Society, Economy, Polity and

UNIT 8 SOCIETY, ECONOMY, POLITY AND Culture: East and North-

East India
CULTURE: EAST AND NORTH-EAST
INDIA1
Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Polity
8.3 Economy
8.4 Society
8.5 Culture
8.6 Summary
8.7 Key Words
8.8 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
8.9 Suggested Readings

8.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you will learn about:
 the polities which were ruling in Bengal and Assam in the early medieval
period;
 the nature of economy, society and polity under the Palas of Bengal and
during the early medieval period in Assam; and
 cultural achievements in the early medieval period.

8.1 INTRODUCTION
The early medieval period in east and north-east India, like the rest of the
subcontinent, was marked by the rise of small kingdoms, some of which took an
active part in the politics of north India. The chief political power was that of the
Palas in Bengal. Their kingdom roughly covered the areas of Bihar and Bengal,
with an occasional control over Assam. Some rulers of this dynasty were involved
in the infamous tripartite struggle over Kannauj, thus at times extending their
control over north India. Their rule lasted from 750 CE-1156 CE, after which they
were replaced by the Senas. For a brief period, in the ninth century they lost
power which they regained again in the 10th century. The dynasty is known for its
patronage to art and education with the great universities of Nalanda, Vikramshila,
Odantpuri and others flourishing under their reign. Their artwork, in form of
paintings and sculpture, deeply influenced the arts in Tibet, Nepal and Southeast
Asia.
1
Dr. Avantika Sharma, Department of History, I.P. College for Women, Delhi University. 139
History of India-III For north-eastern India, we have comparatively more data for Assam. Its ancient
name was Kamrupa or Pragjyotisha. The chief sources for reconstructing the history
are the inscriptions issued by the different rulers and Kalika Purana, a text roughly
dated to the 10th century CE. At the start of this period, it seems that the region
was under the control of the Palas. However, their rule ended sometime in the
ninth century, and the region saw a succession of two dynasties  Salambas and
Palas of Assam.

