KNIT 15

8 ADMINISTRATIVE AND
INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURES IN
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PENINSULAR INDIA
Structure
15.1 Introduction
15.2 The Sangam Polity
15.3 The Pallavas
12i.4 The Pandyas
1.5 The Cholas
12;.6 Administrative System in the Deccan
12.7 Summary
15.8 Exercises

115.1 INTRODUCTION
The task of the reconstruction of the history of Peninsular India was initiated in the
1Sb'h century by western scholars especially Colonel Mackenzie wh~prepareda
ccmpendium of manuscripts which included works on tradition. The epigraphists
like G. Buhler, Robert Sewell, F. Keilhorn, Jas Burgess studied the copper and
stone inscriptions found in South India. The discovery of the Sangam.literature and
other ancient Tamil literary texts further contributed to the knowledge of South
Indian history. The Bhakti literature has also been analysed by historians to
understand the dynamics of South Indian history. M. Jovean Dubrueil, S.
Krishnaswamy Aiyangar, R. Gopalan published several works on South Indian
history in the 20thcentury but Prof. K. A. Nilakanta Sastri's works provided a
definite historical methodology for the treatment of South Indian history. His
approach which was based on the glorification of the past and the centralised state
model was adopted by many other historians such as C. Minakshi, T. V. Mahalingam
etc. The first attempt to demolish this conventional approach was made by Burton
I Stein in his work Peasant, State and Society in Medieval South India who put
forward the segmentary state model (model of decentralised polity characterised by
ritual-sovereignty). His view has been challenged by historians like N. Karashima,
D N. Jha, etc. who subscribe to the feudal model. The theoretical debate enables
f us to analyse the nature of political formation in Peninsular India.

e 15.2 THE SANGAM POLITY

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Administrative and brought before the gathering of the commuility from where it was redistributed
Institutional Structures
(undattu) a process in which the warrior chief played a pivotal role. Through this
process the 'chief' acquired a'central place in the society. The bards who composed
poems eulogising the chiefs played an important role in legitimising the chief's position
in society and polity. The bardic poetry is an important constituent of the Sangam
literature. Vedic sacrifices were also a means for providing legitimacy to the chief
as the political leader. They are also mentioned in the Sangam literature.

Three important chiefdoms developed in the ecological zone referred to as the

marutam in the Sanganl poems. This area comprised of the fertile river valleys on
the plains. The peasant groups which settled here brought about the transition fiom
hunting and pastoralism to agriculture based economy. The emergence of trading
activities inter-regional and long distance led to the establishment of urban centres
in the interior as well as the coastal areas. The chiefdoms of this period were able
to exercise control over the surplus derived fiom the tmding and agricultural activities
in the region. This resource mobilisation through trade and agriculture helped the
Muventar (the three crowned kings) viz. the Cheras of Vanji, the Pandyas of
Madurai and the Cholas of Uraiyur in consolidating their power. Their seats of
power were located in the trade centres.

An important source for studying the polity of Sangam period is Kural (a post-
sangam work) by Tiruvalluvar. ,Tiruvalluvar refers to the Nadu (rastra) as the
foundation of the polity. He points out that the king's treasury should be stocked
through various sources of income viz. land revenue, transit duties, custom and also
through annexation. Ahananuru (anthology, part of Sangam literature) refers to the
treasury of the Cholas. The Silappadikaram (Tamil epic) and Manimehlni (Tamil
classic) refer to Aimperunguh and Enperayam which have been interpreted as
royal associates. The Kural refers to Avai which probably inaicates the king's
Sabha. In other works Manram (hall) is also mentioned. Evidence is available
regarding judicial system in Uraiyur. Sabha and Monram were the assemblies
which performed judicial and other mkcellaneous h t i o n s . The units of measurement
of land were ma and veli. The importance of peasants and traders is reflected in
the sources such as Kurd and Pattinappalai (gives an account of the Chola capital).
The latter refers to customs officials which bears testimony to the thriving foreign
trade. The mention of prisons indicates that the legal system was well established
and punishment was given to those who deviated from the l a h l path. The heads
of the army were bestowed with the title of Enadi (commander) by the chief. The
Vellalar (agriculturists) were categorised into those who themselves cultivated the
land and those who employed others to cultivate the land. The latter also occupied
official positions (civil and inilitary) and were endowed with the titles E l and Arnsu
under the Cholas and Kariidi under the Pandyas.

The Sangam period was followed by rule of the Kalabharas which is referred to as
a 'dark period' till the 6h ckntury A.D. when the Pallavas of Kanchi, the Chalukyas
of Badami and the Pandyas of Madurai rose to power. However, in the gthcentury
A.D. the Chalukyas were replaced by the Rashtrakutas of Malkhed.
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15.3 THE PALLAVAS

The Pallavas emerged powerfid in the Thcentury A.D. The agricultural tracts in the
river valleys of Pemar and Palar were the focal points which sustained the Pallava
authority. In this process of agrarian expn-.sion the category of intermediaries who
 were not peasants acquired superior rights over land as the representatives of the Administrative and
Institutional Structures in
king. The epig-aphicalevidence (copper plate grants and stone inscriptions) provides Peninsul,ar India
informatio~lregarding the establishment of Brahmudeyans in settled and unsettled
regions. This was made possible by the subjugation of the cultivators of the settled
:Ireas or by creating new peasant settlements. Brahmans played an important role
in the expansion and consolidation of the Pallava rule. Thus the agrarian sistem was
I
l~edominantlyBrahmadeya-temple centric and proved advantageous to the
I
Brahn~ansand royal power. The Brahmans were able to secure important positions
in the administrative system and the close cooperation between the kings and the
13rah1nansdetermined the nature of the state. The kings sought legitimacy from the
13rahmans (since they were the guardians and interpreters of moral and religious
system) and in return endowed them with official positions and land grants. S,
I=rishnaswamyAiyangar considers the Pallavas as the feudatories of the Satavahanas
in south eastern India who established their rule after the decline of the Satavahana
power. The inscriptions of the Pallava period can be grouped into three categories:
E'rakrit copper plate (3rdto 4" century A.D.), Sanskrit copper plates (4"' to 6"'
century A.D.) and stone and copper plate inscriptions (7"' century A.D. onwards).

F'allava Kingship
'Illere are several mytlucal traditions regarding the origin of the Pallavas. The Prasastis
of the Pallavas are similar to the Ifihas-Purana traditions of North India. They
ct3mprise of genealogies and try to correlate the mythical traditions regarding their
pedigree to the historical facts of the ruling family. The Pallavas claim to be
C'handravarnsis as is evident from a literary work titled IVandikkalambagam
('Tamil work). The Sanskrit copper plates refer to them as belonging to the
Bharadavaja gotrn. The Pallavas ascribe to themselves Brnhmakshnrra status.
Tlis was a means to legitiillise their power by tracing their lineage to Brahmans who
possessed the attributes of ksl~atriyas.They also trace their connection to the Naga
cllief. The Pallava Pra~aslls(copper plate inscriptions) throw light on the dynastic
traditions which eulogise h Pallavas as the custodians of varnashramadharma,
who conducted sacrifices etc. Genealogies mentioned in copper plate grants describe
the accon~plishme~~ts of the king, depict him as a hero of victories attained in wars
against adversaries and portray him of pure descent.

