CROP PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY-I , CEREALS, MILLETS AND PULSES (KHARIF

CROPS)

COURSE NO. – ASAG2103

CREDIT- 3(2+1)
STUDY MATERIAL

Department of Agronomy
MS SWAMINATHAN SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE
CENTURION UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT
Paralakhemundi, Odisha-761211,
INDIA

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 Theory Class course outlines:

s.no Lecture No. Topic

1 1,2, 3,4, 5&6
Rice
2 7&8
Maize
3 9&10
Sorghum
4 11
Pearl millet
5 12
Finger millet
6 13&14
Pulses-Pigeon pea
7 15 Green gram
8 16
Black gram
9 17,18& 19
Oilseeds-Groundnut
10 20,21,22&23
Fibre crops-Cotton
11 24,25&26 Jute
12 27,28 & 29
Forage crops- sorghum
13 30
Cowpea
14 31
Cluster bean
15 32
Napier grass

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 Index
Chapter Topic Page No.
no.
1 Rice 4-18
2 Maize 19-24
3 Sorghum 25-32
4 Pearl millet 33-35
5 Finger millet 36-38
6 Pulses-Pigeon pea 39-44
Green gram
7 45-47
8 Black gram 48-49
9 Groundnut 50-59
10 Cotton 60-68
Jute
11 69-75
12 Forage crops- sorghum 76-81
13 Cowpea 82-83
14 Cluster bean 84-85
15 Napier grass 86-88

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Lecture 1
Chapter No.1
RICE (Oryza sativa)

Cereals: The crop plants which belong to the family poaceae and are grown for their edible starchy
grains/seed called caryopsis (seed coat+pericarp are fused or united) are called as cereals.The word cereals has
been derived from ‘Ceres’, name of a Roman Goddess, means ‘Giver of Grains’.
Rice is the most important cereal food crop of the world. It is the staple food for more than half of the
world’s populations.

C.O: Indoburma region

• Nutritional value: carbohydrate:- 74.8%, protein- 8.4%, but in milled rice- 6-7%, fat-2.6%
• Both amylase and amylopectin (more)are there.
• Lesser the amylase finer the rice quality.
• Rice bran contains 12-14% protein and 20-25% oil.
Classification
• Genous Oryza includes 24 species, of which 22 are wild and 2 namely O. sativa and O. glaberrima are
cultivated.
• All the varieties found in Asia, America and Europe belong to O. sativa and varieties found in West
Africa belong to O. glaberrima .
• Based primarily on geographic adaptation and morphological characters of the cultivated oryza rices, the
world can be broadly divided into 3 sub species Viz., Indica, Japonica and Javanica
1.Indica :The traditional varieties raised in tropics are called Indicas. These are traditional long duration
varieties, photosensitive (season bound), mostly awnless. They are tall, weak stemmed and susceptible to
lodging and less responsive to heavy fertilizers
2.Japonica:These are sub tropical and temperate region varieties dwarf in stature with sturdy stems & thus non
lodging. Leaves short, thick, narrow, dark green colour. They are awnless to awned varieties, grains are nearly
round and fertilizer responsive vartieties.
3.Javanica: These are intermediatory to Indicas and Japonicas, having morphological resemblance to indicas.
Long panicle with awned grains, low tillering and sensitive to photoperiod (equatorial belt of Indonesia)
Climatic requirement : Of all the weather factors, solar radiation, temperature, RH have greater influence on
rice yields.
1. Solar radiation : Solar energy is the most impor tant climatic factor in rice cultivation in temperate
climates. The plant’s most critical period of solar energy requiremet is from Panicle Initiation to until
about 10 days before maturity which is important for the accumulation of drymatter. The yield of rice
during monsoon(kharif) season is lower than that in the dry (summer) season, because of the lower

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 levels of solar radiation received during the crop’s grain filling and ripening stages.
The light compensation = 15000 lux (solar energy/cm) 10.764 feet candles Photosynthesis = Respiration
Light saturation = 45000 lux
2. Temperature : It greatly influences the growth and growth pattern of rice plant. Temperature variations
are low in tropics and hence needs no significant consideration for the rice cultures in these areas. The
critical temperatures for different stages of rice plant are given below.Night temperature of 15-20o C is
favourable. Higher mean temperature will reduce the growth duration.
3. Day Lengh : Rice is a short day plant and sensitive to photoperiods. Long days can prevent or delay
flowering. But photo insensitive varieties enable the farmer in tropics and subtropics to grow rice at any
time of the year without great changes in growth duration.
4. Humidity : The RH effects in tropics are generally confused with the effects of solar energy and
temperature. The average RH before harvest follows a trend opposite to that of the solar radiation values
for the same period. Therefore, no importance is attributed to the –ve effect of RH on grain yield of rice.
5. Wind Velocity : A gentle wind during the growing period of the rice plant is known to improve the
turbulence in the canopy. The air blown around the plants replenishes the Co2 supply to the plant.
Strong winds are detrimental especially at heading. They cause severe lodging and shattering in some
rice varieties.

Sl. No. Growth Stage Cardinal Temperature (oC)

Low High Optimum
1 Germination 16-19 45 18-40
2 Seedling emergence and 12-15 35 25-30
establishment
3 Rooting 16 35 25-28
4 Leaf elongation 7-12 45 31
5 Tillering 9-16 33 25-31
6 Panicle initiation 15 - -
7 Initiatial flowering 15-20 30 18-28
8 Anthesis 22 35-36 30-33
9 Ripening 12-18 30 20-29

6. Rainfall : Variability in the amount and distribution of rainfall is most important factor limiting the
yields of rainfed rice, which constitutes about 80% of the rice grown in South and SE Asia. Rainfall
variability is more critical for upland rice than for lowland rice. Moisture stress can damage or even kill
the plants in an area that receives as much as 200 mm of rainfall in a day and then receives no rainfall
for the next 20 days. An evenly distributed rainfall of 100 mm per month is preferable to 200 mm per
month that falls in 2 & 3 days. Rice is grown in rainfed conditions with rainfall of 1000-1500
mm/annum, if distributed over 3-3 ½ months. The water requirement of rice is 1200 mm.

Soil requirement:
Rice is adptable to all kinds of soils and practically all soil types are found in the world’s rice growing areas.
The suitability of a soil for rice cultivation depends more on the conditions under which the plants are grown
than upon the nature of the soil it self. The semi acquatic nature of the crop necessitates a heavy soil through
which the irrigation or rain water will not be easily drained away because the demands of rice are more
precise for water than soil conditions. Sandy soils to heavy soils are most preferable to rice crop cultivation.

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 Rice is able to tolerate a wide range of soil reaction but it may have a preference for acidic soils. The crop
has preference to 5.5 to 6.5 PH. Red soils, black soil and laterite soils are also suitable.
Lecture 2
Growth Stages of Rice Plant
Life cycle of rice plant can be classified into 3 stages – 1. Vegetative stage, 2.Reproductive stage 3.Ripening
stage
I. Vegetative stage-It begins with germination and ends with panicle initiation. Unlike the reproductive and
maturity phases which are of equal duration for all rice varieties, the vegetative phase varies considerably in
length as per the duration of the variety. The vegetative phase can be divided into three stages:
1. Seedling stage / Nursery stage (Germination to transplanting) (20-25 days): Seed germinating to
time when young plants becomes independent of food reserve of the seed.
2. Active Vegetative Stage/ (Transplanting to Maximum tillering stage): This includes sub stages viz.
a) Recovery stage: The transplanted seedlings need/require about 9 days to recover from the shock of
uprooting during transplanting.
b) Rooting stage(4-10 DAT): After recovery of the plant new roots appear. It is known as rooting stage.
Once the plants have good established roots, tillers develop rapidly and increase to a maximum number.
c) Maximum tillering stage(35-42 DAT/60 DAS): Tiller height and straw weight increases during this
stage. The tiller number increases until maximum tiller number is reached, after which some tillers die
and tiller number declines and then levels off.
3. Vegetative lag stage (Maximum tillering to panicle initiation): this is transition phase between
reproductive and vegetative phase.
It includes two sub stages viz
(i) Effective tillering
(ii) Non effective tillering
During this stage weak tillers begin to die and each strong tiller bears a panicle primordium. The number
of these ear bearing (potential productive) tillers come to be fixed which is known as “Effective
tillering”. Tillers that develop subsequently do not bear panicles and die ultimately. This is the “non
effective tillering”.
II. The Reproductive Phase (Panicle formation to flowering – 35 days)- The reproductive phase
includes the period during which the panicle forms and emerges from the base of the tiller. The
reproductive phase begins at panicle initiation, when the panicle begins to develop at the end of the last
internode deep inside a protective covering of leaf sheaths. The reproductive phase divided into
following stages:
i. Panicle initiation (PI) stage:
ii. Internode elongation stage: for early maturity varieties before PI stage
iii. Booting stage:
iv. Heading stage
v. Flowering stage
Booting Stage- With the initiation of panicle primordium, the internode elongates. The sheath of the
flag leaf bulges due to the developing panicles within its. This is the “booting stage”. By the time the
panicle becomes visible to the naked eye (as a tiny, transparent growth less than 2 mm in length buried
within the leaf sheaths near the base of the plant), the booting stage is already underway. During the
booting stage, which lasts approximately 15-20 days among all rice varieties, the internodes undergo a

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 rapid growth sport and quickly lengthen (like a radio aerial extending), causing the culm to shoot up
from the base of the plant bearing the developing panicle. During this period of rapid growth the plant's
demand for nutrients is high, making the early booting stage a crucial time for fertilization. However, it
is sometimes difficult to detect panicle initiation and the earliest onset of booting.

Heading stage- The booting stage is followed by the emergence of the panicle from the protective flag
leaf sheath. The heading stage lasts until 90% of the panicles have emerged from their sheaths.
Generally it takes about 10 days in most of the varieties.

Flowering stage-The flowering stage begins with the emergence of the first anthers from the 'uppermost
spikelets on each panicle. Each individual spikelet flowers for only several hours during the middle of
the day on two or three successive days. Flowering begins among the uppermost spikelets and continues
for approximately 15 days regardless of variety as the remaining spikelets successively open (the
lowermost spikelets flowering last). During flowering, pollen from the anthers is transported by wind
and insects to the stigma, which carry it down into the ovaries where fertilization of the ovules occurs.
Never apply fertilizer or pesticide during periods of active flowering, as the pollenization process is
extremely sensitive and can easily be disrupted by the presence of agro-chemicals.

III. Ripening Stage- The ripening stage begins at fertilization and continues, through grain filling and
ripening, approximately 30 days regardless of variety. Grain filling occurs as nutrients and water are
transported from one part of the plant to another; the process is affected by the availability of water and
nutrients, and by temperature. Grain filling and ripening can be broken down into four stages:
a) The Milk Stage(7-12 DAF)- The endosperm first begins to form as a milky liquid. Rice at the milk
stage is very susceptible to attack by sucking insect pests.
b) The Dough Stage (2-3 wks/ 15-21 days)- The milky liquid begins to solidify into a sticky white
paste. During this time bird pests generally begin to be a serious problem.

• Soft dough
• Hard dough
c) The Maturity stage- The grain is mature, or ripe, when the endosperm becomes hard and opaque.
While the grains ripen, the leaves of the plant begin to turn yellow as nitrogen is transferred from the
leaves to the seed. The full maturity stage is reached when more than 90% of the grains in the panicles
have ripened. Mature grains usually undergo a change in color and turn a golden brown, but under wet
climatic conditions ripe grains may remain somewhat greenish.

LAND PREPERATION
Preparatory cultivation of main field
Puddling is the reorientation of soil particles at high moisture content due to cultivation, which results in
soil particles becoming oriented in respect of each other which causes an increase in bulk density and a large
decrease in non-capillary porosity. The main aim of puddling is the mechanical measurement of wet soil in
which coarser or larger aggregates are broken down to smaller aggregates reducing the mean particle size. This
is an essential operation for wet land rice. Puddling of the soil results in the reduction of macropore space and
transforming the upper soil layer into a fine soft mud or puddle.

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 Mechanical manipulation of the soil at high moisture regime which reduces deep percolation losses is
termed as puddling.
Objectives of Puddling :
1. To obtain a soft seed bed for the seedlings to establish themselves faster.
2. To minimize leaching losses of N (nutrients) and thereby increase the availability of plant nutrients by
achieving a reduced soil condition.
3. Suppression of weeds
4. To mix organic matter with the soil.
5. To create an imperveous sub soil layer for reducing deep percolation & leaching losses.
6. To facilitate easy transplantation.

It can be done by ploughs, tiller or tractor drawn implements depending upon their availability and soil
conditions.
Lecture 3
Reactions under water logged situations
Soils under lowland/submerged/waterlogged conditions develop fundamental characteristics different
from those of soils under upland conditions.
Waterlogged/flooding causes changes in physical, microbiological & chemical properties of soil because
of the physical reactions between the soil and water and also because of the biological and chemical processes
set in motion as a result of excess water. These changes have a profound bearing on nutrition and fertilization
aspects of rice cultivation.
The most important change in the soil as a result of water logging is the conversion of the root zone of
the soil from an aerobic environment to an anaerobic or near anaerobic environment where O2 is limiting. The
flooded or waterlogged soils develops two zones:

• The upper zone : a thin 1 – 10 mm thickness, absorbs O2 from the water and turns brown in colour
(Oxidized zone) and reacts to N like an unflooded upland soil.

•The lower zone: the remaining lower portion of the puddle soil truns to a dark or blue green colour as
iron compounds in the flooded soils lose their O2. This soil zone is said to be in reduced state.
Sequenstial chemical changes that occur during submergence and puddling in rice

1. Depletion of O2 molecules and changing in the soil. Oxidation - reduction systems.

2. Chemical reduction of soil, characterization of the oxidized & reduced zones and decrease in redox
potential.
3. Increase in pH of acid soils and a decrease in pH of sodic & calcareous soils.
4. Reduction of ferric (Fe+3) to Ferrous (Fe+2) and Mn+4 to Mn+2
5. Reduction of NO3 and NO2 to N2 and N2 O
6. Increase in the supply of availability of N
7. Increase in the availability of P, Si & Mo
8. Decrease in the concentration of water soluble Zn & Cu
9. Generation of Co2, Methane(CH4) & toxic reduction products such as organic acids and H2S.
(a) Physical changes
 Destroys the structural aggregates in the soil.
 The diffusion/exchange of air between the atmosphere and the puddle soils is impeded.
 Reduced & Oxidised zones develops distinctly

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 (b) Biological changes
 The rate of decomposition of organic matter is considerably reduced in wet land soils.
 N of organic matter is changed to NH4 form (stable under water logged conditions) and denitrification
losses will take place.
(c) Chemical changes
 Increase in solubility of P
 Reduction of SO4 to sulphide (Injurious form)

Methods of rice cultivation

1. Dry or semi-dry upland cultivation
a) broadcasting the seed
b) sowing the seed behind the plough or drilling
2. Wet or lowland cultivation
a) transplanting in puddled soil
b) broadcasting sprouted seeds in puddled soils
or
I Direct seeded rice cultivation
a) Dry seeding: dry seeds are sown in the main field under upland condition after thorough field
preparation.
b) Wet seeding: followed under lowland condition. Pregerminated seeds are sown in puddled soil.

II Transplanted rice cultivation Conditions congenial for direct seeding

Seed rate - 60 to 80 kg/ha Spacing – 20cm*10cm 3 cm depth
I. DIRECT SEEDED RICE CULTIVATION
1. Direct seeding may be very helpful in the dry season when water supply can be very easily regulated.
2. Direct seeding can be adopted profitably in flooded rice where the size of plots for rice cultivation are
small and perfectly leveled ensuing good control of irrigation water and soils are light.
3. When the labour shortage is more especially during transplanting period.
4. It saves labour cost and reduces the demand for labour in transplanting season.
5. Facilitates raising of crop in time.
6. The crop matures in 7-10 days earlier than transplanted crop
7. It is recommended where the weed problem is not serious (severe)
8. The expenditure in raising, pulling of seedlings, transporting and transplanting them is saved (limited
financial resources).
Advantages
1. Saving of expenditure on seed bed preparation, plant protection & nursery pulling & transplantation.
Cost of production is reduced.
2. The crop matures in 7-10 days earlier than transplanted crop.
Disadvantages

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1. Higher quantity of seed requirement.
2. Weed control becomes a problem if planting is not adopted.
3. The seed is exposed to bird and rat damage resulting in poor crop stand if broadcasted.
4. There is a greater tendency for the crop to lodge because the base of the plants are not so deeply set in
the soil.
5. It is impossible to maintain good stand and in lowlands particularly for monsoon crop, as there is no
control over water management.
6. Proper care is needed for adopting optimum seed rate, timely weed control, rational fertilizer application
and effective control over water management.

II. TRANSPLANTING
Transplanting of healthy seedlings may be done at 4-5 leaf stage or when they are about 20-25 cm in
height @ 2-3 seedlings not deeper than 2-4 cm.

Transplanting can be done in two ways.

1. Random transplanting
2. Straight row planting

Conditions congenial for transplanting

1. Adequate supply of water throughout the crop period
2. Transplanting is done in soft puddle soils.
3. Where weed problem is severe
4. When plant population is not uniform
5. Using community nurseries for timely transplanting.
6. Treatment of seedling for nutrient deficiency and protection against pests & diseases is needed (Root
dipping for ‘P’slurry, insecticides)

Advantages of transplanting
1. A good leveling of the field is ensured.
2. Weeds are buried at the time of puddling and weed problem is reduced.
3. The plant population becomes more uniform.
4. The availability of most plant nutrients like P, Fe & K is increased and N is converted better.
5. Seedlings transplanted in soft puddle are able to establish themselves faster and start early tillering and
growth.
6. Community nurseries facilitate timely transplanting.
7. The treatment of seedlings for nutrient deficiency and for plant protection against pests and diseases is
facilitated before transplanting
Disadvantages
1. It involves extra cost on seed bed preparation, plant protection, pulling and transplanting.
2. It needs higher amount of labour at a time when labour is in short supply.
3. It requires more quantity of water.
4. Seedlings ar exposed to possible injury during handling.
5. Plants tend to grow more slowly than direct seeding because of recovery time after transplanting.
6. Harvesting is delayed.
Spacing
Kharif : 15 x 15 cm or 15 x 20 cm

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Rabi : 15 x 10 cm
With late tillering varieties or overaged seedlings, spacing may be even upto 15 x 10 cm or 20 x 10 cm.
However, avoid close planting in endemic areas of BPH incidence.
Lecture 4
FERTILIZER MANAGEMENT
An adequate and balanced supply of plant nutrients is a prerequisite to maximize crop production. The
major nutrients required by rice crop are N, P & K.
Throughout the rice growing areas in India, N is the most limiting factor. ‘N’ is usually deficient where
rice is grown because the same conditions of climate which favour rice production cause a rapid turn over and
loss of ‘N’ from the soil.
NITROGEN : Rate of application
For Dwarf and semi dwarf varieties - optimum ‘N’ rates are 80-100 kg /ha during kharif.
100-120kg/ha during rabi.
Time of application : It depends on the
(i) Texture of soil
(ii) Physiological stage of the crop
(iii) Other management practices-
Efficiency of applied ‘N’ is higher at active tillering stage than at transplanting and reaches a peak at PI,
Beyond PI, the NUE decreases.
Therefore, top dressing is suitable at twice
1. Tillering
2. PI
When more splits are desired (eg: Sandy soils), the period between 3 weeks After tillering until 1 to 2
weeks beyond PI may be beneficial. Basal application is necessary in low fertility soils, early maturing varieties
(short duration varieties), poor tillering varieties, widely spaced crops etc.,
Top dressing of N
Application of ‘N’ at planting and to a lesser extent at tillering, promotes the formation of tillers
resulting in more panicles/unit area. Later application increase in panicle weight can be obtained with top
dressing around panicle initiation stage. Application at PI stage increases the length of ‘Flag leaf’ providing a
longer photo synthetically active leaf area.
Split application of N have proved to be far better as the efficiency of applied N with split applications is
about 30% under transplanted and 59% under direct seeded conditions. Extra yields of 13% in kharif & 23% in
rabi have been recorded due to split applications.
Method of application :
Depth of fertilizer placement makes all the differences between efficient use and wastage. The
superiority of root zone placement (below 5 cm depth of soil) of N fertilizers to surface applications was well
established.
Surface applications resulted in slight losses of gaseous ammonia. NH3 volatilization losses amounted to
18% of urea N fertilizers are entirely broadcasted.
FUE of root zone placement and that of SCU was nearly double that of split surface application
commonly used by farmers.
Placement of N < 5 cm depth of soil increased the yield by 7-10 Q/ha. Incorporation of fertilizers N up
to 5 cm depth in the last puddle resulted in higher grain yield than all other methods of application. A plough
sole application for N placement in root zone will be very useful. Before top dressing, water is to be drained
completely from field for 1 or 2 days.
N is lost through fertilizers as

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1. NH3 volatalisation
2. Leaching
3. Denitrification
For efficient management of N fertilizers in wetland rice – the following measures have to be followed.
1. Right method of application
2. Optimisation of split application of ‘N’ in relation to growth stages (Right time)
3. Deep placement of N fertilizer in reduced soils.
4. Use of slow release N or controlled release of N fertilizer.
5. Combining the concept of slow release and deep placement of N fertilizers.
6. Furrows of 6 cm deep are opened with a stake in between rows of plants. Fertiliser is placed in the
furrows and then the furrow is closed.
7. Irrigation water is let in 24-48 hrs later

PHOSPHORUS: Recovery of P = 26%

Rates of application
Results showed that application of 60 kg P2O5/ha for red soils and 80 kg P2 O5/ha for black soils is
adequate.
Site specific recommendation on the dose of P2O5 to be added through fertilizers can be worked out
based on soil test values.
For red soils : (40 – Soil available P2O5) x 3/2 For black soils : (40 – Soil available P2O5) x 2
Time and Method of application
P fertilizers are best applied basally before seeding in last ploughing by broadcasting and incorporating
in the last puddle. Top dressing of P fertilizer in rice is feasible even 15 DAT without reducing grain yield.
Placement of P2O5 in low land rice proved to be of no advantage.
1. Applying P fertilizers to the nursery was found to be more profitable in certain cases than applying to
main field.
2. The recommendation is 2 kg DAP/40 m2 of nursery.
3. Dipping rice seedlings in P slurry reduced the quantity of P to be applied to the rice crop in soils which
are very deficient inphosphorus.
‘P’ Slurry-
SSP : Puddled soil : Water
1:3.5:5 should be prepared one hour before use Acid soils - Rock phosphate or bone meal.

POTASSIUM
Potash may become a limiting factor in red & light soils and where leaching losses are likely to be high.
Soil application of potash either as MOP or SOP under dificiency conditions will improve yields considerably.
About 30-45 kg K2O/ha is recommended as a maintenance dose to keep available potash in the soil above
critical limits for high level production. Potash is applied at the time of last puddling alongwith P as surface
application and incorporated.
Time of application
Recent studies have shown that, top dressing of K at maximum tillering and at or before panicle initiation
increased rice yields especially in sandy soils poor in potash holding capacity.

ZINC : Zinc is an essential micro nutrient for rice. Its deficiency is associated with soils of high PH
Correction of Zn deficiency In India,
1. Soil application @ 40-50 kg zn SO4/ha. (For normal soils once in 3 yrs.)

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 (For saline soils once in every yr.)
2. By dipping the seedlings in 2% suspension of ZnO is both cheap and convenient.
3. Seed coating is a new development and is at present being used in limited scale in drilled or direct seeded
rice production.
IRON : If iron deficiency is noticed spray 1.5% ferrous ammonium sulphate + 75 g citric acid/1lit of water at 4
to 5 days interval till the leaves turn to normal growth.
BIOFERTILIZERS: Some microbes are capable of fixing atmospheric N, while some can increase the
availability of N & P.
“Biofertilisers are the microbial inoculants and they which refer to living or latent cells of efficient
strains of microorganisms capable of fixing atmospheric N”
Free living organisms : Important amount fixing atmospheric ‘N’ are BGA, Azolla, Azatobacter &
Rhizospirillum. Among them, BGA and Azolla can survive only in lowland conditions.
BGA : Several sps of BGA can fix N. The most important species are Anabaena and Nostoc. The amount of N
fixed by BGA ranges from 15-45 kg N/ha; standing water of 2.20 cm in the field is a prerequisite for growth of
BGA at atemperature of 25-450C and PH of 7-8 with high organic matter in soils. Bright sunshine increases the
growth rate.
Nursery raising : BGA inoculum is applied after transplantation of rice @ 10 kg/ha + 3-4 tons of FYM/ha and
200 kg SSP/ha.
AZOLLA : It is a free floating fresh water fern. Azolla pinnata is the most common sps occuring in India. It
fixes N due to Anabaena sps of BGA present in the lobes of Azolla leaves. A thick mat of Azolla supplies 30-40
kg N/ha. Unlike BGA, it thrives well at low temparatures. It grows at a temperature of 20-300C and soil PH of
5.5 – 7.0. It grows better during monsoon season with frequent rains and cloudiness.
Azolla is applied to the main field as a green manure crop and as a dual crop. As green manure crop, it is
allowed to grow on flooded soils for 2-3 wks before transplanting. Later, water is drained and Azolla is
incorporated by ploughing in situ. As a dual crop, 1000-5000 kg/ha of Azolla is applied to the soil one week
after transplanting. When a thick mat forms, it is incorporated by trampling. The left over Azolla develops again
which is trampled in as a 2nd crop. For better growth of it, 25-50 kg of SSP/ha is applied and standing water of
5-10 cm is maintained continuously in the rice fields.

INM : Plant nutrients can be supplied from different sources viz., organic manures, crop residues, biofertilisers
and chemical fertilizers. For better utilization of resources and to produce crops with less expenditure, INM is
the best approach. In this, all the possible sources of nutrients are applied based on economic consideration and
the balance required for the crop is supplemented with chemical fertilizers. Rice crop residues add 17 kg N/ha.
Application of organic matter in any form reduces loss of N fert and increases FUE.

