PYC1501BASI

C
PSYCHOLOGY
Cogni
ti
on:
Probl
em sol
vi
ng(
P1)
Probl
em sol v
ingisoftenregardedasoneoft hehi
ghestformsofthinking.Theyaretwo
phasest osuccessfulprobl
em- sol
ving.Fir
styouneedtodiscoverthegeneralproper
ti
esof
thecorrectsoluti
on.Thisgeneralsoluti
onisanherbali
deaofwhati srequiredtosol
vethe
probl
em butwi thoutspecif
icdetail
.Oncey ouhaveageneralsolut
ion,youcanwor konthe
funct
ionalsoluti
onwi t
hsuffici
entdet ai
ltoguidef
urt
heracti
ont osolvetheproblem.

St
epsi
nthepr
ocessofpr
obl
em sol
vi
ng
1.Identi
fytheproblem anddef
ineitcl
early
Problem-solv
ingstart
swi t
htherecogni
tionthatther
eisaprobl
em andt
hisisfol
l
owedby
defini
ti
onoft heprobl
em.Thewayy ourecognizeanddef
ineaprobl
em i
nfl
uencestheway
yougoaboutsol vingit
.

2.Explorev
ari
ousst
rat
egi
es
Str
ategiesf
orsol
vi
ngthepr
obl
em:

Tri
alanderrorapproach
Thetrial
ander r
orapproachtosol
vi
ngaproblem iscal
ledt
hemechanical
approach,
becauseitinv
olvesapplyi
ngasetofrul
esordiscover
ybyrout
e.Tr
ial
ander r
orthi
nki
ng
i
nvolvestry
ingallpossi
bil
it
iesmor
eorlessrandomly.

Heuri
sti
cst r
ategies
Anunder st
andingappr oach.Theheur i
sti
cappr oachincr
easest heoddsofsuccess, but
doesnotguar anteeasol ut
ion.
 Tr ywor ki
ngbackf r
om thedesiredgoal tothecurr
entsi t
uation.
 I denti
fythewayt hatthecurrentsituati
ondiff
ersfrom yourdesi r
edgoal andi
denti
fy
thestepst hatyouneedt otaketor educethediff
erences.
 Adoptananal ogi
calapproachbyt hinki
ngofasi milarprobl
em andconsi derwhet
her
thesoluti
ont othesimilarprobl
em wi ll
wor kf
oryourpr esentproblem.
 Makeal i
stofy ourassumptionsofChr ist
ianandsy stematicall
ychall
engeortest
eachone, thismaysuggesti deasforsol vi
ngtheproblem.

3.Expl
orepossi bl
esoluti
ons
sever
alpossiblesolut
ionsmayhaveemer gedfr
om theprevi
ousphaseofproblem solvi
ng
andeachoneneedst obeconsider
ed.Youmayneedt oaskwhatt hepar
ti
cularsolut
ion
wouldbringaboutorhowi twouldchangetheprobl
em si
tuat
ion,
whataretheadv antages
anddisadvantages.
4.Ev
aluat
eandl
ear
nfr
om t
hesol
uti
on

Happenedatpotent
ialsoluti
onyout r
ygivesr i
setoanotherpr
obl
em,butyoucanagai
ndeal
wit
heachoneunt i
lyoufindasatisfactor
ysol ut
ion.Youhavet
oassesseachsol
uti
ontof
ind
outwhetheri
thassolvedt hepr
oblem effi
cientl
y.

Insi
ght
-someti
mes,ananswertoaprobl
em appearssuddenl
yandwewonderwhywedi
dn'
t
seethesol
uti
onbef
ore.Thi
siscal
ledgai
ningi
nsighti
ntoaprobl
em.

Rest
ri
ctedt
hinki
ng
Ment alsetorf ixat ion-t endencyt oevaluatetheprobl
em sit
uationinaparti
cularwayandt o
sti
ckt ot hatev aluat ion.
Emot ional bar r
ier s-somet i
meswear eunabletosolvetheproblem becauseouremot ions
getint hewayoft hi nkingclear
ly.
Learnedbar riers-wemayt hinkthatsomet hi
ngcananybedonei nonewaybecauset hati
s
thewaywehav el ear nedt odothings.Theyar eotherwaysofpr oblem sol
vi
ngi naddit
ionto
theoldway s.
Percept ual barrier s-somet imeswet endt oseeonlyoneaspectoft heproblem andignore
others.
Culturalbar ri
ers-acul turalval
uesmayl eadust obeli
evethatreasonandlogicarethebest
meansofsol v i
ngpr oblemsandt hatfantasyandtheyarewast eoft i
me.Inthi
swaywedo
notexpl oret hev ar i
ousway sofpr obl
em sol vi
ng.

Cogni
ti
on:
Reasoni
ng(
P6)
Reasoni
ngisonefor
m ofthought
.Reasoningcanbedefi
nedasaprocessofgoal-
dir
ected
thi
nki
ngthatdr
awsconclusi
onsfrom asetoffact
s.Whenwereasonwecompar edi
ffer
ent
bit
sofinf
ormati
on.

Thest
ruct
ureofr
easoni
ng
Apremise
I
sthestat
ementf rom whichtheconcl
usioni
sinferr
ed.Thepremi
seprov
idestheev
idence
t
hatsupportsyourconclusi
on.
Aconcl
usion
Whenyour eason,t
heviewpointyouadoptpr
oclaimy oumakeist
heconcl
usion.

Reasoni
ngbasedonf
ormal
rul
esofl
ogi
c
Deducti
vereasoni
ng
Deducti
vereasoni
ngrefer
stot heprocessofdrawingaconcl
usionthatfoll
owslogicall
y
fr
om twoormor estat
ement sorpremises.Deduct
iver
easoni
ngi sbasedont helogicalr
uled
t
hatifthepremisei
strue,t
hent heconclusi
onistr
ue(andcannotpossiblybefal
se).

I
nduct
iver
easoni
ng
i
nduct
iver
easoni
ngusesav
ail
abl
eev
idencet
ogener
ateaconcl
usi
onaboutt
hel
i
kel
i
hoodof
somethi
ng.Inducti
vereasoni ng,t
heconcl
usi
onisbasedont
hepremise,
butthepremisesdo
notguarant
eet heconclusion.Thepr
emisesonl
yprovi
desomesupportf
ortheli
keli
hoodof
probabi
l
ityoftheconclusion.

Anal
ogi
cal
reasoni
ng-meanst
haty
oui
nferpat
ter
nsofr
elat
ionsbet
weent
hings.

Di
ff
erencesbet
weenf
ormal
andi
nfor
mal
reasoni
ng
For
mal
reasoni
ng I
nfor
mal
reasoni
ng
Thepr
emi
sesar
est
atedexpl
i
cit
ly. Thepr
emi
sesar
emor
eimpl
i
edt
hanexpl
i
cit
.

Theprobl
em t
hatisbei
ngreasonedabouti
s Usuallyhasper sonalconsequencesfor
gener
all
ynotper
sonall
yrel
evant
. ev er
ydaylife.Thiscanl eadtoweaknessesin
reasoning.(1)wemayacceptapr emiseas
truewithoutt hinki
ngcar eful
l
yaboutits
accuracy( 2)wemayacceptaconcl usion
becausei tagr eeswi t
hourper sonal
viewpointwi thoutthinki
ngcar ef
ull
yabout
theev i
denceonwhi chitisbased.

Thest r
ucturesandrul
esoffor
mal reasoni
ng
aremor eobv i
ousthani
nfor
mal ev
er y
day
reasoning.

Usual
l
yonecor
rectsol
uti
on. Severalpossi
blesol
uti
onsbecauseoft
he
pract
icali
ti
esofever
ydayli
fe.

Fal
l
aci
es

Conclusionsar esomet i
mesbasedonf al
laci
esormi sl
eadingar gument s.Peoplemayuse
fal
l
acieswhent heywantust ochanget hewaywebel i
eve.Fallaciesuseirrel
evantpremises
tosuppor taconcl usion,asifthosepr emisesarerelevant.Differentformsoff al
lacy:
 Pl ayi
ngonsomeone' ssy mpathiestogetsomet hi
ngdone.
 Tr yi
ngt odi scr
editanissuebydi scredi
ti
ngt heper sonwhosuppor t
st heissue.
 Rel yi
ngont hecharacteristi
csofacer t
aingroupi nor dert ogainsupportfora
par ti
cularconclusion.
 Usi ngaf alseanalogy-t hismeansi mplyi
ngt hatthingst hataresimi l
aractuall
y
identical.
 Usi ngasl ightl
ychangedv ersi
onofsomeoneel se'spoi ntofviewasabasi sforyour
reasoni ng.

Cr
it
ical
reasoni
ng
I
nordert
opr ev
entmi sunderstandi
ngs,
iti
simpor t
antthatweshouldbeabletoeval
uat
ethe
i
nfor
mati
onwer eceiv
e,thatweshouldreasoncorrect
lyandthatweshouldmakegood
j
udgments.Thi
si swhatismeantbyt heterm"cri
ti
calreasoni
ng".Cr
it
ical
reasoni
ngmeans
t
hatyoul
ookatal ltheoptionsandvari
ousexplanati
onsforsomethi
nganddonotmer el
y
acceptonepoi ntofv iewort heexpl anat
ionthatsuit
syou.Cri
ticalr
easonhelpsy out
ocope
bett
erwi t
hsi tuat ionsi ndai lyli
fe.Usi ngcri
ti
calreasoni
nghelpsy ougaingreateri
nsi
ghti
nto
thi
ngs,t
obebet terinformed, t
obeopen- mindedandt omakegooddeci sions.
Thefoll
owi ngar est epsy oucant aketoimproveyourcri
ti
calreasoningabil
it
y.
1.I dentifyt hepr obl em
2.Keepanopenmi nd
3.Remembert hedi fferencesbet weenlanguageandreali
ty
4.Useopenended- quest i
ons
5.Av oidov er-gener alisations
6.Beempat hetic
7.Obt ainr elevanti nfor mat ion
8.Usei nf ormal knowl edge
9.Dev elopcol lectivet hinking

ReadP11

Cogni
ti
on:
Thi
nki
ng(
P13)
Thi
nki
ngist
heinternal
repr
esentati
onofaprobl
em orsi
tuat
ion.Whenwear
ethi
nki
ng,
we
makeuseofcer
tainmentalst
ructur
esorsyst
emsofsy mbol
s.
I
mages
Imagesarethesy mbolicrepresentat
ionofobj
ectsandthei
rcharact
eri
sti
cs.Animageisa
mentalr
epresentati
ont hathaspictureli
kequal
i
ties.Wecanalsofor
m auditoryi
mages,
basedonaper son'svoiceforexampl e.I
mageplaysanimport
antrolei
nourt hought
sand
canevenhelpust othinkmor eeffecti
vel
y.
Concept
s
Abasi cpr ocessi nthinkingi stocat egorizeexper i
ences.Thecat egor
ieswef orm asmental
represent ati
onsofgr oupsofr el
atedi t
emsar ecalledconcept s.Theyaret hebuil
dingbl
ocks
ofthinkingandt heyhel pust oorganizeknowl edgei nsystemat i
cway s.
Hierarchicalor gani
zationofconcept s
Tomakesenseoft hewor l
d, peopletendt oor ganizerelatedconceptsintoahi er
archy,
which
meansi nanor gani
zedway .Aconcept ualhierarchiesmadeupofatl eastt hr
eelevel
s:A
superordi nate(ortop)lev el
, anintermedi ate(ormi ddle)levelandasubor dinat
e(orbottom)
l
ev el
.Thi ngst hathavecommonat t
ributesfallont hesamel evel
.

Super
ordi
nat
e Food
l
evel

Fr
uit Vegat
abl
es
I
nter
medi
atel
evel

Apples, Carrots,
Subor
dinat
elev
el
Bananas, onions,
oranges, tomatoes,
grapes beans

Concept
ualr
ules
Werelyonconcept
ual
rul
est
odeci
dewhet
herornotsomet
hingbel
ongst
oacer
tai
n
concept.For malconceptualhier
archi
esarebasedonexactdefi
nit
ionsoragreementsabout
att
ri
butesi nanobj ect
ivesense.Thistypeofdef
ini
ti
oniscal
ledthedenotati
vemeaningofa
concept.I
nf ormalconceptualhier
archi
esarebasedonsubject
ivewill
personalexper
ience
andemot ion.Personalmeani ngsofconceptsar
ecall heconnot
edt ati
vemeani ngsof
concepts.