Tlie Pallava kings made use of danda (force) for maintaining social order and in
re:urn exacted mksnbhoga. The Pallava kings reigned supreme over the earth as
m~:ntioned in the records and they adopted several high sounding titles viz.
D17n1-n7rrrn7ahn1.~g~1dhirnjn, Maharajadhiraja, Dharrnamaharaja and Maharaja.
W- come to know about these from the evidence of Sanskrit, Prakrit and other
~11.31-ters.
The Hirahadagalli plates inform us that the Pallava king Sivaskandavarman
is referred to as 'Agnisffonzavajapeyasvnmedhayaji'(one who conducted the
Agnistoma, Vnlnpeya and Asvamedha sacrifices). The coronation ceremony was
marked by Abhisekananfa i.e. the bestowment of a new name to the king. The
Birud'cs (eulogistic titles) were adopted by the Pallava kings and these were engraved
on the cave temples. The various Birudas adopted by kings were Chitrukarappuli
(Tiger anlong artists) and fichifrachiffn by Mahendravarman I, Mahnmalla (great
wrestler) and K~iviyrabodha(reviver of poetry) by Narasimhavanllan I, Tribhuvana
Di)a, Ahhayc~nknraand Jnanasagara by Rajasimha. The intellectual attainments
of Pallava kings are attested by the information contained in the inscription on
tentples and copper plates. Mahendravarman I wrote Sanskrit plays, was a musician
and also had interest in painting. Though the Pallava kings were patrons of Saiva
sect of Hinduism but they were generally liberal towards other religions and sects.
7
Administrative and
lr~stitutional Structures
Practice of election of the kings was also prevalent under the Pallavas. The Pallava
kings were bestowed with characteristics of divinity. The Pallava king
Paramesvaravarnlan is compared to Siva and Narasimha is considered Vishnu in
human form.

The Pallava kings are known to have conducted the ceremonies called
I
Hiranyagar.hha, Tulabhara and Gosahasra. These were performed to legitimise
their political power. These have been termed as mahadanas in the Dharn?asastric
and Puranic traditions. The Queen of Pallava king Nrpatu~~gavarman (670-710)
had conducted the hiranyagarbha and ttrlabhara mahadanas. Tulabhara ritual
was marked by the bestowment of gold equivalent to the weight of the grantor.
Go.s~rhasrcrgift giving (dana) meant endowment of a thousand cows. Hiranyagarbha
was the most important of these customs. The other two ceremonies were performed
prior to hiranyagarbha (golden womb). This ritual was a means used by the ruler
to ascribe kshatriya position to himself. The ceremony involved conducting
sacraments laid down for the twice born castes.

During the cornonation ceremony Nandivam~anwas provided the royal umbrella

(chatri) (karivai), the Samudraghosa and Katumukhavaditra (flag which had the
khatavanga (Siva's weapon) as the insignia) and vrsabhalanche (bull-seal). These
collectively comprised of the royal insignia. The consecration was held in the presence
of mantri rn~rndala,mahasamantas, ganattar and ghatakaiyar: The king was
bestowed with new titles and the power to promulgate royal orders. Royal orders
were originally written on palm leaves. The inscriptional evidence of Kailasnatha
temple (at Kanchi) refers to Pallava king Rajasimha as Sri Vrsabha darpah (he
who boasts of bull). The bull was also embossed on the clay seals.

Ministers, Officials and Service Groups I

There is evidence regarding Amatyas in the Hirahadagalli plates as well as in the
literary work titled Periyapzrmnum. The testimony of the Hirahadagalli plates tells
us that the Amatyas were the officials who were notified of the Brahmadeya grant
which was bestowed by the Pallava king. The Vaikunthperunlal temple (at Kanchi)
inscription refers to Matras, Ghatikaiyar and Mlrlaprakrti. The Matras are regarded
as ministers. The Kasakkudi plates of Nandivarman refer to the prime minister as
Brahmasriruju. The attributes of the prime minister are narrated in the following
passage "Brahmasriraja who was a friend of the world, who was filled with all
virtues as the ocean with a heap of gems, who was famous, modest, handsome and
long lived; whose speech was never rough, who was distinguished among men, who
just like Brhaspati, the chief minister of the Lord of Heavens, was the chief Minister
of the Pallava king Nandivaraman, the lord of the earth and the delighter of the
people's eyes and hearts; who was refined by nature and through education, who
was foremost among the learned firm and brave, who possessed the full and
unshakable sple~ldourof the Brahman and kshatriya castes, and a loyalty to the
glorious Nandipotaraja lasting as long as the moon and the stars endure, who was
the mainstay of his family, who was the eldest son, who in his disposition was like
Siva incarnate, who excelled in all virtues and who was the eldest priest."
(C. Minakshi, Administration and Social Lip under the Pullavas). The ministers
of the Pallavas possessed several titles such as Brahmasriraj, Brahmuyuvaruju
Uttanla.silu, and were even compared to Brihaspati. They were probably assigned
revenues as remuneration for their services. The duty of Ajnaptis (those who
implemented the king's directives regarding the pants) was pei-fonned by them.
inscriptional evidence reveals that they carried out the task of administration and
acted as acl\,isors and loyal supporters to the king.
I

The wide range of administrative fimctions attributed to the ministers were: commander Administrative and
Institutional Structu~*esin
in chief of the ; m y , Purohit etc. Sometimes the Purohit performed several fictions Peninsular India
s~lchas priest, duties of chief minister and Yuvaraj. The ministers and feudatories
played an important role in the coronation and election process. Hirahadagalli plates
refer to Rahasyadhikrta who has been interpreted as private secretary of the king.
'Ihis Brahman officer performed the role of likhita (writing a record on copper
plates) and was remunerated through assignment of revenues of villages. Vayilkelpar
were officers who implemented the royal orders and also carried out survey of
lands. The Taqdantottam grant refers to Kosa-adhyaksa who was also the Ajnapti.
l'he Ulatur stone inscription mentions A4anikkappandaram-kappan (an official
who was custodian of treasury) and Kodzdkkappillai (was the official who performed
the task of coustodian of gifts). Mattavilasa Prahmana (written by Mahendravarman
the Pallava ruler) tells us that the court of justice at Kanchi was called Adhikarana.
Probably thlsre existed lower courts also. The Kasakudi plates refer to
.Idhikaranac'andan and Karandandan (fines) which were to be paid by those
who had cor~mittedthe offence. These fines were levied by the officers at the
directive of the court and were given as paril?ara (privilege) to those grantees on
whose lands they were imposed on thebffenders. The Pallava records mention
Dharmasanu (a judicial organisation) which dealt with cases concerning village
assemblies.

The Sanskrit and Prakrit records of the Pallavas mention the plough and nivartma
or pnttika (units in which land was measured). Land grants were made to the
Brahmans (Brahmadeya) to the Hindu temples (Devadana) and to votaries of
other beliefs (Palliccandan). It seems that under the Pallavas land was measured
and various categories of land rights prevailed which can be gleaned from the
records of the period. The kings made tax free endowments upon the Brahmans
and temples. The royal directive regarding land grants (tax-free) was to be
implemeiltecl by the village or district headman or the assembly of nattar (spokesmen
of nadu). The Kasakudi plates mention Nilakkalattar, ~ d h i h r aand r Vayilkelpar.
These officers were probably associated with the work of measurement and survey
(assessment) of land. It seems that there existed a department for looking after
administration of land. The Pallava rulers utilised the services of goldsmiths and
kasthahari (carpenter) for inscribing the contents on the copper plates. The Prasastis
of the Pallava copper plates were written by several poets patronised by the Pallava
rulers viz. l'aramesvara Kavi (of Medhavikula) who composed the Prasastis of
Udayendiran plates of Nandivarman Il, Paramesvara (Uttarakarnika) who composed
the Prasastis of Tandantottam plates of Nandivarman 11, etc. The Kuram grant of
Paramesavaravarman I mentions Uttarakaranika-Mahasendattaas the Ajnapti.
It has been suggested that the term Karanika probably indicated an official category.
It appears that the official category Karanam (village accountant) was derived from
Karanika.