Lecture 5
WATER MANAGEMENT

Although a major part of irrigation water (45%) is directed to rice, yet it covers only 38% of total
cultivated area under rice. In other words , 62% of rice area in the country is rainfed. Among cereals, rice has
lowest productivity/unit of water (3.7. kg/ha mm). The main reason for growing rice is rainy season and
irrigation is provided only during deficit period to make up the water requirement. Percolation losses account
for 50-60%
Measures to reduce percolation loses.
1. Thorough puddling
2. Growing rice on clay soils < 5mm/day

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3. Scrupulous land leveling
4. Compaction of sub soil
5. Application of tank silt, clay etc.
The water needs of rice are not the same throughout the crop period. It requires small quantities of water in the
early stages, gradually increases its water requirement at flowering and early maturing stage and then decreases
to the lowest at later stages of crop growth. Hence, scheduling irrigation to meet the crop water demands at
different stages is very important. Desirable water depths at different growth stages are as flows where
irrigation and drainage facilities are available.
Water requirements of rice at different growth stages

SL.NO. Depth of submergence

Growth stage
(cm)

1 At transplanting 2

2 After transplanting for 3 days (3 DAT) 5

3 3 DAT up to max. tillering 2

4 At max. tillering (in fertile fields) Nil

5 Max. tillering to PI 2

6 P1 to 21 DA flowering 5

7 21 DAF to harvest Gradual drainage of water

MID SEASON DRAINAGE

Drainage for a day or two during the beginning of maximum tillering stage. This helps to stimulate the
vigorous growth of roots and checks the development of non effective tillers. The respiratory function of roots
is highest during this stage and introduction of air into the soil by draining the water from field leads to
vigorous growth of roots.
Standing Vs flowing irrigation
Irrigation efficiency is usually far higher in stagnant irrigation than in flowing irrigation but the later has
the advantage of
1. Leaching down harmful salts
2. controlling soil and water temperatures
3. Reducing labour cost

Irrigation water requirement includes 3 major components of water requirements of rice.

1. Raising seedlings :
It is estimated that 150-200 mm of water is needed for nursery bed preparation and 250-400 mm of
water to raise the seedlings.
2. Main field preparation : Amount of water needed to prepare mainfield depends mainly on

14
 a) Soil type b) its water holding capacity c) the method of land preparation

About 200 mm of water is required for main field preparation of 1 ha

3. Field irrigation Crop duration from transplanting to maturity is generally 90-120 days but early
maturing varieties, the duration is reduced by 10-20 days. The amount of water required in the field
depends upon
i. Water management practices adopted
ii. Soil types
iii. Evaporative demand in the season in which the crop is grown

Water requirement from transplanting to maturity roughly comes to 1000 mm with a daily consumption of 6-10
mm/day. The partitioning of water requirement for different growth periods of rice crop is given below :

Table : Total water requirement of rice crop

% of water
Average water
Stage of growth requirement to
requirement
total

1 Raising seedlings 40 3.22

2 Land preparation 200 16.12

3 Planting to P1 458 37.00

4 Pl to flowering 417 33.66

5 Flowering to maturity 125 10.00

Total 1240 100.00

Evaporation – 180-380 mm
Transpiration – 200-500 mm
Percolation – 200-700 mm
According to general experience, the total water requirement is about 1240 mm.
Proper water management will enable
i) good tillering of the crop
ii) increase the applied NUE
iii) minimize weed growth
iv) reduces the water requirement
v) increases yield

15
CRITICAL STAGES
During certain stages of growth, proper management practices gives highest yield and any neglect
results in yield loss. During this period, plants are most sensitive to shortage of water. These are known as
moisture sensitive periods or critical stages/periods.
Moisture stress due to restricted supply of water during the critical periods will irrevocable reduce the
yield and provision of adequate water and fertilizers at other growth stages will not help in recovering the yield
lost.
Critical periods of rice are PI, heading and flowering.
Under limited water supply conditions, irrigation is scheduled at moisture sensitive stages and irrigation
is skipped at non sensitive stages.

WATER USE EFFICIENCY : (WUE) :

If is defined as the yield of marketable crop produced per unit of water used in ET
WUE = Y/ET
(kg/ha mm of water)
Y = yield
ET = Evabotranspiration

If yield is proportional to ET, WUE has to be a constant but it is not so. Actually ET & Y are influenced
independently or differently by crop management and environment. Yield is more influenced by crop
management practices ; while ET is mainly dependent on climate and soil moisture. Fertilization and ot her
cultural practices for high crop yield usually increase WUE, because they relatively increase crop yield more
than crop water use. Crop production can be increased by judicious irrigation without markedly increasing ET

Methods of irrigation :
Surface method : Flooding, furrow, boarder strip etc., are employed

Lecture 6 WEEDS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT

Weeds reduce yield by 24-48% as they compete with the crop for nutrients, light water and space.
Weeds also reduce the quality of crop produce. In transplanted rice it is 15-20%, in Directed seeded rice (puddle
soil)30-35% and in upland rice about 50% loss occurs. The potential loss in production of rice in India due to
weed infestation is estimated at 15 m tons/annum.
Three types of weeds are found in rice fields.
i) Grasses : Monocots, two ranked leaves
Ex : Echinochloa colonum, Echinochloa crussgelli, cynodon sps panicum sps

ii) Sedges : Similar to grasses but have 3 ranked and triangular solid stems. They frequently have modified
rhizomes adopted for storage and for propagation.
Sedges belong to the family cyperaceae, a large family of monocotyledonous plants distinguished
chiefly by having active solid stems and 3 ranked stem leaves.
Ex : Cyperus rotundus, Cyperus iria, Fimbristylis miliaceae

iii) Broad leaved weeds : Dicots

Eg : Eclipta alba, Commelina bengalensis, Ammonia baccifera

16
Crop weed competition : Optimum yield were obtained where the minimum duration of weed control is from
20-30 days.

Weed control - Manual, mechanical & chemical weed control

Rice Nursery :
(i) Benthiocarb (Saturn) @ 2.5-5 lit/ha to be sprayed either on 3rd or 7th DAS will effectively control
Echinochloa sps without phytotoxicity to rice seedlings.

(ii) Propanil (Stam F-34) can be sprayed @ 3 ¼ lit/ha at 12-15 days of rice nursery. This herbicide should
not follow or precede the application of any fungicide/insecticide.
Transplanted rice :
1.2, 4-Diethyl ester granules @ 20-25 kg/ha (0.8-1kg a.i/ha) applied 3-5 DAT will give better weed control
(cost Rs.400-500/ha).
2, 4-Dielthyl ester granules at 10 kg/ha + benthiocarb at 2.5 lit/ha mixed with sand and applied at 3-5 DAT will
be useful when the fields are infested with Echinochloa sps (cost Rs.550/ha)

THRESHING : 3 types
1. Hand threshing of sheaves : against some hard surface like stone, wooden plank, a bench etc., This is
practical when the quantity is small and also for when it is for seed purpose.
2. Cattle thresing : It is adopted when large quantity is to be handled. First, a threshing floor is prepared
well by removing stubbles, compacting etc., in a circular fashion and the sheaves are spread and trampling
under the feet of cattle is made to go round and round.
3. Tractor threshing : Now a days, it is widely adopted practice. The sheaves are heaped on the threshing
floor in a circular fashion and the tractor goes round and round. In advanced countries, there will be
combined thresher and winnowers.
Milling of rice
In the process of milling the aleurone layer and embryo are removed during the polishing of rice grain.
All the grain constituents except the carbohydr ates are reduced by the process of polishing. There is a loss of
Vit B1, thiamine, the deficiency of which causes the disease called ‘beri-beri’ in those persons who
continuously eat ‘polished rice’
The loss of nutrients in parboiled rice, during the pr ocess of milling & washing with water before
cooking, is much less than that in white milled rice. Hand pounding of rice gives a higher recovery as well as
more nutritious rice grain.

YIELDS : It varies from season to season, and variety to variety besides several other factors. While the
average yields vary from 4-5 tons/ha during kharif. A minimum of 1 more tonne can be expected during rabi for
HYV.

Industrial uses: 75-80 lakh tons of paddy straw; supplemental source of raw material for paper industry.
4 mini paper mills produce - 55000 tons paper & straw boards.

Reasons for low yields of rice

1. Widely varying climatic conditions under which rice is grown.
2. Inefficient utilization of applied N
3. Limited scope for optimum water management in heavy rainfall areas.
4. Cloudiness and its ill effects on the phgotosymnthetic activity of rice in monsoon (80% of the season is

17
 cloudy during kharif)
5. Adverse effects of soil salinity or alkalinity (0.024 m.ha in AP & 7 m ha in India)
6. Susceptibility to heavy incidence of pests and diseases which tend to increase under ideal crop
conditiuons.
7. Little scope for rainfed upland rice to achieve its yield potential fully due to short growing season and
practically no control over time of transplantation in assured rainfall areas without irrigation facilities.
8. Indiscriminate use of fertilizers.
9. Monoculturing
10. Poor drainage (10 lakh ha. suffer in this zone)
These are the well known reasons which restrict the overall rice production in the country.
Measures to improve the yield
1. Tailoring new varieties which can effectively photosynthesize even under low light intensity .. Eg : IET
9354, Vijaya.
2. effective control of pests and diseases and growing of resistant varieties.
3. Growing varieties tolerant to salinity Eg: MCM-1 ; MCM-2 ; SR-26-B
4. Increasing cropping intensity thr ough early maturing modern rices.
5. Adopting best agronomical practices like adjusting the date of planting in a given locality in such a way
that the last 6 weeks of a variety pass through cloud free days.
PARBOILING IN RICE-
A hydrothermal treatment of rice grain immediately followed by drying prior to miling to prepare
parboiled grains is called parboiling. It is a hydrothermal process in which the crystalline form of starch is
changed in to an amorphous form on account of irreversible swelling and fusion of starch.
Rice grain consists chiefly of an endosperm embodying polygonal starch granules. The air and the
moisture fill up the intergranular spaces.
The soaking of a grain either in cold or hot water results in swelling of the starch granules. Soaking in
hot water weakens the granule structure by way of breaking the hydrogen bond which consequently provides a
larger surface for the absorption of water by the starch granules. The whole process is called gelatinization.
Later on, moist heating is done to provide the irreversible swelling or the fusion of the starch granules. Steam is
mostly used for moist heating.
Advantages
1. Easily to shell out the parboiled rice.
2. The percentage of broken grains is reduced (Extra strength is provided)
3. More nutritious than raw rice
4. Renders more resistant to insects during storage.
5. Loss of solids in gruel is less than raw rice during cooking.
6. The bran from parboiled rice contains higher oil content. It is better owing to lower contest of the free
fatty acids.
Disadvantages
1. Due to destroying of natural oxidants, rancidity may develop
2. Parboiled rice takes more time to cook.
3. Common rice consumer may not like the flavour and colour of the par boiled rice.
4. Parboiled rice may contain higher moisture content and some mycotoxins may develop.
5. Drying of parboiled rice to a safe moisture content for storage entails extra expenditure.
6. The milling cost of parboiled rice is higher since the shelled grains are comparatively harder.

18
Lecture 7 Chapter No.2
MAIZE (Zea mays)
Importance:
Maize is one of the important foods, green forage and industrial crops of the world. It is called queen of
the cereals. The crop plants which belong to the family poaceae. maize has highest yield/ha among the cereal
crops. It is now grown in all countries except Antarctica and under a more varied range of climates than any
other cereal crops. The National Commission on Agriculture observed that maize can substantially contribute to
the additional total food grain production by increasing its present contribution from 6-7% to 10%. Though it is
mainly used as a food crop in India by the rural population in the form of bread and gruel, it has vast industrial
potentialities as well having many as 50 different uses.
Ex: it can be put to the manufacture of starch, syrup, alcohol, acetic acid, lactic acid, glucose, paper, rayon,
plastic, textiles, adhesives, dyes, synthetic rubber, resin, artificial leather, boot polish etc.
Economic importance :-
 Cobs harvested slightly ahead of maturation are grilled and consumed tasty soups and pancakes are cooked
out of corn flour. Fermented corn is also common.
 Pop corn, which swellsand pops up on rapid heating are much relished snacks consumed all over the
world. Corn flour is mostly processed into tortillas in Mexico in Latin America.
 Corn is used in industries in several ways. Grains ground into flour are employed to prepare corn flakes.
Corn germ oil is a good cooking medium. Corn starch is raw material in many brews and jams. It is also
good for pr oducing alcohol. Some of the non food uses of corn are in preparing starch based adhesive.
Proteins are of use in pharmaceuticals textiles, in addition corn germ is used in the soap making industry.

CLASSIFICATION OF MAIZE TYPES :

1. Dent corn (Zea mays var indentata sturt)
This is the most common type grown in SA. Dent formation on the top of the kernel having yellow or
white colour. The depression or dent in the corn of the seed is the result of rapid drying and shrinkage of the
soft starch.
2. Flint corn (Zea mays var indurata sturt)
It is widely grown and cultivated in India. Endosperm of kernel is soft and starchy in the centre and
completely enclosed by a very hard outer layer. The kernel is rounded on the top. The colour may be white or
yellow. Grown in Europe, Asia, central America and South America.
3. Popcorn (Zea mays var everta sturt)
It possess exceptional qualities. Size of kernels is small but the endosperm is hard. When they are
heated, the pressure build up within the kernel suddenly results in an explosion and the grain is turn out. Grains
are used for human consumption and is the basis of popcorn confectionery. Its cultivation is mainly confined to
new world.
4. Flour corn ((Zea mays var amylacea sturt)
It possess a soft endosperm. Kernels are soft and though all coloured corns are grown but white & blue
are the most common. They are like fruit kernels in shape. Grown in USA & S. Africa.
5. Sweet corn (Zea mays var saccharata sturt)
The sugar and starch makes the major component of the endosperm that results in sweetish taste of the
kernels before they attain the maturity and after maturity, the kernels become wrinkled. The cobs are picked up
green for canning and table purpose. Mainly grown in North half of the USA.
6. Pod corn : (Zea mays var tunicata kulesh)
Each kernel is enclosed in pod. It is a primitive type of corn and hence of no importance.

19
7. Waxy corn (Zea mays var ceratina Kulesh)
The endosperm of the kernel when cut or broken gives a waxy appearance. It produces the starch similar
to tapioca starch for making adhesive for articles.

Origin and distribution

Origin of maize plant is still not definitely known, probably because of its wild relatives having become
extinct during the long period of cultivation. The wild relative of maize is Teosinte. Geographical origin of
maize is said to be somewhere in tropical zone of South America or Mexico, probably in the South western part
of the Amazon river basin.
Area and production
Among cereals maize crop occupies 3rd place in the world after wheat and rice. America ranks first in
productivity followed by Europe. In these areas maize is used primarily as a source of animal feed. Nearly 54%
of the total area is located in South America, Asia and Africa, but they contribute only 33% to the total
production of the maize in the world. In these areas, average productivity is low. Maize is consumed primarily
as a source of human food. India cultivates 5.4% of the total area and provides 1.7% of the total production of
maize in the world.
In India, UP ranks first in area production while the productivity is highest in Karnataka. Punjab ranks
fourth position.
Adaptataion and climatic requirements
Maize is a tropical plant which prefers warm humid weather. It is grown under extremely divergent
climatic conditions in different parts of the world ranging from tropical to temperate regions. Generally, it does
not grow satisfactorily in semi arid regions. Since, it is a short day plant with C4 type of photosynthesis, the
crop has very efficient utilization of solar radiation. It is very sensitive to excess or deficit soil moisture. It is
widely cultivated from 3900m MSL though it varies with latitudes. Therefore, it has adapted mainly in areas
having sandy loam soils and sub humid climate. To some extent, the crop is cultivated in areas having semi arid
climate provided the soils are deep with heavy texture. The optimum pH range of soil for maize is 6.5- 7.5.
It can be successfully grown where the night temperature does not go below 150 C. It cannot with stand
frost at any stage of growth. Optimum temperatures for germination is 21 0C and for growth is 320C. Minimum
90C , optimum 320C and maximum 460C temperature required for growth and development of maize. 600 mm
rainfall with even distribution is sufficient for good cultivation.
Soils : Maize can be grown on a variety of soils, but it grows best on well darined soils which are rendered
fertile by adequate supply of manures.
Best soils are --- Deep dark silt loams
In semi arid climates -- Deep soils [heavy texture] In sub humid climates --- Sandy loam soils.
Optimum PH --- 6.5-7.5
Seasons : Kharif season --- with onset of monsoon i.e in June or July and harvested in late September or
October.
Crop grown from Oct to January as irrigated one. Sowing maize at about 5 days before onset of
monsoon [i.e last week of May to the second week of June] and providing irrigation, results in good plant stand
and highest grain yields.

Seed bed preperation [land preparation:

At least 2-3 shallow tillage operations during summer season are essential in all maize growing areas.
Deep ploughing is also helpful to control weeds and for efficient moisture conservation similarly bed and
furrow or ridge and furrow systems are suitable in semi arid and sub humid regions. In high rainfall regions ill
drainage reduces the yields. Therefore in Dehradun valley the system of ZINGG terracing has been found

20
suitable.
Seeds and sowing :
Yield of maize remains the same over a wide range of pant populations. On an average 60000-80000
plants/ha is optimum for good yields.
For pure crop --- 20-25 kg seed/ha [60x25 cm or 75 x20 cm]
For intercropping with soybean --- 15 kg/ha [1:2 ratio]
For intercropping with soybean --- 10 kg/ha [1:3 ratio]
For fodder maize --- 40-50 kg/ha

Test weight of variety decides seed rate. High flexibility in crop geometry has been found in case of maize crop.
Crop geometry of 45x20 cm is found to be optimum for most of the areas.
Method of sowing : It is desirable to dibble the maize seed by the side of the ridges at a distance of 1/3 from
the top of the ridge. Dibble seed 2-3 cm deep and should not be more than 5 cm. Ridge sowing facilitated
irrigation as well as drainage.
Weed management: Timely weed control is important. Proper and timely inter cultivation helps in aeration by
loosening the surface soil and assures good yields.
Weeds --- grasses --- Cynodon dactylon, Echinoclhloa colonum
Sedges --- Cyperus iria, Cyperus rotundus Firnbristilis miliacea
Brood leaved --- Celosisa argentina Commelina bengalensis, Convolvulus arvensis, Tribulus terrestris
Solanum nigrum, Phyllanthus sps
Maize needs two intercultivations and two handweedings.First inter cultivation is done between rows to
break ridges/furrows and earthing up of plant rows. See that intercultivation should not be done too near the
pants nor deep to avoid injury to the growing roots. Growing maize by the side of the ridges and earthing up in
the early stages reduces injury due to water logging.
Lecture 8
Water management :
Maize is sensitive to both drought and water logging. Proper water management is a must for increasing yields.
The most critical period for moisture stress is flowering stage [i.e. tasselling and silking]. Upto 40 DAS, the
crop is more sensitive to excess moisture and from preflowering to maturity, it is more sensitive to drought.
Maize plant utilizes about half of its seasonal intake of water during the 5 weeks following attainment of
its maximum leaf area which is about the tasselling stage. It has been observed that continuous saturation of the
top soil even for 4 days has resulted in reduction of yield of 50 q/ha. So it is always advisable to grow the crop
on the side of the ridges in areas with poor drainage or heavy rainfall or on black soils. Popcorn is very sensitive
to drought. If soil moisture stress occurs during early vegetative stage, then flowering is delayed. Drought at
flowering stage, reduces yield and at later stages affect size and popping quality in popcorn.
Furrow method of irrigation is both efficient and convenient for maize crop.

Precautions to be observed with regarding to irrigation and drainage during the life cycle of maize crop:
1. Apply water evenly and uniformly while irrigating the maize crop.
2. Drain out excess water promptly.
3. Open the filed drains at even if to avoid the chances of damage due to excess water or rain.
4. Do not allow the maize crop to wilt due to shortage of moisture.
5. The crop should be irrigated immediately if the leaves roll or wilt during the day and fail to unfoll in the
followring morning. Sometimes leaf wilting may occur in the evenings and the leaves will not recover by the

21
next morning. This is a sign of extreme moisture stress.
6. Do not allow the crop to wilt at the flowering stage. The soil should be kept moist for proper grain selting
and development.

Manures and fertilisers :

At maturity ½ of the dry matter production is accounted for starch in the grain. The percent of N and P
in embryo of the seed is highest compared to any other tissue of maize plant. More than ½ of N, accumulates in
the grain. There is a continuous uptake of P during the growing season. K accumulates in all the tissues of the
plant and it reaches a maximum at about middle of August when sown towards the end of May.
As in other crops, a balanced and integrated nutrient management plays a pivotal role in maize
cultivation. The nutrient uptake depends on soil fertility status, variety, crop growth stage, plant density and
time of cultural operations.

NITROGEN : The maize crop should have continuous supply of N at all stages of growth till grain formation.
N deficiency symptoms are indicated by the yellowing of the tips of lower leaves and the deficiency gradually
spreads to mid ribs and finally affects the upper leaves. So N deficiency in maize plants even at an early stage
of crop growth will reduce grain yield substantially.
PHOSPHORUS : A higher % of P is needed in early stages than in the later stages. P comprises an important
component of maize plant tissues and the developing grains. Thus, if P deficiency exists, it will show up
before plants have reached before knee-high stage. The contribution of P through fertilizers decreases rapidly
though plants take up this element up near maturity.
POTASSIUM : Maize takes up K from knee high to post flowering stage. AP soils are medium to high in
available k. So K deficiency in maize is not common. If K deficiency is found, it should be corrected
immediately.
ZINC : Majority of maize hybrids growing areas show zn deficiency.
Table no. 2.1Recommended doses of fertilizers (Kg/ha)
Nutrient Irrigated Rainfed

N 120-150 80-100

P 60-75 40-50

K (Based on soil test) 35 35

ZnSo4 (once in 3 seasons) 25-50 25-50

Time and method of fertilizer application : In case of rainfed crop, apply all the fertilizers in single dose as
basal dressing. Place the fertilizers 10 cm away from seed rows and 5 cm below the seed. In case of other
situations, adopt the following method for N in Table no. 2.2
Apply 2nd & 3rd splits of N in the after noon when there is no dew. Fert. Should be mixed up in the soil
with a hand hoe. Immediately after fert. Application, filed has to be irrigated in case of irrigated crop. In case of
rainfed crop, it the N is to be applied as top dressing, there should be enough moisture in the soil or fertilizers
are to be applied after receipt of rain, when the soil is in proper condition.
In case of Zn deficiency, apply 25-50 kg zn so4/ha as a basal dose to the soil separately and worked in to
the soil but not alongwith the basal dressing of phosphatic fertilizers.

22
 In case of ZnSO4 not applied to soil fotiar spray of ZnSO4 @ 5 kg + 2.5 kg lime/ha. Repeat 2-3 times at
weekly intervals till the deficiency symptoms disappear. Basal application of ZnSO4 is superior and more
lasting effect than foliar application.
Symptoms of Zinc deficiency in maize :
Stunted growth with short nodes pale green colour, lower half of leaf having broad ends of bleached
tissue while mid rib and leaf margins remain green.

Table no. 2.2

Sl. Type of Quantity to be
season Stage Method of appln.
No. soil apply.

Drill 10 cm away & 5

i) sowing ¼N
cm below the seed rows

ii) knee hight (i.e. 30-35

K Broad cast b/n rows and
Light or DAS) (25-30 DAS for ½N
1 R mix up with soil
sandy popcorn)
S

iii) Pre tasselling i.e. 50-

55 DAS (40-45 DAS for ¼N
-do-
popcorn)

i) sowing Drilling ¾N

Broadcast & mix with

ii) knee hight ¼N
K
Soil
Heavy or
2 S

black soil
i) sowing Drilling ¼N
R

Broadcast and mix with

ii) knee hight ¾N
Soil

23
HARVESTING : Hybrids of maize mature within 90-110 days. Test for maturity is that ? the husk cover turns
pale brown and the grains are too hard to be pressed in with finger nail. The cobs may be harvested at about
20% grain moisture. The plants may remain green when the cobs are dry and ready for harvest. Therefore do
not wait for stalks to dry up for harvesting. This is desirable as such plants can be used as fooder.

SHELLING : Enough time should be given for drying and shelling. Generally, the plants are left in the field for
one or 2 days after harvesting. The grains dry up during this period. Remove the husk and cobs are kept in sun
for 2-3 days before shelling.

The grains are separated easily from the ears if they are dried thoroughly and grain moisture is reduced
to less than 15 %. Shelling can be done either by beating with sticks or by using maize shellers operated by
hand or power. After shelling, the grains may be cleaned, dried thoroughly and stored at 10 to 12% grain
moisture.
Popcorn ears should be harvested at 30-35% moisture and dried slowly in shade. Quick sun drying
results in cracking of grains and poor popping expansion. The ears may be shelled at 12% moisture. The
optimum moisture for best popping is 12-14%. Therefore, grain is to be stored at 12% moisture in water proof
bags.
YIELD ATTRIBUTES :
1. No. of cobs/plant
2. No. of grains/cob
3. Grain weight/cob
4. Test weight (100 grain weight)

YIELD :
Hybrids : 35-40 Q/ha
Locals : 15-20 Q/ha

High lysine composites :

1. Shakti : 95-100 days ; 10.6% protein ; 3.45% lysine yield 45 q/ha
2. Rattan : 95-100 days ; 10% protein ; 3.46% lysine yield 40-45 q/ha. Grains similar to shakti.
Tolerant to top borer and downy mildew.
3. Protina : Compos ite with high nutritional quality contains 11% protein; 4% lysine against 2% lysine in
normal varieties duration 100-105 days; yield:40-45 q/ha.

24
Lecture 9 Chapter No. 3
SORGHUM (Sorghum bicolor)
It is most important cereal crop in India. It stands second in area (next to rice), but third in production
after rice and wheat. It is cultivated primarily as a crop both during kharif and rabi and is one of the main
reasons for low average yields (864kg/ha). It is mostly grow n in marginal lands which do not suit for wheat
and maize. It is one of the major food crops of the world (wheat, rice, maize and jowar). Millions of people in
Africa and Asia depend on sorghum as their staple food.
ORIGIN: East and Central Africa (Ethiopia/ Sudan) is regarded as the place of origin of sorghum because of
the greatest diversity of types grown in that region.