Concept ualerrors
Sy r
acuseofconcept scanl eadtoerrorsofthi
nking.Ifweoversimpli
fyacompl excategor
y,
thiscanr esultintheformat i
onofstereoty
pesorr i
gidway softhinki
ng.Problemsalso
createdby' al
l-or-
nothi
ng' orone-
dimensionalthought.Al
lornothingthoughtmayl eadtothe
classif
icati
onofsomet hingasabsolutelyri
ghtorwr ong,whereasweknowt hatt
heycanbe
statesinbet weenwhensomet hi
ngcanbepar tial
lyri
ghtorpar t
ial
lywrong.

Prot
otypes
Anotherwayoft
hinki
ngi
sbyf
ormi
ngpr
otot
ypes,
ori
deal
model
sofconcept
s.

Language
Mostt
hinki
ngreli
esagreatdeal
onl
anguage.Languagecanbedef
inedasasy
stem of
sy
mbolstorepresent
.

Innerspeech
Onewayi nwhi chlanguageinfl
uencesthoughti
sseeninouruseofinnerspeech.Ina
speechconsi st
sofkey wordsandphrases,notcompl
eteandgrammat i
call
ycorrect
sentences.Inaspeechi sanexampleoft hewayinwhi
chlanguageplaysaroleinthought
.
Sayingwor dstoyourselfoutl
oud.

Languageandt hought
Alt
houghthereisar el
ati
onshi
pbetweenlanguageandthought
,wemustremembert
hat
l
anguageandt houghtarenotident
ical
.Ther
eisevi
dencethatt
hinki
ngcant
akepl
ace
wit
houtlanguage.

Emot
ion(
P29)
Defini
ti
onoft heconceptofemot ion
AccordingtoCoon, emot i
onmeans" t
omov e"
Acombi nat
ionofphy si
ological
ar ousal(
e.g.:hear
trat
e, bl
oodpressure)combi
nedwith
perceptual-
cogni
tiv
epr ocesses( e.g.
:thi
nkingandsubjecti
veexperi
ence)andobser
vable
behaviouralexpr
essions( suchascr yi
ng).

Component
sofi
nfor
mat
ion:
phy
siol
ogi
cal
arousal
,cogni
ti
vepr
ocesses,
behav
iour
alexpr
essi
on.

Phy
siol
ogicalcomponent
 Li edetector
 Bodi esresponset oanemoti
on
 Ar ousalincrease-sympat
heti
csyst
em -maybestr
ongenought
ocauseahear
t
attackinoldpeopleorsomeonewit
hheartpr
obl
ems.
  Parasympat heti
csy stem stepsin,heartsl
owsdown, pupi
l si
zeret
urntonormal,
bloodpressur edrops.
 Parasympat heti
cr esponsesl ower
.Af t
erstr
ongshockpar asympathet
icmyov er
react
causingresponsecal ledpar asympatheti
crebound.Thi
sleadstolowbl oodpr
essure,
dizzi
ness,fainti
ngandev ensuddendeat h.

Cognit
ive-
perceptual
component
Emot i
onsar ehi
ghlypersonal-emot
ionalexperi
encedependsont hewayy ouactasan
i
ndivi
dualandinterpr
etasituati
on.I
nter
pretat
ionoftheeventisjustasi
mpor t
antasthe
eventi
tsel
f.Dri
ving
-whatonet hi
nksofdriv
ing,thecont
extofdr i
vi
ng,pastexper
ienceofdri
vingandpresent
needs.

Behaviour
al component
Emot i
onsareexpr essedinbodyl anguageandnonverbalbehavi
our.Bodygesturesand
faci
alexpressionareusedt oshowav ari
etyofbasi
cinfor
mat i
on.Somef aci
alexpressi
ons
arefoundonl yinspecif
iccult
ures.Sti
ckingtongueout-Afri
ca,di
srespectort
easing-Chi
na-
gestur
eofsur prise.
Theor
iesofemot
ion
Schat
er'
stwo-
factortheor
yofemot
ion
Cogni
ti
veappr
aisaltheory

Physiol
ogicalarousalistheprocesswher ebypeoplebecomeawareofsi
tuat
ionsand
feel
ingsthroughconsci ousthi
nking.Arousalt
hatinvol
vesphy
siol
ogi
calandpsychol
ogi
cal
arousali
scal l
edpsy cho-phy
siol
ogicalarousal
.

Schater'st wo-f act ortheor

yofemot i
on
Accordingt oSchat eremotionsoccurwhenweappl yapar t
icularlabeltogener al
physi
cal
arousal-exper ienceofemot ionthereforedependsont wof actors.
1.Autonomi car ousal 2.Cognitivei
nterpretati
onofthatarousal .
Studyisdone- inj ectionisgiventoheightenar ousal
-i
ncreasebl oodpr essureetc.
Peoplet hatar ei nhappypl ace=happy .Peopleinsadplace=sad.I fal i
onbyy ouandseems
aggressiv e,youi nterprett
hear ousalasf ear.I
fheoffer
spaw, youi nt
erpretarousalashappy
,
amazed, reli
ev ed.
Thetheor yiscr iticizedbypeopl ewhosayemot i
onsoccurwi thoutf i
rstexperi
encing
physiological ar ousal .
Sti
mul ation- >Ar ousal +Label/Apprai
sal ->Emot i
on+Behav i
our

Cognitiveappr ai
salt heor y
Thecomponent sofphy siologi calarousalandcogni t
iveprocessesar enotequallyimpor t
ant
i
nt heinter pretati
onofemot ion.Thewaywet hi
nkabout( ormakecogni t
iveappraisalof)a
sit
uationr esul t
sinemot ion.Lion-1-perciev
est imuliandcat egori
zeitaccordi
ngt othe
concepty ouf amili
arwi th.2-pr imaryappr aisaloccurs,basedonpr ev i
ousexperiencesy ou,
thr
eateningornott hr eatening.Knowl edget ell
sy outhatli
onsar edangers.3-theemot ionis
dif
ferentiated.Thet y peofemot ionex peri
ence, dependsoni nter
pretati
onofthesi tuat
ion.
Determinet hreateningy ouwi l
lexperiencef earifnotthreateni
ng,nof ear
.4-physicalarousal
orbodi l
ychangese. g.f eedingoff ear,shakingknees, incr
easedhear trate,
impulset orun
away.
St
imul
ati
on-
>Pr
imar
yAppr
aisal
->Di
ff
erent
iat
ionofemot
ion-
>Phy
siol
ogi
cal
arousal

Secondapprai
salcopi
ngstr
ategi
es,thi
nki
ngagai
nandact
ing-t
hinkofr
unni
ngf
rom l
i
onand
thenreal
i
singyouwon'tr
unfastenough.

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofemot
ions
Pri
mar yandsecondaryemot i
ons
RobertPlut
chick,Ei
ghtpri
mar yemot i
ons.f earsurpr
ise, sadness,disgust,anger,anti
cipat
ion,
j
oyandaccept ance.Thisl
eadst ogenerat i
onofot heremot i
ons.Di f
ferentcul
tures
categori
seemot i
onsindifferentway s.Primaryemot ionsar eshar edbypeopl ethroughout
thewor l
d,r
egardl
essofcul ture.Cri
teri
at oidenti
fyprimar yemot ions.
1.Theymustbeev i
denti nallcult
ures.
2.Theymustcont ri
but etosurv i
val
.
3.Theymustbeassoci atedwi t
hadi st i
nctfaci
al expressi
on.
4.Theymustbeev i
denti nnonhumanspeci es.
Secondaryemot i
onsareemot ionsthataref oundinsomecul t
uresbutnotal l.
Mostpeopl e do notagr ee wi th Plutchick.People agr ee ther e are 6 basic emot i
ons,
happiness,surpr
ise,f
ear,sadness, angeranddi sgust.

Positi
veandnegat i
veemot i
ons
Positi
veemot i
onsar epl easurableandr ewarding.Posi
ti
veemot ionscreatetheur getobe
creati
veandexpl ore,toseeknew exper iencesandt ogrow.Posi ti
veemot i
onsencour age
personalgrowthandsoci alconnect i
on.Acapaci tyf
orhavingposi t
iveemot i
onsisabasi c
humanst rengt
handmayl eadtot hedev elopmentofemot i
onal i
ntel
li
gence.
Negat i
ve emotions are exper ienced as unpl easant
.Unpl easantemot ions bring upon
physiol
ogicalarousal.When phy si
ologicalarousalisprolonged orunr esolved,negati
ve
emot i
onsmaycont r
ibutet ot hedev el
opmentofphy si
cali l
l
nessessuchasheadaches,
stomachacheandul cers,andpsy chologicalproblemssuchasanxi etyanddepression.

Emotionsvaryi
nIntensity
Atlowlevel
sofpsy cho-physi
ologicalarousal
, t
heemot ionsexperiencedareoflowi ntensi
ty.
Inthi
scasequalit
yoft heexperienceisneutral,i
tisnotcl ear
lypleasantorunpleasant.These
emotionsareannoy anceorbor edom.AThi ghlev elsofpsy cho-physi
ologi
calarousal ,t
he
emotionsexperi
encedar eofhighi ntensi
ty.Thequal i
tyoftheoft heemot i
oncancl earlybe
seenaspleasantorunpleasant.Theseemot i
onsi ncludejoyangerorf ear
.

I
nter
nal
l
yandext
ernal
l
yexpr
essedemot
ions

Fact
orsi
nfl
uenci
ngt
hei
nter
pret
ati
onsofemot
ions
 Genderandemot i
ons
 Cul
tural
diff
erencesi
nemot
ional
exper
iences
 Thecontextofemoti
on

TheconceptofEmot
ional
int
ell
i
gence
Emoti
onalintel
li
gence i
s a combinat
ion ofskill
sincluding,empathy
,selfcontrol
,self
awar
eness,sensi
tiv
ityt
othefeel
ingsofothers,persi
stence,andsel
fmot i
vat
ion.Emoti
onal
i
nelegancepr ovi
dest hel i
nkbet weenf eeli
ngs,char acterandmor alv al
ues.exampl esof
peoplewi t
hhi ghemot i
onali ntell
i
gence:t omot ivateandkeepont ry i
ngi nthef aceof
fr
ustrati
ons,tocontrolimpul sesanddel aygratif
ication,toregulat
emoodsandnotal l
ow
emot i
onstointer
ferewi t
ht heabi li
tytot hink,t
or ecogni seemotionsinot hers,andtohope.
Resultsoflow emot ionalintelli
gencecanbewi thdr awalfr
om ot hers,f eel
inganxiousor
depressed,orhav i
ng at tenti
on ort hinking problems. I n severe cases l ow emot i
onal
i
ntell
igencecanresul
ti nsociallyunaccept ablebehav ioursuchascheat ing, l
i
es,argui
ngal ot
,
bei
ngmean,demandi ngat tention,beingdest ructi
v e,beingstubbornandmoodyorbei ng
quicktempered.

Ther
elat
ionbet
weenemot
ionsandmot
ivat
ion
Thet erm mot i
vati
onr ef
erst oani nter
nalstatethatacti
vat
esandgivesdi
rect
iontoour
thoughts,feelings,andact ions.Mor ri
sandMai st
odefineamot i
veasaspecif
icneedor
desir
et hatar ousestheor ganism anddi rect
si t
sbehavi
ourtowar
dsagoal.Moti
vat
ionand
emot i
onarel inkedin3way s.
1.Bot hmot i
vesandthear ousalofemotionsacti
vat
ebehavi
our.
2.Mot ivesar eoft
enaccompani edbyemot i
ons.
3.Emot ionst ypi
call
yhav emot ivati
onalproper
ti
esofthei
rown.