Army Organisation
The army organisation of the Pallavas in theory comprised of four parti:.~atha,
Gaja, Juraka, Patati (chariots, elephants, horses, foot soldiers). It seems that the
Pallava rulers made use of elephants extensively as is evident from the sculptures
and the expertise of the Pallava rulers in knowledge regarding elephants. Rajasirnha
is called Vnranahhagadatta which shows that his knowledge regarding elephants
was equivalent to the expert Bhagadatta. War chariots are mentioned in the Tamil
work Nandikkalambagam but, their use was restricted. The Kuram plates of
Paramesvaravarnam narrate the conflict between the Pallavas and the Chalukyas
Administrative and and describe the army and the weaponry. The sculptures on cave temples and
Institutional Structures
Vaikunthaperumaltemple give us information about the weapons used by the soldiers.
Hirahadagalli copper plates refer to senapatis or generals. Periyapuranan (Tamil
work of 12th century A.D.) refers to the occupation of the Chalukya capital Vatapi
by Narasimhavarman I. The Mahavamsa as well as the Kasakudi plates mention
the incursions of the Pallavas into Sri Lanka in the 7th century A.D. The Tamil
devotional hymns (Periyatimmoli by Alvar saint) mention several conflicts between
the Pallavas and the Pandyas. Nandikkalambagan gives information regarding the
wars won by the Pallavas. It is therefore clear that the Pallavas did possess a strong
force to counter their rivals.

Provincial and Local Administration 1

The provincial government was headed by the Yuvamaharaja. The district officers
were known as: Desatikas, Bhojakas, Vallabhas, Govallabhas, Sumikas,
Sancharantas, Ayuktakas and Adhyaksas. In the northern area of the Pallava
temtory a number of oficers were responsible for administration. This is evident
from the Prakrit and Sanskrit land charters which record land grants in the presence
of various officers viz. Raj Kumaras, Senapati (commander), Rastrika (governor),
Madabikas (custom officials), Desadhikritas (officers responsible for the
administration of the district), Vallabhas, Govallabhas (supervised the horses,
cows and cattle), Arakhadikata (guards), Gumikas (captains), Tutikas, Nayikas
( c o r n ,lnder), Sancharantakas (responsible for espionage) and Badamanusa (army
oscers). Dr. S. Krishnaswami Ayangar points out that "while undoubtedly local
administration is seen at its best under Chola rule we seem to find it in as fully
developed a condition almost, under these later Pallavas." The inscriptional evidence
of the Pallavas regarding local assemblies such as village Sabhus is dated to around
8th century A.D. onwards. The administrative system at the lowest level comprised
of villages. The Sabha was the village assembly. The Nadu was larger than a village
and the assembly of the Nadu was known as Nattar, Urar and Alvar. The unit
bigger than Nadu was Kottam. There are several epigraphical records of the
Pallavas viz. the copper plate charters of Nandivarman Pallavamalla (731-96 A.D.)
which mention the Konolai (royal order) issued to the Nattar. The charters generally
relate to endowments of land to Brahmans. These charters also help us in gaining
insight into the administrativemeasures of the state i.e. land grants issued by the king
in the name of the Nattar. The function of the Nattar was to prepare an Araiolai
(document) giving information regarding the measure (veils) of land given to the
grantee. Thus we get information regarding land endowments made by the kings. In
the Pallava records, we find mention of the Urar i.e. the assembly of the Ur (village
people) which functioned without adhering rigidly to rules.

The representatives of the Sabha were called Perumakkul (great men). The
epigraphical evidence of the Pallava period relates to Sabhas of Uttaramerur,
Perungulin Kuran, Perumbuliyur etc. The Sabha carried out various tasks at the
village level such as looking after irrigation facilities such as tanks, monitoring temple
grants and providing justice. These administrative functions were delegated to
committees called Variyams. The inscriptions of the Pallava period viz. at Ukkal,
Uttaramerur, Adambakkam etc. are testimony to the existence of Variyams and
Ganas who peformed various administrative tasks. It appears that the gifts bestowed
upon Gods were placed in the control of the Sabha and the committee carried out

The evidence of the following inscriptions gives us some idea of the working of the
10 Gana and the Sabha. "An inscription dated in the 37th year of Nandivarman I1
 records an agreement made by the Gana of Payinur (Chingleput taluk) to remove Administrative and
Institutional Structures in
the silt fiom the village tank annually and 6400 kadi of paddy was received by them Peninsulnr India
fiom Nagan a merchant residing at Mamallapura. Settanandi,presumably a member
of the Gana signed the document." (C. Minakshi, Administration and Social Life
Under the Pallavas). "Dated in the 25th year of Nripatungavarman the Sabha
Avaninarayana Cahwedimangalam undertook an agreement to supply one ulakku
i of oil every day to a matha to the Sattaperumakkal, presumably members of the
governing body of the matha" (C. Minakshi, Administration and Social Life under
the Pallavas). The term Gana in the inscription indicates members of alunganattar
or committee which performed certain administrative tasks. There is mention of
Ganapperumakkul of Sailesvara temple in a stone inscription dated to the 16th
I
I year of Pallava ruler Nripatungavarman. It seems that the Ganapperumakkul was
responsible for supervising the cultivation of lands, temples, levying and remittance
13f taxes and were also custodians of offerings and gifts (dana). The term
.4mrtaganattar is mentioned in the stone inscription of Aparajitavarman in
'Tiruvorriyur. The stone inscription of Aparajita (dated to 4th and 7th year) also
refers to Amrtagana which acted as the custodian of the gold which was bestowed
upon the temple through the Sabha. The inference that can be drawn from the
iibove examples is that the committees were placed under the Sabha which was the
supreme body of the village. Land was the primary resource and its produce was
taxed. Puran~ponof the Pallava records was tax realised in cash and v~asimposed
on cultivable lands.

Land System: Grants, Land Categories and Rights

'There are epigraphical records (Pallava charters) of the endowments of lands made
to Brahmans and temples by the king which were tax-free together with certain
other perquisites. The early Pallava land grants were bestowed by the king or queen
directly. In the case of later Pallava grants the Mjnapti acted as an intermediary in
the transaction. He sought the royal approval in the case of land grants. Kasakudi,
l'mdantottam, Pattattalmangalarn charters of Pallava king Nandivarman Pallavarnalla
contain mention of Mjnaptis. The land grants to Brahmans and temples did not
entitle the grantee the right to sale. Svadattam and Paradattam terms are found
in the land grants, which indicate bestowment made by self and others respectively.
In case of Paradatti the Mjnapti or requester and Ajnapti (executing officer) are
involved. It seems that the initial land grants of the Pallavas are the Mayidavolu and
Hirehadagalli plates (prakrit) (3rd to 4th century A.D.) bestowed upon Brahmans.
?'he land grants of the later (in Sanskrit) period were also issued to Brahmans. All
these grants were made in the Andhra region. From the period of Sirnhavarman the
charters were in Tamil and Sanskrit and refer to grants to Brahmans. However there
is reference to a grant which was made to a Jain teacher.
. Blythe 7th century and 8th century A.D. Brahmans were being granted land to settle
in various areas and large and numerous Brahmadeya settlements emerged. The
land bestowed upon Brahmans and temples by individuals was purchased by them
after payment in gold to the village assembly. Hbwever the donees did not have the
right to dispose off the lands through saleb.There are instances of purchase of land
by individuals from the Sabha to bestow and gift it to temple by offering gold to
the Sabha to ensure it was made tax-fiee. Land grants to Jain temples were called
Palliccandam. Land grants were also made for maintaining village tanks (Eripatti
01- Erichcheruvu). The committee of village Sabha namely Erivariyaperumakkal
(comprising of greatman of tank committee) supervised these lands (endowed by
individuals or village) meant for tank maintenance. Village Sabha had the authority
Administrative and to bring uncultivated land under cultivation fiom its h d s (tank maintenance etc.)
Institutional Structures
and also to acquire the lands of those who were defaulters in payment of taxes.