USES OF SORGHUM
1. Jowar is used as human food and animal feed.
2. Jowar is used as fodder for animals.
3. Chopped green stems and foliage are used to prepare hay or silage and also as pasture crop.
4. Sweet sorghum & pop sorghum are perched and consumed by human beings.
5. Jowar flour is used for preparation of roti.
6. It is also used in breweries to prepare alcohol and malting purposes.
7. Jowar cake can also be prepared from fermented dough.
8. Sweet sorghums are used to prepare syrups, biscuit making in bakeries.
9. Left over stubbles are used as a source of fuel.
10. Tribals eat sorghum grains and sweet stems containing 10% sugar.
11. "Vani jowar" is a speciality of south Gujarat which is eaten under green perched conditions.
12. Jowar dhani i.e. pop sorghum is very popular among children.
13. Grain is sometimes fed to cattle, poultry and swines besides being used by human beings.

CYANIDE( HCN) : Sorghum varieties and sudan grass produce toxic quantity of cyanide. The cyanide
concentration is highest in seedling stage and declines as the plant grows.

MERIT: The greatest merit with jowar is that it has the capacity to withstand drought due to waxy coating on
stems and leaves.
AREA AND DISTRIBUTION: World area is 43.7 million hectares with a production of 62.8 million tones
and productivity of 1.3t/ha. While India leads (first) in the world in acreage, USA ranks first in production.
The other important jowar grow ing countries are Pakistan, South America, USSR, Europe , Africa, China,
Nigeria, Sudan etc.,
In India, jowar is grown in 10.9 million hectares with a production of 8.0 million tones and the average yield
is 0.73t/ha. 1/3 sorghum area is in India.

ADAPTATION
It is a sturdy crop and can withstand varied climatic hazards more than any other crop. It is successfully
grown in arid areas of UP, Rajastha n and also in humid regions of W.Bengal and B ihar. It is primarily a
tropical warm weather crop. It can withstand wide range of temperatures varying from 15.5 DC to 40.5 DC
with rainfall variations of 35-150cm per annum. Although it is a crop of plains, it grows within plateau region
of South India up to an elevation of 1000m. Sor ghum is a short day plant. Flowering and grain formation
starts when day length shortens during winter.
Soils: Sorghum can be grown in heavy black soils to red soils, but comes up weII in heavy black soils. The
best crops are grown the clay loams. Jowar does not grow well under gravely and marshy soils. The crop

25
grows well in neutral pH of 7.0.
Main field preperation: Jawar is a poor man's crop which is mostly grown under low input conditions.
However, soil management and land preparation are very important items of work for increasing production.
The preparation of land for sowing of jowar is not as thorough as for most of the cereals. In black cotton soil
areas, if the land is infested with weeds, ploughing followed by harrowing is practiced. Good tilth should be
obtained by ploughing with iron plough/country plough for the grain production of jowar. Tractor discing or
ploughing is also advisable. Normally, the land is well ploughed, then worked with a cultivator or blade
harrow. Cattle manure may be applied 12 t/ha and mixed with 'soil by ploughing or harrowing. The land is w
orked with blade harrow 2-3 times, Sometimes gorru without seeding attachment is worked 2-3 times.
Incase of irrigated crop, after sowing and covering of the seed, beds are formed with the provision of
irrigation channels to irrigate the beds. An irrigation channel is formed for every pair of beds to irrigate the
beds situated on either side of the channel. Incase of transplanting, beds are formed first, water is let into the
beds to soak the land and seedlings are transplanted. For an irrigated crop, the best system is to form ridges
and furrows, adopting a spacing of 45cm apart with the provision of irrigation channels at 7.5-10m apart
across ridges and furrows to adopt furrow irrigation. At the time of sowing, dibble the seed by the side of the
ridge at a distance of 1/3 from the top of the ridge.
Ploughing, harrowing and blinding in jowar is necessary for:
1. Good seed bed
2. Reducing weed population
3. Preventing soil eros ion
4. Conserving soil moisture
5. Conserving ent ire rainfall in dry ares for the USE of jowar crop
6. Providing drainage i'1 wet and humid areas
7. Mixing up organic manures in the seed bed.

YEAR ROUND TILLAGE: To assist the farmers in combating weeds and to enable him to carry out sowing
under improved seed bed conditions with this tillage and seeding equipment using bullock power "a year
round tillage programme" was developed at CRIDA, Hyderabad.
The year round tillage has several advantages:
l.The primary tillage with country plough in the kharif is done during the non crop season when the farmers
are relatively free and at a time whe n the land and bullocks are in good condition. This operation minimizes
carryover of weed population from one crop season to another.
2.The subsequent harrowing operations have the advantage of a thorough weed control. Firm, seed bed and
conservation of moisture in the seed zone which in turn enables early planting and good plant stands is so vital
for increasing the productivity in dry lands. In an intercropping system, is necessary to till or harrow the field
immediately after the harvest of one of the component crops as otherwise weeds take over and the yield of
longer duration component is drastically reduced.

GROWTH STAGES OF JOWAR

Development of sorghum crop could be classified into number of ways. A fairly simple classification is based
on 3 growth stages (GS1, GS2 and GS3 ) and are described as follows ( Vanderlip and Eastin )
GS1 ( Emergence to PI ) : Growth stage 1 is a strictly vegetative period. Relatively little information is
available how this stage influences sorghum yields. It is necessary for producing sufficient leaf area and
functional root system to support maximum grain deve lopment.
GS2 ( PI to Anthesis) : This is very critical stage in the development of crop, since maximum potent ial seed
number is set. Higher seed number has generally is the most important yield component associated with

26
increasing yield in sorghum.
GS3 (Anthesis to Maturity): Ultimate yield is the function of both the length of the grain filling period and
metabolic or synthetic efficiency. During that period either seed number or potential size (sink) are not
limiting.

SEEDS AND SOWING

Sorghum is sown by various methods in different parts of the country. The methods are
1.Broadcasting 2. Drilling 3. Dibbling 4.Transplanting 5.Ratooning
1. BROADCASTING: This method is not much used by farmers because the seed rate required is more and
the distribution of the seed is also uneven. Seeds are broadcasted and are covered by wor king with a country
plough. The seed rate varies from 12-18kg/ha. Dry lands require less seed than irrigated lands. This method is
usually done in irrigated lands where beds and channels are made and for sowing of fodder sorghum under
irrigated farming.
2. DRILLING: It is carried out by locally prepared seed drills, gorru and covered by guntaka or brush
harrowing. Seed rate is 8-12kgjha. Higher seed rate is recommended for light soils and low rainfall areas
while lower seed rate is given for black soils. Spacing of 45x15-20cm and at 3-4 cm depth is common in dry
soils.
3. DIBBLING: It is a time consuming method and requires more human labour. It is otherwise economical
because the seed required is much less Le. 6kg/ha and gives the equal opportunity to all plants for their grow
from the beginning. It is recommended where labour is not a constraint for both kharif and rabi jowar in order
to obtain higher grain yield.
Seeds are dropped in plough furrows directly or through bamboo tube attached to plough(akkadi)
since the land will be leveled thoroughly and marked with a marker crosswise, keeping a distance of
45x15cm. The seed is covered by the succeeding furrow. This method is adopted usually in dry lands , where
the moisture content of the soil is low. In case of irrigated crop, 2 or 3 seeds are dibbled by the side of the
ridge adopting 12-15cm spacing in the row, where ridge and furrow method is adopted. Depth of sowing will
be around 2.5 to 5cm by adopting population of 1.8 to 2 lakhs/ha. Thinning is to be done at 15 to 20 DAS
leaving one seedling per hill. Fill up the gaps with the pulled seedlings. This method is usually practiced in
sorghum research centres.
4. TRANSPLANTING: In areas with sufficient rainfall, transplanting of jowar seedlings is done. This
practice is prevalent in the districts of Srikakulam, Vizag, E&W Godavari districts with regard to cultivation
of KONDA JONNA during july-aug. When the soil gets sufficiently moist, seedlings of jowar obtained from
a nursery after topping the leaves are dropped in the plough furrow. The root portion of the seedlings is
covered when the next furrow is opened.As an irrigated crop, the beds of the field are irrigated and seedlings
are planted. Even the hybrids can be transplanted. A light irrigation before or soon after planting helps for
better establishment. The transplanting method is mostly used for hybrid sorghum. In Tamilnadu and in
adjoining areas of Tirupathi, the seed growers follow the transplanting method of sowing. This method is
developed by them for obtaining perfect synchronisation of male and female lines of sorghum hybrid CSH-5.
The female Iines are dibbled by hand or drilled directly in the fields. The male lines are sown in the seed bed.
The 2 week seedlings of male lines are then transplanted in the field in the ratio of 4 female lines to 2 male
lines. Due to transplanting of male lines, the flowering in the male lines would be delayed by about a week.
Due to this method, the farmers in South India are able to organize a good hybrid sorghum seed production
programme than North Indian farmers.
5. RATOON CROP: The cultivation of an additional crop from the re growth of stubbles of previous main
crop after its harvest, there by avoiding reseeding or replanting such as sugarcane, sorghum, rice, fodder
grasses etc. Hybrids of sorghum can be ratooned with good success. They give extra11 quintals yields to the

27
main crop if they are properly managed. Out of all CSH-1 is the best for ratooning and the local varieties are
not at all fit for ratooning. This is only possible under irrigated conditions.

STEPS: 1. The main crop has to be harvested while the stem is green, leaving 4” to 6” stubble above ground
level.
2. The 2nd day after harvesting, an irrigation has to be given to induce sprouting from the nodes.
3. Fertilizers @ 60kgN/ ha has to be applied at 2 splits. 1st split at the basal stage and the 2nd split of N at
30 days after from date of ratooning.
4. From each stubble, a number of sprouts come up. The weak sprouts have to be thinned out leaving 2 or
3 good healthy sprouts in each stubble
5. Maintain sufficient moisture from boot leaf to grain hardening stage.
6. The ear head size though small in ratoon crop gives equal yield to main crop as it put forths 2 or 3
sprouts.
7. Ratoon comes to harvest in 80-85 days.
8. Plant protection measures have to be taken up in time against pests and diseases as in planted crop.
9. For a ratoon crop of jowar, all the plants in the field have to be harvested at one time.
10. Ratooning reduces expenditure on land preparation, sowing, fertyilisers and gives more net income
when it is managed well.

Spacing for sorghum: 45x12-15cm

Seed treatment: For control of grain smut disease - treat the seed with sulphur @ 5g/kg seed.
OR With organo mercurial compounds or carbomates @ 2.5g/kg seed. For shoot fly-carbofuran 50 WP@
100g/kg seed.

Lecture 10
MANURES AND FERTILISERS : Both N & P are essential for stepping up grain yields of jowar. The
effect of P in increasing grain yield is more pronounced when it is applied in combination with N. Application
of N consistently increases uptake of P at all stages of growth. N uptake is also significantly increased at high
levels of P application even at 60 days growth stage. Response to N is better in hybrids than in local improved
varieties. Response of jowar to K is infrequent. K need not to be applied to jowar except in areas known to be
deficient regarding potash. For rainfed varieties, in many cases 25kg N+ 25 kg P2O5/ha gave higher yields
compared to 50kg N/ha under dry land conditions. Under irrigated conditions the doses of N & P are 40 kg/ha
each.

TIME AND METHOD OF APPLICATION OF FERTILISERS : When fertilizers are applied in direct
contact with seeds, injury to germination frequently occurs. Drill the fertilizers into the soil before the sowing
of seed at 5cm below the seed level. Basal application gives better response when drilled into the soil.
HEAVY SOIL: All N & P2O5 could be applied basally or drilled into the soil at sowing 2" away and 2"
below the seed.

LIGHT SOILS: N should be given in 2 equal splits i.e. half as basal and other half at 30-35 DAS i.e at knee
high stage.
General dose for HYV's is 80-40-20 kg NPK/ha

POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED FOR EFFICIENT FERTILISER MANAGEMENT

1. Jowar crop removes large quantity of nutrients from soil.

28
2. Growth and nutrient uptake will be more rapid after 40 days from sowing. Adequate supply of
nutrients and water are necessary to provide maximum growth.
3. Jowar ear heads may not exert out completely from the flag leaf without adequate nutrients and water.
4. Final grain yield depends upon the rate of dry matter accumulation in the grain. NPK are necessary for
dry matter accumulation. Nutrients at all stages of development of jowar crop are required for obtaining
maximum yield.
5. Use of fertilizrs after getting the soil properly tested.

WATER MANAGEMENT: Though jowar is drought resistant, it responds well to irrigation. It is primarily a
rainfed crop. It has an extensive and deep fibrous root system. It is observed that on an average, about 6-9
irrigations, each of 5-6 cm depth are necessary depending on climate. Total water requirement is about 500-
600mm.

CRITICAL STAGES FOR IRRIGATION: Irrigation is needed at 5 stages of the crop i.e.
1. Germination (at the time of sowing)
2. Knee high stage (30-35 DAS)
3. Flag leaf stage (50-55 DAS)
4. Flowering ( 70-75 DAS)
5. Grain formation stage (100-105 DAS)
The peak water needs of jowar crop is at booting to seed setting stage.
TIME OF IRRIGATION: The optimum time for irrigating jowar is when the soil moisture (ASM) is
depleted to the extent of 50-60% in the effective root zone. It was observed that irrigating the crop when the
ASM falls to 50% in the root zone of 60 cm has given the highest yield of grain.
Irrigations to maintain a high moisture content during the seedling stage of the crop have been found
to be detrimental to the growth of jowar due to lowering of soil temperature below the optimum and leaching
of plant nutrients from the root zone. Irrigation at 45th day even for rainfed crops which coincides with boot
leaf ensures good yields.
Peak water requirements are at boot to flowering and early grain development stages i.e 25th , 45th and
55th DAS. These days correspond to PI, boot leaf and flowering respectively. For irrigated crop, irrigation
once in 7-10 days for light soils and once in 15-20 days for heavy soils may be necessary. About 50% of
jowar root is within 50 cm depth of soil though roots may go as deep as 150 cm. A pre-sowing irrigation to
bring 120 cm depth of soil to field capacity is essential. An irrigation at 15 days after emergence in shallow
soils is important. The irrigation may be given to bring 90 cm of the soil to field capacity.

POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED FOR BETTER WATER MANAGEMENT IN JOWAR

1. Deep tillage and other moisture conservation practices to increase infiltration and soil moisture storage.
2. To provide drainage in black cotton soils during periods of excessive rainfall as jowar crop cannot tolerate
water logging conditions.
3.Water harvesting during periods of excessive rainfall to make use of all available water for improving and
stabilizing crop production.
4.Following improved irrigation techniques and timing to utilize a limited supply of tank or well water most
effectively.
5.Adjusting of planting dates and cropping systems to optimize efficiency of water use.
6. Use of fertilizers and other improved production practices to increase WUE.
7. Severe moisture stress after flowering in kharif jowar can result in "blasting" and poor head filling.
Providing only one irrigation at this stage can boost yield.

29
8. Final yields depends on the rate of dry matter accumulation in the grain and the length of time it
accumulates. So, all the factors related to improve dry matter accumulation should be efficiently managed.

Important weeds associated with sorghum:

Grasses : Cenchrus sps, Digitalis sanguinalis, Echinochloa crussgalli, Eleusine indica
Sedges : Cyperus rotundus
Broad leaved weeds : Amaranthus viridis, Celosia argentina, Commelina bengalensis, Striga lutea

Weed management: Mechanical – intercultivation

Rainfed crop: Inter cultivation is done in between rows with small implements known as danthi i.e., small
blade harrow - i )to remove weeds ii)to stir the top soil and iii)to give slight earthing up to jowar plants. A
light country plough is also used for this purpose and the interspaces are ploughed. lnterculturing commences
when the crop is about 15-20 DA5 and it is repeated at 10 days interval.
Irrigated crop: A hand weeding is done within 20 DAS. A light plough is worked in between rows to break
the ridge and earth up the rows of jowar plants when the crop is 30-38 cm in height.
Chemical: (a) A pre emergence application of Atrazine or Propazine @ 0.25 - 0.50 kg a. i./ha in 900 lit water
for effective control .This is followed by a late weeding which is the best and safest.
(b) A post emergence application of 2 lit of MSMA /ha in 700 lit water can be used to control nut grass
effectively. During the application, avoid as far as possible spraying on the crop (MSMA=Monosodium
methyl arsenate)
(c) 2,4-D @ 0.75-1.0 kg a.i./ha as post emergence 4-5 days after sowing for broad leaved weeds.
One or two inter cultivations in sorghum may provided adequately effective control of weeds.
Striga
Witch weed (striga sps), a root parasite which falls in the group of higher parasitic plants, comprises of
major threat to sorghum production. The common species of striga are l.Striga asiatica 2.Striga lutea 3.Striga
densiflora 4.Striga euphrasiodes 5. Striga hermonthica.
Striga lutea , an erect herb grows to a height of 10-30 cm. It is the most wide spread species of striga
causing severe crop losses and occurs through out India.
Striga robs the host sorghum plant of food and hormones through the roots attached to the sorghum
roots. Growth of sorghum consequently remains stunted and the plant vigour is adversely affected. The total
effect is drastic reduction in sorghum yield. This parasite which grows on the root of jowar plant, depleting it
of its nourishment and there by arresting the growth and reducing the yield.
Striga can be controlled by systematic removal before it flowers. Spraying with chemical weed killer,
methaxone or 2,4-0 @ 0. 2% solution can control striga. Some other measures to control striga are 1.Deep
ploughing 2.Double the recommended dose of N 3. Growing resistant varieties like SPV-462, N-13 etc.,
4.Growing catch crops and trap crops like cotton, redgram, groundnut, linseed, sunflower, cowpea. 5. Use of
methyl bromide @ 200 kg / ha as a fumigant, which is costly 6. Post emergence spray of 2,4-D @0.75-1. 0 kg
a.i. / ha gives moderate control.

Harvesting and threshiing

When the grain is ripe and hard, the crop is to be harvested (i.e. , whe n the grains become hard and
contain less than 25% moisture, they are considered fully ripe for harvesting). Generally, the irrigated crop
matures later than dry crop. The plants are pulled out with the roots, cut at the base with sickles; when the
crop is of short height are where mixed cropping is practiced, the ears a lone are harvested firs t, leaving the
stalks to be cut at a future date. The harvested plants are allowed to dry in the field for 3-4 days and the ears
are then removed. The straw is kept in stacks in the field for a week for complete drying. Then it is carted and

30
stacked in the yard.
Sorghum grown for fodder purposes should be harvested either up to or at 50% flowering. Younger
jowar plants posses, a high hydrocyanic acid (HCN) content which is poisonous to the animals. Further, there
is a sharp decline in the protein content and digestibility of nutrients beyond the flowering stage
In case of multi cut varieties – first cutting: 2 months after sowing
-Subsequent cuts: 30-40 days after the first cut
Threshing of the dried ears is done by beating with sticks or trampling under the feet of cattle. Stone
rollers are also used for this purpose. The grain has to be winnowed, cleaned and dried to reduce the moisture
to about 12-13 %. Threshing machines are also available.
Sorghum effect: Sorghum is an exhaustive crop. It removes more amounts of nutrients. So, two exhaustive
crops like sorghum and cotton should not follow each other. Instead pulse crop can follow sorghum. It was
experienced that some of the succeeding crops to sorghum do not thrive well due to some toxic effect left over
by the jowar crop. This can be counteracted by good manuring of the succeeding crop with FYM and by green
manuring with indigo or wild indigo or crop rotation or sorghum mixed cropping.
CROPPING SYSTEMS:
North India -(i) Sequences
Sorghum - Wheat
Sorghum - Wheat- greengr a m
Sorghum - Whea t – Cowpea
Sorghum – Pea
Sorghum - Safflower/ Sunf lower
(ii) Mixed cropping
Sorghum + Soya bean
Sorghum + Pigeonpea
Sorghum + Greengram/Blackgram

South India - (i) Sequences

Sorghum- Cotton
Sorghum - Rabi sorghum
Sorghum - Tobacco
Sorghum - Finger mille t - Groundnut
Groundnut - Rabi sorghum
(iii)Mixed cropping(kharif)
Sorghum+pigeonpea
Sorghum+greengram
Sorghum+blackgram
Sorghurn+cowpea

Mixed cropping(rabi)
Sorghurn+safflower/ sunflower

The average grain composition of sorghum grain contains Protein : 7.4 – 14.2%, Lipids : 2.4 – 6.5%,
Carbohydrates : 70 – 90%, Fibre : 1.2 – 3.5% and different minerals like Ca, P and Fe.
Compared to other cereals, sorghum protein is deficient in lysine and rich in leucine. Lysine is
required for bone formation. Children are more susceptible to lysine deficiency than adults. (The sticky nature
of cooked rice is determined by the relative proportion of amylo protein and amylase. The main protein in rice

31
is Oryzenin. Among a mino acids, the glutamic acid content is highest in rice which is also rich in lysine.)

YIELD ATTRIBUTES:
1. Number of panicles/unit area
2. Length of the panicle (cm)
3. Number of filled grains/panicle
4. Test weight or 1000 grain weight
Yield is the function of above yield attributing factors.
YIELD: Rainfed: 20-25 q/ha, Irrigated:50-60q/ha

32
Lecture 11 Chapter No. 4
PEARLMILLET /BAJRA (Pennisetum glaucum L.)
English: Pearlmillet and Other names: Cat tail millet, candle millet, Spiked millet, Bulrush millet, dark millet
etc.Bajra is one of the major coarse grain crops and is considered as poorman’s food. It provides staple food
for the poor in a short period in the relatively dry tracts of the country. It is the most drought tolerant crop
among cereals and millets. Pearl millet is endowed with greater ability to withstand harsh climatic factors, and
still yield substantially. Globally, it occupies around 27 mha.The grain of bajra is superior in nutritive value to
Sorghum grain but inferior in feeding value.

Bajra grains contain about :

Moisture - 12.4%
Protien - 11.6%
Fat - 5.0%
Carbohydrates - 67%
Minerals - 2.7%

Bajra is cooked like Rice or Chapaties are prepared out of flour (like maize or sorghum), It is also used
as feed for poultry and fodder for cattle.
ORIGIN:
Most of the Scientists believe that the primary centre of origin of bajra is Africa from where it spread
to India and other countries.
Distribution:
Bajra is grown mostly in tropical climate. It is widely grown in Africa and Asia. The important Bajra
growing countries are India, pakistan, China and South East Asia.
In India, except in west Bengal and Assam, it is grown throughout the country. It is generally grown in
areas of low rainfall and in poor soils. Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat, U.P and Haryana account for 87% of
the total area. About 78% of the production comes from these states. India is the largest producer of bajra.
Area Production Productivity
India ---- 9.1 mha 7.3 mt 780 kg/ha
Rank Area Production Productivity
I Rajasthan Rajasthan M.P
II Maharastra Gujarat Haryana
III Gujarat Maharastra Gujarat

SOILS
Bajra can be grown on a wide variety of soils, but being sensitive to water logging, it does best on well
drained sandy loams and clay loams. Bajra is sensitive to acidic soils. It is grown successfully on black cotton
soils, alluvial soils and red soils of India.

LAND PREPARATION:
The crop needs very fine tilth because the seeds are very small. It is essential to do the summer ploughing
by mould board plough and after the onset of monsoon the field should be harrowed twice (or) thrice or
ploughed by country plough. Care should be taken to remove all the weeds and stubbles from the field and if

33
possible the field should be levelled and drains should be provided in the field.
SEASON, SEEDS AND SOWING:
Sowing time:
Kharif : June –July, Rabi : Sept –Oct, Summer :First fortnight of January
Avoid late planting beyond July 15th (In case, sowing is delayed there is a drastic reduction in yield due to
more incidence of diseases like downy mildew or ergot, restricted vegetative growth of the crop, high rate
of mortality and poor grain setting).
Seed Rate:
4.0-5.0 kg/ ha (If sown by drilling)
2.5-3.0 kg/ha (If sown by dibbling method)
Spacing: 45x15 cm
Seed treatment: Seed should be treated with thiram or captan @ 3g/kg of seed.
Meththod of Sowing: Broadcasting, Drilling, Dibbling and Transplanting. Of these, Drilling is most popular.
Thinning and gap filling should be done at 10-15 DAS.
Depth of Sowing: 2 to 3 cm
Transplanting is done, in case, if sowings are delayed due to late onset of monsoon or heavy and continuous
rains at the time of sowing. Transplanting gives higher yields as compared to direct sowing. 3-4 week old
seedlings are planted @2/hill. Under South Indian conditions, summer bajra is usually grown by
transplanting.
Advantages of transplanting
1.Transplanted crop matures early and produce more tillers and ears due to better growth.
2.Gives higher yields than direct seeding.
3.Optimum plant population is ensured.
Management of over aged seedlings
In case of seedlings having age of less than 20 days, the tillers arise from the basal nodes ‘just below
the ground’ and most of the tillers put forth ears at the same time. When aged seedlings are transplanted,
tillers arise from the internodes ‘above the ground’. This makes the plant susceptible to lodging.
To overcome this, the ear of the main culm is pulled nipped followed by top dressing of nitrogenous
fertilizers and copious irrigation which induces profuse tillering from the basal nodes.

MANURES AND FERTILIZERS

FYM @ 5t/ha should be applied and mixed well in to the soil about 20 days before sowing. Fertilizer
schedule is as follows:
Rainfed crop : 50 to60 -30 -20 kg N, P2O5, K2O/ha
Irrigated crop : 100 to 120 - 40 -20 kg N, P2O5, K2O/ha
Half dose of nitrogen, full doses of phosphorus and potassium should be applied at the time of sowing.
The remaining N is applied in 2 splits. Once at the time of thinning (3 to 4 weeks after sowing) and the rest at
ear formation stage.

WATER MANAGEMENT
As bajra is a rainfed crop, there is hardly any need for irrigation. Irrigate the crop if there are no rains.
Generally, two irrigations during the growing period of the crop are enough. If moisture is limiting, irrigation
must be given at the time of earhead emergence because it is the most critical stage for moisture stress. Bajra
does not tolerate water logging. So do not allow rain water to stand in the field for more than few hours.
Proper arrangement for draining the excess water must be made. Total water requirement is 450-550 mm and
W.U.E. is 8.0 kg/ha.mm of water.

