suddenly rings
of speaking ( not when you are visiting your
planned in advance) friend's house.) "I'll answer it."
(c) an agreement to do (3) If you will go to the store for
something me, I will cooll dinner for us.
JQuestionj Will Flight 62 arrive on time or not?
will+ subject+ VERB
JNegative I You will 11ot have any gas left over.
will+ 11ot + VERB You wo11't ltave any gas left over.
ELL Errors ELL Issues
using simple present tense for This is probably a case of native language inter•
future time: "In five minutes, 1 ference. In Spanish, for example, simple present
return here. Please wait. tense is routinely used for future actions.
overusing will (instead of be going ELLs have been taught that will means "future
to): time," so they use will for every future action.
Jo: What are your plans for Friday? For previously planned actions, we usually
Ed: *I will have a party. use be going to, however.
Progressive Tenses
. - - .. -
-
- -
Present Progressive Tense

-
am/is/are+ VERB+ (a) an action (1) It's raini11g really hard.
-ing happening now
(b) an action this (2) I am worhi11g at the beach
( weell, month, etc.) this week.
(c) an action (with a (3) They are flying to Texas
future time word) tomorrow.
JQuestionl ls the cost of a stamp i11creasing by 10%?
am/is/are + subject + VERB + -i11g
!Negative I My cats are 11ot sleeping right now.
am/is/are+ not+ VERB My cats are11't sleepi11g right now.
ELL Error ELL Issue
putting non-action verbs in ELLs do not know that non-action verbs do
present progressive: •Jam not usually occur in the progressive, most
hearing you. likely from native language interference.
•
- --- -- -----.--a!
.. •... �Pas(- 11:ro� rcsf T� ,:rc1!_5.�c- 'I
�...,..L..J.,- - r,,,.. '- - :J - � ,__ ,_ - - . :_.tll
was/were + VERB + (a) an action in the (1) I was living in Japan when
-ing past that was inter• my mom died.
rupted in the past
by another action
(b) a repeated past (2) We were planning our wed-

action (an activity ding for many months.
that took place
over a long time)
IQuestionl Where was the thief hiding?

was/were + subject + VERB + -ing
!Negative I I was not sleepi,ig when you called me.
was/were + not + VERB I W(U11't sleeping when you called me.
ELL Errors ELL Issues
omitting -ing: • When I was sleep, ELLs forget the correct form.
someone called me.
using simple past instead of past ELLs may be concentrating on maintaining
progressive: • When I slept, some- the same verb tense (per their teacher's
one called me. proverbial direction to use only one verb
tense).
- -
. - --
.
, - .... ,, l "- ��-_.Jit�r2��g!��i�c-Tcnsc
-- .
-
-- •
I
will + be + VERB + an action that begins You will be sleeping when I get
-ing before another action off work tonight, so I'm not
and will be happening going to call you.
at a point of time in
the future
IQuestion I ln ten years from now, where will we be

will + subject + be + VERB + -ing working?
!Negative I After this year, the city will not be selling any
will + not + be + VERB + -ing more annual bus passes.
(Contractions are possible.) After this year, the city won't be selling any
more annual bus passes.
ELL Error ELL Issue
This tense is rarely used. Student and teacher time should be directed to more
critical language issues.
Sec. 4: Twelve Verb Tenses •:;;- 79
.-
Perfect Tenses
.. __
�-- �-,�
_
Prcscnt'P��-fe�t T�i1sc
� ..- -- - - - - - ·� ___,_ __ -- ��
-------------..._ .....L......__

l1ave/l1as + PAST (a) an action that (1) Jo: I wonder what sushi is
PA«TICIPLE happened at an like.
unspecified time Sue: I've eaten it before. It's
in the past pretty good.
(2) Have you ever flown on the
Concorde?
(b) a recent action (3) Ann: Wow, it's hot in here.

that is important Liz: Well, I've turned on the
to the current air conditioner. Just wait a
situation or minute.
conversation
(c) an action that (4) We liave worlzed here since
began in the past noon.
but continues in
the present
(d) repetition of an (5) I've traveled to Asia many

action before now times.
IQuestionl Where liave you worked?