8.2 POLITY
To reconstruct the elements of Pala polity we generally rely on the numerous
inscriptions issued by the various rulers of this dynasty. These generally deal with
donations of land to religious institutions and persons  brahmanas, Shaiva temples
and Buddhist monasteries. However, only a few inscriptions have the relevant
information for understanding their administrative apparatus. Some of the
important ones are: Khalimpur Copper Plate Inscription issued by Dharmapala
(775-810 CE) in the 32nd regnal year after his victory at Kannauj; Badal pillar
inscription issued during the reign of king Narayanapala (861-917 CE); and
Kamauli Copper Plate Inscription issued during the reign of Kumarapala (1126-
1128 CE).
While their rule was monarchical in nature, it seems that the first ruler of this
dynasty Gopala (750-775 CE) was elected by his people. According to the
Khalimpur inscription, the region was plunged into chaos after the successive
attacks by Yashovarman of Kannauj, Lalitaditya of Kashmir and Harsha of
Kamarupa. In order to end the matsyanyaya or the law of the jungle people had
elected Gopala as their ruler. However, his successors generally followed the
principles of hereditary succession. The rulers adopted high sounding titles like
maharajadhiraja, parameshvara, parama-bhattaraka etc. The king was perhaps
assisted by mantrins and sachivas. The Badal pillar inscription indicates that the
position of the ministers was hereditary. From the limited references in the
inscriptions, we understand that their administrative machinery in many ways
resembled those of the Guptas. The kingdom was divided into provinces called
bhuktis which were governed by uparikas. Within the bhuktis were vishayas or
districts, and gramikas or villages governed respectively by vishyapati, and gramika
(Majumdar, 1980). Another official who served at the vishayas was adhikarana
who dealt with the land-grants. It is possible that an intermediate unit consisting
of 10 villages managed by dasa-gramika existed between the province and village.
There is also mention of officials like rajaputra, rajan, rajanyaka, rajanaka, and
ranaka in the inscriptions who may have been defeated rulers and vassals in the
kingdom. A particular feature of their polity was the absence of any fixed capital.
Thus, several places on the banks of river Ganga like Pataliputra, Mudgagiri,
Ramavati, Vataparvataka, Vilasapura or Haradhama, Sahasaganda, Kancanapura,
and Kapilavaska served as their capitals (R. S. Sharma, 2009).
Assam on the other hand, while initially under the rule of the Palas, became
independent under Harjavarman of Salamba dynasty. This dynasty ruled the region
from 800 CE to 1000 CE. An insight into the their polity is gained from copper
plate and rock inscriptions issued by three rulers of the dynasty  Harjaravarman,
140
Vanamala Varmadeva and Balavarman III (M. M. Sharma, 1978). From these Society, Economy, Polity and
Culture: East and North-
inscriptions, we know that the rulers took imperial titles like Parameshavara,
East India
Paramabhattaraka, and Maharajadhiraja. The Hayunthal copper plate inscription
of Harjaravarman describes an abhisheka (water sprinkling) ceremony during his
coronation by merchants and princes. Some high officials are mentioned in the
inscriptions like Mahapratihara, Mahasainyapati, Brahmanadhikara and others.
Some more insight is gained from the two copper plate inscriptions of
Balavarman III  Parbatiya and Nowgong copper plate. From these inscriptions,
we come to know that the kingdom was sub-divided into mandalas and vishyas.
An official at the level of vishaya, vishya-karnika is mentioned in the Nowgong
copper plate. In the same copper plate there is also the mention of rajani, rajaputra,
ranaka and others who might have been vassals. The last ruler of the dynasty
Tyagasimha died without an heir, and this ended the dynasty. After this, a new
dynasty Palas of Assam came to power. It is claimed in their inscriptions that the
first ruler of the dynasty Brahmapala I was elected by his people, a claim quite
reminiscent of the election of Gopala. He made Durjaya as his new capital. It has
been identified with Guwahati. The most famous ruler of this dynasty was
Ratnapala who ruled for more than 26 years. The dynasty remained in power
perhaps till the early 13th century.
Regarding the nature of the east Indian state, scholars have advocated different
models to analyse them. For instance in the case of Assam, scholars like J.B
Bhattacharya have argued the state to be a stable entity with little change in its
apparatus since 4th century CE (Sharma, 2014). Assam was a monarchical state,
very similar to the contemporary polities in the Gangetic plains and had remained
unchanged during the early medieval.
A study of Pala inscriptions has led R. S. Sharma to argue that the Pala state
represented feudalization of polity which is reflected in the several land grants
given from the time of Dharmapala. The terms of these grants  given mostly to
the brahmanas, Shaiva temples, and Buddhist monasteries  significantly eroded
the authority of the state. They gave donees the authority to collect taxes and also
impose fines on the inhabitants. These grants also gave them freedom from any
royal interference (R. S. Sharma, 2009). In the 9th and the 10th century, there was
further feudalization of power as such grants were also made to the officials. The
rulers took such imperial titles such as  paramabhattaraka, parameshvara and
maharajadhiraja. The vassals adorned themselves with feudal titles like rajas,
rajaputras, rankas, rajarajankas, mahasamantas and others. Perhaps a similar
argument could also be made for Assam, where brahmanas had been receiving
land grants since the 4th century CE. However, scholars like B.D. Chattopadhyaya
have seen the land grants as part of the process of integration rather than
feudalization. Land grants were the instrument by which the state polity expanded
into the former tribal areas. According to him, the post-Gupta period was
characterised by the transition from a pre-state society to monarchy in the hilly
areas. The means that this transition was accomplished through the brahmanas
who gave legitimacy to the new monarchies, and thus were patronized by the
local ruling family. They would settle in new areas and appropriate a popular
local tribal cult or deity and identify it with a Brahmanical deity. This process, in
Assam is visible in the legend of Naraka, from which all the royal dynasties of
141
History of India-III Assam traced their descent. Naraka in the early Sanskrit texts like Arthashastra
and the Epics is mostly seen as a malevolent figure, a danava. But by the 9th and
10th century his legend is completely transformed in the Kalika Purana and the
inscriptions, which declare him to an ideal ruler with an ancestry going back to
Ikshvakus (Chattopadhyaya, 2018).

8.3 ECONOMY
Land grants in this period have been seen as instruments of important social and
economic change. In economy, it has been thought that these grants led to significant
expansion of agriculture. The Palas were under the control of the fertile eastern
Ganga plains which were well suited for the cultivation of rice. The importance
of agriculture can be gauged from composition of texts like Krishiparashara which
details the agricultural operations. Further insights into the rural life are glimpsed
from inscriptions which talk of the presence of a variety of trees  coconut, jackfruit,
mango, betel nuts and others. Similarly for Assam, we know that the Brahmaputra
valley was a focal point for rice cultivation. In order to further encourage agriculture
king Harjaravarman in the 9th century had built embankments (Thapar, 2004).
Trade was also important for these two kingdoms. Assam was connected with
Tibet and China through trade routes. Similarly, the Palas controlled the ports on
the Bay of Bengal with access to Southeast Asia and China. These ports were also
connected to inner riverine routes on the Ganges and Brahmaputra. Regarding the
goods which were traded the Arabic texts speak highly of textiles and swords
from the Palas kingdom (Chakravarti, 2020). The state of Assam, on the other
hand was known for its good black aloe timber. Its other important products were
bamboo, cane, silk cotton trees which were used for feeding silk worms. It also
had rich gold deposits on the banks of Brahmaputra. It possibly imported horses
from Tibet (Ghosh, 2010).