34
WEED CONTROL
The damage due to weeds is severe during 3-5 weeks after sowing. Intercultivation by hand hoe or
wheel hoe should be done at 3-5 weeks after sowing. However, sometimes due to unavailability of labour or
soil being too wet to permit manual wedding, timely weeding becomes difficult. Under such conditions the
only effective way to control weeds is the use of herbicides.
Pre-emergence application of Atrazine or Propazine @0.5 kg per/ha in 600 litres of water controls most of the
monocot and dicot weeds.

HARVESTING AND THRESHING:

Harvest the crop when grains become hard and contain about 20% moisture. Harvesting is done by
cutting the entire plant or removing the earheads first and cutting down the plants later on. The ear heads after
harvesting, should be dried in the sun. The grains are separated either by beating the ear heads by sticks or by
trampling by bullocks. The threshed grain should be cleaned and dried in sun to bring the moisture content
down to 12% for safe storage.

CROPPING SYSTEMS:
Sequential cropping: Pearlmillet- Ground nut
Pearlmillet - Cowpea
Pearlmillet- Pigeonpea
Pearlmillet – Barley
Pearlmillet- Wheat
Pearlmillet- toria
Inter cropping system : Pearlmillet + Groundnut
Pearlmillet + Cowpea
Pearlmillet + Pigeonpea
Pearlmillet + Castor
Pearlmillet + Sesame
Pearlmillet + Mungbean
Pearlmillet + Urdbean
Reasons for low yield of coarse cereals:
1. Marginal lands are used for their production than other cereals.
2. They are confined to small production units
3. They are often grown as intercrops
4. uncertain precipitation trends
5. Limited commercial demand
VARIETIES:-
BJ-104, BK-560, BD-111, MBH-110, ICMH-451
COMPOSITS: VIJAYA, NAGARJUNA, ICTP -8203, BALAJI, VISAKHA, WCC-75, ICMV -155, ICMV
221
SYNTHETICS: MUKTA, MALLIKARJUNA(PBS-1), APS-1 (ANANTHA), ICMS- 7703
YIELD ATTRIBUTES:
Total number of tillers per unit area, Number of productive tillers per unit area, Lenth of the earhead, Number
of filled grains per earhead and test weight.
YIELD: For rainfed crop grain yield is 12-15 q/ha and dry stover 70-75 q/ha and for irrigated condition grain
yield is 30-35 q/ha and dry stover is 100q/ha.

35
Lecture 12 Chapter No.5
FINGERMILLET (Eleusine coracana)
English name :Finger millet, Birds foot millet, African millet
Finger millet is commonly known as Ragi. In eminent vedic literature ragi is mentioned as ragika. It is
an important minor millet grown in India. It is a staple food crop in many hilly regions of the country. In fact,
it is the main cereal crop for monsoon season in some hilly areas. It is predominantly grown as a dry land crop
in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu. Finger millet contributes nearly 40% of total small millet
produce of India, occupying nearly 3.2 million ha. Ragi is relished mostly by the rural population of southern
India for the nutritious meal it provides.
It is grown both for grain and forage. In northern hills, grains are eaten mostly in the form of ‘Chapaties’
and halwa. In South India, grains are used in many preparations like cakes, puddings, sweets etc.
- Germinating grains are malted and fed to infants also.
- It is also good for pregnant woman
- It is a nutritive food for adults of different ages.
- It is good for persons suffering from diabetes.
- The green straw is suitable for making silage, which gives sweet smell and consumed by cattle without
wastage.
- Besides vitamin A&B phosphorus is also present in smaller quantities.
- The grain is nutritionally rich and the richest in ‘calcium’
NUTRITIONAL VALUE- It contains about 76.32% of carbohydrates, 9.2% proteins, 1.29% fat, 2.245
minerals, 3.90% ash and 0.33% calcium.
ORIGIN
According to Decandoll (1886) Finger millet probably originated in India. It might have originated from
Eleusine Indica, a grass that occurs in many parts of North India. It is supposed to have spread form India to
Abyssinia and rest of Africa.
Vavilov (1951) – considers Eleusine coracana to be of African origin.
It is grown in India, Africa, Malaysia, Srilanka, Japan & China. India is the leader in the area of finger
millet improvement.
AREA & PRODUCTION
Total area of India is 2.50 m.ha with a production of 2.20 mt. Karnataka is the major state for finger
millet production in India, accounts for 55.6% of the area and 60.7% of production in the country.
ADAPTATION
It is a crop of tropical and subtropical climate and can be grown successfully from sea level to an
altitude of 2100 mts on hill slopes as well as in plains. It is a hardy crop. It is grown in areas having annual
average rainfall between 500 to1000 mm. In regions of higher rainfall it can be raised on well drained soils as
a transplanted crop. It can be grown under rainfed as well as irrigated conditions.
SOILS
It can be grown on a wide variety of soils ranging from very poor to very fertile soils. It thrives best on
well- drained loam or clay loam soils. Clayey soils, heavy black cotton soils, gravelly and stony soils with
poor fertility and drainage are not suitable. It can tolerate salinity better than other cereals.

SEASON
Finger millet is not a season bound crop. So, it can be grown through out the year, if water is available,
The main seasons are
1. Punasa Ragi (or) Burada Chodi
Finger millet is grown in wetlands, prior to planting of rice in slushy conditions by taking advantage of

36
monsoon rains in Srikakulam and Visakhapatnam Dist. Short duration varieties (AKP -2) are preferred for this
season. Twenty five percent Ragi in above districts is under this season (May-Aug).
2. Main Season (or) Pedda Panta
The main area under Ragi crop during this season (Aug-Nov) accounts for 50% area of Srikakulam and
Visakhapantam. Suitable varieties are AKP -7 and Kalyani (WR – 652)
3. Pyru season
Remaining 25% of area is under pyru season. (Nov/Dec – Feb/ March). As the crop is grown under
assured irrigated conditions, the yields are high.VZM-2 is recommended.

LAND PREPARATION
The first ploughing with mould board plough should be done immediately after the harvest of the
previous crop. With the onset of monsoon, field should be ploughed with local plough 2-3 times and finally
levelled.

SEEDS & SOWINGS

Sowing is done by Broadcasting, drilling, sowing in shallow furrows and transplanting.
1. Broadcasting
In dry lands sowing is done by broadcasting and seed is covered by working with blade harrow which is
generally practiced in coastal districts of A.P & T.N. Seed rate is 8 Kg/ ha
2. Drilling
Finger millet is also sown by bullock drawn seed drills in shallow depths of 3-4 cms. This is generally
adopted in Rayalaseema & Telangana regions of A.P and Karnataka.
3. Sowing in shallow furrows
In Karnataka, seeds are mixed with cattle manure and sown in furrows drawn by 3 tyned drills. Furrows
are covered by blade harrow. Seed requirement in this method is higher than normal recommendation.
4. Transplanting
It is practiced under assured irrigation. 1) Ridges and furrows 2) Flat bed method.
Seeds are raised in nurseries and after 20 days, seedlings are ready for transplanting in main field.
SEED RATE AND SPACING
Seed rate: 4-6 kg/ha.
15x15cm – for long duration varieties
15x10 cm – for Short duration varieties.

MANURES & FERTILIZERS

For Nursery: FYM : 10t/ha Incorporation before sowing
40-40-40 kg N, P2O5 and K2O/ha
For mainfield: FYM: 10t/ha – Before sowing
60-30-30 kg N, P2O5 and K2O/ha
N is applied in 2 Splits
1. At the time of transplanting – ½ dose of N along with full dose of P and K.
2. Remaining dose of N at 30 DAS.

IRRIGATION:
Ragi sown during Kharif, generally does not need any irrigation. Adequate moisture should be provided
at the time of flowering and grain setting stages. It can not tolerate waterlogged conditions. Hence, drainage
facilities should be provided. After establishment of seedlings for a week or 10 days, irrigation should be cut

37
off. This helps in hardening of seedlings and for vigorous and healthy growth.
WEED MANAGEMENT
It is essential to control weeds in the initial stage of plant growth and development. Weeding should be
done with hand hoe after 25 days of sowing. 2-3 hoeings would be sufficient to control the weeds in problems
areas. Hand weeding gives satisfactory control of weeds. Pre emergence herbicides like metoxuran 0.75 kg
ai/ha + one hand weeding gives excellent control of weeds.

HARVESTING OF THRESHING
The crop matures in about 4-4 ½ months depending on the tract and the variety. Irrigated or transplanted
crop produces more tillers than that grown in drylands. Earheads on main shoots matures earlier than tillers.
As & when earheads are matured harvesting is done generally 2 or 3 times. Harvested earheads are kept on
floor and covered by gunny bags or tarpaulins which brings change in colour to all the grain in earhead.
It is dried & threshed by stone roller or cattle.
Varieties- Kalyani, Sarada, Godavari, Simhadri, Ratnagiri, Hamsa and Co 9 (12% protein) are some
developed varieties.The other varieties are AKP-2, Suraj, Padmavathi, VZM-1, Sapthagiri, Maruthi,
Gauthami, Bharathi, Champavathi etc.
Cropping System:
Finger millet in rainfed conditions is cultivated generally as a mixed crop with sorghum, pearl millet
and a variety of oil seeds and pulses. In hilly areas it is grown mixed with soybean. Under irrigated
conditions, it is grown in rotation with crops like tobacco, vegetables, turmeric, Bengal gram, linseed, mustard
etc.
Some of the most prevalent cropping sequences are
Finger millet - Bengal gram
Finger millet - Mustard
Finger millet - Tobacco
Finger millet - Groundnut
Finger millet - Sugarcane
Finger millet - potato – maize
Finger millet - potato – maize
Finger millet - potato – finger millet
Finger millet - rice

YIELD ATTRIBUTES: Number of plants per unit area, number of tillers per unit area,
number productive tillers per unit area
YIELD
Rainfed: 7- 8 q/ha - grain
11-18 q/ha – fodder
Irrigated: 30-35 q/ha - grain
35-50 q/ha – fodder

38
Lecture 13 Chapter No.6
PULSES
Importance of pulses in indian agriculture:
 Pulse crops called grain legumes are the most important food crops after cereals.
 They have been valued as food, fodder and feed and have remained as main stay of Indian agriculture.
 The term pulse is derived from the latin word “Puls” meaning “pottage” (thick soup)
 Pulse crops play an important role in agricultural economy of India .
 They fix atmospheric nitrogen and their deep penetrating root system enable the
 plants to utilize limited available moisture more efficiently.
 Indian Institute of Pulse Research (IIPR) was established in 1993 at Kanpur
 In 1992-93, Technology Mission on Pulses was started by 2 sub terms.
 NPDP : National Pulse Development Programme.
 SFPP : Special Food grain Production Programme.
 Per capita requirement of Pulses :
 Per capita requirement of Pulses: Acc. To ICMR – 150gm /day and Acc. To FAO –
 140gm /day
 At present, the per capita availability of pulses in India is only 47gm/day
Importance of Pulses:
 They are rich source of proteins
 The average protein available in pulses is 20-30%. Pulses are rich in ‘Ca’ & Phosphorous. They are
also good sources of Vitamins.
 Pulses provide a superior quality of fodder & feed to the cattle, as they are good forage crops with
proteins and minerals content.
 They are considered as good green manure crops because of rich canopy development.
 They improve the soil fertility by biological nitrogen fixation
 The nitrogen needs of pulses is low & minimizes the N requirement of succeeding crop by around ¼
of its total requirement.
 Pulses help in the Soil and Water conservation.
 They improve the physical condition of the soil like soil aeration, water holding capacity by improving
microbial population, breaking of hard pans and moisture retention.
 Pulses are important in crop mixtures / rotation. They act as catch crops.
 Some crops act as smoothering crops which control weeds & protects soil from erosion E.g.:- Cowpea
and Horse gram. Pulses can also be used better intercrops.
PULSES -REASONS FOR LOW YIELDS OF PULSES IN INDIA
In spite of the importance of pulses in our daily diet, the production of pulses has not yet increased
proportionately as that was increased in the cereal production. Looking the situation being a national level
problem, it is important to analyse different constraints leading to low productivity of pulses. The following
have been realized the major constraints in pulse production.
I. AGRONOMIC CONSTRAINTS:
i) Improper sowing time: The pulse crops gets last preference and priority in the sowing schedule. Late
planting not only results in poor growth but also leads to high attack of sucking pests. If sowing of pigeon pea
is delayed beyond 20th July, there a is significant reduction in yield. In case of mungbean delay in sowin g
beyond August reduced the yield to the extent of about 600 kg/ha. A late sown crop is more prone to serious
damage by pod borer.
ii) Low seed rate: Farmers hardly use any recommended seed rate. Very poor plant population has been

39
reported in case of arhar, moong and urd in the farmers fields. Farmers have been using a seed rate of 10-15
kg/ha as against the requirement of 20-25 kg/ha in case of moong and urd.
iii) Defective method of sowing: Pulses are hardly sown in rows. This creates lot of problems in adopting
agronomic practices such as weeding, hoeing, spraying, harvesting etc
iv) Inadequate interculture: Farmers hardly follow interculture in these crops. Line sowing helps for
interculture operations through bullock drawn implements and hand hoes etc. Pulse crops suffer due to the
infestation of weeds because of their initial slow growth.
v) Insufficient irrigation: Though pulse crops are drought tolerant, one or two protective or life saving
irrigations are required, particularly in rabi pulses. For Kharif pulses also, protective irrigations are essential
during the period of dry spell. Farmers give priority for irrigation to cereals and millets. Irrigations, if
provided, wherever possible, enhances production, particularly at the pod development sta ge of pulse crops.
vi) Sowing under utera cultivation: Large area under pulses is sown as utera without cultivation and inputs.
The yields of such crops is very poor.
vii) Poor management conditions: The concept that pulses can grow and produce better yields on marginal
lands without any inputs and management is not correct. Being protein rich crops, pulses require more energy
input per unit of production as compared to cereals. But on the contrary, they are grown under conditions of
energy starvation resulting in poor yields.
viii) Non-availability of efficient Rhizobium culture: In general, Rhizobium culture is the cheapest input
with high cost: benefit ratio: Symbiotic nitrogen fixation takes place very effectively if the natural relationship
is established between the legume cultivar and its specific strain of Rhizobium. However, use of Rhizobium
culture is not getting popular among the farmers because unlike fertilizers, the specific cultures of desired
quality are not readily available in the market. Many times spurious cultures are supplied to the farmers which
are not effective and the farmers lose faith in using Rhizobium culture.
ix) Weed infestation: Because of their inherent slow growth rate at the initial stage, pulse crops suffer due to
infestation of weeds. Depending upon the duration of the crop, the critical period for weed competition in the
pulses varies from 20-45 DAS. If weeds are not controlled during this period, marked crop losses ranging
from 30-50% in chick pea, 50-70% in green gram and black gram and as high as 90% in pigeon pea have been
recorded.
x) Losses due to diseases and insects pests: Pulses in general are susceptible to a large number of diseases
and insect pests, which cause heavy losses. The major diseases are wilt, blight and grey-mould in chickpea.
Powdery mildew and leaf spot diseases in green gram, black gram and cowpea etc. For yield stability and
wider adaptability of genotypes, it is essential that varieties with multiple resistance to these major diseases
are identified, adopted and popularized. Such multiple resistant varieties are wanting among the pulse crops.
II) GENETICAL CONSTRAINTS:
The major constraints of pulse production in the country is the lack of suitable genotypes with higher
yield potential on farmer’s fields. Some other genetical constraints are,
 Lower productivity
 Non synchronous flewering/fruiting
 Non-responsiveness to good management
 Complete or partial absence of genetic resistance to major diseases and pests (eg: Helicoverpa
armigera under continuous rainfall, causes wilt and sterility mosaic in red gram etc.)
 Indeterminate growth habit of most of the pulses
 Instability in performance
 Lack of good and quality and certified seed [SRR (seed replacement ratio in pulses is 2.5% against the
recommended SRR i.e. 10%]
 Non-availability of drought and waterlogging resistant varieties.

40
III. PHYSIOLOGICAL CONSTRAINTS:
Besides the agronomy and genetical constraints, physiological constraints are also plays a major role in
the low production and productivity of pulses. Some of the physiological constraints are:
 Low harvest index
 Low sink potential [ source=leaf, drymatter; sink=seed]
 A lot of dry matter goes for production of stalk, with the result the harvest
 Index is very low. For example, in pigeonpea out of about 15,000kg total dry
 Matter produced, the grain share was only 10 percent. On the other hand, in
 Case of most of dwarf wheats, the grain share is even more than 33% of the
 Total dry matter.
 Flower drop is another physiological problem in pulse crops. This results in poor pod setting and
consequently low yield.
 Non-responsiveness to fertilizers.
 Photo and thermosensitive phenomenon.
 Lack of short duration varieties i.e. long duration gives low per day production.

STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVING THE PRODUCTIVITY OF PULSES:

The problem of short supply of pulses was brought to notice of I.C.A.R and an integrated All India Co-
ordinated Programme was started in 1972-73 in collaboration with U.S. Department of agriculture for the
pulse improvement work in the country. The main emphasis for increasing pulse production is to be laid on
following points:
1. Bringing an additional area under short duration high yielding varieties to fit in multiple cropping
programmes to be grown as catch crop.
2. Developing new cr opping systems like companion cropping, mixed cropping (or) intercropping for
growing pulses between widely spaced crops such as sugarcane, maize, potato, cotton, arhar,
groundnut, bajra and jowar etc. both under irrigated and rainfed conditions.
3. Evolution, multiplication and use of improved seeds of various pulses.
4. Adoption of efficient plant protection measures.
5. Basal placement of phosphatic fertilizers and treating the seeds with Rhizobium culture.
6. Growing pulses on relatively fertile lands rather than growing them on marginal and submarginal
lands.
7. Adoption of improved package of practices like line sowing, control of weeds, harvesting at right time
or at physiological maturity to avoid splitting of pods and thereby minimising shattering losses.
8. Granting subsidy on Government loans to the growers and providing improved seeds, fertilizers and
plant protection materials on concessional price to the farmers.
9. Evolution of better plant-types of pulses for boosting pulse production.
The varieties thus developed are characterised under:
a) Non-spreading and erect types.
b) Thermo and photoinsensitive.
c) Early maturing
d) Responsive to applied inputs with high yield potentials.
e) Fairly resistant to water logging, insect pests and diseases.
f) Resistant to drought and frost.
g) High nutritional qualities.
Rice fallow production Technology and Constraints:
Sowing of sprouted seeds short duration pulses particularly Green gram and Black gram just 3-4 days

41
before harvest of paddy is known as relay cropping. Popularly termed as Rice fallow pulses.
The seed rate recommended in the system is higher than that of direct sowing of Black gram and Green
gram. The rice fallow pulses are grown with the available residual soil moisture and residual fertility. Before
sowing of pulse seed alleys are made in the paddy field for removal excess water as well for easy sowing and
proper distribution of seeds in the field.
Lecture 14 REDGRAM (Cajanus Cajan)

Common names- Arhar, tur, redgram, congo pea, gungo pea, no eye pea
Pigeonpea is the second most important pulse crop of India after chickpea.
AREA, PRODUCTION & PRODUCTIVITY:
* India ranks first with about 90% of the world area and 85% of production aving 3.61 mha of area, 2.7
mtonnes of production and 747 kg/ha of productivity.
* Pigeonpea ranks sixth in area and production in comparison to other pulses.
Crop duration-
Long duration varieties (180-270 days), Medium duration varieties(), Early varieties(120-150 days), Extra
early varieties(less than 120 days).
* For kharif , never choose early and extra early varieties as the rains coincide with flowering and pod
formation.
* Generally medium duration varieties are recommended for kharif.
* Late maturing varieties during kharif may suffer from terminal stress.
* In A.P., LRG-30 (PALNADU) is t he promising variety both in kharif and Rabi, ICPL 85063 (Lakhsmi)
both for kharif and Rabi.

VARIETIES FOR KHARIF: Duration 170-180 days

ICPL 332 (Abhaya)
ICPL 8719 (Asha)
Maruti( LRG-41)
Early maturing varieties for Rabi CPL-87
ICRISAT varieties – ICPL 870, ICPH-8 (Hybrid variety)

ORIGIN: Africa
DISTRIBUTION: The important Pigeonpea growing states are Maharastra, U.P., M.P, A.P & Karnataka. In
India, Maharastra, U.P & M.P together occupy 62% of the area & contribute 73% of total production.
SOIL: It can be grown on a wide range from Sandy loams to clay loams. The crop performs well on fertile
well drained loamy soils. Saline, Alkaline and waterlogged are not suitable.
CLIMATE:
 It is a quantitative short day flowering response plant i.e. the onset of flowering is hastened as day
length shortens.
 It is grown throughout the tropical, sub-tropical & warmer regions of the world between 30oN & 35oS
latitude.
 It tolerates heat and drought. It prefers moist and warm climate during vegetative period a nd
cool and dry period during reproductive stage.#
 It is susceptible to frost.
 The cloudy weather and excessive rainfall during flowering damage the crop to a great extent.
SEASON:
Kharif: June – July

42
 Rabi : Sep – Oct
· The sowing time depends upon the duration of variety and rainfall pattern of the region, Early sowings
are always better.
· Sowings should be planned in such a way that flowering and pod formation should not coincide with
peak rainy period.

SEED TREATMENT:
Seed treatment wit h fungicides like Bavistin 1g/kg seed captan or Thiram @2.5 g/kg before sowing
effectively controls fungi and reduces incidence of both seed and soil borne fungi. Seed treatment with
Rhizobium culture can increase the yield upto 20-30%.
SEED RATE:
Kharif: 12-15 kg/ha
Rabi : 45 kg/ha
METHOD OF SOWING: Seeds are sown behind the plough or with the use of seed
drills. Plant population depends on:
1. Sowing time: For Kharif, plant population is less than rabi because of more canopy growth.
2. Fertility status of soil: Higher plant population can be used under fertile soils than on infertile soils.
3. Rainfall pattern: In regions which is having well distributed rainfall, maintain high plant population
than in the areas with low rainfall.
4. Varieties: Variety with les s branching require higher plant population.
Duration of the crop: Longer duration varieties require less plant population because of more canopy
development.
SPACING: Short duration-60x10cm; Medium & Long duration 75x20 cm.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN:
PARAMETER KHARIF REDGRAM RABI REDGRAM
Season June to July Sep – Oct.
Seed rate 12-15 kg/ha 45 kg/ha
Spacing 60x10cm-sole crop 45x10cm for
1.2 to 1.5 m for sole crop.
(Intercrop0

Duration 160-180 days 120-125 days

Plant height >2m 1-2m
Seed size Big Small
No.of pods/plant More Less
Pest & Diseases More Less
Yield level 10-15 q/ha 8-12 q/ha.
MANURES & FERTILIZERS:
MANURES: 5 tons/ha of FYM in Kharif.
NITROGEN: 20kg/ha – long & Medium duration varieties PHOSPHOROUS: 50 kg P 2O5/ha for phosphorous
deficient soils at sowing.

43
POTASSIUM: 20kg K2O/ha for potassium deficient soils by placement at sowing.
BIO -FERTILIZERS: For early and effective nodulation, seed treatment with Rhizobium is recommended.

IRRIGATION:
· The critical periods for Irrigation are flower-initiation and pod-filling stages.
· Intensive cropping of pigeonpea can also be achieved under tube well irrigation, arising at a highest
production of 4 tons/ha. Redgram grown in Kharif does not require any irrigation.
WEED MANAGEMENT
Pigeonpea is a slow -growing crop during the first 6-8 weeks, and 2 harrowings during this period
would be adequate to check weed growth. The herbicides recommended are pre -emergence application of
Alachlor (Lasso) @ 1.5 kg a.i/ha, Fluchloralin (Basalin) @ 1.5kg a.i/ha.
HARVESTING, THRESHING & PROCESSING:
The redgram is said to be indeterminate in growth habit where the flowering goes on continuously over the
months on the same plant. Flowering, unriped pods & already, developed pods at the same time Hence, on the
plant will be seen the crop is harvested in 2-3 pickings.
· The whole plants are cut when most of the pods are dried.
· Then the plants are bundled and staked for one week for the purpose of post harvest ripening of
unriped pods after that the dried pods are beaten with sticks and then the seed is separated.
· Since seeds are consumed in the form of split cotyledons and dal it is better to go for processing before
storing.
· Power operated hullers or processors are available for splitting of seeds in to dal.
· The dehulled operation is usually performed in 2 steps: the first involves loosening the husk from
Cotyledons and the second involves removing the Husk from Cotyledons and splitting them using a
roller machine.
YIELD ATTRIBUTES:
· Plant population/unit area
· Plant height
· No. of pods/plants
YIELD: For irrigated – 15-18 qt/ha and Rainfed – 10-15 q/ha
Inter/Mixed cropping- 5 - 6 qt/ha
UTILITY VALUE:
· Dry seed is dehulled & the split cotyledons (dal) are cooked to make thick soup primarily for mixing
with rice (dal-rich source of protein).
· The ability of pigeonpea to produce economic yields under soil moisture deficit makes it an important
crop of dry land agriculture.
· The husk of pods after threshing is also used as cattle feed.
CROPPING SYSTEMS:
Intercropping:-
Sorghum + pigeon pea
Maize + pigeon pea
Pigeonpea + groundnut
Sequential cropping:
Pigeonpea – Wheat/mustard – greengram
Pigeonpea + greengram – wheat/mustard
Maize – pigeonpea.