have/has+ subject+
PAST PA«TICIPLE
INe�ative I He has not flown on a 7 4 7 jet.
have/has + not + He l1asn'tflown on a 747 jet.
PAST PARTICIPLE
ELL Erro� ELL Issue
using present tense for present Some languages use present tense to express
perfect: •J live here since 1995. "still true" usages of present perfect, espe-
dally usages (c) and (d).
- __-_ --_.. •-...7 --,- � - ..,,r� �--

1
Past_p_crfcct .icn'sc.
-· - - - -· ,.,.._ .
' -- -
'- ',
- - l---= - -
had+ PAST (a) a past action that (1) I had eaten dinner when my
PARTICIPLE occurred before mom called.
another past event, (2) By midnight, we l1ad watcl1ed
action, or lime three movies.
jQuestionl Where had you seen this movie before?
had + subject + PAST PARTICIPLE
!Negative I When the voting office closed promptly at
had + not + PAST PARTICIPLE 7 PM, many citizens l1ad not voted yet.
(Contractions are possible.) When the voting office closed promptly at
7 PM, many citizens 11adn't voted yet.
ELL Error ELL Issue

using past perfect for a single ELLs do not grasp that perfect tenses are in
event: • Millions of years ago, relation to other actions, not in relation to
dinosaurs 11ad roamed on the planet. how long ago the action happened. ELLs
often mistakenly believe that past perfect is
simply much older than simple past. Thus, an
H
example from "millions of years ago might
trigger an unnecessary use of past perfect.
.. - --
. • --- - ---
i - -
ruturc·Pcrfcct Tense
. - - .. -

will have + PAST (a) a future action ( 1) By next Friday, we will liave
PARTICIPLE that will occur finished the first two units in
before another this book.
particular future (2) When you reach home
action (or time) tomorrow night, I will l1ave
! spolien to Jim about the
problem.
!Question I By the year 2050, will the population of our

will + subject + have + nation have doubled?
PAST PARTICIPLE
I Negative I By the time you get to your office, your
will + not + have + assistant will not have finisl1ed the reports.
PAST PARTICIPLE By the time you get to your office, your
(Contractions are possible.) assistant won't have finished the reports.
ELL Error ELL Issue
ELLs make few errors with this tense because they do not attempt it much. In real-
ity, this tense is not used frequently in English.
Sec. 4: 1welve Verb Tenses -:�:• 81
Perfect Progressive Tenses
Present Perfect Progressive Tense

Form 1, Usages Examples
have/has + been + (a) an action that ( 1) Why are you so late? I have
VERB+ -ing began in the past, been waiting here for almost
has continued an hour.
into the present,
and may continue
into the future
(when a speaker
wants to empha-
size the duration
of an action)
(b) a general action (2) Ken: Wow, your tennis game
in progress is really good now!
recently for which Kay: I've been practicing a lot
no specific time is recently.
mentioned
(c) an action that (3) Jim: There's green stuff in
began in the past your hair.
and has just Dan: Oh, don't worry. I've
recently ended been painting my house. It
will come out with a little
soap and water.
I Question! Why has it been raining so much lately?

have/lias + subject + been +
VERB+ -ing
!Negative I Many of today's flights have not been leaving
have/lias + not + been + VERB + on time.
-ing Many of today's flights haven't been leaving
(Contractions are possible.) on time.
ELL Error ELL Issue
using present progressive tense Some languages use present tense to express
for present perfect progressive: the ustill true" usages of present perfect
•f am living here since 1995. progressive.
".'f: •• n...-- �•. "= �--;- /