8.4 SOCIETY
The sources for understanding the society of Bengal in this period are
Brahmavaivrata Purana and Brihadharma Purana. According to R.S Sharma,
the society reflected in these texts differed significantly from that of north India.
The varna society here only consisted of two castes: brahmanas and sudras. The
existence of kshatriyas and vaishyas is not reflected in the texts. Sudras were
more in number, and formed main ranks of the peasantry and artisansal class. A
significant number of them were tribals. The Brahmavaivrata Purana divides the
sudras into three categories  uttama or high ones included ambastha or physician,
gandhika or perfumer, vanik or trader, modaka or confectioner, malakara or garland
maker. These were also known as sat sudras or the ones who could offer water to
the brahmanas. The Madhyama sudras or the middle category included svarnakara
or gold smith, abhira or tribal, jailka or fishermen, rajaka or washerman and
others. And low-born or antyaja consisted of groups like chandala, and
charmakara. A study of land grants also indicates the growing complexity with
the emergence of brahmana sub-castes. In these grants, the brahmanas are identified
by their branch of Vedic learning, gotra, and the village they belonged to. In Bengal,
142 almost 56 sub-castes of brahmanas are mentioned. The ranks of brahmanas not
just included priests from north India, but also priests of non-Aryan tribes who Society, Economy, Polity and
Culture: East and North-
were given Arya gotras (R. S. Sharma, 2003).
East India
Important insights into the nature of society of Assam can be gained from the
inscriptional data of Assam. According to Nayanjot Lahiri (1990), unlike other
kingdoms, brahmanas were granted land in areas with a long tradition of agricultural
practice. These lands were cultivated by a number of tribes like Mikirs, Khasis,
Kukis and Kacharis. The contact with brahmanas led to the assimilation of these
groups into the traditional Hindu fold. The ranks of peasantry swelled with the
inclusion of other professions like boatmen, weavers and potters who took to
agriculture as there were not enough demand for their profession. Besides this the
inscriptions also mention the presence of other middle caste groups like Kayasthas,
Lekhakas, Daivajnas, and Vaidyas. These according to (Baruah, 2016) may have
been more like occupations and officers, and it is only in the later period that
these became castes.