44
Lecture 15 Chapter No.7
GREENGRAM (Vigna radiate)
Family: Leguminasae
Common Indian Name: Mung, mung bean, goldengram
· Greengram is the third most important pulse crop of India after chick pea and pigeon pea.
· The protein content in Greengram is 24 percent.
Economic importance:
· Pods are used as vegetables.
· It is highly digestible pulse crop than any other pulse crop.
· The husk and haulms are used as good fodder for cattle.
· The left over seed coat i.e testa is also used for milch cattle.
· Due to it’s shorter duration, it can be fitt well in several multiple cropping systems.
· It is also grown as a green manure crop.
· Inclusion of greengram in cropping systems improves soil health and fertility.
· Being a close growing crop, it helps in reducing soil erosion and also checks weed growth.
· Being a legume crop, it fixes biological nitrogen.
Origin and distribution:
· The origin of greengram is India
· Greengram is widely cultivated throughout Southern Asia. Myanmar, Pakisthan, Thailand, Srilanka,
Indonesia and China are the principal countries of greengram cultivation.
Soils:
Greengram is cultivated on a wide range of soils from sandy loams to black cotton soils. In North
India, the crop is cultivated on well drained loamy soils where as in South India. It is cultivated on red soils.
The crop doesn’t with stand waterlogging. Optimum soil pH: 6.5-7.5. Fairly tolerant to soil salinity.
Climate:
Greengram is a tropical pulse crop largely grown under semi arid and subtropical environment. It is
well suited for all rainfed areas with Annual rainfall of 600-1000mm. It can tolerate high temperatures upto
40oC, It is hardiest among all the pulses]
Preparation of land:
There is no need for a fine seed bed preparation 1 or 2 ploughings followed horrowing is adequate for
a kharif crop. Greengram is cultivate d on deep soils during Rabi on Kharif fallow soils. There is no tillage for
rice fallow (Relay Crop) as the seed is broad casted in standing crop of Rice about a week before its harvest.
Seeds and Sowing :
Seed Rate: Sole Crop ---- 12-15 Kg/ha
Green manure ---- 25-30 Kg/ha
Summer Crop ---- 25-30 Kg/ha

Rice fallow pulse crop ---- 30-35 Kg/ha

Method of sowing: Broad casting (Relay Crop)

Drilling in rows (or) furrows behind a plough for direct sown crop.

Dropping the seed in furrows ---- KERA (or) PORA

45
Optimum seed depth for sowing ---- 5-7cm
Spacing: 30X10 cm
Plant population: 3.33 Lakh plants/ha

VARIETIES:
Khariff-LGG450, LGG 407,LGG 460, WGG 37, MGG 295,M2 267, Pusa 105, MGG 347,
MGG 348,PDM54.
Rabi --LamM2,LGG 460, LGG 410, Pusa 105, LGG 407, MGG 295, WGG 37, TM96-2
Summer & Spring Season — Pusa Baisakhi and Co-4
Rice fallows --- LGG 410
Tolerant to high temp. --- Padma, Sunaina & Co-4
Early maturing (60-65 day) --- Pusa Baisakhi, k851,PS16,
Padma, Sunaina & Co-4,
Pusa Bold (Vishal),
First mung variety released in Orissa during 1980: Dhuli
First Mung been variety released in India during 1948: T1.
Resistant varieties:
YMV resistant- LGG 407,LGG 460,WGG 2,WGG 37,PDM 54,ML 267
Leaf Curl resistant- LGG 460, MGG 295
Angular Black Leaf Spot resistant- LGG 407, WGG 2
Powdery Mildew resistant- TM 96-2, TARM 18

Season: Kharif, Rabi and Summer (early duration i.e.60 days and less incidence of pest and diseases)
FERTILISERS:-
Rhizobium inoculations considerably minimize the need for nitrogen fertilizer application.
Rainfed Crop: 10 kgN/ha (Starter dose (or) booster dose) & 30 P2O 5 Kg/ha (Basal)
Irrigated Crop: 20 N kg/ha (Starter dose) & 40 P2O5 Kg/ha (Basal)
Nearly 40N, 10P 2O5 & 15 K2 0 Kg/ha is removed by 1 tonne of Greengram.
Biofertilizers:For Mung bean, 500 g of Rhizobium culture is sufficient for seeds required to be sown in 1 ha
i.e., 2.5 packets/ha(Since 1 packet=200 g). Greengram fixes 20 Kg N/ha
Greengram associated with VAM (Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhiza) Which is a PO-34 absorber, absorbs
greater amounts of phosphorous.
Water management:
· For Kharif crop, irrigation is not required but winter & summer crop require 2-3 irrigations.
· Ricefallow greengram crop is not irrigated
Critical stages:Flower initiation (35 DAS), Pod filling (55 DAS)
· Total water requirement: 300 – 400mm
· Water logging at flowering & pod filling reduce the yield upto 75% and more.
Weed Management:
Critical Period for weed competition is 35 DAS
Herbicide recommended is Fluchloralin (Basalin) @ 1.5 Kg a.i/ha
Production constraints of Greengram:
1. Moisture stress: Generally kharif sown crop suffers from moisture stress due to intermittent dry spells
during the growth phase. Hence, drought tolerant varieties may be recommended like PDM-54,MH
309, K-851.

46
2. Preharvest Sprouting: Kharif sown crop matures in August (Or) September,.usually the crop is caught
in rains at the time of harvest. Hence there is a sprouting of seeds in the pods causing heavy losses both
in terms of yield and quality. The variety resistant to preharvest sprouting is LGG-450.
3. Non synchronous in maturity: It is usually harvested by pickings. Most of the varieties are Non-
Synchronous in maturity. Hence, harvesting is done in 2-3 pickings. Varieties tolerant to non-
synchronous maturity are PDM 54, MH 309 and Pusa 105 are Susceptable to diseases.
Major pest and diseases are: YMV, LCV, powdery mildew, angular black leaf spot, thrips, Maruca pod borer.

Harvesting : For kharif crop, the harvesting is done by picking the pods. For Rabi & Summer crops,
harvesting is done by cutting the whole plant to the base.
Threshing and processing: The produce is cleaned and sun dried to about 12 percent moisture content and
then stored. Greengram is primary consumed in the form of Dhal.
Green pods are also used as vegetables. Sprouted seed is consumed as salads. Dry seed is boiled and
used in soups, made into porridge with rice and wheat. The flour is used in cakes . Starch is used in making
noodles.
Yield and Yield Components :
Major yield components are number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod and test weight.
Cropping systems:
Paddy followed by Greengram
Paddy- Paddy- Greengram
Greengram-Maghi Jowar Practiced in Khammam.
Greengram-Tobacco—followed in Black cotton soils
Greengram-Maize-Wheat
Greengram-Rice-Wheat
Greengram-Maize-Potato-Wheat
Greengram-Maize-Toria -wheat

47
Lecture 16 Chapter No.8
BLACKGRAM (Vigna mungo)
Importance:
- Consumed as dhal or split seeds, husked or unhusked
- Chief constituent of papad..
- Haulms used as fodder.
- Husk and split beans are used as livestock feed.
- Possesses deep root system binds soil particles and prevent erosion.
- Also used as green manure crop.
- Contains 25% protein, 1.83% fat, 61% carbohydrate.
- Pecularity is when ground with water develop muscilagenous character giving additional body to the
mass.
- Husked dal is ground in to a fine paste and allowed to ferment with rice flour to make dosa or Idli.
Origin: India is considered as primary centre of origin and Central Asia as the secondary centre of origin of
blackgram.
Distribution: Distribution is comparatively restricted to tropical regions i.e.India, Pakistan,Bangladesh,
Myanmar, Srilanka.States cultivating Blackgram in India: M.P., Maharashtra, A.P, TN, U.P,and Orissa.
Area, production and productivity
Blackgram is grown in an area of about 3.29 million ha with a total production of 1.60 million tonnes
with an average productivity of 485 kg/ha.
Andhra Pradesh leads with highest area and production among states followed by Madhya Pradesh,
Orissa, Maharashtra. Karnataka leads with highest productivity followed by Orissa, Andhra Pradesh. In A.P.
area under Blackgram is 2.95 lakh ha. with a Production- of 2.14 lakh tonnes and productivity of 877 kg/ha.
SOIL AND CLIMATIC REQUIREMENT:
- Ideal soils with well drained loam or sandy loam.
- Generally grown in areas which receives annual rainfall of 800mm. It is a hardy and drought resistant
plant and can be grown in areas receiving 650mm rainfall.
- Optimum temperature for better growth ranges between 25-35oC but it can tolerate upto 42oC.
- Grown from sea level to 1800m.
- Optimum pH range is 5.5 to 7.5.
Climate and varieties: Grown as Kharif and summer crop in North India but in South and South west , it is
also grown as rabi crop.
Season Varieties
Kharif LBG-20, LBG-623, WBG-26, T -9
Rabi (rice follow) : Krishna, LBG-611, LBG-22, LBG-648, LBG-685, LBG-645
Varieties resistant to yellowmosaic virus :U G-218, Pant-U19, DPV-88-31 Varieties resistant to
downymildew: LBG-17, LBG-402, LBG-22, LBG-611
PRODUCTION CONSTRAINTS OF BLACKGRAM:
1. Moisture stress: Generally kharif sown crop suffers from moisture stress due to intermittent dry spell
during the growth phase.
2. Pre -harvest sprouting: Kharif sown crops mature in August or September. Usually crop is caught in
rains at the time of harvest. Hence , there is a sprouting of seeds in the pods causing heavy losses both
in terms of yield and quality.
3. Non-Synchronous maturity: It is usually harvested by pickings. Most of the varieties are non
synchronous in maturity. Hence , harvesting is done in 2-3 pickings.
4. Susceptible to diseases: Major diseases in blackgram are yellow Mosaic virus , leaf crinkle, powdery

48
 mildew.
Seed rate: For kharif crop 15-18kg/ha and for rabi crop 18-20kg/ha and for rice fallow system 40-45 kg/ha.
Spacing: Dibbling –30x10cm.
On wet land bunds dibble at 30cm spacing.
Generally in A.P – In rice fallows, pulses (blackgram and greengram) broadcast in standing crop of
rice 2-3 days before the harvest uniformly at optimum moisture condition.
Fertiliser application:
Rainfed : 12.5 kg N + 25 kg P2O5/ha
Irrigated : 25 kg N + 50 kg P2O5/ha.
Foliar spray of DAP and NAA (rice follows)
- Spray 2% DAP at the time of first appearance of flower and 15 days later.
- Spray 40ppm NAA-at the time of first flowering and 15 days later.
Irrigation: Not required for Kharif crop.
For Rabi crop
1. Irrigate immediately after sowing followed by life saving irrigation on third day.
2. Irrigate at interval of 10-15 day depending on soil moisture.
3. Flowering and pod formation are critical period for irrigation.
4. Avoid water stagnation at all stages.
5. Apply KCl at 0.5% as foliar spray during vegetative stage if there is moisture stress.
Weed management: Spray fluchloralin @1.5 lt/ha or pendimethalin @2.0 lt/ha as pre-emergence 3 DAS
followed by one hand weeding 30 DAS.
Harvesting & threshing:
Crop com es to matur ity at 80-95 DAS. Upon ripening, blackgram pods turn from green to yellow and then to
black.
In case of irrigated crop, ripened pods can be collected in one or two pickings. If plants come to even
harvest, then plants are cut and spread on threshing field to dry. The plants will dry and become black and
pods start splitting. The plants are then beaten using sticks and separate seeds from pods followed by
winnowing to remove debris.
Yield: Rainfed: 600 -700 kg/ha, Irrigated: 1000-1300 kg/ha., Rice follows: 500 kg/ha.
Processing:
1. Dal milling: Dal milling is one of the major food processing industry and a there is net loss of 10-15%
during milling.
2. Pulsing: Snack food prepared by heating and toasting/pulsing.
Cropping systems and rotations:
1. Paddy followed by blackgram.
2. Paddy-paddy-blackgram.
3. Blackgram - Maghi Jowar (Khammam)
4. Blackgram – tobacco (black cotton soils)
North India:
Maize - Wheat – Blackgram.
Maize – potato – Blackgram
Paddy – Wheat – Blackgram.

49
Lecture 17 Chapter No.9
GROUNDNUT (Arachis hypogaea)

Family : Leguminosae
Common name : Groundnut, Peanut, Monkey nut, Earth nut, Manila nut,moong fali (Hindi). In Greek
language ‘Arachis’ means legume and ‘hypogaea’ means below ground, referring to formation of pods in
the soil.
Groundnut is an important oil and protein source to a large portion of the population in Asia, Africa and the
America. It is a self -pollinated, annual, herbaceous legume. Groundnut, KING OF VEGETABLE OIL
SEEDS in India, occupies pre-eminent position in national edible oil economy.

Economic uses
1. Groundnut oil is the cooking media for preparing different food items. It is the primary source of vegetable
oil requirement to the Asian people.
2. The groundnut seed contain 47-53% oil and 26% protein and 11.5% starch.
3. The groundnut kernels are good source of all B -vitamins except B12 and vitamin E.
4. Groundnut kernels are rich in P, Ca & Mg including micronutrients like Fe, Zn.
5. Nearly 81% of the kernels are used for oil extraction, 12% used for seed purpose, 6% - raw materials, 1% -
exported in terms of Hand picked selections (HPS).
6. Groundnut kernels are also used for the preparation of food products like chikkis, G.nut, milk, G.nut butter,
curd including diff. bakery products
7. G.nut oil is a major source of edible oil in India. The inferior quality oil is used for making soaps,
detergents, Cosmetics, paints, candles, Lubricants and some of the medicines.
8. G.nut oil is used for medicinal purposes especially for massaging polio patients & it is also used as a
substitute for olive oil and also for preparation of glycerin.
9. The oil cakes are used as valuable organic manures & feeding material for live stock. It consists of 7.3% N;
1.5% P2O5 & 1.3% K2O.
10. The peanut haulms contain crude protein 8–5% lipids 1–3% and minerals 9– 10%. These are used as cattle
feed either in fresh or in dried stage or preparing hay or silage.
11. The peanut shells or pod walls which constitute nearly about 25% of total pod weight are used as bedding
material for poultry or as mulching material during summer season to reduce the evaporative losses.
12. Shell material is also used as filler material for making mixed fertilizers and as insulation material for
buildings or as fuel in boilers.
13. G.nut crop add sufficient quantity of organic matter to the soil as most of the leaves are shed just before
harvesting. In some areas, G.nut is used as a green manure crop.
14. G.nut is able to fix atmospheric nitrogen @ 60 – 100 kg N /ha within 1 season.
ORIGIN
Center of origin of G.nut is South America i.e., Matograsso a place in Brazil. It appears that Portuguese
introduced the groundnut plant from Brazil into Africa. At the beginning of 16th century, groundnut was
introduced into India by Jesuit fathers who followed Vasco De Gama shortly after his first landing in India.

AREA AND PRODUCTION

Major groundnut producing countries are China, India, Nigeria, USA, Indonesia, Argentina, Sudan, Senegal
and Myanmar. India ranks first in area and production contributing to 40% of the area 36% of the world
production. G.nut accounts for 28% of the total area & 36% of total oilseed production in the country. The
major G.nut producing states are Gujarat, A.P., T.N., Karnataka & Maharashtra

50
CLASSIFICATION
Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea ) consists of two sub – species each containing two botanical varieties
Subspecies hypogaea
 Variety hypogaea (Virginia type)
 Variety hirsuta
Subspecies fastigiata
 Variety fastigata (Valencia type)
 Variety vulgaris (Spanish type).

COMPARATIVE CHARACTERS OF VIRGINIA & SPANISH/VALENCIA:-

CHARACTER Virginia Valencia/Spanish
Seed size Medium to very large Small to medium
Seed per pod Usually 2, occasionally 3 Usually 2-4, rarely 3
Seed dormancy Moderatly present Little to none
Branching Moderate to profuse Sparse to moderate
Flower bud on main axis Present Absent
Flowering pattern Alternate Sequential
1 – lateral branches
0 Longer than main stem Shorter than main stem
Growth habit Spreading to semi-spreading Bunch
Growth period Long (130-175 days) Short (90 – 105 days)
Peak flowering 8-12 weeks 6 – 10 weeks
Leaf color Dark green Pale green
Leaflet size Small Large
Leaflet apex Pointed Rounded
Pod distribution Scattered Close to the base
Ability to growth after seed Retains growing point if pods Usually dies
are detached
Linoleic acid Low High

Characters Valencia Spanish

20 – lateral branches Absent Present irregularly to
10 –branches
Stem and petiole color Purple Green
Hairiness Less More
Leaflet color Dark green Light green
Inflorescence Single Compound
Seeds per pod usually 3-4 Usually 2
Constriction, reticulation & Less prominent More prominent
beak on the pod
Shell thickness Thick Thin
Testa color Red to purple Rose
Maturity 90 – 95 days 100 -105days

VARIETIES
Groundnut var. now under cultivation fall under

51
Three botanical groups: Spanish, Valencia, Virginia.
Three habitat groups: bunch (Spanish/ Valencia)
Semi spreading (Virginia bunch)
& spreading (Virginia runner)
The recommended var. of groundnut are JL – 24 (Phule pragathi), TAG -24, Greeshma, Prasuna,
Abhaya,Apoorva,ICGV-86590,K – 134, TPT-2, TPT -3, ICGV 86325, DRG 12, Kadiri 4,5,6, Jcc-88, ICGS
11,ICGS - 44 ICGS – 76, Kalahasti, Narayani, TG 26, TMV 2, J-11, Gaug – 1 etc.

CLIMATE AND SOILS

Climate
Groundnut is predominantly a crop of the tropics. The approximate limits of present commercial production
are between latitudes 400N and 400S and up to an attitude of 1065 m, where rainfall during the growing
season exceeds 500 mm.
Rainfall
The crop can be grown successfully in places receiving a minimum of 500 mm and a maximum of 1250 mm.
From the productivity of groundnut in several countries, it is evident that semi – arid and arid regions with
500 – 700 mm rainfall during crop period are ideal for groundnut
production.
 Rainfall should be adequate during flowering and pegging stages.
 Ideal RF for successful groundnut crop would be
80 – 120 mm, during summer to facilitate preparatory cultivation
100 – 120 mm, at sowing
200 mm, from flowering to peg penetration
200 mm, early pod development to pod maturity
 Rainfall is the most important factor limiting the productivity of rainfed groundnut due to variability in
amount and distribution of RF.
 Continuous rains leads to excessive vegetative growth resulting in poor pod yield.
 Rains at harvest cause germination of kernels in non-dormant Spanish and Valencia cultivars besides
problem in pod drying.
Temperature
Soil temperature <180c delays emergence of seedlings. The embryo is killed above 540c.
 G.nut performs well in dry temperature range b/n 240c & 330c. but it can survive up to 450c.
 Ideal temperature for reproductive stage is b/n 24 – 270c
 Rate of pod growth will be maximum b/n 300c & 340c.
Light
 Groundnut is day length insensitive plant.
 About 60% solar radiation for 60 days after emergence appears to be critical.
 Low light intensity
Prior to flowering, slow down the vegetative growth and increases the plant height.
At early flowering, leads to flower abortion.
At pegging , reduces peg and pod number & pod weight.
 Flowering phase is more sensitive to reduced light intensities.
 In the absence of soil moisture stress, clear days have greatest potential for opt. growth and development
leading to high pod yield.

52
 SOILS
Groundnut can be grown on all types of soils such as sandy, sandy loam & heavy black soils. It thrives
best on sandy loams.
 Most suitable soils for groundnut production are well-drained light sandy loams with an ample supply
of calcium and moderate organic matter.
 Heavy and stiff clay soils are not desirable as they tend to become hard during dry weather thereby
interfering with peg penetration into the soil and also makes the harvest extremely difficult.
 Groundnut is one of the most acid tolerant crops with a critical P H range of 5 – 5.5.
 It is moderately sensitive to soil salinity & highly susceptible to water logging. Gujarat, Southern
Rajasthan (Chitorgarh, Udaipur & Jhawar)
TILLAGE
Land preparation for groundnut depends on the soil type and onset of monsoon for rainfed crop
and on the previous crop grown for irrigated crop.
 Light red soils are usually ploughed twice with the summer rains followed by 2 – 3
Harrowing.
 In general, deep ploughing of light soil once or twice results in higher pod yield than repeated shallow
ploughings for rainy season crop as deep ploughing aids in higher rainwater storage in root zone to
minimize the adverse effect of drought during the crop season.
 In A.P. , black soils are only harrowed (4 – 5 times) several times without any ploughing.
 For irrigated crop, one light ploughing (even at high soil moisture content to hasten soil drying)
followed by harrowing for 3 – 4 times at 2 – 3 days interval.
 Optimum depth of ploughing is 15-20 cm. If too deep ploughing is done, it leads to development of
pods in deeper layers which makes the harvesting difficult.
Lecture 18
SEASONS:
The crop growing season should be ideal for growth and development of crop for opt. yield.
Kharif :- 90% area is under groundnut is during kharif under rainfed conditions.
Average yields are comparatively low due to erratic behaviour of monsoon i.e late onset of monsoon, dryspell
during critical crop growth stages, heavy rains at later stages or early withdrawl of monsoon.
Pest & disease incidence is also high in kharif. The climate will be cloudy with lesser sunshine.
- season extend from April to August.
- In black soils, sowings may be delayed even upto
August/September to avoid heavy rains effect on germination.
Rabi :- G.nut cropping during rabi is limited to areas where winter is not severe & temp. do not
grow below 150C. It is confined to states of T.N, A.P, Karnataka, Orissa, Maharashtra and Gujarat.
It is grown under irrigated on uplands or with supplemental irrigation in rice fallows.
- Sowing period extend from October to December.
- Second half of November is the ideal sowing time.
Summer :-
G.nut yields are three times higher during summer than kharif due to ideal climate as clear
sky, good light intensity and less incidence of pest and diseases. It is also grow completely under
irrigation althrough the crop period.
Drymatter production is nearly 25.7 g/day as against 14.8 g/day in kharif.
- sowing period: mid – Dec. to mid-Jan is ideal for higher yield.

53
SEEDS AND SOWING
Seed selection:-
 Germination < 85% is not considered satisfactory.
 Selected pods are thoroughly cleaned, dried, packed preferably in gunny bags & stored in a well
ventilated place.
 G. nut pods for seed purpose are usually hand shelled about a week in advance of sowing. The
viability of seed will be lost if shelled long before seeding .
 Shellers are also used for shelling the pods to minimize the cost of groundnut production.
 After shelling, shrivelled and damaged seeds are rejected by hand picking.
 Seeds retained on 5mm sieve (100 Kernel wt. above 27g) germinates early and produce vigorous
plants for high pod yield.
Seed treatment:-
Seed treatment against seed and soil born diseases is essential for stand establishment by preventing damage
to seeds and seedlings emerging from soil.
Seed treatment with Thiram @ 3g/kg,
Bavistin (2g/kg) or DM – 45 (3g/kg) is effective for about 20days from sowing.
Most of the chemicals used for seed treatment against fungal & bacterial diseases also affect Rhizobium, thus
rendering the inoculation in effective for a short time.
When both seed treatment & inoculation are essential, seeds may be treated with fungicides & rhizobium
culture is sprayed into seed rows & covered with soil. Rhizobium strains are
for kharif - NC – 92 Tal -1000& THA -205
Rabi – IGR – 6
Summer – IGR – 40
Granulated Rhizobium strain can also be sown with seed in the furrows.

SEED RATE AND SPACING

Cost of seed constitutes 37-50% of total cost of cultivation. Hence, it is essential to follow good seeding
practices.

Seed rate (kg/ha) Spacing

Bunch type Semi spreading Bunch type Semi spreading
& spreading & spreading
Kharif (rainfed) 120 150 30x10 cm 30 x15 cm
Rabi (irrigated) 150 180 22.5 x 10 cm 30 x 10 cm
Summer 150 180 22.5 x 10 cm 30 x 10 cm
(irrigated)
Gap filling, if necessary, should be completed within a week taking advantage of moisture at the time of
sowing the seed.

Method and depth of sowing:

Groundnut seed can sown either by using mechanical or bullock drawn seed drill or by dropping the seed in
plough furrow behind the country plough. Hand dibbling is also adapted to a limited extent.
Kharif:- drilling or dropping seed in plough furrows at 5 -7 cm soil depth.
Rabi & summer: - Dropping seed in plough furrow at 4 – 5 cm soil depth.
Depth:- In light, soils, the seeds are sown to a depth of 5 -7 cm and in heavier soils to a depth of 4 -5 cm

54
NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT
For every tonne of pods & 2t of haulms about 63 N, 11 P2O5, 46 K2O, 27 CaO & 14 Mgo kg/ha are removed
by the groundnut crop. A balanced fertilizer programme with particular emphasis on p, k, ca & mg is essential
for opt. yield. Apply 10t well decomposed FYM and incorporate it into soil just before the onset of monsoon.
Nitrogen:-
The necessity for fertilizer nitrogen to groundnut is reduced because of being a leguminous crop, it fixes
atmospheric ‘N’ into the soil with root nodules. Around 200 kg N/ha can be fixed under ideal conditions.
Number of cowpea cross inoculation group strains are available as NC-92 & TAL 1000,THA 205. In general,
20 kg N /ha – entire dose as basal is recommended for rainfed G.nut 30 Kg N/ha – in 2 equal splits at seeding
& 30 DAS – irrigated crop. However the nitrogen fixation process of plant starts working at about 20-30 days
after sowing, when the nodule apparatus is fully formed. Till that time to meet the requirement for plant
growth, an initial boost as starter dose of 10 kg/ha is necessary for rainfed groundnut. Depending on the
number of nodules, another 10 kg/ha at 30 DAS can be top dressed depending on the rainfall. Nitrogen should
be preferably applied in the form of Ammonium Sulphate as it also supplies the sulphur.
Phosphorus:-
The total amount of ‘P’ uptake by groundnut plant is relatively small compared to N & K. It promotes root
growth and multiplication of Rhizobium. phosphurus is applied when the available
phosphorus is < 35 kg/ha.
Opt. doses are
Rainfed – 40 kg P2O 5 /ha irrigated – 50 kg P2O5/ha
Entire dose should be applied at sowing along with N by placement preferably using ferti seed drill.
Single super phosphate is the best source as it contains 16% P2O5, 19.5% Ca & 12.5% Sulphur
along with some traces of Zn & other micronutrients traces. Therefore response to SSP is higher than with
DAP at equal nutrient basis. Phosphobacteria as Pseudomonas striata and Bacillus polymixa solubilises the
native phosphorus and recorded 13-20% increase in groundnut yield.
Mychorhizal fungi inoculations have been beneficial in field tests in India and quantification of yield benefits
are yet to be made in terms of phosphorus fertilizer economy and production.
Potassium:-
As most of the Indian soils are rich in K, groundnut in general will not show any significant
response to applied potassium.
There is no necessity for potassium application to rainfed gr oundnut yielding around 1 t/ ha.
Response is observed only when the available potassium in soil is < 150 kg/ha.
For rainfed groundnut - 40 kg/ha
For irrigated crop - 50 kg K2O/ha provided N is applied at recommended rate.
Calcium & sulphur: -
These two nutrients are absorbed by pegs & developing pods and the common source of supply is gypsum.
Adequate calcium is essential in root and pod zones for yield and quality of kernels. Calcium deficiency
lea ds to unfilled pods called pops and darkening of plumules of embryo.
Sulphur is highly essential as it is directly involved in the biosynthesis of oil. It improves nodulation of
Rhizobium and prevents the premature leaf fall & increase the pod & oil yield.
Ca & S are supplied to crop through cao or gypsum & it has been observed to increase the yield by more than
twice depending on its availability in the soil. About 1 meq / 100 g soil in the root zone depth and 3.0
meq/100g soil in pod zone are threshold values for calcium sufficiency.About 100 ppm of heat soluble
sulphur is the critical limit of available sulphur for groundnut.
Gypsum application @ 500 kg/ha near pegging zone as top dressing at flowering (30 DAS)
appears to be ideal .