-
�.....,.------, ��T�--::-_ -.
.� __ L _ __ ._>•_•,.�� l•�-c��?�_css�vc, lc�s,c•. .! :..A..J , _[ _ �� - - -
had + been + VERB (a) an activity that ( 1) The pilot had been flying the
+ -ing occurred before plane for over an hour
another action in before he noticed that there
the past (when a was a problem with the
speaker wants to engine.
emphasize the
duration of an
action)
(b) a long action (2) Greg: Why didn't you go to
occurring recently the party last night?
before another Lisa: I was too tired. I had
action in the past been working all day long.
/Question/ How long had you been working here when
had + subject + been + VERB + you were promoted to manager?
-ing
/Negative I The factory had not been selling many cars, so
liad + not + been + VERB + -ing the company closed it down.
{Contractions are possible.) The factory liadn't been selling many cars, so
the company closed it down.
-
ELL Error ELL Issue
pressing issues.
Sec. 4: 'Iwelve Verb Tenses •:::• 83
- - -
Future Perfect Progressive Tense

.
-
-
'·
�
will + lrave + been + (a) a long action that ( 1) By next Friday, we will have
VERB+ -ing is taking place in been worlling here five years.
relation to
another future
event (when a
speaker wants to
emphasize the
duration of an
'
action)
(b) a long action (2) Wes: Do you want to go out

occurring before with us after the party
another action (or tomorrow night?
point oftime) in Ben: I don't know. By the
the future time of the party, I will lrave
been standing on my feet for
eight hours, so I don't know
if I'll feel like going to a party
or not.
!Question! How long will we liave been living here when
will + subject + liave + been + you retire?
VERB+ -ing
!Negative I I'm not sure, but we will not have been living
will + not + lrave + been + VERB here for more than 20 years.
+ -ing I'm not sure, but we wori't liave been living
(Contractions are possible.) here for more than 20 years.
ELL Error ELL Issue

pressing issues.
Activity 1. Verb Tenses in English

Write the examples of these verb tenses for the verbs cook and write. (Answers are
on p. 88.)
Verb Tense Cook Write
simple present 1. 2.
simple past 3. 4.
simple future 5. 6.
present progressive 7. 8.
past progressive 9. 10.
future progressive 11. 12.
present perfect 13. 14.
past perfect 15. 16.
future perfect 17. 18.
present perfect
19. 20.
progressive
past perfect
21. 22.
progressive
future perfect
23. 24.
progressive
Sec. 4: nvelve Verb Tenses ·===· 85
Activity 2. Verb Tenses in English

Match the examples with their correct verb tense by writing the correct letter next
to the corresponding example. Some tenses will be used more than once.
(Answers are on p. 88.}
Example Verb Tense

I. I will work. a. simple present
2. ___ I was working. b. simple past
3. ___ I will have been working. C. simple future

4. _ I had worked. d. present progressive
5. ___ I have been working. e. past progressive
6. __ I will be working. f. future progressive

7. __ lwork. g. present perfect
8. I worked. h. past perfect
9. __ I had been working. i. future perfect
10. _ I have worked. j. present perfect progressive

11. _ I am working. k. past perfect progressive
12. __ I will have worked. I. future perfect progressive

13. __ I didn't work.
14. __ I wasn't working.
15. ___ Have you worked?
I 6. __ She didn't work.

17. _ It doesn't work.
18. ___ You haven't worked.
19. ___ He hasn't been working.