HumanNer
voussy
stem:
Impul
seconduct
ion
(
P60)
Partsofaneur on
Dendrit
es-receivesmessagesf rom surr
oundingpar ents.Thedendr i
tessurr
oundt hecel l
body,alsocall
edt hesoma.I nsidethecellbodyorsomai sthecellnucl
eus.Thenucleuscan
bedescr i
bedast hecontr
ol cent erofthecel
l becauseitcont rol
sallmetaboli
cactivi
tiesin
thecell
.Thesummi tcanalsosendi tsendmessages, i
nt heform ofnerveimpulses.
Axon-thinfi
breconnectedt ot hesoma, enclosedinawhi tefatt
ysheathcall
edmy el
in,which
i
nsulatestheaxon.Wheni tisi nsulat
edwi t
hmymy eli
n,itcanconductimpul sesmuchf ast
er
thanaxonst hatareun-myelinated.

Typesofneur on
Sensor
yoraf ferentneurons
Theseareneur onsthatcarr
ymessagesfrom theenv i
ronmenttothespinalcor
dandbrai
n.
I
nformati
oni sdetectedbythesensesandt hencarri
edtothespinalcordandbrai
n.
I
nformati
ondoesnotanycomef r
om outsideenvir
onmentbutalsof rom someoftheor
gans
i
nsideofthebody .
Motororefferentneurons
Theseneuronsconductmessagesf rom thespinalcordandbrai
nt othemusclesandgl
ands.

Nervetr
act-t
erm usedtodescri
beabundl
eofaxonsi
nthebrai
nandspi
nalcord.Abundl
e
ofaxonsinpart
soft hebodyoutsi
det
hebrai
nandspi
nalcor
discal
ledanerv
e.

I
mpulseconduct
ion
I
sthebasi
cform ofsendi
ngi
nfor
mat
ioni
nthener
voussy
stem.Ner
vecel
l
sar
especi
all
y
adaptedf ori
mpulseconducti
on.
Impulseconductionint
henervoussy st
em ismadeupoft womai nprocesses:
Elect
rical
-thenervei
mpulsebeginsinthef i
rstsegmentoftheaxonandtravel
sdownt he
axontot hetermi
nalsbecauseofelectr
icaleventsatt
hecellmembrane.
Chemi cal
-thepassageofthenerveimpul sefr
om oneAxont oanot
herisachemi calpr
ocess.
Therei sasmallgapbetweenthestructuresofoneneuronandanother
,andchemi cal
processesdeterminewhetherthei
mpul sewi l
lbeconduct
edacrossthegapt oanother
neuronornot .

Thener veimpul se
Eachneur onisl ikeasmal l biological batterythatst orespot enti
alenergy .Thef lui
dinside
andout si
det hecel l
scont ainsmal l
chemi calpar ti
cles,cal
ledi ons.Somei onsar enegat i
ve
andsomeposi tive.
Restingmembr anepot ential
Beforeandi mpul secanf i
r e(orbeconduct ed)
, theymustbeacondi t
ionofr eadinessint he
neuron.Thiscondi ti
onofr eadi nessi scal l
edt her esti
ngmembr anepot ential.Theresti
ng
membr anepot ent i
alisanel ectricalchar ge,broughtaboutbyt hedifferencebet weent he
positi
veandnegat iv
ei onsout sideandi nsidet hecel l
s.Whent hesether estingmembr ane
potenti
al,t
heneur onisreadyt or eceiv einformat i
oni nthef orm ofelect r
icalimpulses(or
messages)andt oconductt hei mpul sest oandf rom thebr ainandt hebody .
Actionpotential
Whent heelect ricalchargei sst r
ongenought oexceedt hethreshold, t
her estingmembr ane
potenti
alischangedi ntoanact i
onpot ential
.

Refectoryper iod
Immedi atelyaf t
ertheimpulsehasbeenconduct ed,theneur onisnotreadytosendanot her
i
mpul seunt iltherest
ingpotenti
alhasagainbeenr estor
ed.t hisper
iodDuringwhichthe
neuroni snotr eadytofir
eiscall
edtherefector
yper i
od.Ther e'stwotypesofrefect
oryperiod:
Anabsol uter efr
actoryperi
od-noimpulsescanbegener ated, ev
enwithint
ensest i
mulati
on.
Arelativerefectoryperi
od-whenani mpulsecanbegener atedbutonl ywit
hav eryint
ense
sti
mul us.
Ther efectoryperiodensuresthati
mpulsesgoesi nonedi rectiononly
.Alsopreventsthe
nervoussy stem f r
om oversti
mulati
onbyr egul
atingtherelationbetweenstimulusint
ensity
andimpul sef requency.

Char acterist i
csofi mpul seconduct i
on
Act i
onpot ent iali
saspeci alkindofel ect
rical charge:iti
sinal lnothingev ent
.Thismeans
thatt hest i
mul usisei t
herst rongenought or esultinimpulseconduct ionoriti
snotst r ong
enought or esul ti
ni mpul seconduct ion.
Thr eepoi ntst onot eaboutt henat ur
eofi mpul seconduct i
on:
Strengt handspeed-al thought hestrengthandspeedofi mpul seconduct i
onisconst antina
part i
cularneur on,itcanv arywi thnerv ef
ibersofdi ff
erentsizes.Lar gerthenervefiber,the
strongert hei mpul seandt hepr ostatewi l
lbeconduct ed.
Frequency -ift hestimulusi sv eryint
ense, therei sashor t
ert i
mespacebet weenthef i
r i
ngof
eachi mpul se.Thi smeanst hatt hefrequencyi ncreases.
Effect sofmy eli
nation-actionpot enti
al t
ravel fasteralongaxonst hatar emy eli
natedt han
alongunmy el
inatedaxons.Thi sisbecauset hemy el
insheat hinsulatestheaxonbutt here
aregapesornodesbet weent hesheet s.
Thei
mpulseisconduct
edbyjumpi
ngfr
om nodetonode(
thisi
scal
l
edsal
tat
oryconduct
ion)
.
Muchfast
eranduseslessener
gyt
hanunmyeli
nat
edsheets.

Neur
otr
ansmi
tt
ers

Ser
otoni
n

• Foundi
nthebr
ain,
digest
ivet
ract
,andbl
ood.

• I
nvol
vedi
nsl
eepwakecy
cleandt
emr
etur
e

• Seasonal
depr
essi
on

• I
inhi
bit
ionofv
iol
ence,
appet
it
e,pai
nsuppr
essi
onandmood

• Lowser
otoni
nlev
elscancausedepr
essi
on

• Prozac(fl
uoxet
ine)
,worksbyst
oppi
ngreabsor
pti
onofser
otoni
nbacki
ntoneur
on,
so
keepsitacti
vei
nsy napt
icgapf
orl
onger

Dopami
ne

• I
nvol
vedgoodment
alheal
th

• Tool
i
ttl
eDopami
necel
l
sof
tenr
esul
tsi
nPar
kinson'
sdi
sease

• Wit
hincr
easi
nglev
els,si
deeff
ect
sofconf
usi
onandev
enpsy
chosi
scanr
esul
t,of
ten
r
esembli
ngschi
zophreni
c-l
i
kesympt
oms.

Acet
ylchol
i
ne

• Rel
easedbycel
l
sint
hebr
ainandspi
nal
cor
daswel
lasbyt
hepar
asy
mpat
het
ic
ner
voussyst
em

• Ef
fect
scanbeseeni
npoi
son

• I
nvol
vedi
nmemor
y

• Acet
ylchol
i
ne-pr
oduci
ngcel
l
sof
tendestroyedi
nAlzhei
mer'
sdisease-commoni
n
el
derl
ypeopleandaff
ect
smemory
,languageandpersonal
i
ty

Nor
epi
nephr
ine

• Al
socal
l
ednor
adr
enal
i
n

• Rel
easedbyt
heBr
ainCel
l
sandSy
mpat
het
icNer
vesAsWel
lAsAdr
enal
Glands

• Hasanexci
tat
oryef
fect

• TheLackofNon-
Adr
enal
i
neI
sAssoci
atedwi
thDepr
essi
on,
andAccesswi
thMani
a

GABA(
Gama-
ami
nobut
yri
caci
d)

• I
nvol
vedi
ninhi
bit
oryneur
otr
ansmi
tt
ers,
hel
pst
ocont
rol
aggr
essi
onandeat
ing

Adr
enal
i
ne(
Epi
nephr
ine)

 I
sr el
easedbyt hesy
mpat heticnervesandadrenalgl
ands.I
tincr
easesheart
beatand
thecontract
ionofbl
oodv essels,skel
etal
muscl esandhear
tmuscles.I
talsospeed
upmet aboli
sm andthei
rreleaseofglucoseintheblood
Endor
phi
n

 Endor
phinisaneurot
ransmi
tt
eri
nvol
vedi
ntheexper
ienceofpl
easur
eandt
he
suppr
essionofpai
n

Drugs
Agonist
-havesi
milaref
fectofsomeneur
otr
ansmit
ter
s
Antagoni
st-bl
ockstheacti
onofsomeneurotr
ansmit
ter
s

HumanNer
voussy
stem:
Str
uct
ureandf
unct
ion
(
P71)

TheCent
ral
Ner
vousSy
stem

TheSpi nalCord
SpinalNerves
Thespi nalcor
dactslikeacablethatconnectsthebrai
nwit
hotherpart
softhebody .Thespi
nal
cordismadeupofcol umnsofwhi t
emat t
er,whichar
ebundl
esofaxons,wit
hmy eli
n.Werethese
axonsl eadthespi
nalcord,t
heyf orm ner
ves.Theyare30pai
rsofnerv
esoneachsi deofthe
spi
nal cord.
Reflexes
Notonl ydoesthespinalcor
dcar ryinf
ormati
ontoandf r
om t
hebody,i
talsoproducesbasic
for
msofbehav ior
,call
edref
lexes.

TheBr ain
Thespacebet weenthescull
andthebrainisf
il
ledwit
hf l
uidcal
l
edcerebrospinal
flui
d.Byfl
oati
ng
i
nt heflui
dthebrai
nisprot
ectedfr
om beingbumpedar oundandbeinginj
ured.Thebraini
salso
protectedbyt
hebloodbrainbar
ri
erthatkeepsoutcert
ainharmful
substances

Theoutsi
delay
erofthebrai
niscal
l
edthecerebr
alcort
ex.I
thasawrinkl
edappearance,
because
thesur
faceofthecor
texhasbumpsandgrooves(al
socall
edfi
ssur
es).Cer
ebral
cortexis
composedofgreymatter
.

Thebrai
nconsi
stsoftwopart
s,cal
ledcer
ebr
alhemi
spher
es.Thetwohemi
spher
esar
e
connect
edbyathickbandoff
ibresiscal
l
edthecor
puscal
losum.

Theleftsi
deofthebrainmainl
ycontrolstheri
ghtsideofthebodyandt herightsi
deofthebrai
n
mainlycont
rol
stheleftsi
deofthebrain.Thisi
scalledcontr
alat
eralcontr
ol.Somepartsofthe
bodyarecontr
oll
edbyt hesamesideoft hebrai
n,thisi
scall
edipsil
ater
alcont r
ol.

Thelefthemi sphereisinv ol
vedmainlywi t
hthel ogicalorganizat
ionandanal ysi
sofi nf
ormation
andpr ocessinginformationsequenti
ally.Thelefthemi sphereisr egar
dedast helanguageor
verbalhemi sphere.Therighthemispherei st
opr oducei nformationholist
ical
l
y (
asabi gpict
ure)
andsimul taneously(
allatonce).Therighthemi sphereisconsi deredtobemor ecreati
verat
her
thanlogicalandisconcer nedwi t
hspat i
alnonver balabil
it
ies.
TheLobesoft heBrain
TheOccipi
talLobes
Li
eatthebackoft hebr ai
nandar ethepri
maryvi
sualar
eaofthecortex,
thati
s,intheareawhere
vi
suali
nputisinter
preted.Responsibl
eforcombi
ningvi
sualst
imuli
intomeaningfulpat
ter
ns.The
i
ntegr
ati
onofsensor yexperiencetakespl
aceint
heoccipi
tall
obes.