55
 If heavy rains occur within 2weeks after application then a second lighter application of gypsum is
necessary around 3weeks after first application.
K: Ca: Mg ratio :-
G. nut is sensitive to imbalanced nutrient supply. The K:C:Mg ratio is more important than the
total amount.
Increase in conc. of Mg in nutrient solution decrease K uptake by G. nut & also decreases Ca uptake.
There is a mutual antagonistic effect on the uptake of K, Ca & Mg.
The ideal ratio is 4 : 4 : 2.
Zinc, Boron & Iron:-
ZINC: Zn def. is common on sandy & sandy loam soils. The critical limit of available Zn in soil is <0.6 ppm.
Application of Znso4 @ 2 kg /ha once in 2 years corrects the def iciency. If it is observed in standing crop,
foliar application of 0.2% ZnSO 4 along with 0.2% lime can correct the deficiency.
BORON: ‘B’ def. leads to HOLLOW HEART. Deficiency has been reported in light soils of
Punjab & T.N. The threshold level of boron is 0.25 ppm. Deficiency can be corrected by soil application of 5–
10 kg/ha of boron. In standing crop, corrected by 0.1% borax spray.
IRON: Iron chlorosis is largely due to its reduced availability in the soil. Immobilization of iron in the soil
may be due to high levels of lime, high PH (>7.6) or high levels of bicarbonates in soil or irrigation. spraying
of ferrous sulphate mixed with 1% of ammonium citrate around 50 DAS corrects iron deficiency.
WEED MANAGEMENT
Weed competition is critical upto 35 DAS.
Yield losses may be to the extent of 70%. , especially under rainfed conditions.
When once pegging begins (40 DAS ), there should not be any disturbance to pegs through
manual or mechanical weeding.
Important weed flora in the groundnut crop are
Cyperus rotundus ; chloris barbata, celosia argentena, commelina benghalensis; Boerhaavia diffusa etc.
Cultural management:
Hand weeding is done twice, first around 20 DAS & 2nd at about 35 DAS.
Inter cultivation usually starts around 10 days after emergence & continues upto 35 DAS at 7– 10 days
interval till pegging begins.
Cost effective weed management under rainfed conditions is , repeated intercultivation (harrowing) upto
35 DAS followed by hand weeding.
Use of herbicide:-
o A mixture of oxadiazon & Dinoseb each @ 1.7 kg /ha gives excellent control of weeds besides reducing
stem rot in G.nut.
o Fluazifop (150 – 250 g) is a promising post herbicide for controlling grasses, particularly cynodon dactylon,
35 – 40 DAS
o IWM involving the above two appears most effective & economical, provided the crop is not subjected to
prolonged drought or soil moisture stress during the crop period.
Pre-plant incorporation of Fluchloralin @ 1.25 – 1.5 kg/ha
Pre-emergence application of Pendimethalnin @0.6-1.5 kg/ha or Alachlor @ 1.5-2.0 kg/ha.
Lecture 19
Water management:-
Groundnut crop is mostly cultivated during kharif under rainfed conditions. Irrigated groundnut accounts for
over 20% of the total area under the crop in the country & it yields around 4.2 t/ha.
Critical stages:-

56
 The period from peak flowering to early pod development (45 – 75 DAS) is the most sensitive to soil
moisture stress. In other words, flowering, peg penetration and pod development stages are the 3 moisture
sensitive stages for pod yield.
Very early growth phase (upto 20 DAS) is least sensitive.
Scheduling of irrigation:-
On sandy loam soils, scheduling irrigations at 25% DASM throughout the growth period
results in high pod yield.
Irrigating the crop at
25% DASM – from pegging to early pod development
50% DASM – at other stages appear to be ideal for high WUE without significant reduction in pod yield.
An IW/CPE ratio of 1.0 at moisture sensitive stages and 0.6 during other stages leads to high WUE.
The water requirement of groundnut, on an average., ranges b/n 450 & 650 mm & WUE is
0.6 to 0.8 kg /m3 (pod yield per unit of water evapotranspired ).
If irrigation water is not limiting , then a total of 8 irrigations are adequate for optimal yield.
pre –sowing irrigation followed by an irrigation at 25 DAS, 4 irrigations at 10 days interval &
final two irrigations at 15 days interval.
At times of deficit supplies, an irrigation at 25 DAS followed by 2 at 15 days interval b/n 45
& 75 DAS appears to be minimum requirement & it can minimise yield losses due to soil moisture stress.
The first irrigation is given at 25 DAS to create moisture stress in the soil which is desirable.
to get the good root system.
to reduce excessive vegetative growth.
Encourage the better nodulation
Induce heavy flowering in a single flush (synchronous flowering)
METHOD:
The crop is usually irrigated by check basin method. Border strip is more suitable than other methods.
Sprinkler irrigation is ideal for g. nut crop on sandy soils.
CROPPING SYSTEMS:-
At national level, a major cropping systems have been identified. The groundnut crop is
predominantly raised as intercropping or sequence cropping depending upon on the type of
component crop & R.F, distribution.
SEQUENCE CROPPING:-
In general, g. nut crop is rotated with cereals commercial crops & oilseed crops. Yield of cereals following g.
nut is usually increased by 25%.
INTERCROPPING:-Imp. Cereal crops grown with g. nut are pearlmillet, sorghum & maize. Other long
duration crops grown with g. nut as intercrops are pigeonpea, cotton and castor.short duration intercrop with
g. nut are sesame, sunflower, cowpea, green gram, black gram.
HARVESTING:-
Generally bunch and semi- spreading type comes to maturity by 100 – 105 days where as spreading type it is
125 -135 days.
The prominent symptoms of maturity:-
Yellowing of leaves .
Necrotic spotting on the leaves
Dropping of older leaves / leaf fall.
The pods become very hard & tough, they give cracking sound when split open with fingers.
The inside of the shell turning dark, with netted venation
Seed coat develops pink or red colour (normal colour of the varities)

57
 Raising of the soil to the base of the stem is observed .
Generally harvesting is done by pull ing or lifting the plants from the soil with pods intact. If soil moisture is
adequate, then hand pulling. If soil is dry, tractor or bullock drawn blades are used for lifting the vines with
pods. Harvesting before maturity reduces yield & oil % & seeds are highly susceptible to afflotoxins. If
delayed, results in increased incidence of stem rot, weakening of gynophore/peduncle & some of the pods
may remain in soil itself at the time of harvesting.
Stripping: - The process of separating pods from haulms in bunch type, if vines are still green, plants is
knocked against a cross bar to dislodge the pods. The most common method is stripping pods with hand.
At the time of harvest, pods usually have moisture content around 40 – 50% & hence need
to be dried to 10% moisture content for safe storage.
Drying should be done rapidly to prevent fungal moulding
Sun drying is the usual method of drying.
Summer g. nut should be dried in shade to prevent loss of viability, if it is for seed purpose.
Storage:-
Storage at farmer level is invariably in the form of pods. Farmers usually dispose of groundnut
pods within a month from drying yard itself. A few store it for 6 months (till kharif seeding) in
anticipation of high price.
Pods for seed purpose are stored for 7 – 8 months.
Pods for seed purpose are stored in earthern pots, mud bins or bamboo baskets or Gunny bags
having polythene lining. If the seed moisture content is above the critical level of 9% then Aflatoxin
production due to Aspergillus flavus just before the post – harvest drying & mould growth at later stage takes
place.
Yield Attributes:-
Groundnut kernel yield is the product of pod number, number of kernels per pod and
weight of kernels. Kernels per pod vary from 1-5, pods per plant from 5-105 and 100 kernel
weight from 28 – 62 g (ICRISAT 1987). There is a high positive correlation between the number
of mature pods and pod yield.
Yield:-
Rainfed: - 10 – 15 q/ha
Irrigated: - 20 – 25 q/ha.
Harvest Index : The harvest index in groundnut varies between 0.35 and 0.50 in groundnut.
QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS:-
Quality of groundnut is largely determined by volume weight of pods, shelling %, 100 kerenel weight, oil
content, free fatty acid content, colour of pods & testa colour.
1) Volume weight of pods:-
It is the wt. per unit vol. of pods, which indicates maturity & development of kernels when the pods are
disposed by volume.
Small pods have high volume weight than those of bigger pods .
The avg. 100 pod weight varies from 73g (7 MV – 2 , Spanish bunch) to 107 g (M -13-
Virginia runner)
Volume weight is influenced by RF distribution at pod development & Ca & S in pod zone.
2) Shelling percentage:- Shelling – separation of kernels from pods.
It is the % of kernels to pods by weight.
It ranges from 68% in M13 to 76% in TMV-2.
Irrigated crop has lower shelling % than that of rainfed crop.
It depends on thickness of the shell, development of kernel & following pattern during the

58
crop period.
It is influenced by genotype, Rainfall distribution & Ca in pod zone.
3)100 Kernel weight:-
It is an indication of proper kernel development.
Average 100 kernel weight ranges from 30 g (TMV 2) to 78 g (in M13).
It is a varietal character with marginal influence of RF distribution, nutrient management &
ability of translocation of photosynthates from source to sink.
4) Oil content :-
It generally ranges from 48 – 51 %
It depends on temperature during first 3 weeks of pod development, maturity of kernels which is
influenced by RF during development stage & ‘S’ content in soil root zone.
Virgina runners have higher oil content than Spanish bunch types.
5) Oil quality :- The free fatty acid content in oil will decide the shelf life of oil. Higher the free FA content
lesser is the quality & faster is the deterioration of oil quality.
Oil extracted from runner type have best quality due to higher concentration of TOCOPHEROL.
The ratio of saturated to unsaturated fatty acid also decide oil quality. The ratio of oleic acid
to linoleic acid should be > 1.6 to have long shelf life.
6) Colour of pods and testa of kernel :-
Attractive colour of the pod & testa gets higher price in the markets especially for direct consumption. In
general, light golden yellow colour of pods are preferred & fetch more price in market. Kernels with pink ,
rose or light brown testa are preferred.
Grading :-
For easy marketing of pods & kernels the grading is done. Pods are graded into 3 categories &
kernels into 4 categories based on size.
PODS KERNELS
1) Large/bold 1) Extra large
2) Medium size 2) Large
3) small size 3) Jumbo(shrivelled)
4) Splits(ill filled)
EXPORT POTENTIAL:-
HPSK & G.nut oil cake are exported to other countries. But in recent years export of these products are
drastically reduced due to increase afflatoxin load in the products & increasing demestic demand.
China is the largest exporter of HPS kernels followed by USA & india.
The Indian share for the export of Hps is only 2%
G. nut cake is a good veg. protein & poultry feed. India is exporting large quantity of GN cake in western
countries till 1980. Later on the export of G.nut cake was significantly reduced due to higher levels of
Aflatoxins.

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Lecture 20 Chapter No.10
COTTON (Gossypium hirsutum)

Cotton is one of the oldest and the most important commercial crop of the world and forms the most
important fibre crop. Cotton textile industry is the oldest Agricultural industry of India. The fibre obtained
from seed is used for variety of purpose. But major use of fibre is manufacturing of textiles which provide
clothing to the mankind. Ever since the dawn of civilization, cotton served the purpose of providing this need
and even today it dominates despite of the production and marketing of many synthetic fibres Cotton is
referred to as “ King of Fibres “and also known as “White Gold” Cotton is also used for several other
purposes like making threads, for mixing in other fibres and extraction of oil from the cotton seed. Oil content
ranges from 15-25 percent. Cotton seed cake after extraction of oil is good organic manure contains 6.4% N,
2.9% P2O5 and 2.2% K2O. Cotton seed and pulp obtained during oil extraction and cotton meal are good
concentrated feed for cattle.
Origin and History
Cotton has been used as a fabric in India from time immemorial. It has been cultivated in the Indus Valley for
more than 5000 years before. The excavations of Mohen – jo- daro indicates a high degree of art in spinning
and weaving with cotton at that time. It finds mention in the Rigveda, the oldest scripture of the Hindus. Manu
also refers to it in his Dharma Shastra. India appears to have been the centre of an important cotton industry as
early as 1500 B.C. The cultivation of Cotton spread from India to Egypt and then to Spain and Italy. Every
available evidence proves that India is the original habitat of Cotton.
The cultivated Species are divided into two groups. They are
Old world cotton
India is the major cotton growing country, growing all four species of cotton commercially.India is considered
as centre of origin of old World cotton and believed that two Species (arboretum and herbaceum) belonging to
old world cotton have spread along the commercial routes to several countries in the East and also to the
Northern countries like Africa to Egypt and other Mediterranean regions through trade and business.
New World cotton
Cotton belonging to species barbadense are derived from a perennial cotton, a native of Peru called Tangins.
This variety was introduced into USA and by selection a new type of annual cotton was developed known as
Sea Island Cotton which was the longest and finest fibre of all the cultivated cotton. Hirsutum species is the
native of Central Mexico and spread to other parts of USA, Asia, Africa etc from native place.
Area and distribution
Cotton is the most important fibre crop of the world cultivated over an area of 34.5 ha with a
total production of 54.5 mt. The important cotton growing countries are India, USA, Russia, China, Brazil,
Egypt, Pakistan, Turkey, Mexico and Sudan. These ten countries account for nearly 85% of the total
production.
Climate
It is a tropical crop and thrives well in hot and humid climate. It is heat loving and sun loving(heliophyte)
plant. A daily minimum temperature of 16oC is required for germination and 21 to 27oC for proper vegetative
growth. It can tolerate temperature as high as 43oC, but does not do well if the temperature falls below 21oC.
During fruiting phase, the day temperature ranging from 27 to 30oCand cool nights are needed. Abundant
sunshine during the crop growth period particularly the period of boll maturation and harvesting is essential to
obtain a good quality produce. Successfully grown in areas receiving an average annual rainfall ranging from
500mm, of which 175-200mm should be received during crop growth period. If, during the fruiting period
heavy showers of rain occur or heavy irrigation is applied, shedding of the flowers and young bolls results. At
harvesting also high rainfall is not desirable since it not only affects the quality of lint but also delays

60
harvesting and makes the harvesting difficult. Cotton is highly sensitive to frost occurrence. Even for short
period, frost will result in killing of plant cells and severe frost situation, death of entire plant occurs. Hence,
its cultivation is confined to plains and extends from MSL occur s to an altitude of 1000 m only. For
successful crop, it requires a frost free period of a minimum of 180-200 days, starting from the emergence of
the plant.
Soils: Cotton is a deep rooted crop. As the tap root extends even up to a depth of 200-250cm deep soils are
ideal for better root penetration and development. Soils should have good water retention capacity as most of
the cotton is confined to rainfed conditions. Soils must be well drained and well aerated since the crop is
sensitive to water logging. Crop can tolerate P H of 5.5 to 8.5. The Principle soil types for cotton cultivation
in the country are
a) Alluvial Soils: Punjab, Rajasthan , Haryana, U.P, Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, Assam, Godavari, Krishna
region (A.P)
b) Black Cotton Soils: Central and Western M.P, parts of M.S, South Orissa, South and Coastal A.P, North
Karnataka
c) Red Soils: Tamilnadu, Karnataka, N-E parts of AP, Parts of MP, Orissa, Assam, UP, West Bengal,
Rajasthan
d) Laterite Soils: Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Karnataka, E Parts of A.P, Tamil Nadu, Assam, and Kerala.

Land Preparation
The field, after the harvest of the preceding crop, should be ploughed 15-20cm deep with mould board
plough. There after two to four harrowings depending upon the soil type are done. After each ploughing,
planting is essential to make soil pulverized, leveled. No stubbles of the previous crop should be left in the
field. For irrigated crop, particularly in North, the field should be prepared by applying heavy pre-sowing
irrigation.
Seeds and Sowing
Time of Sowing
Time of sowing season of cotton varies considerably from tract to tract and is generally early April – May in
N -India and is delayed as one goes down to south. Cotton is essentially grown as Kharif crop in the major
parts of the country - Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, U.P, M.P, Gujarat, MS and parts of A.P and Karnataka. In
these areas Irrigated crop – March to May, Rainfed Crop – June/July. In parts of Gujarat and M.P, pre-
monsoon dry sowings are practiced in the end of May or early June to give early stand to the crop.
T.N. – Irrigated and rain fed – Sept/Oct, Summer sowings – Feb/March
A.P. Northern region – June/July, Central region – Aug/Sept, July/Aug(Hybrids)
Eastern region – July/Aug, Rice fallows – Dec/Jan
Seed rate is influenced by the variety and method of sowing.
High yielding variety – 10 to 15kg/ha, Hybrids – 2.5 to 3.0kg/ha
Spacing: Straight varieties – 45 to 60X15cm (R)
-90 to 120X45 to 60 cm (I)
Hybrids -90 to 150X45 to 60 cm
Method of Sowing: Seed drill /behind the plough, dibbling (hybrids)
Depth of Sowing: 4 to 6cm
No. of seedlings/hill: Varieties 2, Hybrids 1
Seed treatment
The seed of the most of the cotton varieties particularly of American types is covered by short fibre called
Fuzz. The fuzz makes the seeds cling together, thus hampering their free passage through the seed hopper and
tubes of the seed drill or they are not easily separated for sowing by dibbling. The fuzz also interferes with the

61
absorption of the water by the seed and delays germination. The H2SO4 poured on seed and simultaneously.
Wash the seed with fresh water followed by lime water again with fresh water to neutralize the acid residues.
The fuzz gets burnt and immediately washed 3-4 times in water and dried under shade. This is called
delinting. Delinting can be done mechanically in the cotton gin or chemically or the seed is rubbed with mud
or a mixture of earth and fresh cow dung. By this treatment, the fuzz on each individual seed becomes pasted
on the seed itself and the seeds no longer cling to each other. In order to control the seed borne diseases the
seed is treated with 0.01% Streptomycin Oxytetracyclin (Paushamycin or Agrimycin) and with 0.1% Systemic
fungicide like carboxin (vitavax) solutions for 6-8 hours. The treated seed should be dried in shade before
sowing.
Gap filling and thinning
To maintain optimum population, gap filling is done with the same stock of seed which was used at the time
of sowing. This is done on the 10th day. Wherever seed has not germinated to fill the gaps, the water soaked
seeds are dibbled so as to have quick emergence or seedlings are raised in polythene bags at the time of
sowing and these are used for gap filling. So that crop growth is uniform. Thinning should be done within 3
WAS, by removing the excess seedlings that are weak, diseased or damaged and retaining robust and strong
plants. The main objective is to maintain optimum plant population per unit area.
Lecture 21
Cotton- Zones of India, Classification of Cottons
Cotton growing regions of India: Cotton is cultivated in Inida from Sub–Himalayan region of Punjab in the
North to Kerala in south and from dry regions of Kutch to high rainfall areas of Manipur in East. Based on
soil, climate and types of cotton grown, the country is divided into six cotton growing tracts.
1. Northern hirsutum: – arboreum region: Comprises of Punjab, Western UP, Delhi, Haryana and
N.W.Rajasthan. This is most important cotton growing and potential region. More than 90%
of the area in this zone is irrigated. Two species of cotton i.e hirsutum and arboreum are grown in this region.
At present 60% of the total cotton acreage consists of hirsutum varieties and growing of arboreum has
assumed secondary importance. The soils are of alluvial origin.
2. Central arboreum region: This region comprises of many districts of M.P, Maharastra, Gohilwad, Amreli
dts of Gujarat and Adilabad dt of A.P. Entire region is characterized by black cotton soils locally called
REGAR soils which are highly suitable for cotton cultivation.
3. Southern hirsutum – arboreum region: Comprise the states of Tamilnadu and Kerala. Major soil groups
are red soils but also grown on sandy and heavy black soils.
4. Central herbaceum – arboreum – hirsutum: Comprises A.P and Karnataka. The principal soils on which
cotton is gr own are coastal alluvium, deltoic alluvium, red, black cotton soils, laterite and loamy soils. The
major area of cotton is confined to black cotton soils (80%)
5. Western – herbaceum region: Comprises of Gujarat and parts of Bombay and Karnataka. Improved
varieties of cotton are grown in this region. Major soil group is black cotton soil followed by loamy soil.
6. Eastern region : Comprises the states of Orissa, West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Manipur and
Tripura. Longest zone with respect to area but the production is negligible from this region.

Classification
The predominant species cultivated
Gossypium hirsutum - >90% of the area
“ arboretum - 5%
Gossypium herbaceum – 2%
Gossypium barbadense – negligible

62
Gossypium hirsutum (American Cotton)- Species contain haploid number of chromosomes (26) plants are
either annual shrubs or large perennial shrubs (1-1.5mt tall), Flowers are creamy white in colour when first
open and turn pink or red later. The capsules are 3-5 locular with 5-11 seeds in each locule. Seed contain a
thick coat of lint hair besides a thick coat of fuzz hair. Fibre is medium coarse and length varies from ¾ “ to
11/4” (27-30mm)
Gossypium barbadense: (Sea island / Egyptian Cotton)- Species contain haploid number of chromosomes
(26). Plants are either anuual shrubs or perennial shrubs. Petals are yellow with purple spot at the base.
Capsules are 3.5 locular with 5-8 seeds, in each locule. Seeds bear a thick coat of lint and thick coat of fuzz
and fuzz may be absent in some varieties. Fibre is fine and extra long ranging from 1/2” to 2’’ length. Lint is
readily detachable from the seed.
Gossypium arboretum: Species contain haploid number of chromosomes (13). Plant may be annual sub
shrub or perennial. Capsules are tapering with prominent oil glands in the pits and are 3 or 4 locular with 6-17
seed in each locule . Seeds are usually covered with two coats of hair (lint +fuzz). Fibre is coarse and short
and length varies from ½” to 7/8”
Gossypium herbaceum: Haploid number of chromosomes (13). Plants are sub shrubs. Capsules are brown
provided with beak, smooth surface or with shallow pits with oil glands. The capsules are 3-4 locular with 8-
10 seeds in each locule. Seeds are covered with two coats of hair (lint+fuzz). Fibre is coarse and short with
lint length varying from 1/2” to 7/8’’

Branching in Cotton: There are two types of branches observed in cotton.