8.5 CULTURE
A great contribution to cultural life in the east was made by Pala dynasty. The
dynasty is celebrated as a great patron of art and literature, some of which also
influenced the artwork in Southeast Asia, Nepal, and Tibet. Their most significant
legacy is sculptural art  depicting Hindu and Buddhist themes  in metal and
stone. The stone sculpture was mostly made of schist or phyllite stone, with colour
ranging from greyish to grey-black. In the Buddhist images, most images depict
the Buddha and important events of his life. The most common scene depicted is
his victory over Mara just before his Enlightenment. A very significant departure
from the previous schools is the ornamentation of the Buddha image. The Buddha
is now depicted wearing a crown and a necklace, which signifies his spiritual
achievements ((Huntington & Huntington, 1989). The Hindu images become more
common from the 11th century CE. A significant number depict saint (rishi) Agastya,
whose worship had also become popular in Nepal and Southeast Asia. Other than
Agastya, the Pala sculptures also depict the Sun god, Surya. The images in metal
are mostly made of copper or its alloy; although, some of gold and silver images
also exist. They either depict Boddhisattvas or the Hindu gods like Vishnu. These
images are distinguished by their intricate ornamentation which was a great
technical achievement.
The Pala period was also known for its paintings but only a few of the samples
have come down to us. Some murals have been located at Nalanda, but most of
these survive in the extant palm leaf manuscripts dealing with Buddhism. Like
the sculptures, the paintings mainly depict the scenes from the life of the Buddha.
These miniatures painting could be placed anywhere in the manuscript: beginning,
middle or the end. Most common colours used were red, yellow, blue, green,
black, and white; with black used for creating outlines. The look of the figures
were more animated than their sculptural counterparts (Huntington & Huntington,
1989). Their painting style was greatly copied, with samples discovered in Kashmir
and Ladakh, and outside India in Myanmar, Nepal and Tibet.
Beside artwork, the Palas were also patrons of learning and education. The great
Nalanda university flourished under their reign, and was popular among foreign 143
History of India-III monks for the study of linguistics, grammar, and monastic rules (T. Sen, 2003).
Many foreign rulers had also built monasteries at Nalanda to facilitate the stay of
monks. Thus, a Nalanda copper plate issued by King Devapala, records a donation
of five villages by the king Srivijayan, ruler of Java, Sumatara and Malaysia for
the upkeep of a monastery built by the latter. Similarly, a Chinese Buddhist monk
Jiye reported the presence of several Chinese monasteries (Hansi) in Nalanda,
which were mainly rented out to foreign students. The Pala rulers are also credited
with the opening of several other universities and monasteries: Odantapuri,
Vikramshila, Somapura and others.
Sanskrit continued to be the cultivated language of the court, and several important
literary and technical works were composed during their rule. In law, Jimutavahana
composed a treatise called Dayabhaga which even now is influential in Bengal
and Assam; In medicine, Rug-vinischaya, a treatise on ailments was written by
Madhava; Surpala listed the medicinal plants in Sabda pradipa, and Chakrapanidutt
authored commentaries on the works of Charaka and Susruta (S. N. Sen, 1999).
In Kavya, we have Ramacarita written by the court poet Sandhyakaranandi with
a unique dual narrative of telling us the story of Rama, as well as his patron
Ramapala. On the other hand, the great universities produced treatises on Tantric
Buddhism. An important development in this period was the beginning of the
composition of works in proto-Bengali. We have the composition of Charyyapadas,
poems composed by the Buddhists.
In neighbouring Assam, after freeing the kingdom from Palas, the Salamba dynasty
ruler Harjavarman built a new capital at Haruppeswara. He was a follower of
Shaivism, and had built several Siva temples, the ruins of which are still visible in
Tezpur. While the rulers here patronized Sanskrit, it was in this period that we
also see the beginning of literature in Assamese  Bihu Geet, a set of poems and,
Dakabanita a collection of wise sayings (Dikshit & Dikshit, 2013, pp. 26–27).
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) Discuss the polity, economy and society of Assam and Bengal in the early
medieval period.
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
2) What were the cultural achievements of Palas and Assam kings of the early
medieval period.
........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................

8.6 SUMMARY

144 This Unit familiarised you with the early medieval period in Assam and Bengal.
The Palas were the most important kingdom that ruled in this period in Bengal. In Society, Economy, Polity and
Culture: East and North-
Assam too, several small kingdoms rose one after another. Both the regions were
East India
marked by the expansion of agriculture due to the practise of land grants. The
officials and samantas mentioned in the inscriptions and copper plate charters
indicate the practice of sub-infeudation as is clear from their titles. The Palas are
known for their contribution to culture. Many images in metal and stone along
with paintings, seats of education and learning were established by them. Assam
was not too far behind. The rulers of Assam in this period encouraged the rise of
vernacular languages such as Assamese and some noteworthy literature in regional
languages was composed.

8.7 KEY WORDS

Agastya : a Vedic sage of Hinduism. He is credited with the writing of
a number of texts which are included in the various Puranas.
Tantric : a religion based on the Sanskrit texts called the Tantras,
Samhitas, and Agamas. It includes a broad range of “magical
beliefs and practices” such as Yoga and Shaktism.
Kamarupa : ancient name of Assam.

8.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) See Sections 8.2, 8.3, 8.4
2) See Section 8.5

8.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

Bagchi, J. (1993). The History and Culture of the Palas of Bengal and Bihar, c.
750 A.D. -1200 A.D. Abhinav Publications.
Baruah, S. (2016). The Nature of the Middle Caste in Pragjyotisha-Kamarupa
(Assam) from 600 to 1300 CE. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, 77,
pp. 109-114.
Dijshit, K.R. and Dikshit, J.K. (2013). North-East India: Land, People and
Economy. Springer Science and Business Media.
Ghosh, S. (2010). Kamarupa and Early Bengal: Understanding their Political
Relationship. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, 71, 110-118.
Lahiri, N. (1990). Landholding and Peasantry in the Brahmaputra Valley c. 5th-
13th centuries A.D. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient,
33(2), 157-167.
Lahiri, N. (2013). Pre-Ahom Assam: Studies in the Inscriptions of Assam between
the fifth and the thirteenth century A.D. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt.
Ltd. 145
History of India-III Sharma, R.S. (2009). Indian Feudalism, c. AD 300-1200. Macmillan.
Singh, Upinder (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India. Pearson
Education India.
Thapar, Romila (2004). Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300. University of
California Press.

146