TheParietalLobes
Madeupofsomat osensorycort
ex.Thewordsomat osensor
yreferst
obodi l
ysensati
ons,suchas
touch,t
emper atur
e,pressureandpain.Thepari
etall
obesrecei
veinputaboutthesesensati
ons,
andalsoinformati
onf rom musclesandjoi
nts,
whi chtel
l
sthebrainaboutthebody'sposi
ti
onin
space.Cancoor di
natemov ementsi
nspace.

TheTempor alLobes
Oneoft hemai nf uncti
onsoft hetemporall
obesi stheper ceptionofsound.Audi t
oryinformati
on
i
sprojectedt othet emporallobes,wher
eitisregisteredandi nterpreted.Thetemporallobes
al
lowust ounderst andspokenwor dsandothersoundpat terns,suchasmusi corrainontheroof
.
Thelefttempor allobeisregardedasthelanguagecent erofthebr ainanddamaget othisarea
cannegat i
velyaffecttheabil
itytounderst
andwhati sheardandt ousel anguageeffecti
vely
.The
ri
ghttempor allobei sconcer
nedwi thmorenonv erbal soundsbutal sopl aysomeroleinspeech.

TheFr ontalLobes
Themostr ecentl
yev ol
v edpar tofthebr ain.Thefrontall
obesregulatecompl exment alact i
vit
ies
andbehav i
ors.Oneoft hemai nf unctionsoft hefrontal
lobesisthecont rol ofvolunt
arymot or
mov ement ,i
ncludingthepr oductionofspeech.Mot orareaofthef rontallobeensur essmoot h
perfor
manceofasequenceofmot orskill
st hatmakeupcompl exact i
onsl iketalki
ng,typingor
playi
ngt ennis.Animpor tantfunct i
onoft hef r
ontall
obear etomaint ai
nat tenti
onand
concentrati
ont hroughopt i
mal arousaloft hecortex,
toapplyabstractthinking,reasoningand
planni
ng, andt oregul
ateemot ionsandbehav ior
.Damaget ocert
ainar easoft hef r
ontallobecan
causechangedbehav i
or,referredtoasper sonal
itychange.

MajorSt
ructur
esoft
heBr ai
n
Neocort
existheoutsi
delayeroft
hebr
ain.Bel
owt
heneocor
texar
eanumberofst
ruct
urest
hat
makeupt hesubcor
tex:

TheHi ndbr ain

Oldestpar toft hebr ai
n.
Medul laobl ongat a
I
sanext ensi onoft hespinal cordandconsistofgraymat ter
(cellbodi
es)surroundedbywhit
e
mat ter(nerv efibers).Groupsofneur onsintheMedel aoblongataactasr efl
excentersfor
processest hatensur esur v
ival,
suchasbr eathi
ngandhear trate.OnthefrontoftheMedela
oblongat at heyar et wobums, call
edpir
imids, f
ormedbyt hecrossingofmot ornervetr
actst
hat
mai ntainthebr ain'
scont ral
ateralcont
rolofthemuscl es.I
nsidetheMedel aoblongatai
sa
networkofcel
lbodiescall
edtheret
icul
arfor
mation,whichextendsupwardsint
othemi dbrai
n.
Thereti
cul
arformationsti
mulatest
hebrai
n,keepingitact
iveandalertbutal
soprevent
sitfrom
over-
sti
mulati
onbyr egul
ati
nginput
.Int
hisway,itmaintai
nsanopt i
mal ar
ousall
evelsothatthe
brai
ncanfunctionproper
ly.

Pons
I
sthestr
uctur
ethatact
sasabri
dgebetweentheMedel
aandt
heot
herbr
ainst
ruct
ures.The
ponsal
soregul
atessl
eepandwakef
ulness.

Cerebell
um
Somet i
mesCalledtheSmallBr ai
n,becausei tl
ooksl i
keami niat
urecerebral
cortex.Themai n
functi
onofthecerebel
lum i
st ocoordinatemot ormov ement.Itdoesthisbyregulati
ngposture,
balanceinmuscletoneandmuscl ecoor dinati
on.Byintegr
atingandcompar inginfor
mat i
on
receiv
edfrom t
hebody ,i
tal
lowst henecessar yadjustmentstobemadesot hatmov ements
i
niti
atedbythebrainarecar
riedoutinacoor di
natedsequence.

TheMi dbrai
n
TheTect um
Containstwostruct
ures: oneist
heref
lexCenterf
orv i
sion(cont
roll
i
ngeyebl
inkandsi
zeofpupi
l)
cal
ledt hesuper
iorcol
liculus,
andtheotheri
stheref
lexCent erf
orheari
ng(
contr
oll
i
ngadj
ustment
tovolumeandst art
leresponsetosound)call
edtheinferi
orcoll
icul
us.

TheTegmentum
Mainl
yinv
olv
edint
her
egul
ati
onofmot
ormov
ement
.

TheFor ebrai
n
Thalamus
Consistsofacoll
ecti
onofnervenuclei
,anditsmainfuncti
onist oactasar el
aystati
onfor
sensoryinfor
mati
on.Thati
s,i
ncomi ngsensoryi
nformationisreceivedbythethal
amusandsend
ontot heappropr
iat
estr
uctur
esorar easofthecort
exforintegrati
onand/orint
erpret
ati
onoft
he
i
nformat i
on.

Hy pothalamus
Liesbel owt hethal
amusandhasmanyner venucl
eithatarei
nvolvedi
nthefuncti
onssuchas
regulati
ng( 1?)Theinter
nalenv
ironmentofthebody(suchastemperat
ure,
wat eri
ntake,sexual
activi
ty,heartbeat,
bloodpr
essureanddigesti
on),
(2)stat
esofsleepandwakef ul
ness(3)
emot ions.

Basal gangli
a
Threel ar
gegroupsofneur onsthatregulat
esslayer,
smoothmov ements(li
kewalking)
.Axons
from someoft heneuron'sprojecttothemajorareasofthecer
ebralcort
exandt hemi dbr
ain.
TheLi mbicsyst em
I
smadeupofsev er
alst
ructuresthatregul
atesmot i
vat
edbehavi
our,emot i
onsandmemor y:
Hippocampus=memor y
Amy gdala=pl ay sarol
eint heexperienceoffearandanger,
aswellasrelaxat
ion,andisli
nkedto
theemot ionalaspectsofmemor y
Sept
um=i
sregar
dedast
hebr
ain'
spl
easur
eandr
ewar
dcent
re

Readpage79

ThePer
ipher
alNer
vousSy
stem

TheSomat icNer vousSy st

em
hastwocomponent s:
onei ssensoryandt heot
heri
smot or
.Conductsi
nformat i
onfrom the
sensoryreceptorsinthebodyt othecentralner
voussy
stem(sensor
yorafferntnerves),andf
rom
thecentr
al ner
v oussystem totheskelet
al muscl
esint
hebody(motororefferentnerves).

TheAut
onomi
cNer
vousSy
stem

Contr
olsprocessest
hatregulat
eourint
ernalor
gansandglands,saidthatt
hebodyfuncti
ons
evenl
y.Theautonomicnervoussyst
em alsohastwodiv
isi
ons: parasy
mpat het
icandsympat
het
ic.

Sy
mpat
het
icner
voussy
stem Par
asy
mpat
het
icner
voussy
stem

Pupi
l
soft
heey
edi
l
atet
oleti
nmor
eli
ght Pupi
l
scont
ractt
oli
mitt
heamountofl
i
ght

t
hatent
erst
heey
e

St
ruct
uresi
nthel
ungsexpandt
oabsor
boxy
gen
Decr
easedl
ungact
ion

Thehear
tpumpsf
orst
ampbl
oodpr
essur
eri
ses
Reducebl
oodpr
essur
eandhear
trat
e

Morebloodr
eachesthemusclest
oincr
easet
heSomemuscl
esr
elax
suppl
yofoxygenandglucose

Lessbl
oodi
sav
ail
abl
etot
heski
nanddi
gest
ive
Bloodsuppl
ytot
heski
nrest
ored

or
ganssai
dthatmor
ebl
oodi
sav
ail
abl
e

f
ort
hebr
ainandskel
etal
muscl
es

Di
gest
ioni
sinhabi
ted I
ncr
easeddi
gest
ivepr
ocesses

Sympatheti
cdomi nants-stateofchronictensi
on, characteri
zedbydilat
edpupi l
s, sweat
yhands,
shall
owbreathi
ngbecauseoft ensi
oninthechestmuscl es,poorconcentr
ation,andinabil
i
tyt
o
rel
axandsleep,everyexcit
ementandemot i
onal i
ntensity.
Parasympathet
icdomi nance-andar ouse,appeari
ngl ethargi
candpoor l
ymot i
vated.Sucha
personmayhav erespirat
oryanddi gesti
vediff
iculti
es.
Normal-moderatetensionr eacti
onswouldbeappr opriat
eandconcent rat
ion,anddr i
ve
mot i
vat
ionwouldbegood.

I
ntel
l
igenceandcr
eat
ivi
ty(
P125)
Bi
ologi
cal
int
ell
i
gence
SirFr
ancisGalt
on
Heconcludedthatsuccessrunsi
nf amil
iesbecausei
ntel
l
igencei
spausedf
rom onegener
ati
on
toanothert
hroughgenetici
nheri
tance.

I
ntel
li
genceasonegener
alfact
or
Charl
esSpear
man
I
ntel
li
gencewasbasedononefact
or.
Speci
fi
cfact
orsorS-
fact
ors

Multi
plefactort heoryofintell
i
gence
Thurst
on
Heidenti
fiedsev enfactorsthathethoughtrepr
esent
edprimar
yment
alabi
l
ity
:
 v erbal compr ehension
 gener al r
easoning
 wor df l
uency
 memor y
 numberabi lit
y
 spat ial abil
i
ty
 per cept ualspeed
Bel
ievethatt hesef actorswereindependentofeachother
.

Multi
pleintelli
gences
Gardner
Defi
ancei ntell
igencei ntermsofment al
ski
l
lsorabi
l
ity,
suggest
edt
hatt
heyar
eei
ghtdi
ff
erent
i
ntell
i
gences:
 musi cal intell
i
gence
 bodi l
y -
kinaest heti
ci nt
ell
i
gence
 l ogical-mat hemat icali
ntell
i
gence
 l i
ngui sti
ci ntell
igence
 spat i
al i
nt el
li
gence
 i ntrapersonal intell
igence
 i nterpersonal intell
igence
 nat ural
isticintell
igence

Inf
ormat ionpr ocessingappr oachorcogniti
veprocessingappr oach
Cogni t
iveper spectivefocusesonhowpeopl eusetheirintel
li
gencer at
herthanhowmuchamount
ofintell
ectual abil
it
yt heyhave.
Tri
archict heoryofi ntel
li
gence
Rober tStenber g
Theor ythatintelli
gentbehaviorshouldbev i
ewedaspar tofthesituati
onorcontext
sitoccur
sin
andnotseenassomet hingwecani nferf
rom atestresult.Basedont hreeaspect
s:
Component al i
ntell
igence
experiment alintel
li
gence
contextual i
ntell
igence
Readp131

Lear
ning(
P152)
Lear
ningi
sfor
mal
l
ydef
inedas"
arel
ati
vel
yper
manentchangei
nbehav
iorduet
oexper
ience"
.