20. ___ Did you work?
Answers to Pre-Test 1: Common Native Speaker Grammar Errors, pp. 34-35:
1. It's essential to get the message out to parents that they have to know at all times
exactly whom their loved ones associate with and where they are ® · { 1) unneces
sary preposition
2. I've encountered a problem when I'm trying to insert a record. Sometimes while I'm
trying to build a menu list, I'll get an error message telling me something about too
much recursion. What does this mean? orrcc1
3. Between you and�is situation is going to have a very unhappy ending. (2) wrong
pronoun
4. My wife and I look forward to working more with the Matthew Community Pro
gram. Founded a decade ago by Theodore Jabil and�illis organization serves
children and families in the Brooklyn area. (3} wrong pronoun
...-done
5. I had� to different therapy services, but Pressure Point was the best ever. (4)
wrong verb form yfni;J
6. The DC-10 jet cracked into two pieces and came to rest with the front section�
on its side. (5) wrong word
7. The campus police department is proud to announce the publication of the long
awaited and revised Student Safety Guide. Note that the name has been changed to
the Annual Report & Safety Guide to reflect its content more appropriately. Corre t
8. Team captains are receiving this article because they might want to pass it on to
---.r,•1hoever
omeve would benefit from it the most. (6} wrong word
doe!!in't
9. What the boss�know won't matter in the end. (7} 3rd person singular in present
tense requires -s in the verb
hadn't
10. If it� been raining, the kids could have played in the backyard. (8)
wrong verb form in if-clause
11. The jurisdiction that includes these seven heavily populated metropolitan areas
should have its boundaries redrawn. Correct
hardl
12. The school board's new plan will� a feet the students at this elementary
school. (9) double negative
13. According to the author, when people feel stressed, angry, or ashamed, �J}ive off
negative energy. This is why viewing negative events causes us to feel�- Similarly,
witnessing acts of kindness causes us to feel good. ( 10) wrong word
those
14. We cannot let� people vote. If we let them vote, they're not going to make the
right decision. ( 11) wrong word
have
15. My opinion is that the manager should@ fired those employees on the spot. { 12)
wrong word
Sec. 4: 1welve Verb Tenses -�::• 87
16. Care should be taken when attempting to remove a tick from human skin. Cover the
tick with the liquid for a few seconds. If you apply enough liquid, the tick will let go
1 .. 5
on@own. ( 13) wrong word
17. A dear advantage that this particular electronic dictionary software has over its com
petitors is the incredible number of words that it can be quickly looked up. Correct,
you re
18. If you want to play on the team, please send me an email letting me know that�
interested. I need your response no later than Saturday. ( 14) wrong word
19. Krashen came,up with the concept of i + 1 to help describe the distance between a
___...ersons
erson language proficiency and the level of the language in the material. ( 15}
wrong word
W h O!:'>e
20. If you are an employee�contract expires annually and a renewal is done at the
beginning of a semester, you may not be entered into the data system yet. ( 16) wrong
word
21. Yes, I'm looking for something that is more stable than my current job, but I haven't
been going to job interviews@Vi'lich. ( 17) wrong word
22. Your place was terrific, but I want to say that your warm hospitality and great facilities
are what we enjoyed the most and what made the trip so special to Kate and me.
Correct
23. Applicants may submit their pape

· • rk either in person or via email. Note that the
�i ect
submission method will not� e committee's decision regarding any applica-
tion. (18) wrong word
24. This plant can withstand tem�ratures to five degrees Fahrenheit, which is the point
at which the plant may�°tcfme or all of its leaves (but still not kill the plant).
(19) wrong word
their
25. In a recent ruling by five of the Supreme Court justices � conclusion was that
police should have more authority in some cases. {20} wrong word
Pre-Test 2: Eight Parts of Speech, p. 40

(Answers, especially examples, will vary. The order of the eight parts of speech is irrel
evant.) 1. A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or quality. (cat) 2. A verb is
a word that shows action or state of being. (wish) 3. An adjective is a word that
describes a noun or a pronoun. (good) 4. A pronoun is a word that can take the place
of a noun. (she) 5. A preposition is a word that shows a relationship between one
word and another word in the sentence. (with) 6. A conjunction is a word that con
nects words, phrases, or clauses. (and) 7. An adverb is a word that modifies verbs,
adjectives, or another adverb. (carefully} 8. An interjection is a word that shows
strong emotion. (Ouch!)
88 -:::- 2: Basic English Grammar
Pre.Test 3: Eight Parts of Speech, p. 41

1. adjective 2. noun 3. adjective 4. conjunction 5. adverb 6. verb 7. adjective 8.
adjective 9. preposition 10. adjective 11. noun 12. adjective 13. adjective 14. verb
15. preposition 16. noun 17. adjective 18. adjective 19. noun 20. pronoun 21.
adverb 22. conjunction 23. verb 24. preposition 25. adjective
Review of Parts of Speech, p. 63

1. noun 2. adverb 3. adjective 4. noun 5. adjective 6. conjunction 7. adjective 8 .
preposition 9. pronoun 10. adjective 11. noun 12. adjective 13. adverb 14. adverb
15. adjective 16. noun 17. preposition 18. adverb 19. conjunction 20. verb 21.
noun 22. conjunction 23. adjective 24. adjective 25. noun 26. adverb 27. adjective
28. pronoun 29. noun 30. adjective 31. adverb 32. adverb 33. adjective 34. adjec
tive 35. adjective 36. noun 37. adjective 38. adverb 39. adverb 40. adjective
Activity 1. Verb Tenses in English, p. 84