Monopodial branches
They arise from basal region upto 1/3rd height of the plant, few in number, they does not bear flowers, also
termed as vegetative branches. They appear as growing straight. They bare sympodial branches.
Sympodial branches
They arise from main stem as well as on monopodial branches. They are many in number, they bear flowers
on it, hence also termed as reproductive branches. The growth pattern of sympodial branches is stop-grow-
stop pattern.
Manures and Fertilizers
15 to 20 t Fym/ha should be incorporated into the soil at last ploughing. Recommended dose
of fertilizers depends on the variety grow n, whether rainfed or irrigated and the nutrient supplying capacity of
the soil recommended dose is not uniform in all the cotton growing regions.
N/ha P2O5/ha K2O/ha
Desi Cotton : 20 – 40 kg 20Kg 20 Kg
American Cotton Varieties : 90 Kg 45 Kg 45 Kg
Hybrids : 120 Kg 60 Kg 60 Kg
Entire P205 should be applied as a basal dose at last ploughing and duly incorporated in the soil. Nitrogen and
Potassium is applied in three equal splits each at 30, 60 and 90 DAS. While top dressing, fertilizer should be
applied in pockets 7 -10 cm away form the plant and at a depth of 7– 10 cm for a rainfed crop. Fertilizer
application should be done only in presence of adequate moisture. For the irrigated crop, provide irrigation
soon after application of fertilizers.
N P2O5 K2O
Rain Fed
Desi 40 20 20
American 60 30 30
Hybrid 90 45 45

63
Irrigated
American 120 60 60
Hybrid 150 75 75
Water Management
Cotton is a drought tolerant crop due to its deep root system. Water requirement of the crop is 600 to 800 mm.
Cotton cannot tolerate excess moisture in the soil and so frequent irrigation is not necessary. Interval between
two irrigations depends on the soil type, rainfall and others related climatic factors. The crop must not be
allowed to suffer from water stress during flowering and fruiting period, otherwise excessive shedding of
flower buds and young bolls may occur resulting in loss of yield. The crop cannot tolerate water logging
conditions at any stage of growth. Critical Stages : Square formation stage
: Flowering stage
: Boll developing stage
Lecture 22
Weed Management
First 50 -60 days after sowing is the critical period of Crop Weed Competition, Initially the crop growth is
very slow, thus more vulnerable to weed compertiaton. During this period, the field
should be free form weeds for better growth and higher yields. 5 – 6 intercultural operations should be done
depending on the intensity of weeds. Weeds near the plant should be removed by manual labour. Chemical
method of managing weeds helps in maintaining the filed weed free. Following herbicides can be used in
cotton.
Pre –eme Pendimethaline @ 1.5 – 2.0Kg a .i/ha
PPI fluchloralin @ 1.5 Kg a.i /ha
Pre –eme: Alachlor @ 1.5 kg/a.i/ha
Diuron @ 0.8 - 1.0 kg ai /ha
Pronamide @1.5 – 2.5kga.i/ha
Cinmethiline @ 0.5 -1.5 Kg /ha
Post – eme: Paraquat @ 0.5 Kg a.i/ha or Glyphosate – 3.5 – 4.5 as directed spray on the foliage of weeds

Topping
Cotton is indeterminate plant, to check excessive vegetative growth topping is practiced. Toping refers to the
removal of the terminal bud. Level of topping or at what node topping is to be done will differs with cotton
plant type.
MCV –5: Topping at 15th node level (70 – 80) DAS resulted in better yields
MCV 7: 10 – 12th node (90DAS)
Topping is done manually. In USA machines are used . Excessive vegetation growth can also be controlled by
using chemicals which are growth retardant like cycocel (ccc). It restricts excessive
vegetative growth retards senescence, keeping the leaves green for longer time thus prolonging their effective
period.
American Cotton – 40 to 60 ppm
Desi cotton - 60 to 80 ppm 50 to 80DAS

Bud and Boll shedding

It is a natural phenomena in cotton . Heavy shedding of flower buds and young bolls occur which is
aggrevated under adverse conditions of soil, climate and management under such situation it may be as high
as 60% . under natural conditions 10 to 15% loss occurs.
Various reasons for bud and boll shedding in Cotton is

64
1)Unfavaurable Weather conditions:
- Reduced light conditions
- Excess or lack of moistures in the soils
- Cloudiness
-High relative humidity
2) Imbalanced nutrient supply
3)Incidence of pest and disease
4) Weeds alter the microclimate
5) Physical injury - due to use of farm machinery
This problem can be minimized by using certain hormones like NAA, since it increases the supply of auxin to
bolls and buds, thus the senescence of them is reduced. Spraying of NAA –
planofix @10 ppm at flower initiation (1 ml in 100 liter) 50 – 60 DAS & 15 days after 1st applicaton resulted
in retention of more bolls.
Harvesting
Harvesting usually commences in the month of Nov. and extends to March depending upon sowing time and
duration. Harvesting is done usually by manual labour ie hand picking the cotton from the open matured bolls.
Since cotton is indeterminate type, flowering occurs in no. of flushes hence all the bolls do not mature at a
time and bolls come to maturing stage at intervals of 2-4 weeks period. Harvesting is done in 4 -5 pickings as
and when bolls are fully matured. Precautions must be taken to maintain the quality of fibre at the time of
picking.
1) Picking needs good experience, care is taken that all the cotton from all segments should be removed in one
stroke. without lea ving any fibre in the boll.
2) Produce from each picking should be dried separately and stored separately . Cotton from all pickings
should not be mixed since they vary in their quality. Cotton should be dried on clean floor in shade.
3) Kapas should not be contaminated with foreign materials like leaf bits, trash, soil particles etc, at the time
of picking and shading. While picking weather conditions must be taken into account. Usually pickings are
done in the early hours of the day, As the day advances the fruit wall becomes brittle due to sun and while
picking they easily collapse and contaminate. Picking must commence after cessation of dew fall. Cotton of
early picking are of superior quality and later pickings produce inferior quality fibre due to inadequate
nutrient supply at later stapes, high incidence of pest and inadequate moisture at later stages. Boll affected
with insect is common feature which not only reduce yield but produce yellow stained cotton which is
considered inferior fibre.
Yields
Dryland crop - 10to 15 q/ha
Irrigated Crops - 25 to 30q/ha
Hybrids - 35 to 40 q/ ha.
1 Bale = 170 kg.
Yield attributes:
1. Number of plants per unit area.
2. Number bolls for plant
3. Seeds per boll
4. Boll weight
5. Lint percentage

65
Lecture 23
Cotton- Quality parameters
1.Colour of fibre
Colour of the fibre of cotton is white with few exceptions like desi cotton which have reddish or yellowish
tinge. White coloured cotton which are shiny are considerd as superior cotton. Cotton
obtained from first picking will be bright white in colour and the later produced will be dull or
yellowish tinge in colour. The fibres may also be discoloured or stained by insect damage, fungal
diseases mechanical harvesting and the sap of green plant parts. Colour of the cotton is decided by visual
observation cotton marketed in India are classified on the basis of visual observation into white , grey,
brownish , greenish and light reddish. In lab colour grading is done by using NICKERSON – HUNTER
calorimeter. Where a light is reflected from sample of cotton and the extent of yellowish tinge is calculated.
2.Length of fibre
The length of fibre is mainly predetermined by heredity and is only slightly influenced by growing conditions.
fibre length is the mean length of lint hair expressed in mm. longer the length superior will be the quality..
Presence of excess moisture and poor nutrition will result in long fibre with poor strength. length is
determined by varies methods (at 65%RH &21oC temp.)
1. Seed is combed making halo and length is measured by a disc, which gives mean length
2. By measuring each fibre with scale and getting average length which is teadious , laborious and not
practicable on large scale.
3. By using digital fibrograph where in sum amount of light is transmitted through the fibre beared after
combing along the fibre length and calculated. On the basis of fibre length , cotton is classified into six
groups.

Groups Length (mm) Varieties

Short staple < 19.5 Lohit , G - 27
Medium staple 20.0 – 21.5 Raichur 51 ,DB-3-12
Medium long Staple 22.0 – 24.0 MCV-7,G cot 12
Long staple 24.5- 26.5 Krishan, JKHY – 1
Superior long staple 27.0 – 29.5 MCU -5 , H4, Amaravathi
Extra long staple 32 & above Suvin and sujatha
Holo length : it is overall length of the lint without the fibre taken out of the seed

3.Fibre fineness:
It denotes the diameter of the fibre hair or thickness . Lesser the diameter superior is the quality . Thickness of
the fibre ranges from 15-20 microns. Fineness is measured by taking the weight per unit length of fibre which
gives indirectly the finesses because measuring diameter of the fibre is very difficult as they are thin and
minute. Fibre fineness is generally expressed as microgram/inch of the fibre which is also called micronaire
value. It is measured by the
1) Weight /unit length – specified number of fibre are taken with known length and weight is
recorded using a sensitive balance.Lesser the weigth, superior is the quality and finer the lint hair.
2) By using instrument MICRONAIRE . In this cotton plugs are prepared by using known weigth of cotton
lint, i.e. 3-4 gm by pressing in a specially designed cylinder. Air is passed at high pressure through cotton
plugs and fineness is determined indirectly by the flow of air through the plug. Finer cotton will allow more
air to pass than coarse fibre . This is calculated on a scale and expressed as micronaire value. On basis of
fineness, cotton are classified into five groups.

66
Groups Fineness variety
Very fine < 3.0 -
Fine 3.0 – 3.9 MCU -5 , Varalaxmi ,H6
Average 4.0 – 4.9 H4
Coarse 5.0 -5.9 AKH -4 ,maljari
Very coarse >6.0

4.Fibre strength:
Fibre strength doesnot refer to a individual fibre but to a tuft of fibres of a given thickness. It
is expressed as maximum load in terms of Kg that a fibre bundle can take when stretched in one
direction before it breaks. Strength is determined by using STELOMETER . Generally the tuft of
finer fibre will have greater strength . Fibre strength is measured in thousands of pounds /sq inch or kg/sq cm
and grade is allotted, based on strength cotton is classified into
Group Grade
Very strong >95
Strong 86 – 95
Average 76 – 85
Fair 66 -75
Weak 66- below

5.Spinng count:
Spinnabilty of the fibre depends on length and thic kness of the fibre . It is expressed in counts or hanks. A
count is the number of hanks that a pound of cotton gives. One count is equal to 840 yards . Thus finer the
thread the greater will be the count. Ordinarily Indian cottons have 22 counts . While the best quality cotton
may have count ranging between 80 to 400 . On the basis of spinnability cottons are divided into five groups.
Group Counts Vareties
Course Cotton 1 – 17 Maljari
Medium coarse 17-26 AKH4, Sanjay
Superior medium coarse 26 – 35 Nerma
Fine 35 -48 Bur 1007
Superior fine 40- 80 MCU5, H4, H6
> 80 Varalaxmi, Suvin, DCH 12
6.Fibre maturity :
Fibre is matured when the cavity of the lint is completely filled with the cellulose . Extent of the filling
indicate its maturity . According to cellulose content fibres are classifed into
Mature fibres - Yellowish white fibre
Half mature fibres - Bluish or bluish green
Imature fibre - Deep blue or purple
Trash content or Foreign Matters:
Foreign matter mainly consists of debris of leaves and broken stems of cotton and weeds that
mix very easily with the lint during harvesting the amount of foreign matter remaining in the lint
after ginning depends mainly on the efficiency of the dr ying and cleaning process in the ginning
plant. Presence of foreign material will reduce the quality and yarn manufactured from such cotton will have
poor strength and gives bad appearance presence of foreign material can be detected and measured
quantitatively by instrument called SHERLY ANALYSER

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7.Hygroscopicity:
The dry cotton absorbs moisture from the atmosphere. Presence of moisture in the lint affects
the colour,elasticity, luster etc, and the fibres having moisture break very frequently. Thus the fibres which
absorbs less moisture are considered to be of superior quality and vice-versa.
Ginning percentage:
Recovey of lint from seed cotton is called Ginning percentage. A variety of cotton with high
percentage of ginning is prefered as more lint per unit weight of seed cotton can be obtained form such
varieties. This value ranges form 24 -43 % in different cottons
Barbadense – 28-30%, Hirsutum -34-38% , desi cottons -36-42%

GP = Weigth of lint x 100

Weigth of seed cotton
8.Neppiness:
It refers to formation of small knots or specks in the yarn manufactured form cotton. Knots generally occur if
fiber is not cleaned and ginning not done properly, lesser the nippiness, superior is the quality of fibre. Neps
are tangled knots of fibre, caused by mechanical processing.
9.Lint Index :
It is the weight of lint form 100seeds

Lint Index = Weight of 100 seeds x GP

100 –G.P
10.Seed Index:
It is the test weight , which is weight of 100 seeds (g). Seed index of cotton varies from 4.8 to 11g.
11.Oil content:
It varies from 14.5 to 22.5% is desi cotton and ranges between 17.5 to 22.5 % in American cottons.

Coloured cottons:
Natural coloured cottons are in existence in all shades form white to black. As per historical
documents, blue, purple , pink, green, brown cottons were in cultivation and usage in coastal Peru. In Mexico
wild trees of brown cotton are grown as perennial crops. The brown cotton are called coyoqui and yellow
cotton is coyuchi. These are still spun by tribals in Mexico. In Indian brown cottons of G.arborium and
G.herbaceum are grown in some remote areas of Kakinada in AP and Tripura. The natural colored cotton are
environmental friendly and economically viable as they are sold at premium price. They do not fade on
washing. The disadvantage of coloured cotton is as they yield less, fibres are shorter, low strength , low
micronaire value and low maturity coefficient.

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Lecture 24 Chapter No.11
JUTE (Corchorus capsularis)
Introduction
Jute is a natural fibre with golden and silky shine and hence known as Golden Fibre.
Jute is cheapest vegetable fibre and second most important vegetable fibre after cotton.
OriginJute has two cultivable species
1. Corchorus capsularis – originated from Indo-Burma region.
2. Corchorus olitorius – Originated from Africa
Wild species of Jute include Corchorus oestuans, Corchorus tridens, Corchorus trilocularis,
Corchorus urticifolices, Corchorus japanicum.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE TWO CULTITVABLE SPECIES OF JUTE
Corchorus capsularis Corchorus olitorius
Common names – White Jute, Tita Jute, Common names – Tossa Jute,
Bitter Jute Mitha Jute
Originated from Indo Burma region Originated from African region
Colour of the Fibre is White Colour of the fibre is Yellowish or
Reddish brown
It is herbaceous annual with slender and It has cylindrical stem and grows up
straight stem and grow s to a height of 1.5 to a height of 5m
to 4m with tapering stem
Leaves are glabrous, ovate & oblong Leaves are glabrous, coarsely toothed
Stem is green to red in colour, may/may Stem is green and are usually branched
not branched
Pods are round in shape Pods are elongated
Leaves and flowers are smaller but Leaves and flowers are larger but seeds are smaller in
seeds are larger in size (1g = 300Nos.) size (1g = 500Nos.)
Fibre Quality is poor Fibre quality is Finer, Softer, Stronger and more
lustrous than C.capsularis
Tolerates water logging, can be grown on Cannot tolerate water logging grown only on uplands
both uplands and lowlands occupying hence occupying low area of cultivation
more area of cultivation
Seed rate 10 to 11 Kg/hac Seed rate – 6 to 7 Kg/ha
Spacing 30 X 5 cm Spacing – 20 X 5 cm
Seed yield is more but fibre yield is less Seed yield is less but fibre yield is
more.
Longer duration 180 – 200 days Shorter duration – 120 to 150 days
Grown in loamy soils Grown in sandy loams
Sowing time is February to March Sowing time is April to May
Fertilizer requirement is high Fertilizer requirement is low
It withstands water logging It withstands drought

Distribution:
Jute is extensively grown in India, Bangladesh, China, Pakistan, Mayanmar, Nepal.In India, it is extensively
cultivated in eastern regions like West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Assam, Tripura, Meghalaya, Uttar Pradesh.
India is the largest producer and consumer of raw jute . Bangladesh is largest exporter of Raw Jute India

69
stands 1st in area and production of Raw Jute In India West Bengal stands 1st in area, Production and
Productivity 50% of total raw jute production in India is alone from West Bengal.In Andhra Pradesh,
negligible amount of area is under cultivation of Jute and is mostly confined to North Coastal Zone.1st Jute
mill was started production in Bengal in 1856.Jute is an important crop providing livelihood to 2,50,000 mill
workers and 4 million farmer families.Jute plays an important role in improving Indian economy by adding
Rs.6089 millions annually by export.

Properties of Jute:
 It has high tensile strength, low extensibility and ensures better breath ability of Fabrics
 Jute Fibre is 100% biodegradable, recyclable and this environmentally friendly
 Jute has good insulating and antielastic properties
 Jute has low thermal conductivity and moderate moisture gain
 Jute has properties like more heat and fire resistance
 These fibres are grouped under bast fibres and they are lignified
 A bitter glucoside called “Corchorin” present in white Jute
Uses of Jute:
 Jute fibre is used in manufacturing rugs, carpets, coarse fibres, twines and coarse blankets
 Broken fibres of Jute is called ‘ Tow ‘ which is used in making low grade paper
 Jute waste is used as fuel in ma king activated charcoal
 In market Jute and Mesta fibres are together known as “ Raw Jute “
 Leaves of Jute have medicinal Properties

Types of Jute:
Based on general utility purposes, Jute is of 4 types
A] Hessian or Burlap:
Made of good quality Jute Yarn,It has wide range of applications as in cloth form or in the form of bags
B] Sacking:Also known as “heavy goods” It is made from lower grades of fibre and used for bags of all types
C] Canvas:Finest Jute product, closely woven of the best grades of fibre widely used in India for protection
from weather
D] Jute Yarn and Twine:Most of the single strand Jute Yarn produced in consumed by the mills themselves
in fabric and twine manufacture.
Varieities:
Varieities of Corchorus capsularis – JRC 212, JRC 321, JRC 7447
Varieities of Corchorus olitorious– JRO 524, JRO 878, JRO 835
Jute based cropping systems: (Kharif)-(Rabi)-(Summer)
Under rainfed conditions
1. Jute – Wheat
2 crops per year
2. Jute – Mustard
Under irrigated conditions
1. Jute – Rice – Wheat
2. Jute – Rice – Potato (followed in West Bengal)
3. Jute – Rice – Cauliflower / Cabbage
4. Jute – Potato – Rice

70
Lecture 25
Soil:
 Alluvial sandy loams and clay loamy soils are the best suited for Jute cultivation.
 Capsularis Jute can grow even in standing water especially towards the latter part of growth
 Olitorius Jute cannot thrive in standing water and is more drought resistant and hence grown in light
soils.
 New grey alluvial soils of good depth, receiving salts from annual floods is best suited for Jute
cultivation
Climate:
 Jute is a rainfed crop
 Grows well in warm and humid climate with temperature in the range of 240 C – 370 C with 65-90%
relative humidity.
 Jute is mainly grown in Kharif or monsoon season as vegetative growth is more in kharif that results in
higher yields of fibre.
 Alternate sunshine hours and rainy days are congenial for better growth.
 Temperatures less than 200C and more than 400C are harmful because it restricts the plant growth
especially the plant height.
 Annual rainfall is 80 to 100cm.
 Low plant population is not preferred because of branching and reduces quality of fibre.
 Early sowing of Corchorus Olitorius is not preferred because it comes to early flowering, quality is
reduced.
 Constant rain or water logging is harmful.
Tillage :
Deep ploughing is necessary because root system is extensively developed. Seed bed should have fine tilth
since seeds are very small.

Cultivated species of jute Seed rate (Kg/ha) Spacing No. of Plants

Line Sowing Broad Casting (cm) Per Sq.mt
Corchor us olitorius 5 7 25x5 80
Corchorus capsularis 7 10 30x5 67

Time and methods of sowing:

In midlands and high lands sowing starts with summer showers in March and April and continues till early
June in Western part of Jute belt. Method of sowing is generally broadcasting or line sowing.

Manures and Fertilizers :

5 tons of well decomposed farm yard manure should applied in last ploughing.
Nitrogen should be applied in 2 splits – 1st split as basal and 2nd split at 4-6 weeks after sowing.
Application of Phosphorous reduces the lodging and improves fibre quality .Potassium application prevents
disease incidence.

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Cultivated species of jute Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium

Corchor us olitorius 40 Kg /ha 40 Kg /ha 60 Kg /ha

Corchorus capsularis 60 Kg/ha 40 Kg /ha 60 Kg/ha

Weed Management
 Critical period of crop weed competition is upto 60days after sowing.
 Hand weeding is done thrice at 20-25DAS and 35-40DAS.
 Basal application of herbicide – Fluchloralin @ 1.5 Kg/ha at 3 DAS followed by irrigation.
Irrigation:
 Water requirement is 500mm.
 1st irrigation is given after sowing.
 Life sowing irrigation is given on 4 DAS.
 Afterwards, irrigation is given once in 15 days.
 Critical stages of irrigation are Germination and Knee high stage.

Crop Rotation:
 In crop rotation system, one legume crop must be included so as to improve soil health.
 In light sowing soils green manure crop is grown prior to sowing of Jute.
Harvesting:
 Duration of Corchorus olitorius – 120 to 150 days
Corchorus capsularis – 180 to 200 days
 Early harvesting gives lower fibre yield but fibre is of finer quality, whereas, late harvestinggives
higher fibre yield but the fibre is coarse in texture
 Ideal stage of harvest in Jute is 50% of tender pod formation.
 Late harvesting leads to poor quality fibre due to lignifications of bast fibres
 Harvesting is done by cutting the plants close to ground with sickles.
 Harvested plants left standing in the field for 2-3 days for shedding of leaves.
 Afterwards plants are ready for retting.
 Fibre yield is 6-8 years on wet weight basis of stalks.

Lecture 26
Process of Fibre extraction:
Bundle stalks Retting Stripping Washing
Storage / Transport Kutcha packing Boiling Sundry Squeezing excess water

A] Retting
Retting is a microbial process in which bast fibre gets loosened for an easy separation from
woody stalks
During retting, gums, pectins and other mucilaginous substances are removed from the plants by
combined action of water and microbiological action.
Retting is of 2 types – Dry retting and Wet retting
When water is not available for retting immediately after harvest, plants are allowed to dry,
whenever monsoon occurs, dried plants are retted. This process is called Dry retting..

72
 Harvested plants are immediately retted directly in water without drying and this process is
called Wet retting.
Wet retting is preferable than dry retting because of good quality of fibre.
After 2-4days of harvesting, plants are shaken for complete leaf shedding then they are tied
into bundles of 25cm diameter.
Then bundles are steeped in standing water vertically, bundles are submerged in water in a
horizontal position laid side by side and tied together to form a sort of platform called “Jak”.
Jaks are covered with plants like water hyacinth or any other material which do not release
tannins as well as iron.
Float is then kept with weight to make the float completely immersed in water.
Wood logs and concrete slabs may be used for this purpose
Freshly cut mango logs or banana stems should not be used weighing material of Jak because tannins
coming out from stems reacts with iron of retting water and gives black color to fibre called “Shyamala”.
This colour can be removed or reduced by adding 2% tamarind solution.
For ideal retting, JAKS should be kept submerged of at least 20cm deep .
Most of the defects in fibre quality are due to improper or incomplete or faulty retting.
Incomplete submergence results in under retting produces a fibre called “crappy fibre” which is of
extremely of low value where as over retting results into “dazed fibre” which is very weak fibre.
So gently flowing fairly deep clean and soft water are congenial for ideal retting.
Optimum temperature of water should be around 340C .
Retting period is 8-30 days.
Incase of stagnating water, addition of Ammonium sulphate will hasten up retting process.
For finding out exact end point of retting, JAKS must be examined every 10-12days.
Fibre should be slip from the wood easily when the plants are pressed between thumb and finger.
Soon after the end point, JAKS or platforms should be taken out of the water and fibre should be extracted

B] Stripping:
Process of removal of fibres from the stalk after completion of retting is called Stripping.
Fibre may be extracted in two ways – Single Reed method and Break – Break – Jerk Method
Fibre is extracted by hands either from individual plants or from bundle of 10-12 plants.

C] Washing:
After extraction, fibre is washed thoroughly in the running water

D] Fibre is Squeezed for Excess Water

E] Sun Drying:
After squeezing the fibre for excess water, fibre is dried on bamboo frames in the mild Sun.

F] Boiling and Packing:

Extracted fibre is weighed in amounts of bales
1 Bale of Jute =180Kg
Jute fibres are pressed base d on different grades
Jute fibre is graded into
1. Tops – Very Strong Fibre, Good Luster and Colour
2. Middles – Strong Fibre, Average Luster and Colour

73
3. Bottom – Sound Fibre, Medium Strength
4. B – Bottom – Sound Fibre, Medium Strength, not suitable for high grades
5. C – Bottom – Medium Strength Fibre, Any Colour
6. X – Bottom – Weak Jute

Yield:
Green Plant yield is 45 – 50 t / ha
Fibre yield is – 2.0 – 2.5 t / ha

Factors hastening up Retting Process:

1. Warm water
2. Retting in already used water
3. Harvesting time
4. Climate Conditions like high temperatures
5. Deep water ( Too deep water will delay retting )
6. Addition of Chemicals

Quality Parameters:
1. Length of Fibre:
If the length of the entire fibre is more, more is the quality
2. Strength of Fibre:
Fibre should offer less resistance while using for packing material and other low grade yarn.
3. Colour of the Fibre:
Bright Colour is superior
4. Luster of the Fibre:
Bright fibre of smooth surface will have superior luster
5. Stiffness and Hardness:
Properly retted fibre will be soft and fine
6 Fitness of Fibre:
Coarse fibre always fetches low price than fine fibre
7 Percentage of Cuttings of Stem or Percentage of Cutting of Fibre:
Less the number of cuttings, More the Superiority of fibre
8 Proportion of faulty materials:
Roots, Specks, Knots, Runners should be avoided for good Quality.

Factors influencing Quality of Fibre:

1. Retting Water – Gentle flowing, clean and soft water give good quality
2. Materials used as weights on JAKS
3. Seed rate should be more
4. Stage of harvesting
5. Method of Retting – Complete submergence of jak is prefered
6. Variety of Jute – C. Olitorius gives good quality fibre than C. capsularis
7. Method of fibre extraction – Single Reed Method is preferred
8. Period of Retting – under retted or over retted fibres are of inferior quality
Fibres should be stripped off immediately after Retting Process.

74
Different Institutes working on Jute:
1. J A R I - Jute Agricultural Research Institute – West Bengal
2. C R I J A F - Central Research Institute for Jute and Allied Fibres
Burrackpur, West Bengal
3. J T R L - Jute Technological Research Laboratories – Kolkota
West Bengal
4. I J M A - Indian Jute Mills Association
5. J M D C - Jute Manufacturers Development Council
6. I J I R A - Indian Jute Industries Research Association
7. I J S G - International Jute Study Group
8. N C J D - National Centre for Jute Diversification

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Lecture 27 Chapter No.12
Fodder/Forage crops-Importance, classification of fodders – Hay and Silage their preaparation and
preservation
IMPORTANCE OF FORAGE CROPS :
 Live stock production is an integral part of Indian agriculture.
 India ranks first in live stock production and accounts for 15% of cattle production in the world.
 States with largest acreage under cultivated fodders are Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab, U.P.,
M.P., Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu.
 Total area under forage crops in India is 8.3 m.ha which is 4.2 to 4.9% of total cropped area.
 There is need to improve the fodder acreage up to 8 to 10% of total cropped area to meet the deficit of
green fodder for sustained live stock production in India which is considered as an important avocation
of rural areas in India.

Reasons for low productivity of fodder crops:

1. Allotment of poor and marginal lands.
2. Poor management practices.
3. Unavailability of seed of fodder crops.
4. Growing less productive forage crops
Ways to improve fodder production:
To bring more area under fodder crops. In India greater more than 8.8% area under fodder crops should be
maintained as per NCA (NATIONAL COMMISSION ON AGRICULTURE)
 Raise short duration fodder crops before or after growing food crop with residual moisture and
nutrients.
 Encourage for forage crops(Guinea grass, Stylo and Cenchrus) in horti or silvi-pasture systems.
 Growing more productive crops like NB hybrid and Lucerne
 Forage seed production should be strengthened.
 Growing dual purpose (forage+grain) varieties in crops like sorghum, bajra and oats with
strengthening the research on forages in India.

FORAGE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA :

· First research station was established in 1925 Lyalpur in Punjab province.
· National dairy research institute,(NDRI), Karnal, Haryana during the year 1955
· CAZRI-Central arid zone research institute, Jodhpur, Rajasthan.
· IGFRI-Indian grassland and fodder research institute, Jhansi, U.P(1962)
· CSWRI-Central sheep and wool research institute, Avikanagar, Rajasthan.
· AICRP NETWORK-All India coordinated research project on forages was established in the year
1970 with 18 sub centres and main center at Jhansi.
· NRCAF – National Research Center For Agro Forestry Jhansi, UP.
· NDDB – National Dairy Development Board-Anand, Gujarat.