Associ ati
v elear ning
Theessenceofassoci ativelear
ningi st hepairi
ngorassoci ationofst imulusandr esponse.
Classical Condi tioning
Calledclassi cal condi ti
oningr efer
st ot het ypeoflearningt hatt akesplacewhenar esponse
usual l
yelicitedbyonest imulusist henassoci atedwi thadi fferentstimulust hatnor mallywoul
d
notl eadtot hatr esponse.
I
v anPav lovandhi sdogs.
Anuncondi tionedst imul us
Thisi sast imul ust hatcausest hesubj ecttorespondi naspeci ficwaybef oreanyl earni
nghas
takenpl ace.E. g.t hef ood
Anuncondi tionedr esponse
Thisi sther esponset oanuncondi tionedst imulus.E.g.dogsaut omaticall
ypr oducesal i
va
Acondi t
ionedst imul us
Thisi sast imul ust hati nit
ial
lyisneut ral,butthroughAssoci ati
on( t
hatis,beingpai dwi than
uncondi ti
onedst i
mul us) ,i
tmaypr oducet hedesiredresponsewhenpr esentedwi thoutt he
uncondi ti
onedst i
mul us.E. g.thebel l
Acondi t
ionedr esponse
Thisi sther esponset hatf ol
lowsthecondi t
ionedstimul us.Saliv at
ingafterhear i
ngt hebell,
withoutanyf oodpr esent .

Exti
nction-Thedi sappearanceofapr eviousl
ylearnedr esponse.
Spontaneousr ecovery-referstother eappear anceofar esponsewhi chseemst ohavebeen
exti
nguished.
Higherordercondi t
ioning-meanst hatt hecondi t
ioni
nggoesoneormor estepsfurt
herthant
he
ori
ginalconditi
oning.
Sti
mul usgenerali
sat i
on-whi chreferst othetendencyt or espondtoasimil
arbutnott hesame
sti
muli.E.g.matchescanal sobecandl es,fi
res,andlighters.
Sti
mul usdiscri
minat i
on-thismeanst hatt hepersoncandi scri
minat
eordetectdiff
erences
amongsi mi l
arsti
mul iandonl yrespondt oaspeci fi
cstimul us.

Operantconditi
oning
I
noper antcondit
ioning,thel
earningt
hatt
akesplacedependsontheconsequencesofthe
responsethattheper sonmakes.Forexample,
learni
ngmaytakeplacebecauseacert
aintypeof
responseisrewardedorpuni shed.
Skinner
-Ther ati
nt hebox.
Reinfor
cer=rewar d

Cl
assi
cal
condi
ti
oni
ng Oper
antcondi
ti
oni
ng
Typeof Aut
omat
ic,
ref
lex Vol
unt
ary
response

Rei
nfor
cem Condi
ti
onedst
imul
usi
sassoci
atedwR
i
th
ei
nfor
cementoccur
saf
tert
her
esponse

ent anuncondi
ti
onedstimulus,andt
he
rei
nfor
cementsoccursbefore

t
her
esponse

Act
ivi
tyof Passi
ve Act
ive
l
ear
ner

Nat
ureof Theneutr
alst
imul
usbecomesa Theli
keli
hoodofaresponseisi
nfl
uencebythe
l
ear
ning condi
ti
onedsti
mul
usthrough consequencesorr
einf
orcementt
hatfol
lows

Associ
ati
onwi
thanuncondi
ti
oned
st
imul
us

Acompar
isonofcl
assi
cal
andoper
antcondi
ti
oni
ng

Par t
ialreinfor
cement-gambl i
ng
FixedRat i
oschedule-fi
xednumberofr esponsesmustbemadei nor dertoobtai
nreinf
orcement
Var i
abler at
ioschedule-becauset hereinf
orcementislesspredictable,
therei
sagr eater
resistancet oext
incti
on(peopleattempt edtoplayjusti
ncaset heymi ghtwinagain)
Fixedi nterv
alsschedule-
referstothepassageoft ime,sorei
nfor cementaccordingtoaf i
xed
i
nt ervalsscheduleisrei
nforcementt hatisproducedforthefi
rstcor r
ectresponsetoacer tai
n
amountoft i
measpossi ble.
Var i
ablei nt
erval
sschedule-afterdiff
erentint
ervalti
mes,youdon' thowmanyt i
mesy ou'l
lhavet
o
try

Schedul
esofrei
nfor
cementdonotworki nt
hesamewaywi thpuni
shment
.Theef
fect
ivenessof
puni
shmentdependsonti
ming,consi
stency
,andi
ntensi
ty.

Readpage160

Cogni t
ivelearni
ng
Cogni t
ivelearni
ngi stheresultofthi
nki
ngandot hercogni t
ivepr
ocesses.
Cogni t
ivemaps
Percept ualmotorskill
s
Percept ualmotorskill
sorsensor ymotorskil
l
sar ebasedonmot ormov ement
sthatar
egui
ded
byper cepti
on.
I
ntellectualskil
l
s
I
ntellectualskil
l
sar elearned,andwenev erst
oplearning.
Met acogniti
on-knowl edgeofy ourowncogniti
vement al pr
ocesses.
Discov eryl
earning-skil
lsgainedbyinsi
ghtandunder standing

Soci
all
ear
ning
Refer
st othewaywel earnthroughi
nteracti
ngwithotherpeopl
e.
Operantsocial
learning-punishmentandr eward
Observati
onall
earning-lear
ningbywat chingandimit
atingthebehav
ior
sofot
her
sandobser
ving
theconsequencesoft hoseact i
ons.

Foressentialcomponent stoobser vati

onal l
earni
ng:
 At tention-mustpayattentiontothemodel sbehav i
orontheconsequencesofthat
behav ior
 Ret ent i
on-anot herwordf oratt
entioniskeepingorsav i
ng.Youmustsav eament al
representationofwhaty ouhav eobser v
ed, i
nor dertobeabletouseiti
nal at
erstage.
 Repr oduction-youmustbeabl etoreproducet heobservedbehavi
orthatyouhavestored
i
namemor y.
 Mot ivati
on-y ouwil
lonl
yr eproducebehav ioryouhav eobser
v edi
fyou'r
emot i
vat
edt odo
so,ifther esponsetoyourbehav iorwillbewor thwhi
le.

Memor
y(P167)
Memor yi
sanacti
veprocessthatstor
es, or
ganizes,andret
ri
evesinformat
ion.Memor yi
nvol
ves
thr
eeimport
antphases,
(1)encoding,orgetti
nginformat
ionint
ot hememor y,(
2)st
orage,or
keepi
ngthi
ngsinourmemor y,(
3)retr
ieval,
orjointi
nfor
mationfrom thememor yst
ore.

Encodi
ng

Beforeinformat i
oncanbepr ocessedinmemor y,thebr ainhast oincl
udet heinformati
oninorder
towor kwith.Encodingrefer
st otheprocessoff ormi ngamemor ycard.Attenti
onisav er
y
i
mpor t
antaspectofr emember i
ng.Theyar edi
fferentst rategiest oimproveourmemor yby
maki ngencodi ngmor eef
fecti
ve.Thefir
stofthesei selabor ati
on, orl
i
nkingonef actt
ootherbit
s
ofinformation.Second,anotherwayofimpr ovingencodi ngisthr oughusingv i
suallyi
magery.You
cancr eat
epi ctur
esofv i
sualimagesoft hethi
ngsy ouwantt or emember .Third,encodi
ngis
easierwheny oucanmaket heinformati
onper sonal l
ythemeani ngful
.

St
orage
Sensor
ymemory
Inf
ormati
oni
skeptini
tsorigi
nalsensor
yf or
mf oraver
ybri
eft
ime(afracti
onofasecond) .We
donotrememberever
ythi
ngthatweseeandhear( sensor
ymemory).Inf
ormationisheldin
sensor
ymemoryjustl
ongenoughf orpartofthei
nfor
mati
ontobeselectedforlongerst
orage.

Short
-term memor y
Short
-Term memor yisat empor arystoref orsmal l
amount sofinformat i
on.Wekeepi nformati
on
i
nshor t-
term memor yforabout20seconds.Resear chhasshownt hatwecanpr ocess
appr
oxi mately7bit
sofi nfor mat ionef f
ici
entlyatonet ime.Ther eist hekindofshort-
term
memor ycal l
edworkingmemor yt hathelpsuscopewi t
hnewsi t
uationsandt osolvepr oblems.
Vari
ouscomponent sofwor ki
ngmemor y
:
 Aphonol ogi
cal l
oop-v erbal i
nformat i
onorsound
 Av isuospat
ialsket chpad-t hisall
owsy outomani pulat
ev i
sual i
mages
 Theexecut i
vecont rolsyst em -theexecut i
vesy stem cont r
ols,monitor
s,andr egulatest
he
i
nformati
onneededf orreasoni ngandpr oblem solving
 Long- Ter
m knowl edgest or e-drawinginformat i
onf rom long-ter
m memor yuse
Long- term memor y
Long- Ter m Memor yI stheSt or eWher eI nformat i
onI sHel df orLongPer iodsofTi me.Capaci tyof
l
ong- term memor yisbel ievedt obeunl imi ted,andwecanr ememberanout standi ngamountof
i
nf ormat ion.Inf ormat ionst oredi nlong-term memor yisper manent .Whenwecan' tremember
somet hingi t'
sr etri
ev alproblems.
Decl arativememor y
Thedecl arat i
onofmemor ysy stem referst othest al
ledexpl i
cit
,factualinformat ion.E.g.names
placesf act sandev entsar est oredi ndecor ateofmemor y .Alsocalledexpl i
citmemor y.Answers
thequest ionwhat ?Twot ypesofdecl arationsofmemor y:Semant icmemor yr eferstot hestore
ofgener al knowl edge, suchaswhoi sthepr esi
dentoft hecount ry.Semant icmemor yi snot
relatedt ot hespeci f i
ct i
mewhent heinfor mat i
onwasl earned.Epi sodicmemor yr ef
er sto
remember ingev entsandper sonal experiencet hatarer elatedtospeci fi
ct i
messuchaswhen
Nel sonMandel awasr eleasedf rom pr i
son.
Non- decl arati
v ememor y
Non- Decl arationofmemor ydeal swithact ions,percept ual motorski l
l
s,condi ti
onedr esponses,
andi ni mpl ici
tmemor i
es.Itisal socal l
edt hepr ocedural memor ysy stem.Answer sthequest i
ons
how?Memor yf orpr ocedur alorper ceptual mot orskill
si smost lyunconsci ousi nt hesenset hat
wear enotconsci ousl yawar eofi t
.Forthi sreasoni tisalsocal ledimpl i
citmemor y.

Ret
ri
eval
Retri
evaldescribestheprocessofgett
ingstor
edinformat
ionoutofmemory.Ret
ri
eval
ismade
easierwheny ouhav equeuesofstimul
i t
hathelpustoaccessourmemory.Ti
pofthetongue
phenomenon-r eferstothetemporaryi
nabil
it
ytoremembersomet hi
ng,
alt
houghwearesur eyou
knowt heinformat i
on.
Forgetti
ng
for
get t
ingrefer
st hepri
cesofbeingunabletoretr
iev
etheinfor
mati
onwehav est
oredi
nt he
memor y.

I
neffectivecodi ng
Somet i
meswet hinkwehav ef orgottensomet hingwheni nactualfactwenev erremember edit
.
Thishappenswhenwehav enotpai dsuffi
cientattenti
on.Themat eri
alistheynotcoded, al
ways
notcodedef ficient l
y.
Decay
Wef orgetmemor i
esofthetime.Thephy siologicalmechani smsthatar eresponsiblefor
memor i
es(cal ledmemor ytraces)f adesawayordecay .Whenmemor yisnotretri
evef oralong
ti
mei tbecomesweaker .
I
nterference
Oner easonwef orgeti
nformat ionthatthesecompet it
ionf r
om othermat eri
althatinter
f er
eswith
thememor ypr ocess.
Retri
eval f
ail
ure
Somet i
mesy our emembert hingst hatyoucoul dn'tbef
or e.Thi
smaybebecauset hesi tuati
on
you'
reinpr ovidesagoodQwhaty ouwantt oremember .
Motivatedforget ting
Somet i
meswewantorneedt of or
getsomet hi
ng, inotherwords,wehav eint
ernalmot ivati
onto
for
getsomet hing.
I
mprovey
ourmemor y
1.Re-citation
2.Rehear sal
3.Selection
4.Organi zat i
on
5.Whol el earning
6.Ser i
alposi tion
7.Cuesandst rategi
es
8.Ov er-
lear ningandr ev
iew
9.Spacedpr actice
10.Sl
eepingandeat i
ng

Per
sonal
i
tyandheal
th(
P184)
Car
diacper
sonal
i
ty-r
efer
ri
ngt
opeopl
eathi
ghr
iskofhear
tdi
sease

Thosewhohaveahighr
iskar
ecal
ledType-Aper
sonal
i
ties,
andt
hosewhoar
eunl
i
kel
ytohav
ea
hear
tatt
ackar
ecal
ledType-Bper
sonal
i
ties.