The various land categories and rights were: Payalnilam lands: Agricultural produce
was divided equally amongst landholders and tenant cultivators.

Payaleruvararn :share of agricultural produce which went to the tenant cultivators

Adai : king's portion of the produce

Adainilam : lands fiom which king's share of produce is obtained

Karainilam : lands reallocated amongst tenant cultivators at intervals

From an inscription we come to know that tank-duty (erikkadi) was imposed on

villages in the form of 1 kadi of paddy on a patti of cultivated land (vilainilam).
The kasakudi plates refer to land grants (paradatti) executed by Nilaikalattar,
Adhikarar and Vayilkelpar (officials). The grantees of land were called Bhojakas
(Hirahadagalli plates), Vidyabhoga (Bahur plates) and Arcanabhogas of temple
lands (as mentioned in the inscriptions related to temple lands).

15.4 THE PANDYAS

The Pandyas rose to power in the valleys of River Vagai and Tambraparni. The
expansion and growth of agrarian economy due to development of irrigation works
provided the resources for sustenance of the state system. Brahman settlements
were an important feature of this period and the role of Brahmans in legitimising
state power is evident fiom the epigraphical records.

Nature of Kinghsip
Pandyas ascribe Chandravamsa origin to themselves. The Dalavaypuram plates of
Parantaka V i a r a y a n a describe the Pandyas as having their genesis fiom the Lotus
in Vishnu's navel and fiom Brahma, Atri and the Moon. The Sivakasi plates of Vir
Pandya suggest that the Pandya ruler who laid the foundation of Pandya rule
originated from the moon. The Pandya Prasastis (on copper plates) connect them
with the Mahabharata, with the establishment of Tamil Sangam and depict them as
co-occupants of Indra's throne. Thus the Pandyas tried to justify their position as
rulers by tracing their lineage to local and Sankritic traditions. The copper plate
records of the Pandyas contain inscriptions in Tamil and Sanskrit. Genealogy is
found in both Tamil and Sanskrit inscriptions. However, the Tamil inscriptions of the
Pandyas contain comprehensive genealogies which suggest that the Pandyas had
local moorings. These Tamil inscriptions draw upon the Sanskrit counterparts in
relation to concept and pattern. The Sivakasi plates of Vir Pandya point out that the
grantee wrote aprasasti eulogizing the grantor. The Pandya Prasastis describe the
king as the husband of the earth and prosperity. Arikesari Maravarman (670-710)
(one who defeated enemy kings and Rajasimha (740-765) had conducted the
hiranyagarbha and tulabhara ceremonies. The Pandya kings were regarded as
possessing divine characteristics. The Velvikudi plates refer to Jatilavarman as the
son of Siva. They a140 mention Manavarman and the dilemma whether he was a
human, a demon, Siva, the Supreme Being (Para-Purusa-Visnu) or Indra.
V:trious Aspects of Administration Administrativ~: and
Institutional Structures in
The records of the Pandyas do not refer to a council of ministers or a court but they Peninsular Kndia
re.'er to mantrirts and uttaramantrins. The Sivakasi plates mention the IJttararnantrin
as those who performed the task of Sandhivigraha. The Uttaramantrin is referred
to as Tamilpperaraiyan in Tamil who was in charge of Mandira-olai-nayagam
office which verified the written order regarding the grant. The Tennavan
apattudavigal according to Mahalingam and Sastri were the king's barons who
had great authority in the kingdom and are regarded by M.G.S. Narayanan as the .
companions of honour or the king's bodyguards. In an inscription Samantan Ganapti
is referred to as Mahasamanta of the king. The reference to Ranakirtti as
Ulvittusevaka ;n an inscription has been interpreted as companion of honour.

During the period of Jatila Parantaka there is mention of tlttaramantrins and

M1zhasamanta.s. Matangajadhyaksha or the officer who supervised the elephants
was an importarit officer of the army organisation. Tirumalai Virar and ParartakaVi,
mentioned in the inscription of the 42nd year of Maranjdayan, were probably
associated with military oganisation. It seems that there was no clear cut division
belween civil and military functions. The army comprised of soldiers who served
untler a commander but sometimes the king himself provided the leadership to the
coritingents of soldiers. The Kalugumalai record refers to an Enadi (army commander)
who established a memorial for the soldiers in his service who were killed in action.
King Maranjadayan erected commemorative stone for soldiers in his service who
were killed during battle. Historians regard these soldiers as the king's 'companions
of 110nour'.

The royal grants (inscriptional evidence) are mentioned in the copper plates which
also contain Prasastis. In these inscriptions there is evidence of local administrative
divisions; Nadzr, Kurram and Rastra (mentioned in the Sinnamanur grant). The
basic constituerit of local administration was the gramam. Their names have the
suffix Mangalt-rm, Kudi, Ur or Vayal. Nadu was the larger unit of local
administration. The land grants bestowed by the kings are regarded as Danam
which were of rsligious nature. Madras Museum grant and the Sinnamanur grant
ind~catethe area bestowed as land grant. The information regarding endowment
was inscribed on the copper plates in written form and the royal directive (anatti)
was prepared by the scribe (Perum banaikkarans). Land grants were given to
temples and Brahmans (Brahmadeyas). The grants bestowed comprised of various
rights such as Karanmai (cultivation) and Miyatci (administrative rights). The Pulan-
~ u r i c Ginscription (5th century A.D.) refers to creation of Brahmadeya. This is one
o f t he earliest record of Brahmadeya. The endowments meant the surrender of
rights by the grantor i.e. Sarvapariharamaka. Temples were also endowed with
gold kasus by the kings for conducting prayers and other services in the temple.
These were entrusted to the assembly (committee of assembly or variyam) but
interest had to be paid on this amount at a fixed rate. Sometimes grants of gold
bestowed upon temples were placed in the custody of Nagarattar (corporation of
mer1:hants). Inscriptions give us information about village assemblies especially the
way they functioned by delegating work to the committees. Membership in these
assemblies was based on property and 1earning.criteriaas is clear from the inscription
from Uttiramallur (Chingleput) of early 10th century A.D. These assemblies were
not elected bodies. It is not clear how the Variyams (executive bodies) of assembly
were constituted. The administrative personnel of the Pandyas as the evidence from
the records reveals comprised of: evi mudal (keeper of original orders), vaykketri,
panlarappottakam (keeper of royal register) and adhikari. Puravu vari Kanattar
was probably the land revenue department.
Administrative and The stone and copper plate records were probably not original evidence (since the
lnstitutional Structures
original inscriptions were inscribed on palm leaves). Land grant records are related
to the tax-free grants of land made by the king to the Brahmans and the temples.
A procedure was followed in making land grants. The king verbally gave approval.
This was obtained by a high official. Then the directive of the king was executed
regarding the listing of the grants in the revenue records. The oral approval was
termed as Kelvi or Tirumugnm. Olai was an executive order to the officials
regarding implementation of the king's order. The Ulvari was the title-deed which
was approved by the revenue officers (Variyilar or Varikkuruseyvar). It appears
that records regarding sanction of land grants and other orders were kept in the
capital and the officers in the localities were directed to implement the king's orders.