Coo/1: I cook, I coolted, I will cook, I am coolling, l was coo/ling, l will be coolling, l have
coolted, I had coolled, I will have coolted, I have been coo/ling, I had been coolting, I will have
been coolling
Write: I write, l wrote, 1 will write, I am writing, l was writing, I will be writing, I have writ
ten, I had written, I will have wrillen, I have been writing, I had been writing, I will have
been writing
Activity 2. Verb Tenses in English, p. 85

I.c 2.e 3.l 4.h 5.j 6.f 7.a 8.b 9.k 10.g 11.d 12.i 13.b 14.e 15.g 16.b 17.a 18.g
19.j 20.b

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Folse, K. (2009). Keys to teaching grammar to English language learners: A practical handbook.

Basic English Grammar:

Section 1 Common Grammar Errors Made by Native Speakers

Section 2 Eight Parts of Speech

Section 3 Basic Grammar Labels for Sentence Structure

Section 4 Why the Twelve English Verb Tenses Matter

Before examining ELL grammar issues, it is important to have a solid understanding of

Take the pre-test on pages 34-35 now, before reading on.

Why Grammar Matters

Pre-Test 1: Common Grammar Errors Made by Native Speakers

7. The campus police department is proud to announce the publication of the

9. What the boss don't know won't matter in the end.

Your Score: __/2_5__

Prescriptive and Descriptive Grammar

Most Formal Wit11 whom would you Wte to spealt?

Table 2.1 shows how prescriptive grammarians and descriptive grammarians

Table 2.1 Examples of Prescriptive vs. Descriptive Grammar

Grammar Topic Prescriptive Grammar Descriptive Grammar

Table 2.1 Examples of Prescriptive vs. Descriptive Grammar (continued)

Grammar Topic Prescriptive Grammar Descriptive Grammar

Errors that Occur in Errors that Occur

Pre-Test 2: Eight Parts of Speech

Pre-Test 3: Eight Parts of Speech

Much has changed in (D 1hg lives of children, and in the health

0 � provided to them over the (D J2gfil century. We like the book

® increasjngly medicalized, ® ™ the emergence of the fields of pedi­

(vWith contributions from historians and physicians, @) .this collection

illuminates some of the most important @transformations in @ children's

mulation of normal growth curves, Better Babies contests @ at county fairs,

of the founder of pediatrics, Dr. Abraham Jacobi.

One of the first long-term historical and analytical @overviews of

pediatrics and child health in the twentieth century, Fonnative Year.swill be a

@ welcome addition to @seyera1 @ fi..elds, including the history of

medicine and technology, the history of childhood, modern U.S. history,

women's history, and American studies. @ ll @a.ls2 has ramifications for

policymakers concerned with child welfare @ and development and

in the @ twenty-first century.

Why the Parts of Speech Matter

other adverb"? Why did you say modify instead of describe?

Multiple Approaches to Explaining the Parts of Speech

Common EU Errors I Examples

unnecessary plural -s •every girls

wrong noun ending •enjoyation

plural of non-count nouns •many equipments

no article with count nouns • 1 have cat.

not capitalizing proper nouns I was born in guadalajara in mexico.

What questions does a noun answer?

She is a driver, grandmother, mechanic, swimmer I

There are four reasons, people, assignments, reports

the title, money, equator, Philippines

is important oxygen, kindness, exercising, New York

• What is the difference between common nouns and proper nouns?

Common Nouns Proper Nouns

• What is the difference between concrete nouns and abstract nouns?

Concrete Nouns Abstract Nouns

{I heard some) cats. childhood

(I tasted the) doughnut. humor

(I felt a gentle) breeze. success

• What is the difference between count and non-count nouns?

® increasjngly medicalized, ® ™ the emergence of the fields of pedi

task because of the© number of ® � words, phrases, idioms, colloca