Type-Aindivi
dualsstri
vehardforsuccessinev ery
thingtheydid.ObvioussignsofTy pe-Aare
ti
meur gencyandchr onicangerorhosti
li
ty.Theyar everycompet i
ti
veandachi evementor i
ented.
Theygener al
lybeli
evethatwit
henoughef fort,
theycandoany thi
ng,andtheypusht hemsel ves
veryhard.Theygener al
lydon'
ttr
ustpeople.Theyhur ryeverywhere,
dosev eralthi
ngsatone, see
everyt
hingasagent ,andgetimpati
ent,fr
ustrat
ed, andangr ywit
hpeoplewhodot hingssl owlyor
standintheirway.Theyalsotendtobot t
leupt hei
remot ionsinsi
deanddon' texpresst hem
outwardly.

Har dyper sonal i

ty-usual l
yr esistantt ostress.(1)Asenseofper sonal commi tmentt o
themsel ves, thei
rwor kandt heirfami li
es,andot herst ablev al
ues, (
2)t hathadasenseofcont r
ol
overt heirli
v esandt heywor k,(
3)t heyt endedt oseel ifeasaser i
esofchal lengesr athert
hana
setofpr obl ems.Happi nessi srelatedt oyourhar diness.Itisnotj ustanar eactiont o
cir
cumst ancesbuti sagener alpersonal i
tycharact eri
stic.
Strategiesf orreduci nghost i
li
ti
es
1.Beawar eofy ourangr y,host i
le,andcy ni
cal t
hought sbyr ecordingt hem inaj ournalor
diary .Notewhathappenedwheny ouf el
tt hiswayandwhatact ionsy out ook,andrevi
ew
thisatt heendofeachweek.
2.Admi ttosomeonet haty ouhav eapr obl
em wi thexcessiveangerandhost i
lit
y.
3.I nterruptst hehost i
let hought swhenev ertheyoccur .
4.Wheny ouhav et hesour ce,trytowor koutf ory ourselfwhyt heyar ei r
rati
onal or
unr easonabl e.
5.Wheny ou'reangr y,trytoputy ourselfment al
lyintheot herper sonshoes.
6.Lear nt olaughaty our self.Humorcandi f
fuseanger .
7.Lear nhowt or elax.
8.Pr acticetrust i
ngot herpeopl e.
 9.Makeanef f
orttolist
encar eful
lyt
ootherpeopl
e.
10.Learntomakey ourpointwi t
houtbei
ngaggressi
ve
11.Don'tl
etsmalli
rri
tati
onsget ti
ngyourway,andpret
endthatt
odayi
st hel
astdayofy
our
l
ife.
12.Trytofor
giv
epeopl eratherthanblamethem.Weal lhav
eshort
comings.

Per
sonal
i
tyconcept
s(P187)
Per
sonol
ogy
Thestudytobet terunder st
andhumanbehav ior.
Ourbehaviorisinfl
uencedbymanyf actor
s:
 biological f
actors
 env ir
onment alsti
muli
 interpersonal sit
uati
ons
 culturalandsoci al f
actors
 psy chologicalandspi r
itualf
actors
Car
lJungpr oposedat heorythatpeopleareeit
heri
ntr
over
tsorext
rov
ert
s.

Self
-concept
yourself
-conceptconsi
stsofal
lyouri
deas,percepti
onsandf
eeli
ngsaboutwhoy ouar
e.Webui l
d
ourself
-conceptsfr
om ourdail
yexper
iencesandr ev
iset
hem i
ntheli
ghtofournewexper
iences.

Sel
f-
esteem
sel
f-
esteem r
eferst
othewayweev al
uat
eoursel
ves.Aper
sonwi t
hhi
ghself
-esteem i
susual
ly
conf
ident,
proudandself-
respect
ing.Apersonwi
thlowsel
f-est
eem i
sver
ycrit
icaloft
heself
,
i
nsecureandlacksconf
idence.

Per
sonal
i
tyt
heor
ies(
P191)
Tr
aitt
heor
ies
Concer
nedwi
thdescr
ibi
ngpeopl
eint
ermsoft
rai
tst
hanexpl
aini
ngt
heor
igi
nsoft
rai
ts.

All
port
'str
aittheory
GordonAllpor
tbelievethatthebestwayt ounderstandandpr edictpeopl
e'sbehav i
orwast ofi
nd
outwhattheyv al
ue.Car di
naltrai
ts-arethosethataresoimpor t
anttoanindi vi
dualthatt
hey
dominatethatindi
vidualsl
ife.Veryfewpeopl ehaveCar di
naltrait
s.MohammedGandi i
san
example.Centralt
raits-ar
emor ecommon, theseareimportantt r
ait
sthatinfantsandorgani
ze
mostofourbehav ior.Thedesireforpoweri sanexampl e.Secondar ytr
ait
s-muchmor especi
fi
c
andarelessimport antasadescr i
ptionofaper sonsbehavior.E.g.afoodpr efer
ence.

Catt
ell'
ssourcetr ait
s
RaymondBCat tell,hewant edtolearnhowt r
ait
swer el
inked,andbegant ostudyvi
sibl
easpects
ofpersonal
it
yorsur facetrait
s.Somet rai
tsappearedtogiveusoftenthattheyseem torepr
esent
amor ebasictraitorunder l
y i
ngpersonali
tycharact
eri
sti
c,hecall
edt hi
ssourcetrai
t.Devel
opeda
l
istof16sour cet rai
tsthatprovi
deadescr ipt
ionoftheperson'spersonal
i
ty.

TheFi
ve-
Fact
orModel
ofper
sonal
i
ty
personali
tycanbeunder st
oodi nter
msoff iveinnate,univ
ersaldimensions,whicharestableover
ti
meandhav eimportantconsequencesacr ossthelif
espan.Thesef iv
et rai
tsareareducti
onof
Cattell
s16sour cetrait
sorper sonal
it
yfactors.Theso- cal
ledbigfi
veper sonali
tytr
ait
sare
Neur ot
ici
sm, Extr
oversion,Openness,Agreeableness,Conscienti
ousness.Itisbeli
evedthatweall
possesst hesetrai
tseacht oadi f
fer
entdegr ee,andthatthecombi nati
onoft rai
tsdescr
ibesthe
personali
ties.

Factor1:Extrover sion,howi ntr

ov ert
edorext rovertedapersonis
Factor2:Agreeabl eness, howfriendl
y,nurturi
ng, andcari
ngcompanyt obeingcal
led,i
ndif
fer
ent
,
spit
eful
,orsel f-
cent ered.
Factor3:Consci ent i
ousness, howsel f-
discipl
ine,responsi
ble,
andachievi
ngasopposedt o
i
rresponsi
ble, careless, andundependabl e.
Factor4:Neur oticism, hownegat i
veorhav ingupset t
ingemotionsasopposedtobeingcal
m,
even-t
emper ed, andcomf ort
able.
Factor5:Openness, howi ntel
li
gent,imaginati
v e,andopentonewi deasasopposedtobeing
conv
ent
ional
andl
acki
ngi
ncur
iosi
tyandcr
eat
ivi
ty.

Thepsy
choanal
yti
cappr
oach
Psychodynami ctheor i
est r
ytopr obeundert hesur f
aceofthepersonalit
ytoexami newhatmakes
usbehavet hewaywedo.Thecent ralt
hemeofFr eud'
stheoryisthatbehavioristheoutcomeof
thewishes,desir
es, andf eeli
ngst hatpeopleareunawar eof,i
not herwords,theirso-cal
l
ed
unconscious.Accordi ngtoFr eud'
st heory,peopl
ehav ethr
eet y
pesofpr i
mi ti
veunconscious
i
nsti
ncts:
Sexuali
nstinct
s-thesei nfluenceexper iencesandbehav i
orsthatgeneratepleasure
Egoinsti
ncts-thesei nfl
uenceexper i
enceandbehav i
orsassociat
edwi t
hpr eservati
onoft hesel
f.
Hosti
li
tyinsti
ncts-ifitwor ksaggressiveexper i
enceandbehav ior
.

InFreud'sv i
ew,theseinsti
nctsar einnate.Theygener atetensi
onandenergythatcausethe
persont obehav einthewayt hatreleasesthet ension.Therearet
wopr i
ncipl
esthatregul
atethi
s
i
nstinctualenergy:
Thepl easureprincipl
e-dir
ectener gyinthedirecti
onofi mmediategrat
if
icati
onofneeds,wishes,
senddesi res.
Ther eali
typri
nciple-enabl
est heper sontodelayt heimmedi at
ethr
eatnationofneedssothat
greaterpleasuremaybeexper iencedl at
eon.

Thepsychoanal yticapproachseesper sonal i

tyasady nami csystem di rect
edbyt hreement al
st
ruct
ures,thei d,egoandsuper ego:
 Thei dpr ocesst oi nnatebiologicalimpulsesandur ges.Thesei mpul sesareunconsci ous,
i
rrat
ional ,
andsel f-servi
ng.Theydomi ndimmedi ategrati
fication.E.g.theuncont r
ollabl
e
desi
ref orf ood,sexort ohur tsomeone.
 Theegor eferstot heexecut i
vepar tofthesel fthatregulatest heexpr essi
onoft heids
i
nsti
nct ual ener
gy .Theegoi sintouchwi threalityandcanf oreseet heconsequencesof
behavior.Theegoi spar tofthesy stem ofthinking,planning,andpr obl em-sol
ving.Ithas
consciouscont rol ofthesel f
.
 Thesuper egoreferstot heconsci ence.Thesuper egoislikeaj udgeorcensor .If
somebodydoesnotadher etosoci etystandardsf oraccept ablebehav i
or,
thesuper ego
al
lowst heper sont oexper iencegui l
tfeeli
ngsandanxi ety.
Accor
dingt
oFr
ued,
mostbehav
iorhol
dst
heact
ivi
ti
esofal
lthr
eesy
stems.

Personal i
tystructur
e
Theidi smadeupofi nnatebiologicali
nstinct
sandwor ksont hebasi
softhepleasur
epri
nci
ple,
thatis,itl
ooksf orexpressionofpl easureseekingurges.THei
dpr ov
idesener
gyforthi
scycl
e
personal i
ty.Theenergiescalledlibido,whichunderl
i
esi fit
'
stosurvi
ve,aswel
lasoursexual
desir
esandpl easureseeking.
Thant os-producesaggr essiveanddest r
ucti
veurges
partoft hesuper egoisregardedast heconscience.

Developmentofper sonali
ty
AccordingtoFr eud'
stheory,t
hecoreofani ndi
vi
dual
'sper
sonali
ti
esformedbefor
etheageofsi
x
years,andaser iesofpsychosexualst
ages.Theoral
stageoccursduri
ngthef
ir
styearofl
if
e.
Duringthisstagemostoft hechild'
spleasur
ecomesf r
om thest
imulat
ionoft
hemout he.
g.
breast-
feeding.

Thebehav
iour
istappr
oach

Thebehav iori
stapproacht oper sonal i
tyemphasi zest hatper sonalityisnomor elessthana
coll
ect ionofl earnedbehav ior
s.Accor dingt othisappr oach, personal i
ty,l
i
keotherlearned
behav ior ,i
sacqui r
edt hroughpl us: oper antcondi ti
oning, l
earningt hroughobservation,
rei
nfor cement ,
extincti
on, general i
zat i
onandst i
mul usdi scri
mi nation.Behaviori
strejecttheidea
ofper sonal it
ytrait
s.
Thepsy chologi
cal si
tuation-refer stoaper son'spar t
icularinterpretationorunderstandingofthe
sit
uation.
Anexpect ancy-referstoy ourant icipati
ont hatwhat ev eryoudowi lll
eadtoar ei
nforcement .
Reinf
or cementv al
ues-meanst hatpeopl eattachdi ff
er entvaluest ov ari
ousactiv
iti
esorr ewards.
Selfreinf orcement -r
ef er
st oprai singorr ewar di
ngy our selfforhav ingmadeapar ti
cularresponse.
Canbeseenasabehav i
oristi
cequi val
entt othesuper ego.