The cultivated lands were subjected to taxation. Some of the taxes on the basis of
the evidence of inscriptions were: Kadamai (on temples lands), Antarayan,
Viniyogam (land tax), Ponvari, Accu-vari, Kariyavaracci, etc. It appears that
these were mostly exacted in kind though some might have been cash payments.
Taxes were also imposed on loom (of Kaikkolar and Saliyar) and shop-
keepers. The testimony of the inscriptions also indicates that at times villagers had
to suffer due to harassment by the officials or the incursions of the petty chiefs.
There are also indications that due to high taxation sometimes the peasants fled the

15.5 THE CHOLAS

The Cholas as a ruling power rose to eminence in the 9th Century A.D. when
I
Vijayalaya seized Tanjavur fiom a feudatory chief of the Pallavas called Muttarayas.
Henceforth the Cholas were able to establish control over Pallava territories and
subdued the Pandya power. The Chola state stood on a firm footing deriving
sustenance from the resource-pocket located in the fertile and rich area of the
Kaveri valley. In the period of Rajaraja I and subsequent period various feudatory
chiefs were subjugated and the earlier category of Nadu was regrouped into klanadu
and was placed under the subdued chiefs. The landed magnates were also
incorporated into the state system and were provided prestigious titles and were
assigned administrative and military duties, which included collection and assessment
of land revenue.

Chola Kingship
I

The Cholas traced their origin to the Suiyavamsa. Myducal traditions are mentioned I

in the inscriptions especially in the prmastis containing the genealogies (Tiivalangad

Copper plates, the larger Leiden Plates and the Anbil Plates, KanyaKurnari inscription
of Vira Rajendra) and these are interspersed with information about historical
personages. It appears that these served the purpose of legitimisation of the rule of
the Cholas. The prasastis of the Cholas were based on the Itihasa-Purana tradition.
The dominance of the Sanskritic and the Brahmanical traditions is well attested. The 4

Cholas also ascribe to the legacy of the Sangam period. The genealogies of the
Cholas attribute eminent and prestigious lineage to the king to legitimise his position
as king. The period from the eighth year of Rajaraja and onwards is marked by
absence of genealogical record in the Tamil Meykkirttis. These compositions narrate
the military exploits of the kings and are inscribed on stone and address the Tamil
landed magnates. The Cholas ascribe Kshatriya origin to themselves as is attested
by the title Kshatriyasikharnani of the king Rajaraja. The Varrnan suffix (sanskritic)
14
 added to the names of the kings was also a part of the process of claiming kshatriya Administrative and
Institutional Structures in
status e.g. Adityavarman (871-906) and Parantaka Varman (707-755). The practice Peninsular India
01' assuming names during coronation also existed under the Cholas e.g.:
P!rakesarivarmanand Rajakesarivarman and Arumolivarman (Tamil name with a
Simskrit suffix). The charters of the Cholas consist of theprasastis and genealogies
in Sanskrit and the details regarding the grant in Tamil. Hiranyagarbha and
i'klabhara ceremonies were conducted by the Chola kings. The anointment ceremony
was also a means to claim fihatriya position. A grant of Vira Chola points out that
the king was advised by a Brahman moral preacher (dharmopadesta)that bestowment
of land to Brahmans would lead his forefathers to heaven. However actual motive
fc'r making the grants was redistribution of resources in the form of land, gold, cattle
etc. The gifts were bestowed for meritorious service provided by the Brahmans and
If also to seek legitimacy &om them in political sphere. We have proper records of
land grants but the grants of gold, cattle etc. were merely stated in prasastis.
Though the land grants the kings tried to convert unsettled areas into agrarian
settlements. These grants did not simply serve a charitable purpose. Rajaraja is
regarded as Crlakalanda Perumel (the great one who measured the earth like
Trivikrama) and as Siva who eastablished control over the land of Bhargava

I Ur and Nadu

4 Tlle Chola copper plate evidence refers to the following while executing the land

1) Nattar
2 ) Brahmadeyakkilavar
3) a) Devadana
b) Palliccanda
c) Kanimurruttu
d) Vettapperu-Urkalilar
4 ) Nagarattar
Nuttar were the representatives of Nadu (locality). The Brahmadeyakkilavar
wc:re the Brahman donees of Brahmadeya (lands given to Brahmans). Nagarattar

i
comprised of the trading community and belonged to the nagararn or settlement of
grmp of traders. Devadana, Palliccanda, Kavimurruttu and Vettaperu have
been identified as tas free villages. Y. Subbrayalu has pointed out that nattar were
I analogous to the Vellanvagai Urar (peasant village) since a number of Ur constituted
a lVadu. Subbarayalu considers the village or Ur as a small component (fractional)
of the Nadu. As a constituent of administrative structure, the Nadu was important
but it incorporated and represented the Ur (vellanvagai villages). Thus in the territorial
I spnere Nadu comprised of Vellanvagai villages. Nattar were the important members
(land holders) of the Nadu (locality). There are very few inscriptions related to the
vellanvagai villages. It seems that the rir being the common populace represented
tht: section which was not literate. However the inscriptional evidence related to Ur
wliich is found in the temples is attributed to literate groups.

N. Karashima has analysed the two Tanjavur inscriptions of Rajaraja I and

Gangaikkondacolapuram inscription of Vivarajendra. According to him the
ve,'lanvagai villages comprised of agricultural lands, lands used by pastoralists,
Administrative and irrigation devices, funeral place, dwelling place, etc. The dwelling area comprised
Institutional Structures
of: 1) habitation sites of landholders/cultivators (ur-nattamhr-irukkai), 2) of the
artisans (kammanacceri), 3) agricultural labour (paraicceri). Karashima is of the
opinion that in the Vellanvagai villages differentiation is not noticed. Subbrayalu
however rehtes this argument and suggests the existence of a hierarchical structure
in these villages comprising of cultivators (kaniyudaiyar),tenant cultivators (ulukudi),
artisans and the agricultural labourers. The cultivators were generally referred to as
vellals. The h c t i o n s of the Ur included: supervision of village lands viz. activities
related to sale, purchase and gift. An important prerequisite for becoming a member
of the Ur was to be a holder of land. From the inscriptional evidence, we come
to know that the members of the Ur also possessed the titles like Udaiyan, Kilan
(kilavan), Yelan, Peraraiya~.All these titles point to landholding. Thus the
epigraphcial testimony enables us to infer that Ur was the grouplassembly of non-
brahrnan land holders of a village.

N. Karashima has argued that the land was held in common in the Ur villages.
Karashima in some other instances refers to sale of land by members of Ur as
individuals. Subbrayalu also refers, to the tendency towards 'individual holdings' in
this period. Nadus were named after a village, which formed a part of a Nadu.
Inscriptional evidence indicates that in several Nadus the main village was
Brahmadeya (land given to Brahmans). However, several nadus did not have
~ r a h m a d e ~Subbrayalu
a. refers to increase in Nadus from the 9th century A.D.
Initially Nadus emerged in fertile areas, which had more villages and later spread
to periphery (less fertile areas) where the number of villages was comparatively less.
Nilakanta. Sastri points out that the Nadu comprised of many villages which were
the smallest component of administration. Mahalingam suggests that Nadu was an
administrative unit and it was sub-divided into villages. There is no unanimity of
opinion among scholars regarding whether &du comprised of only Vellanvagai or
also consisted of Brahmadeya, Devadana etc. Y. Subbrayalu points out that Nadu
and Ur represented a locality comprising of Vellanvagai villages and its
representatives participated in the assembly of Nadu. It is difficult to delineate the
exact area over which the Nadus were spread. Nadus differed in size and they did
not have any natural divisions (eg. rivers). Therefore they could not possibly have
been been artificially created units or divisions. Sometimes Nadzrs covered the area
beyond a river. In conventional historiography Nattar was regarded as a territorial
assembly of a territorial unit Nadu which comprised of eminent members of every
village. Other assemblies such as of Brahmedeya, Pallicandam were also considered
subordinate to Nadu in the administrative machinery. Recently historians have argued
that Nadu was not an administrative unit created by the Chola state but it was a
natural collection of peasant settlements which was incorporated into the state
system of the Cholas as a legacy from the previous period. This is proved by the
fact that these Aradus were not of same size and were nucleated. The Valanadus
which came into existence in the period of Rajaraja I were artificially created as
administrative divisions. Nadus initially emerged in fertile areas and later spread to
comparatively less fertile zones. This is how the agrarian economy expanded. Nadus
located in the fertile tracts were more populated than those in other areas.
i
,