Terminology in forage production:

Forage crop : A crop of cultivated plants or plant parts other than separated grain produced and grazed or
harvested for use as feed for animals.
Fodder : Coarse grasses such as corn and sorghum harvested with seed and leaves green or dry used for
feeding as hay, soilage or silage.
Carrying capacity: The maximum stocking rate i.e. animals/ha that will achieve a target level of animal

76
performance in a specified grazing method that can be applied over a defined period of time without
deterioration of the ecosystem. It is not static from season to season.
Agrostology : Study of grasses, their classification management and utilization.
Hay : Fodder conserved in dry form by reducing the moisture content to <15%.This prevents the rapid
development of biological processes to build up the heat.
Soilage : Forage cut green and fed to livestock while it is in fresh form.
Silage: Process of preservation or conservation of green fodder under anaerobic conditions in the green form
is called Ensiling and conserved fodders called Silage.It is highly palatable slightly laxative and easily
digestible.
Haylage : Silage made from the material with high dry matter content under anaerobic conditions. Moisture
content is between 40-60%.
Pasture: A grazed plant community usually of several species of diverse botanical types. It includes grasses,
shrubs, legumes and trees.
Grassland: Land on which vegetation is dominated by the grasses which are used directly as grazing by the
animals or cut and feed systems. Grasses may be either indigenous or introduced grasses.
Rangeland: Land on which the indigenous vegetation is predominant. Grasses, shrubs suitable for grazing or
browsing used and are managed as a natural ecosystem.
Paddock: Grazing area which is part of the grass land and separated from the other areas by a fence or
barrier.
L : S ratio : Ratio of leaf weight to that of the stem weight. Guinea, Cenchrus, Rodes - 0.5-0.7
N B hybrid- 0.7-0.8
Cowpea, Berseem and Lucerne – 0.9-1.0
Maize, Sorghum, Bajra - 0.5-0.75
Per day productivity: Production of green or dry matter/unit area/unit time. Important parameter for
evaluating productivity of forage crops.
Quality Parameters:
Roughage: Animal feeds that are relatively high in crude fibre and low in total digestible nutrients and
protein.
Concentrates: The feed is low in fibre and high in total digestable nutrients that supplies primary nutrients
(protein, carbohydrate and fat) Eg: cotton seed meal, grains, wheat bran.
Nitrogenous concentrates: Feeds that are rich in protein content. Eg: Groundnut cake, cotton cake.
Non-nitrogenous concentrates: Feeds that have relatively low protein but high in digestible carbohydrates
and fats. Eg: Oats and maize grain.
Crude protein: All nitrogenous substances contained in the feedstuffs. It includes true protein, which is
composed of amino acids and non protein nitrogenous compounds such as amides.
Crude fibre : All insoluble forms of carbohydrates. It is made up of cellulose, lignin, and hemicelluloses.
CF=NDF + ADF + ADL.
NDF: Portion of plant that is insoluble in neutral detergent solution. Synonymous to cell wall constituents.
ADF: Insoluble residue following extraction of herbage with acid detergent solution (Van Soest)
ADF = Cell wall constituents –Hemi cellulose.
Digestible crude protein: Common way of expressing the protein value digested and taken in to animal
body.
DCP = Feed protein – Feces protein (N x 6.25).
High quality protein : A protein containing appropriate portions of amino acids for a particular dietary
usage.
TDN: Sum total of the digestibility of the organic components of plant material or seed.

77
 TDN = CP + NFE + CF + Fat.
Proximate analysis: Analytical system of feed stuff that includes the determination of ash, crude fibre, crude
protein: either extract, moisture(dry matter) and nitrogen free extract.
Lecture 28
Characteristic Features of Forage/ fodder Crops or ideal characters of forage/fodder crops-
1. It should be succulent and juicy and easy palatable.
2. It should have more number of leaves i.e., high leaf-stem ratio, less shattering of leaves.
3. It should contain high amount of carbohydrates or proteins.
4. Resistance to pests and diseases.
5. It should have regeneration (ratooning) capacity.
6. It should have quick growth and smother weeds.
7. More number of tillers and fine stem.
8. Should be photo insensitive and give more number of cuts.
9. Should have shorter life cycle so that it can fit in cropping systems.
10. It should tolerate shade, drought resistant so best suited for agri, silvi pastoral conditions.
11. Should be suited to different soil classes from III to VII.
12. It should be free from hairs and thorns.
13. It should be free (or) less concentration of anti-nutritional factors.

Classification of fodder crops

I. BASED ON FAMILY:
a. Poaceae: Wheat,maize,jowar and bajra.
b. Legumaneae: Cowpea,Lucerne.
c. Cruciferae: Chinese cabbage,Japanese rape.
II. BASED ON MAINTAINANCE
a. Maintainance crops : Ex :Maize,Bajra,Sorghum
b.Non-maintainance crops: Ex :Wheat Bhusa, Rice Straw, Sorghm & Maize stover.
III. BASED ON THE PROTEIN CONTENT:
a. Low protein forage crops: Ex:Cereals,grasses
b. High Protein forage crops: Ex:Legumes
IV. BASED ON SEASON :

Kharif Rabi Summer

Cowpea Oat Bajra

Sorghum Barley Multicut sorghum
Maize Berseem Cowpea
Grasses Lucerne Grasses

V. BASED ON ORIGIN
a.Indigenous sps. b.Non-Indigenous sps.
Ex : Marvel grass,Anjan grass Ex :Signal grass,Timoty grass
VI. BASED ON LIFE CYC LE

78
 1) Annual or Seasonal
i) Legumes. Ex:cowpea,Berseem (D)
ii) Non-legumes or cereals.Ex:maize,sorghum A & B
2) Perennial forage crops :
i) Non-legumes or grasses :Ex :Guinea grass (C).
ii) Legumes. Ex:Subabul,Lucerne (E) & F

VII. BASED ON HABIT:

a. Herbs: Cylinder stem goes vertically but <2m length. Ex: Cowpea, Jowar, oat, maize.
b. Shrubs: Bushy in nature and may be biennial or perennial. Ex: Hedge Lucerne, guinea, hybrid napier.
c. Trees: Trees are pruned to feed the cattle with twigs along the leaves. This practice is called lopping.
Useful in lean months. Ex: Subabul, Sesbania.
VIII. BASED ON HABITAT:
a. Cultivated fodders: Productive fodders which give higher green fodder yield (GFY). Ex: NB Hybrid,
Lucerne.
b. Wasteland fodders: Less productive fodders. Give less GFY and grown under poor management
conditions. Ex: Rhodes grass, Marvel grass.
c. Marshy land fodders: Forages grown under waterlogged conditions. Ex: Paragrass.
d. Aquatic fodders: Forages grown under standing water. Ex: Water hyacinth and algae.

Annual or Seasonal Non-legumes (A)

1. Maize or corn Zea mays
2. Jowar or sorghum Sorghum bicolor
3. Pearl millet Penisetum americanum
4. Finger millet or Ragi Eleusine coracana
5. Teosinte Euchlaena mexicana
6. Foxtail millet or korra or Italian millet Setaria italica
7. Prosomillet or variga Panicum milliaceum
8. Little millet or sama Panicum miliare

Winter or Rabi cereals (B)

1.Oats Avena sativa
2.Barly Hordeum vulgare

Perennial Non-legumes (C)

1.Hybrid Bajra Napier P.americanum x P.purpureum
2.Guinea grass Panicum maximum
3.Para grass Brachiaria mutica
4.Anjan grass or Buffel grass Cenchrus ciliaris
5.Anjan grass or Buffel grass Cenchrus setigerus
6.Rhodes grass Chloris gayana
7.Dinanath grass Pennisetum pedicellatum
8.Napier grass Pennisetum purpureum
9.Rye grass Lolium perenne

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Annual or Seasonal legumes (D)
1.Cowpea Vigna anguiculata
2.Field bean or Lab lab Dolichos lablab
3.Cluster bean(Guar) Cyamopsis tetragonaloba
4.Sunhemp Crotalaria juncea
5.Pillipesara Phaseolus trilobus
6.Berseem Trifolium alexandrium
7.Horse gram Macrotyloma uniflorum

Perennial Legumes (E)

1.Lucerne Medicago sativa
2.Stylo Stylosanthes hammata, Stylosanthes scabra
3.Siratro Macroptilium atropurpureum
4.Hedge Lucerne Desmanthes virgatus
5.Perennial groundnut Arachis glabrata

Tree species (F)

1.Subabul Lucaena leucocephala
2.Khejri Prosopis cineraria

Other fodders (G)

1.Chinese cabbage Brassica pekinensis
2.Grain Amaranthus Amaranthus viridis
3.sesbania or shevri Sesbania sesban
4.Sesbania or agate Sesbania grandiflora
5.Hariyali/Bermuda/Star grass Cynodon dactylon
6.Spear grass Heteropogan contortus
7.Blue panic grass/giant panic grass Panicum antidotale
8.Marvel grass Dichanthimum annulatum
9.Clitoria/Sangu pushpam Clitoria cernatea
10.Centro or Butterfly pea Centrosema pubescens

Lecture 29
SORGHUM (Sorghum bicolor)
Common name Sorghum/jowar/Milo/Guinea corn
Plant Characters and uses :
1. Better regeneration capacity. Produces several thin & succulent tillers with more no. of juicy & succulent
leaves which make it more palatable than grain sorghum.
2. Supply fodder for long time due to its multi cut nature.
3. Rapid growth of plants and tolerate to shoot fly & leaf spot diseases.

CP: 7-7.75% (Crude protein)

DCP: 3.3 - 4.25% (Digest able crude proteins)
TDN: 64%-single cut varieties (Total Digestable Nutrients) 53%-multi cut varieties

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Origin,and Distribution
Sorghum is one of the most important food cum fodder crop grown mostly under dry land conditions and as
irrigated fodder in many milk shed areas. Sorghum is believed to be indigenous to Africa although india
China have been claimed to be the home of at least certain varieties of sorghum. The term Sorghum is derived
from Italian word Sorgo which means rising above to denote its tallness as compared to other cereal crops. It
is grown extensively in low rainfall areas of America ,Manchuria and Australia. In India grown mainly in
states of Madhya Pradesh,Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh.

Climate & Soils:

Sorghum is almost unique in its ability to grow over a wide range of climatic and soil conditions, particularly
in climates too hot and too dry than other cereals. Being well adapted to arid and semi arid conditions.
Sorghum is a crop that thrive in tropical climate with Optimum temperature range of 25 o-35o c. It is not suited
to elevated high elevations of 1220 m and above. Being more often a rainfed crop comes up well when
rainfall is about 300-450 mm. It can be grown in all types of soils. Sandy loam to clay loam soils are best
suited. Optimum pH is 5.5-8.0.

Land preparation: Plough the field once with iron plough and twice or more with the country plough to
obtain good tilth. Form ridges and furrows 6m long and 50cm apart or beds of 5x 4m depending on the
availability of water and slope of the land. Form irrigation channels suitably.
Varieties:
Single cut: HC 136, HC 308, HC 260, PC 5, P C 6, PC 9, MP chari, UP chari, UP chari-2, APFS 5-3.
Multi cut: CO27, COFS 29(>5 cuts), SSG59-3, SSG-988, MFSH -3, Harasona, Proagro chari, Safed moti
(FSH-92079), Punjab sudex.
Dual purpose : SSV-84, CSV -15, CSH-13, AJ-140, N-14, N-13. SSG 59-3: Cross between Sorghum bicolor
x S.sudanense.

Season:
Under irrigation sorghum can be grown in all months of the year, although in actual practice it is mainly
grown in two seasons, December –january and March – April. As a fodder crop it is convenient to grow it in
staggered sowing in different months for cutting and feeding. Usually sown from june till August as south
west monsoon crop.

Seeds & Sowing

The seed rate for irrigated crop is 40 kg/ha in rainfed areas 75 kg/ha. In the south of Madras a very high seed
rate 90-112 kg/ha is used to secure a fine and thin stalked fodder
Spacing&Sowing:30 X 10 cm. Plant to a depth of 3-4 cm on the sides of ridge or use a seed drill or sow
behind the seed drill and cover with harrow or country plough. Seed Treatmnet with Azospirrilum (3 packets
600g should be practiced).
Manures and Fertilizers: In regions of low rainfall, sorghum should be manured with 25t/ha FYM or
compost and covered by means of blade harrow. Sheep penning and carting tank silt is also prevalent in some
areas of peninsular India. The recommended nitrogen (30kg/ha) , phosphorus (40kg/ha) and potassium
(20kg/ha). With band application of fertilizer mixture prior to the sowing is preferred.1/3 N total P&K as
basal,1/3 N at 25&50DAS.40 kg N/ha after each cut in multi-cut type verities should be adopted .

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Lecture 30 Chapter No.13
Cowpea (Vigna Unguiculata)

Common name : Cherry bean/ Blackeye pea/barbati/Southern pea

Plant characters and uses:

· Annual /perennial bushy climbing herb.

· Trifoliate leaves with fast and quick growth.

· It is tolerant to shade.

· Roots penetrate to 55 cm

· Readily accepted by animals at all stages of crop growth.

· Protein content is 16-18%

Origin, and Distribution :Cowpea is considered as native to central africa, though it is claimed to be
indigenous to india as well. It is has been cultivated from very early times for human consumption in the
Mediterranean region by the greeks, romans and spaniards.

Climate & soil:

Cowpea can be grown in all tropical, subtropical and temperate regions between 30o N-S and on wide range
of soils, but Sandy loam soil with pH 5-6.5 are the best for this crop. Saline, alkaline and water logged soils
not suitable. Heavy clay soils encourage vegetative growth with less seed production. It can withstand
moderate drought and heavy rains. It can also grow under the shade of tall trees, but cannot survive cold or
frost. In fact no other legume can grow so well under such a variety of soil and climatic conditions , with so
little attention, as cowpea.

Land preparation:
Plough the field once with iron plough and twice or more with the country plough to obtain good tilth. Form
ridges and furrows 6m long and 30cm apart of beds of 5x 4m depending on the availability of water and slope
of the land. Form irrigation channels suitably.

Varieties:

Russian giant, (EC-4216), IGFRI 450, IGFRI 985, IGFRI-8503 CO-5, CO-8, UPC 5286, UPC-287 and HFC-
42-1,S-450,S -457, FOS-1, Bundel lobia-1 &2, Shewta 988,GFC-1&2.

Season:

Under irrigated condition throughout the year it can be cultivated June - July is preferred or the onset of
spring. In rainfed areas October – November months are suitable: January – February. Months or suitable for

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summer sowing Cowpea is not so season bound as some other pulses and so it can be grown in any months of
the year, except some hottest summer months.
Seeds & sowing:

Seed rate: Under irrigated conditions 20-25 kg/ha; for rainfed areas 40kg/ha in south and 45 to 55 kg/ha in
north. Spacing is 30 x10 cm.

Seed treatment: Treat the seed with 3 packets of rhizobium using the starch binder. Sowing: sow to a depth of
3cm on one side of the ridge or sow above the fertilizer band at 2cm depth and cover with soil.

Manures Fertilizers:
Apply 10 t/ha of FYM or compost after the second ploughing. The recommended nitrogen- applied 25kg/ha,
phosphorus-40kg/ha and potassium 20kg/ha. Fertilizer mixture should be applied prior to the sowing. 1/2 N,
total P&K as basal, 1/2 N at 25 DAS.

Irrigation:
Irrigate immediately after sowing and give light irrigation on the 3rd and thereafter can be irrigated at 10-15
days interval depending upon the climate for soil, moisture status.

Weeding: Cowpea is having smothering effect. Hence weeding may not be economical . If weed problem is
there, one hand weeding 20 DAS. With soil mulch is sufficient to eliminate existing the emerging weeds..
Plant protection:
If sucking pests are noticed spray methyl dematon 25EC 500ml or dimethoate 30EC 500ml or phosphomidon
85WSC 250ml/ha in 250 litres.of water. stop spraying 15-20 days before harvest..

Harvesting:
As a fodder crop, cowpea can be cut in 60-75 DAS or at 50% flowering to formation of pods.

Yield: 20-30 t/ha under irrigated conditions and about half this quantity under rainfed conditions can be
obtained.

Cropping systems:
Inter cropping at1:1 ratio with maize, jowar or bajra or 2:1 with grasses or creal fodder crops will help to
improve fodder yield as well as fodder quality. Cwpea-sorghum+cowpea-berseem.

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Lecture 31 Chapter No.14
CLUSTER BEAN (GUAR) ( Cyamopsis tetragonoloba L.)

Guar or clusterbean ,among leguminous crops is comparatively more drought hardy crop . It is generally
grown for feed , fodder and vegetable purposes . Among dryland crops , guar occupies an important place in
the national economy because of its industrial importance mainly due to the presence of gum in the
endosperm . guar gum is highly mucilaginous , which is being used in various industries such as textiles ,
cosmetics , explosives, paper,food processing . The fodder of guar as well as its grain are quite nutritive , rich
in protein,fat and minerals. It can also be used as a green manure crop in certain areas. Guar provides edible
pods which are used as vegetables.
ORIGIN - Tropical Africa
CLASSIFICATION Genus Cyamopsis is an old world genus belonging to the tribe Galegeae of
Papilionaceae. There are four major species :
(1) C . tetragonoloba
(2 C . senegalensis
(3) C . serrata
(4) C . dentata

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Cluster bean belongs to the family Leguminoseae . its plant is robust, erect annual which is usually grows to a
height of 90 to 180 cm . certain varities may grow even taller than this . its plant has a well developed tap root
system. The leaves are trifoliate and toothed. The flowers are become are borne in short axillary racemes and
are generally purplish in colour.
CLIMATE REQUIREMENTS
Cluster bean is a drought resistant crop and can be grown successfully in areas where average annual rainfall
is 30-40 cm. Proper germination of seeds and root development takes place between 20 to 30*C temp. It
cannot stand waterlogging condition.
SOIL
Cluster bean can be grown on all types of soil except heavy and poorly drainrd soils. It thrives best on well
drained medium to light soils with pH range of 7.0 -8.5 .

VARITIES
Durgapur Safed , FS-277,Ageta Guara, HFG-119,HFG-156,Guara-80,Bundle Guar-1,Bundle Guar-2,D-
111,D-128,AGFRI-212-9,AGFRI-2365-2

CROPPING SYSTEMS
1. Pearl millet + guar-berseem(Egyptian Clover)
2. Sorghum + guar-berseem-maize+cowpea
3. Guar-berseem-maize+cowpea

SEED RATE AND SPACING

15 to 20 kg per hectare is sufficient for grain crop. A combination of 45cm row to row and 15 to 20 cm plant
to plant is best for normal sown grain crop. In late sown crop roe spacing is 30 cm instead of 45 cm.

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MANURES AND FERTILIZERS
20kg nitrogen should be used as starter dose at the time of planting. It is desirable to apply 40-60 kg P2O5 per
ha to ensure good yields. 10-20 tonnes of FYM is added before sowing.

WATER MANAGEMENT
The crop sown in july does not require any irrigation if the rains are normal and timely; otherwise one or
twoirrigation may be needed. For a summer crop, irrigation shopuld be given at 12-15 days intervals .

WEED CONTROL
Fluchlorolin( Basalin) can be used at the rate of 1 kg a.I. per hectare. It should be used as pre- planting dose
and incorporated well upper 10 cm of soil prior to sowing. It controls annual grasses as well as broad leaved
weeds.

DISEASES
Bacterial Blight -control measure
(1) Seed treatment with hot water at 56*C for 10 mins controls the disease.
(2) Grow resistant varieties.
Alternaria Leaf Spot -control measure
(1) spray 0.2% MANCOZEB 75 WPat the interval of 15 days twice or thrice.

HARVESTING
When the crop is grown for fodder purpose the plant are cut when in flower or when the pods are beginning to
form (50-85 DAS) . when grown for seeds the crop is left until the plant are mature. Crop is harvested with
the help of sickles and then dried and threshed.

YIELD
A good crop of cluster bean (guar) yield about 250 -300 quintal of green fodder or 10-15 quintals of grain per
ha.

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Lecture 32 Chapter No.15
NAPIER
Common Name : Giant Napier /Pusa gaint napier / Gajraj / Giant Elephant grass

Plant Characters & Uses :

1) More vigorous, nutritious, succulent and palatable than napier grass.
2) It is a triploid and hence sterile.
3) Highly responsive to fertilization.
4) It is tall growing (200-300 cm), erect, stout, deep-rooted perennial grass.
5) Lodging resistant a nd resistant against pests and diseases.
6) Crude protein: 9-11% DCP : 5.5%TDN : 58%

Origin and Distribution A Cross between Bajra X Napier grass

P. americanum x P. purpureum was developed in South Africa with the name “Babala Napier hybrid” or Bana
grass. It produced more number of tillers and leaves, grew faster and yielded more fodder than the napier
grass, but the stem of the hybrid was hard it comes up well in all tropical and sub tropical areas of high
rainfall in the world. It is important component of orders in intensity dairying for continues supply of fodder
year round.

Climate & soil:

It is cultivated in areas receiving more than >1000 mm rainfall.
It can withstand drought and recover the growth quickly with the onset of monsoons.
Optimum temperature is around 24-28oc.
It can tolerate low air temperatures but less than 10oc makes the crop remain dormant.
It is sensitive to frost. Even a light frost kills the crop but the underground rhizomes will sprout again
when the temperature rises.
It performs better under long day than short day photoperiods.
Soil: Sandy loam or clay loams are the best.
pH range : 6.5 – 8.0. In sandy soils, its vigour is low and yield is reduced.
- It cannot withstand flooded or water stagnated condition.
- It should be grown in well-drained soils with good moisture retention capacity.
- It comes up well in saline sodic soils better than guinea grass.
Land preparation: It needs thorough land preparation plough the field 4-6 times followed by harrowing.
Then made into ridges and furrows.

Varieties:
In India, first hybrid developed is NB-21.
CO 1: It is profusely tillering, highly leafy, tall growing and non-lodging, yields 300 t/ha. Released during
1982.
CO 3: Released during 1996. It is tall growing, highly tillering and non-lodging with low oxalic acid ad crude
fibre content. Yield 300-350 t/ha.
APBN 1: Released during 1998 by AICRP on Forage Crops, L.R.S., ANGRAU. It is tall growing highly
tillering, more leafyness (high L:S ratio) with
low oxalic acid content. It is found to be drought resistant and adopted for cultivation.

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Other varieties:
Pusa giant – For cultivating all over India PBN – 83 – Punjab
Yeshwant (RBN-9) – Maharashtra
K K M-1 – Tamilnadu

IGFRI No: 3: It is a profusely tillering type with erect growth habit. It is good for intercropping and has the
capacity to yield 100-150 t /ha green fodder per year. It is suitable for NE hills, U.P., M.P. hills of N. India.

IGFRI No: 7: Suitable for temperate zone of the country. It is an erect growing and leafy variety with high
regenerative capacity. 120-150 t/ha. It may be grown under acidic conditions.

IGFRI No: 10: It can be grown throughout the country. It is also erect growing, leafy and multicut variety. It
produces 100-160 t/ha green fodders per year. The variety is also suitable for acidic soils and sub-temperate
situations.

Season: It can be grown during any part of the year provided sufficient water is provided. Optimum time of
pla nting during Kharif and summer is June and February respectively winter sowing is not recommended due
to low temperatures.

Seeds & sowing:

Seed rate : 40,000 rooted slips or stem cuttings/ha.Spacing is 50 x50cm .Irrigate the field through furrows and
plant the one rooted slip or stem cutting per hole at a depth of 3-5cm on one side of the ridge

Method of sowing : The seed of hybrid napier is sterile. Therefore hybrid bajra napier is multiplied only
through stem cuttings or rooted slips. The stem cuttings are obtained from clumps grown upto 2.5 to 2 m ht.
Top ¼ is removed and remaining 3/4th is used. Rooted slips are obtained from clumps, which are 1 m width.

Stem cuttings: Stem cuttings can be stored for about 20 days for planting by covering with moist gunny bag
but in sub tropics, with cold weather, they can be stored during the entire winter season.

450 angle method: Stem cuttings are obtained from basal 3/4th portion of the plant. Each stem cutting with 2
nodes measures about 30-40 cm inserted in the soil in a slanting position at 450 angle. One bud should be
inside the soil and one bud should be exposed over the soil surface. Buds inside the soil develop roots and, the
bud over the soil produce shoots.

End to End Method: 2 budded or 3 budded setts are pla ced in the furrow such that eyes on the node are
exposed to the sides of the furrows and then cover with soil. Then irrigation is given.

Rooted slips: Break up the old clumps and separate the tillers along with their roots. Each slip should consists
of 1-2 tillers measuring 10-12 cm height. Dig a small hole in the furrow and insert the roots into these holes.
Propagation by this method is best in Summer Season. The stem cuttings are likely to dry up due to
desiccating winds and hot summer.

Manuring:
Being the heavy feeder this hybrid should be manured with 25t/ha FYM or compost.50kg/ha of

87
nitrogen,50kg/ha of phosphorus and 40kg/ha of potassium. Band application of the fertilizer mixture prior to
the planting is preferred.for this open furrows 5cm deep on the one side of the ridge, apply fertilizer mixture
and cover with soil. Repeat the basal application once in year for the sustained higher yields. Top dress with
100 kgN/ha after each cut.

Irrigation:
Irrigate immediately after sowing and give light irrigation on the 3rd and thereafter can be irrigated at 10-15
days interval depending upon the requirements of crop.

Weeding and inter cultural operations:

Hand weeding or hoeing and weeding should be followed on the 30th day. Gap fill to maintain population.
Subsequent weeding may be carried out preferably after each harvest. Earth up once after three cuts and
removal of dried tillers and quartering once in a year is recommended.

Harvesting :
When cutting the crop for forage, a fairly long stubble of 13-15cm has to be left, to avoid damaging the
growing point near the base of the plant . first cut at 60-75 days after planting and subsequent cuts once in 45
days. In case of sewage or high N containing effluents irrigation, the harvest interval may be increased to 55-
60 days to minimize the nitrate/oxalate problem.

Yield: Green fodder yield is about 350t/ha/year

Major cropping systems:

Intercropping/mixed cropping with Desmanthus at 3:1 ratio will help to improve fodder quality and yield of
green fodder. The other compatible mixtures include Lucerne.

N-B hybrids+velvetbean-berseem_sarson.
·

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