Behaviouri
sti
cvi
ewofdev el
opment
Behaviori
stsagr
eewi t
hFreud'ssixthy earofli
fe.Butfordi
f f
erentr easons,insteadoflooki
ngf or
psychosexualur
gesandf ixat
ions,theyseechi l
dhoodasat imef oract i
vedr i
ves,powerful
rewards,andpunishment
s, aswellasf rustr
ati
ons.Identi
fi
cat i
onr eferstoaper son'semotional
att
achmentt osomeonet heyadmi re.Ident
ifi
cati
onencour agesimi tati
onordeci det oactl
ikethat
mightperson.Accordi
ngtobehav iors,manymal e-
femaletrait
sar easar esultofchil
dren'
s
att
empt stoimit
atethesamesexpar entwit
hwhom t heyident i
fi
ed.

Thehumani
sti
cappr
oach
Humani sm focusesonhumanexper ience, problems,pot enti
al,andideals.Focusesontheuni que
quali
tiesofhumans, i
nparti
culartheirfreedom andpot entialf
orgr owth.Thehumani sti
c'
s
rej
ectedtrai
ttheoryasbeingtoorigid,psy choanalyti
ct heoryasbei ngtoopessi misti
cand
l
earningtheoryhasbeent omechani cal.Humani stsseepeopl eascr eati
v ebeingscapableoff r
ee
choice.Theyseepeopleasconsci ousandr ati
onalbeingswhocancont roltheiri
nnatei
mpul ses.
Accordingtothehumani st
icapproachpeopl eshouldbeunder stoodandst udiedasholi
stic
bei
ngs.Tohumani stapersonisthepr oductofal lt
hechoi cesheorshehasmade.To
understandaper sonyouneedt oappr eciateaper sonal andsubj ecti
veexper i
ences.
CarlRodger sperson-cent r
edt heor y
Thebestbondagepoi ntforunder standingbehav i
orisfrom theinternalfr
ameofr eferenceofthe
i
ndividualhimself.Fullyfunctioningper son-somebodyl ivesinhar monywi thhisorherdeepest
feeli
ngsandi mpul ses.Fullyfunct ioningpeoplear eopentoexper i
encesandt heytr
ustt hei
rown
i
nnerf eel
ingsandi ntuiti
on.Roger sbel i
evesthatbecomi ngful l
yfunctioni
ngi smostli
kel yt
o
occurwhenaper sonreceivesagr eatdealofloveandaccept ancef r
om others.
Incongruent-daysbi ggapbet weent heselfandr eal
it
y.
Idealself
-idealselfistheimageoft hepersony ouwouldl i
ket obe.
Thegr eatthegapbet weent hewayy ouseey ourselfi
nt hewayy ouwoul dli
ketobe, t
hemor e
tensionandanxi etyyouar elikelyt oexperience.Inordertodev elopy ourpotent
ial
,youhav eto
acceptinformationabouty ourselfashonest l
yaspossi bleandber eali
sti
caboutwhaty oucan
become.

Maslowandsel f-act
uali
zati
on
AnotherHumani sti
cTheorists,Abr aham Maslow, referr
edt otheprocessoff ul
lydeveloping
personalpotentialasself
-actualizati
on.Self-
actualizerissomeonewhoi sliv
ingcreati
v el
yand
ful
lyusinghisorherpot ential.Self-
actual
izati
onisapr ocessthatrequi
reshar dwor kand
pati
ence.Self-actual
izi
ngper sonshav ehealt
hyper sonalit
ies.Thecharactersopenand
spontaneous, haveaclearper ceptionofreali
ty,appr eci
atetheworldaroundt hem, are
i
ndependent, aresensiti
vetot heneedsofot hers,andhav eagoodi nt
erpersonalrel
ati
onship.

Devel
opyourpot
ent
ial
Readpage200

Thebi
ologi
cal
appr
oach

Wehaveaninbor
nbehav i
ortendenciesthatdi
fferf
rom onepersont
oanot
her
.Per
sonal
i
ties
det
ermi
nedbyone'sgenes.Adoptionstudiesandtwinstudi
es.

Af
ri
canper
spect
ive
I
mpor
tanceofaCommuni
ty.Iam becausewear
eandsi
ncewear
ether
efor
eIam.

Sensat
ionandper
cept
ion(
P285)
Sensor
ysy
stems
Therear efivesensor ysy st
emst hatprovi
deuswi t
hi nformat i
onnecessar yforsur vivaland
adaptation.
Thev i
sual sy st
em-al l
owsust osee,Lightact
ivat
est hev i
sual r
eceptor
si ntheey ewher eitis
convertedi ntoner vei
mpul sesthatsendinformati
ont othebr ainfori
nterpretationint heocci pi
tal
cort
ex.
Theaudi torysy stem-allowsust ohear,soundwav esar ereceivedbytheaudi tor yreceptorsinthe
earandar eencodedbef orebeingsentalongtheaudi t
orypat hwayt othebr ain.Themessages
arei
nter pretedint hetempor all
obe.
Thepr opriocept i
vesystem-pr ovi
despeoplewi t
hinformat i
onaboutt heirmov ement sand
ori
entationi nspace.Ki naesthet
icinf
ormationcomesf r
om t hemuscles, t
endons, andj oints.
Vestibularinformat i
oncomesf rom t
heearandpr ovi
desi nfor
mat i
onaboutheadmov ements.
Thesomaest het icsystem-providesinfor
mationabouttheenv ir
onmentimmedi at
elyoutsi
dethe
skin,rel
at i
ngt otouch,pressure,andheat,cold,
andpain.
Thechemi cal system-all
owsust oexperi
encetasteandsmel l
.Thereceptorsfortastearethe
tastebudsont hetoungethatdet er
mi netast
essuchassweet ,sour
,salt
y,andbi t
ter.Thesense
ofsmel l(alsocal l
edolfactorysense)dependsont heactivati
onofreceptorsinthenoseby
chemi calsintheai r.TheOlfactorynervesendsinf
ormationdirectl
ytotheolfactorybulbatthe
baseoft hebrain.

Sensati
on-theprocessofrecei
vingsensoryi
nfor
mation.
Percept
ion-theprocessofint
erpret
ingandmakingmeaningfr
om sensor
yinf
ormat
ion.The
secti
onforrefer
st oahigherl
evelofinf
ormati
onprocessi
ng.

Recept or s
Cer taincel lsthatar especi all
yadapt edtor ecei
v einformat i
onf r
om theenv ir
onmentar ecall
ed
recept or s.Recept orsdifferintheirsensi t
ivi
ty.Ast imulusneedst ohaveacer tainamountof
i
ntensi tyi fitisgoi ngtol eadtoasensor yexper ience.Ther eisacr i
ti
calpoint,call
edtheabsolute
threshol d, whichdet ermi neswhet herthestimulusi sintenseenough.I fthestimulusisbelowt he
threshol d, itwill
notgener atear esponse.Thei nt ensi
tyofaper sonsubjecti
vesensor yexper
ience
i
sr ef erredt oast hepsy chological i
ntensit
yoft hest i
mul us.Therehast obeacer tai
namountof
differencebet weent wost imuliinor derforthedi ff
erencet obedet ectabl
eornot i
ceabl
e.Thesi ze
oft hei ncr easeini ntensitythatresultsisannot iceabledi f
ference,Alsoref
erredt oasjust
noticeabl edifference.It'
scal l
edt hedi f
ferenti
alt hr
eshold.

Tr ansduct ionandgener at orpot ent ial

s
Env ironment al sti
mul at i
oncomesi nv ari
ousf ormsofst imulusener gy (suchasl ightener gyor
soundener gy ).Inordert obepr ocessedbyt hener v
oussy stem, sti
mul usener gyhast obe
transf ormedt oel ectrical energy ,
becauset hatiswhatt hefiri
ngofi mpul sesi nt hener vous
sy stem isbasedon.Thef unctionoft her eceptorsi st het r
ansf ormat ionofonef or m ofener gyto
anot herandt hisiscal ledt r
ansduct i
onorconv ersion.Recept orcel lsar el i
keal lner vecel l
si nthat
theyhav eacel l nucleusandamembr anesur r
oundedbyi ons.Ther est ingpot ent ialinrecept or
cel l
si scalledt her ecept orpot ent i
al .Wher easot herneur on'sconv er tther est i
ngpot ential i
nto
act i
onpot ent i
al whent heyar est i
mul ated, r
ecept orcel l
sconv ertrecept orpot ent i
al i
ntogener at
or
pot entialwhent heyr ecei vedt heki ndofst imulust hatt heyar emostsensi tivet o.Anact ion
pot entialisanal l
ornot hingev ent, butagener atorpot ent i
alisagr adedpot ential (l
i
kea
post sy napticexci tator ypot ential)becauset heener gycomesf rom t hest i
mul us.Ther ecept orcell
transmi t
st hegener at orpot ent ialacr osst hesy napticcl efttoasensor yneur on, whi chcant hen
sendt heinf ormat i
ont ot hebr aini nsuf f
ici
entst imul ati
oni srecei ved.I far ecept orcel lkeepson
recei vi
ngst i
mul ati
on, thegener atorpot ent i
aldecr easest opr ev entov er sti
mul at ion.This
decr easei scal l
edadapt ion.Adapt ionoccur sinrecept orcellsandi sdi fferentf rom habi tati
on,
whi chi sadecr easei nt hef requencyoff i
ri
nginneur ons.

Moni
tor
ing-t
heor
ient
ingr
eact
ion(
OR)
Thenextst
epi
nthepr
ocessofper
cept
ioni
smoni
tor
ingt
heav
ail
abl
einf
ormat
ion.Moni
tor
ing
start
swhent hereceptorsreceivesti
mulusenergy.Theenergyischangedi nt
oelect r
ochemical
i
mpul ses, andt hebrainrespondsbycompar i
ngtheincominginfor
mat i
onwi t
hinformationstor
ed
i
nt hememor y.Monitori
ngensur esthatchangesintheint
ernalandexternalenvi
ronmentar e
broughtt otheper son'sattenti
on.Inthi
sway ,t
hepersonorganizesandselectsinformation,
and
thisi
nfluencesanyconsci ousexper i
ence,act
ion,
orresponsethatfol
lows.Oneoft heeffect
sof
moni t
oringi stheorienti
ngr eacti
on.

TheORi sast ateofar ousal thatfoll

owsanysuddenchangei nenvir
onment alst
imul
ati
on.Ther
e
aresev
er ali
ndicatorsthattheORi staki
ngpl ace:
 Bodi l
ysi gnsarei ncreasemuscl etoneandmov ementoft heeyes,headandbodytowards
t
hest i
mul us.
 Veget ativesignsar eabr i
efdecreasei nheartr
ate,heldbreath,
contracti
onofbl
ood
vesselsint hel
imbs, decreasedsalivati
on,andenlargedpupils.
 Sensor ysi gnsarepr ov i
dedbyi ncreasedsensor ysensit
ivi
ty.

Thepur poseoft hesechangesistoallowthepersont oobt ainasmuchi nfor

mat i
onaspossi bl
e
aboutt heenvi
ronmenti nashortspaceoft i
me.Iftheper son'sresponsetoast i
mulusincrease,
sensiti
sati
onhasoccur red.Howev er
,ift
hepersonr eali
zest hatthesti
mulusisnotimportant,or
responseswi l
ldecrease.Thesti
mul uskeepsonoccur ri
ng, thepersondoesnotst ayina
heightenedstateofrespondingbutbecomeshabi t
uat edtot heresponse.Habitat
ionisabasic
form oflear
ningandt el
lsthepersonthatthesti
mul usIgnor edorthatcert
ainresponsescanbe
stopped.