There are several inscriptions which give us information about Nadus. Kiranur
inscription of 1310 refers to the 'urom of villages Nanjil, Peruncevur, Vimikkudi.. .. ..
as qualified for the Nadu or Vada-chiruvayil-nadu.' (K:Veluthat, p. 184) . It is clear
from the evidence of the records that the Nattar were the Vellals and the h c t i o n s
of Nottar (Nadu) were performed by the 'kllala who held the title of Velan. The
main occupation of Nattar was agriculhre since Nadu was a collection of agricultural
settlements. T11e copper plates which basically deal with land grants address the Administrative and
Institutional Structures in
Nattar and the execution of the grant made by the king was entrusted to them Peninsular India
(deciding the lisits of the lands granted by the establishment of superior rights of
new grantees etr.) Nuttar was subservient to the will of the ruler. Nattar also
supervised irrig;:.m rvorks. They bestowed land on temples. They also served as
stockists of don,::, ;a a d e to temples. They also supervised the grants made by
individuals and exempted the lands donated thus from tax and in return took a
certain sum of money as a deposit. Nadu also bestowed land on temples which was
tax-free (naltiraiyili). The tax payments exempted on lands donated to the temple
were now the responsibility of Nadu towards the state. Nadu seems to have levied
a cess for meetirig 212se expenses. These levies or imposts were: Nadatci; Nattu-
viniyogan, or Nattu-vyavasthai. The temple lands were sold and leased out, a
process in whim .I,,: nattar played an important role. Nadu seems to have been
engaged in tax collection and assessment. Sometimes the Nattar performed the
revenue collection task on behalf of the state and sometimes king's personnel
(komarravar) were responsible for this work. Mudaligal and Dandanayakam
were functionaries deputed in nadu and as royal officials they were entrusted with
administrative responsibility. Thus the land holders in a locality were absorbed into
the state system by the Cholas. These constituted the local landed magnates and
worked on behalf of the king who exercised authority over them.

Nadu was the smallest unit for revenue administration.Nattup-puravu, Nattu-vari

(land revenue) and Nattukkanakku all refer to revenue of Nadu. Nattuk-kanakku
were the personnel responsible for revenue administration of Nadu. The collection
and fixation of the revenue of a village was carried'out within the context of Nadu
where the village was located. When Ur exempted taxes this got reflected in Nadu
accounts.

The king's decision to transfer the funds of temple for a specific purpose in the
temple was reflected in the Variyilarkanakku (revenue register of royal authority)
and the Nattuk-kanakku (revenue register of nadu). This testifies to the relevance
of Nadu as an important part of administrative system of the Cholas inspite of its
locally independent character. Nadu-vagai-ceyvar, Nadu-kurk-ceyvar and Nadu-
kankani-nayagam and Nadu-kankatci were the personnel who represented royal
power in Nadu. Nadu Kuru is mentioned in an inscription of Kulottunga I (AD
1116) who managed the functioning of new Devadana. These personnel were
given the role of maintaining the accounts of temples in localities. Nadu vagai is
mentioned as participating in the assembly of Brahmadeya (sabha). In an inscription
Nadu-kankani-nuyagam is placed below Senapati. These posts of Nadu
officers were transferable. Some officers were entrusted with the administrative
responsibility in more thar~one Nadu. Thus they worked as part of royal administrative
machinery.

Brahmadeya and Nagaram

Brahmadeyas constituted the category of Brahmans who were landholders in the
agricultural tracts and who had been endowed with land (tax free) and had organised
themselves into a distintct group. Nagaram comprised of traders who carried out
trading and exchange activities in the pockets which had developed into commercial
centres on account of the spurt in craft production and other activities carried out
by artisans.

When the Cholas emerged as an important ruling power in the middle of 9th century
A.D. in Thanjavur there already existed many Brahmadeyas which were densely
Administrative and populated and rich tracts in the Kaveri region. The Karantai plates of Rajendra I
Institutional Structures
refer to 1080 Brahmans who inhabited Tribhuvanamahadevi Caturvedimangalam.
The assembly of these Brahmans which inhabited agricultural tracts was called
Sabha or Mahasabha. Most of the Brahmadeyas or Brahman settlements were
centred round the temple. Through the temple and the ideological focus based on
the Puranas and Itihasas, Bhaki and varnashramadharma the differentiated
society and monarchical polity were legitimised. Therefore the kings endowed lands
to Brahmans and created Brahmadeyas as a means to legitimize their power.

The inscriptions inform us that many of the Brahmadeyas in the Chola period were
Taniyur (separate village) in a Nadu. They had a separate administrative system
(revenue and justice). Many of the agricultural villages were clubbed together with
a Taniyur. Sometimes a Taniyur was placed subordinate to a temple. Here the
Mulparusai was the body which looked after the work of administration.

The inscriptions give the important prerequisites like age, landholding, knowledge,
good behaviour for membership to an executive committee of Sabha. The Karantai
plates (1080 Brahmans) refer to Brahmadeyas but do not inform us how the
Sabha and other committees were formed. They were not established by royal
authority. Their origin may be attributed to Dharamasastric norms. The Sabha and
its committees supervised the temple lands, cattle and other resources. They assigned
lands to tenants and levied rent. They kept a record of revenue collected and
expenses incurred. They supervised the temple functionaries from priest to cleaner
and organised the daily services of temples. Sabha acted as a group and the
decisions taken were for the benefit of the organisation and not individuals.

The Brahmadeya settlements where the temple played a pivotal role lost importance
in the later phase of the Chola period. After mid 11th century A.D. we find fewer
Brahmadeya tracts and more temples were constructed and the older ones were
improved upon. Sometimes the Mahasabha unable to pay the amount taken from
a temple due to shortage of funds was forced to fall back upon its income from the
neighbouring village.

Nagaram settlement was a tract where traders and others (including artisans) lived.
"An inscription of 1036A.D. from Chidarnbamm distinguishes between non-brahrnan
inhabitants of superior status (kudigal) and those of inferior status (kil kalanai).
Kudigal included two merchant groups Sankarappadiyar (lower group) and
Vyaparin (higher group) plus three other groups - F+llals (cultivators), Saliyar
(cloth merchants) and Pattinavm (fishermen). The subordinate workmen (kil kalanai)
were Taccar (carpenters), Kollar (blacksmiths), Tattar (goldsmiths) and Koliyar
(weavers)" (B. Stein, Peasant State and Society in Medieval South India).

Nagarattar was the representative body of traders. Nagaram settlement was a

separate area. Committee of Nagarattar was referred to as Nagaravariyam.
Nagaram also held land in common called Nagarakkani. This they acquired through
purchase but they also leased out land and performed the task of levying taxes and
rendering services to the local groups. They maintained their records regarding
income and expenditure. They also paid royal levies in the form of gold and paddy.
They also allocated taxes to the local temples viz. Kadamai (tax on land),
Nagaraviniyogam (a tax for sustenance of Nagaram) etc. In some cases Nagaram
King, Officials and Chiefs Administrative and
Institutional Structures in
A number of officers were responsible for administration in the Chola kingdom Peninsulr~r India
although there is no clear evidence of a council of minister but Uddan-kottam
seems to have served this purpose. Upward and downward mobility is noticed in
the adrninistrature hierarchy. According to conventional historiography Perundanan
and Sirutaram were higher and lower category officials respectively. Senapatis
(commander of troops) had the middle position referred to as Sirudnnattup
Perundaram. Nyayattar (judges) were of both category. Recently historians have
pointed out that these divisions are not conclusively borne out by evidence. Officials
were paid by allotting land rights. Tax on land was levied in cash and kind both.
(Officialswere referred to as holders (udaiyan, kilan) of lands. They could further
:sub-assign land or even sell it. Communal ownership was prevalent and customary
lights of villagers were recognised. The lowest unit of administration was the village.
'They combined to form a Nadu. A Valanadu comprised of a few Nadus. Taniyur
was a separate village or settlement site. Above Valanadu there was Mandalam
which was equivalent to a province. Karumigal and Panimkkal meant officers
and servants. Anbil plates refer to a Brahman Manya Saciva. He was granted
land by the king. The king conveyed his orders orally (triuvaykkelvi) especially
with regard to gift to temples. The directive was conveyed through a letter (sri-
~nukham)issued by Anatti (executive officer) appointed by the king. The local
bodies were apprised and when the process was completed a record was prepared
in the presence of the local magnates called Nattukkon, Nndukilavan, Urudaiyan.

Officers associated with the process of bestowment and registration of land grants
were many and some are also referred to as Uttaramantri. Puravu-vari-
tinnikkalam was the department of land revenue. Varipottagam was the record
of land rights and Vari-pottagak-kanakku was the register of revenue department.
Officers associated with the task of maintaining records and registers of land rights
2nd land revenue department were Varipottagam and Variyiledu. Kankanis or
supervisors were the audit officers. Entry in a record was called Variyilidu. Mugavetti
(wrote royal letters) and Pattolai were junior functionaries of land revenue department.
Officers of Nadu (of the status of adhikari) were Nadu kuru (revenue assessment
and settlement officer), Nadu vagai (revenue official). Mandira olai was the oficer
who wrote the firumugam (letter containing the royal order). The term Naduvirukkai
was used for fijnapti (vaykkelvi) or petitioner and Anatti (executive oficer) who
served as a link between monarch and the persons who wished to approach the
king. The king made oral orders (triuvaykkelvi) regarding the issues brought to him
Ey the officers. These requests transformed into orders were sent to local
administration and central administration for implementation. The Olai nayagam
viere the officers who verified the letter written by Mandira-olai. The oral order
of the king was put to writing (eluttu) and compared (oppu) and then entered
(Iwgunda). Kdaiyil adigari got the order listed in the record. The document was
called Tittu and the charity deed (aravolai).

Justice was carried out by the village assemblies through the committees comprising
of Nyayattar. The central court of justice was the Dharmasana which conducted
its affairs through Dharamasana bhattas (Brahmans proficient in law). It appears
that civil and criminal offences were not dealt separately. The penalty for crime
committed by a person affecting the king or ruling dynasty was decided by the king
himself. Several methods of punishment prevailed viz. imposition of fines, capital
pmishment etc.
Administrative and Adhikaris were the king's officers. They possessed the titles Udaiyan, Kilad
Institutional Structures
Kilavan, Elan, Muvendavelan, Brahma, Pallavaraiyan, Vilupparaiyan and other
chiefly nomenclature. Sometimes more than one nomenclature was adopted. At
times the name of the Chola ruler or his epithet was used as a prefix by the
Adhikaris. Naduvirukkai were mostly Brahman (held titles like Bhatta,
Barhmadhirajan) officers and acted as a link between the royal authority and the
bureaucracy and they are always referred to in connection with the adhikaris.

Personnel in charge of temples were Srikuiyam but they did not look after the ritual
related aspects like worship etc. In some cases we have the evidence of Adhikaris
.holding the Srikaryam office. Generally they had a distinctive position in the
administrative system. The titles held by them were KiladKilavan, Elan,
Muvendvelan, Brahma, Bhatta, Kon, Pallavaraiyan, Vilupparaiyan, Nadu title,
King5 title. Senapati was in charge of military affairs. They bear the king's title;/
name, and other titles such as Udaiyan, Brahma, Araiyan, Kilans. The office of
Dandanayakam was probably akin to the Senapati (military ofice). The title
mentioned for this office is Pallavaaraiyans. The titles held by Senapatis were:
udaiyan, brahma, araiyan etc. The office of mu-mandria olai nayakam was an
important office associated with preparation of land grant documents. The titles of
these officers were Muvendavelan, Brahma etc.

Officers deputed at Nadu who discharged their duties at the behest of the king were
Nadu Vagai who were revenue assessment officers. Kottam-vagai were deputed
in Tondaimandalam area and performed the same function as Nadu vagai.
Nadukankuninayakam had control over more than one Nadu and had a higher
position than Nadu vagai. The titles which occur with the office of Nadu vagai
were: Araiyan and Udaiyan. Muvendavelan was borne by Nadu kuru (officer of
nadu) who was an officer of the rank of ~ d h i k a r i .

Rajaraja I (1001 A.D.) adopted an elaborate land revenue fixation and assessment
mechanism and thus Valanadus were created and this practice was also adopted
by other rulers. The land revenue department was called Puravuvari tinaikkalam.
This department was an,administrative division of the king's government and had the
following personnel: Puravu vari, Vari pottagan, Mugavetti, Vari pottaga,
Kanakku, Variyil idu and Pattolai etc. In the time of Rajendra I1 the
administrative personnel had more elaborate designations: Puravu-vari-tinaikkala-
kunakkar, etc. The period of Kulottunga I witnesses few officers: Puravu-vari-
Srikurana, Nayagam and Mugaverti. Later the term Variyilar refers to personnel
of revenue department as a general terminology. These officers had the epithet:
Udaiyan, Muvendavelan, etc.

The titles held by the king's personnel such as Udaiyan, Kilan and Kilavan refer
to possession. Other titles were Elan and Muvendavelan. The latter is a typical
Chola title and occurs from the time of Parantaka. These titles suggest that those
who bore them were land holders or associated with land. The title Muvendavelan
was bestowed by the Chola King and K. Veluthat points out ". ... the strong
association of those who bore this high title with offices of some importance is ....
borne in mind, demonstrating that the major Ella1 landed magnates were enlisted
in the service of the king by which process they became an integral part of the state
system." It appears that the title used by chiefs and their families viz. Araiyan was
usd'by other eminent people as well. In the period of Rajaraja I the chiefly rule
suffered a setback but the number ofAraiyan title holders was on the rise. This title
was more prestigious than Muvendavelan.1t is conjectured that the chiefs were
subdued to the position of landed magnates or cultivators from the period of Rajaraja Administralive and
Institutional Strucl ures in
;md his successors although they still held the title. Peninsular India

'The cattle herders (manradi) supervised the grants for lighting lamps in the temples.
Merchants held the titles of Cetti, Mayilatti and Palan. They even occupied the
important offices like Senapati and accountant. Peruntaccan and Perunkollan
were titles used by artisan category but at the most their important positions were
:onfined to royal palace and the temple connected with it.

We do not get clear evidence of a council of ministers but there existed officers like:
Purohita (dharmopadesta), Rajagurus, Tirumandira olai, Adhikari, Vayilketpar
(officer who noted the king's directives) etc. M.G.S Narayanan points out that
Udan kuttan? was like king's companion of honour. They might have had a head
because we have mention ofAdhikari of Udankuttam. There are references to the
court in literature (Periyapuranam etc.). The king's court comprised of: Brahman
advisors, Priests, Rajaguru, Adhikaris, Tirumandira olai nayagams, Vayilketpar,
head of the king's bodyguards and Samantas (feudatory chiefs). The various levies
of this period were: Antarayam, Eccoru, Kadamai (produce-rent), Kudimai,
Muttaiy-al, Vetti (labour-rent) and Tattar-pattan (cash payment). Most of the
imposts were exacted in kind viz. paddy.

The Cholas undertook military expedition to Sri Lanka (during the time of
Rajaraja I) and SriVijaya (during the time of Rajendra I). This shows the military
strength of the Chola state. It seems that the cavalrymen (kudiraiccevagar),
Anaiyatkal (those who fought on elephant), Archers (villigal, anukkar) were
name of the categories constituting the military force. Valangai (right hand)
klaikkarar were the soldiers recruited from among the peasants. Sokdiers were
also recruited from the artisans group (idangai - left hand). These were basically
mercenary soldiers. Chola Meykkirttis refer to Kantalur Salai which has been
interpreted as an educational institution in the Chera kingdom which imparted military
education and training to the Brahmans which as mentioned in Meykkirttis was the
place where Chera fleet was destroyed by the Chola king. T'ilis proves that Chola
military prowess was insurmountable.

The chiefs held an important position in the state sys:em:f?the Pandya kingdom
the only category of chiefs was Ays. In the Sangam, QeLdrutre there is reference to
many chiefs viz. Ays, k l s , Muvas, Kodumbalur and ,>digamans. The records of
the Pallavas refer to chiefs such as Gangas and Adigamans. The various other
chiefs who accepted the suzerainty of Pallavas were Banas, Vettuva-adiaraiyan,
Muttaraiyar etc. The chiefs of the Chola period were: Paluvettaraiyar, Vels,
Malavas, Gangas, Banas, etc. It appears that ,hr: chiefs were assigned land and
collected dues from it in return forpadi h a 1 protection of texritory. In the post-
Kulottunga period there is reference to Nilamuittittu or diplomatic agreement
between two or more chiefs. These chiefs also had their soldiers and retainers. Their
services were utilised by the Chola kings.

15.6 ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM IN THE DECCAN

Satavahana
The earliest state formation in the Deccan was the Satavahana state. Major part of
the kingdom was under the control of royal officers but some portion was controlled
by feudatories. The administrative divisions comprised of Aharas or ,Rashtras which
~dministrativ; and contained town (nigama) and villages (grama). Arnatyas were governors of Ahara.
Institutional Structures
The king was assisted in the task of administration by rajamayas (advisers). Other
officers were: Mahamatra, Bhandagarika (supervisor of stores), Heranika
(treasurer), Mahasenapati (commander of forces). The Lekhaka was in charge of
preparing documents and Nibandhakuras were also documentation officers.
Maharathis and Mahbhojas were the feudatories. They could make grants without
the sanction of the king. Gramini was in charge of villages. Nigama Sabha was
the assembly of citizens of the town. Srenis or guilds of professions also existed
(potters, oil millers etc.)

Chalukyas of Badami
The titles of Chalukya kings were as follows: Satyasraya, Sri-Prithvi- Vallabha
Maharaja, Pramesvara and Maharajadhiraja. It was not a centralized kingdom.
We do not find reference to council of ministers but it seems that the royal family
was placed in charge of official positions. Later the Eastern Chalukya kingdom and
other kingdoms developed due to this policy. They emerged as offshoots of the
origmal Chal*as of Badami. Inscriptions give us information about the administrative
system. Rajasravitam were the royal orders. The Kjnaptis (petitioners) and writers
of the king's orders related to grants on stone or copper plates were important
adrginistrative personnel. They held the position of Mahasandhivigrahiku(officer
in charge of peace and war). The division mentioned in the epigraphical records are
Rashtra, Kshaya and Nadu. The copper plate grants bestowed by the Chalukya
kings refers to Kshyapatis, Samantas, Gramabhogikas, Maharattaras etc. Thus
the administrative system was not centralised. However, Kshayapatis were royal
personnel. Village was the smallest part of the administrative system. The Gamunda
was the royal representative at the village level. He was the connecting link between
king and village people. The Karanas were the village accountants. Mahajans
constituted the village elders. The Lakshmesvar inscription gives us details regarding
the links between the royal machinery and local administration. An Achara vyasthe
(charter of rights and duties) was bestowed upon the Mahajans, Nagara (commercial
interests) and eighteen Prakritis (classes). It refers to royal personnel, Mahajans,
Desadhipatis (officers who collected taxes), Sreni (guild) of oil mongers etc. Various
taxes are mentioned in the inscription which were to be paid to the king's officials:
for great festivals, salt, tribute and gold. The Hyderabad grant of Pulkesin I1 refers
to the village being granted together with the Nidhi (treasure), Upanidhi, Klipta
and Uparikara (dues). Members of the royal family and trade associations also
made gifts to the temples in kind (millet, betel leaves).

Rashtrakutas
Under the Rashtrakutas also the administrative system was not centralised. The
kingdom was placed in charge of royal officials as well as feudatories. The feudatories
had to give regular tribute to the suzerain and had to render military service whenever
required. The territory which was placed under the direct control of the central
government was categorised into Rashtras and Kshayas. The Kshayas comprised
of a number of Bhuktis which were further divided into villages. Thus the smallest
component of the administrative hierarchy was the village. The officer in charge of
Rashtra was the Rastrapati. He combined both military and civil functions. He was
entrusted with the task of appropriation of land revenue. The maintenance of law
and order was another responsibility assigned to him. The Kshayapatis and
Bhogapatis exercised control over a smaller area as compared to the Rashtrapati.
The former were incharge of revenue administration together with the Nalgavundas
or Desagramakutas (hereditary revenue officers). The officials responsible for the
administration at the village level were headman and accountant. The functions of Administrative and
Institutional Structures in
the village headman included maintenance of the law and order as well as collection Peninsular India
of taxes. The village council which was represented by the elders of the village
(gramamahajanas or gramamahattaras) constituted subcommittees for carrying
out the public welfare activities like management of tanks, temples, roads and
schools. The records of the period indicate that the provincial and local administration
was carried'out by the assemblies which comprised of elders of the district (Kshqa
mahattaras), province (Rashtra mahattaras) or villages. These representative
bodies were an important feature of the administrative system at the local level.

SUMMARY
This Unit deals with the administrative and institutional structures in Peninsular India
from the earliest times to the early medieval period. The earliest political formation
in South India referred to as "Sangam" polity, dated to early centuries of Christian
era, was characterised by chiefdoms. The period from 6thcentury A.D. onwards
witnessed the rise of monarchical polities such as the Pallavas of Kanchi, Chalukyas
of Badami, Pandyas of Madura and Cholas of Tanjavur. The political structure
which emerged under the Cholas, Pallavas and Pandyas was quite similar in nature.
'
The political formation of this period emerged in the river valleys which served as
the economic resource base. The agrarian expansion of this period coincided with
the establishement of Brahmadeya and Devadana settlements. The royal power
sought legitimacy by several means viz. land grants to Brahmans and temples,
claiming high descent and performance of rituals etc. The king had a bureaucratic
machinery to assist him in administration but it was not a centralised system. In the
above mentioned kingdoms feudatories played an important role in the administrative
system. The most important feature of the polity of this period was the evolution of
Naa'u as an administrative unit which was a natural collection of agricultural settlements.
The Ur (assembly of non-Brahmans) and Sabha (assembly of Brahmans) and
Nagaram (assembly of traders) also played an important role in the administrative
system.

15.8 EXERCISES
1) Analyse the local administration under the Cholas.
2) Give a brief account of the nature of Pallava kingship.