Habi
tati
onref
erst
othedi
sappear
anceofORsaf
terr
epeat
edst
imul
ati
onbyt
heev
entt
hati
nit
ial
l
y
t
ri
ggeredtheOR.

Thestimulusthati
nit
iat
edt
heORr
eappear
sinasl
i
ght
lydi
ff
erentf
ormt
hisi
scal
l
ed
Dishabi
tuati
on.

Per
cept
ual
organi
zat
ion
Oncesensoryi
nformati
onhasbeenr ecei
ved,
iti
sprocessedfur
thersothatat
tent
ionisgi
vent
o
rel
evantori
mportanti
nformati
onrat
herthanir
rel
evantorlessi
mportanti
nfor
mation.Thi
s
processi
scall
edperceptual
organi
zati
on.

Lawsofper ceptual organi

zation
Therearel awst odet erminewhataspectofi ncominginformati
onisrel
ev antandwhati snot
rel
evant.Thiski ndofor ganizationi sspont aneousandt akesplaceonlowl evel
sofawar eness.
Thef act
or sthatinfluenceper cept ualorganizati
onar easfoll
ows:
Thechar acteristi
csoft hest i
mul us-accor di
ngt othenatureofthesti
mul i
,somear er
egardedas
mor eimpor tantthanot hersandt hisinf
luencest hewayweper cei
vethem.
Thest at
eoft hener voussystem-t hener voussy st
em hast obeinastateofr eadinesstopercei
ve
i
nf or
mat i
on.
Theindividual personschar acteristi
csandpast aexperience-weint
erprettheinformati
onwe
recei
v ei
nt ermsofourownexper iences.

Fi
gur
eandgr ound
Whenweper ceiv
einf
ormati
onweorgani
zeiti
ntoameani
ngf
ulf
igur
eagai
nstt
hel
essmeani
ng
gr
ound.Focusingononethi
ngapar
tfr
om another
.
E.
g.smellofmeatopposedfr
om thewood-
bur
ningi
nthebr
aai
E.
g.somebody'
sv oi
ceopposedfr
om themusi
c
E.
g.RobbenIsl
andopposedfrom t
hesea

Cont our, closur e, andgr ouping

Cont our-r efer stot heboundar yorot
herf eatur
ethatseparatesf igurefrom ground.
Closur e-ref erst oourt endencytocompl etesomethingspont aneousl ysot hati
thasmeani ng.
Groupi ng-r eferst othet endencytogroupst i
mulii
napat ter
norshapei nawayt hati
smostl i
kel
y
tohel py oui nt erpr etthest i
muli
.Fourtypesofperceptualgroupi ng:
Principleofpr oximi ty-t endencytogroupel ementsthatarepl acedt ogetherasthought hey
representaf igure
Principal ofsi mi lar i
ty-tendencyt ogr
oupel ementsthataresimi larincol or
,shape,ortextas
thought heyr epr esentaf i
gure
Principleofsy mmet r
y -tendencytogroupel ementsinawayt hatcr eatesasy mmet ri
calor
balancef igure
Principal ofcont inui t
y -tendencytoperceivestimul
iinsuchawayt hatelementsthatare
continuousf orm af i
gur e.

Spati
alorgani
zat
ion
Spati
alorgani
zat
ionexpl
ainswhyweseet
hewor
ldi
nthr
eedi
mensi
ons(
hei
ght
,wi
dthanddept
h)
theactuali
mageont her
etinai
sfl
at.

Perceptualconstancy
Thewor ldisviewedasaf ai
rlyconstantandunchangingpl ace,andthi
sisaf uncti
onof
perceptualconstancy .Perceptualconstancymeanst hatweseet hi
ngsashav i
ngaparti
cul
arsi
ze,
shape,colorandbr ightness,irr
espectiveofchangi
ngcondi ti
ons.Perceptual
const ancy
spontaneousandwear eseldom awar eofit
.Fouratt
ributes:
 Const antsize
 Const antshape
 Const antBrightness
 Const antcolour
Perceptualconstancyi sactuallyaperceptualer
ror,
andt hatthepercepti
onsar enotthesameas
ret
inali
nformat i
on, buttheyar enecessaryforeff
ecti
vef uncti
oningbecauset heyprovi
deour
worldswi t
hsomest abi
lit
y.

Il
l
usions
Il
l
usionsareaf or
m ofmistakenpercept
ion.Ani
ll
usi
onisnotavi
sionofsomethi
ngthatdoesnot
exi
st.Theobjectofst
imulusdoesexist,butweper
cei
veanill
usi
onbecauset
heobjectatt
ri
butes
arecombinedandpercei
v edincor
rectl
y.

Recogni
ti
on
Af
terper
cept
ualorganizat
ionofi
nfor
mati
onint
ofi
gureandground,
therel
evanti
nfor
mationis
gi
venameaningf
ul nameordescri
pti
on,
basedontheindi
vi
dual
sareknowledgeandexperi
ence.

At
tent
ion
Payingat t
enti
onoccur
satahighlev
el ofawareness.Unti
lthi
spoi
nt,
theselect
ionand
organizati
onofinf
ormati
ont
akesplaceatal owerlevel
,ei
therbel
owonthet hr
eshol
dof
awar eness.Whenyoupayat
tent
ion,youconsciouslydeci
deonwhatshouldbedealtwit
h.
Determi nantsofat t
ention
Ext
er nal Deter
mi nes
 Mor eintensestimuli-str
ongst imuli suchasl oudnoiseorbr i
ghtli
ghts
 Si ze–l argestimulili
keanadv ert
isementboar dratherthansmal l
stimul i
 Di stance–t hingsthatarecl osear emor elikelytocatchourat t
enti
ont hatthingsi
na
distant
 Change, mov ement ,andcont r
ast-respondt ounusual sti
muli
 Repet i
ti
on-t hi
smayl eadtohabi tati
on, butr epeti
ti
oncanbeusedt oest abl
i
shani dea,
foll
owedbysomet hingdiff
erenttohol dat t
ent i
on.
 Compl exst i
muli-generall
ymor ei
nt erestingt hansimpleone
I
nternal Determines
Yourt ensionwi l
lbeat t
ractedbysomet hingt hatisi mportantorinherentl
yinteresti
ngt oy
our
personal i
ty.
Perceptual set-noti
cesomet hi
ngthati sofi nteresttoy ou.

I
nter
subj
ect
ivi
tyofper
cept
ion
Sharedoragr
eedmeani
ngsofthewayeventsi
ntheworl
dar
eint
erpr
eted.Suchasi
nSout
h
Afr
icawecallat
raf
fi
cli
ghtar
obot.I
nothercount
ri
est
heydonot
.

St
atesofconsci
ousness(
P314)
Ar ecordingthatmeasur
esbr
ainact
ivi
tyi
scal
l
edanel
ect
oencephal
ogr
am (
EEG)
DifferentBrai
nWav es
Delta-High
Thet a-Mi ddl
e
Alpha-Mi ddle
Beta-Dead

S-sl
eep
DuringS-sleep, thewav epat t
er nsaresy nchronized( hi
ghampl it
udeandl owf r
equency )andthi
s
i
scal l
edrest fulsleep,thatoccur sinfourphases.
Phase1-st at eofdr owsinessorl i
ghtsleep.Theper soncanst i
llbeeasil
yarousedbutt hebodies
rel
ax,heartr ateslowsandbr eat hi
ngisdeepandr egular .
Phase2-f ollowsappr oxi
mat ely10mi nut eslater,thisi
sdeepasl eep,andthewayf requenciesare
mixed,asindi catedbyt hepr esenceofsl eepspi ndles,whicharesporadici
ncreaseisinf r
equency.
Theymayal sobeK- compl exes.
Phase3-deepsl eep,personi sv eryr
elaxedandaut onomi cact
ivi
tysl
owsdown.
Phase4-sl eepi sv erydeepsl eep, moret hanhal foftheEEGconsi stsofDeltaacti
vity,anditi
s
verydif
fi
cul ttobr owset heper sonoutofsl eep.Peopl ewor ki
ngupdur i
ngthisstage,theyare
confused,thei rspeechi sslurred,andthei rmot orco-or di
nati
onispoor .

D-sl
eep
Wavepatter
nsaredesy
nchr
onized(lowampl i
tudeandhi
gh-f
requency)
.Thi
sist
hety
peofsleep
whendreamingmostoft
entakesplace.Dur
ingD-sl
eeptheyarerapi
deyemovement
s,i
nundated
ey
esar eclosed.Muscl
etonei
sv er
ylowduringD-sl
eepandthesl
eeperi
sunabl
etomove.
Al
thoughwhenwaki ngupfrom t
hissl
eeptheyareinst
ant
lyawakeandknowwhatishappeni
ng
ar
oundt hem.

Accordi
ngtothecognit
ivet
heor
y:REM sl
eepall
owst hebrai
ntowit
hdr
awf r
om t
heout
sideworl
d
andrecogni
zethemill
i
onsofbit
sofinf
ormationcol
lecteddur
ingt
heday.Thei
nfor
mat
ionisnot
l
ost,merel
yre-
organi
zedinamoremeaningfulway.

Accordingt
otheneurobiol
ogicalperspect
ive:REM sl
eepi
ssuggestedasthemechanism for
cleani
ngupthenetworksbydel et
ingunnecessaryi
nfor
mati
on.Forthi
sreasoni
tisthoughtthat
peopleshoul
dnotbeencour agedt orememberdreamsist
hatitshoul
dcontai
ninformati
ont hat
thebrai
nwantstogetridof.

Sl
eepdi
sor
der
s

Insomni a
Inabili
tytosl eep,t
hismayr efertodi ffi
culti
esf al
li
ngasl eepatni ght ,wakingt hemi ddleoft he
nightandbei ngunablet ogetbackt osleep, wakingv er
year lyint hemor ningwi thouthav i
ngsl ept
enough.
Nar colepsy
Ov erwhel mingneedt osleep.Canhappenatanyt i
meandl astsf orfewmi nutes.
Cat al
epsy
Wheny ouareawakebutar eunabl et omov e.I
tisusuallyt r
iggeredbyani nt
enseemot i
onal
exper i
enceorsuddenmov ement .Anothersy mpt om ofcat alepsyi ssleeppar alysi
st hatoccurred
j
ustbef orefall
ingasleeporwaki ngi nthemor ning.Personi sawakebutunabl etomov e,butthe
par al
ysisendswhent heyaret ouchedorcal l
ed.Duringt hepar al
y si
st heymayhav easor tof
treatment ,call
edhy pnogogi challucinations.
Sleepapnea
Br eat
hingdi ffi
cul
ti
esdur ingsl eep.Peopl ewi ththiscondi t
ionwake- upgassi pingforbr eathand
thengobackt osleep.Thepr oblem ist hatsleepisf r
equent lydisruptedandt heper son
exper i
encesaf orm ofsleepdepr iv
ation.

Hypnosis
Hypnosisisbasedoni ncreasedsuggestibi
li
tyofthepersonorpat i
ent,andtherefor
etheyhaveto
bewill
ingtoparti
cipate.Hypnosi
sgener all
yproducesrel
axati
on,concentrati
on,andtemporary
changeinbehav i
or.Changesaper son'
semot i
onalcomponents.Posthypnoti
csuggestion,t
his
ref
erstothesuggest i
ont odoorexperi
encesomet hi
nginparti
cularoft
encomi ngoutoft he
hypnoti
zedstate.Researchstudi
esindicatethatmostoft henewmemor iesproducedunder
hypnosisarefal
se.

Ef
fect
sofpsy
choact
ivedr
ugs

St
imul ant
s
I
ncreasealertness,boostenergyandactivi
ty,andproduceapl
easantfeel
i
ng.Theyact
ivat
e
motivati
onalcenter
sandr educeacti
vi
tyininhibi
tor
ycenter
softhebrai
n.
Amphet amine,cocaine,caff
eine,
nicot
ine.

Depr
essant
s
Themaineff
ectofdepr
essant
sist
odecr
easear
ousal
lev
els.
Al
cohol
andt
ranqui
l
izer
s.Al
soopi
atedr
ugs:
Mor
phi
ne,
her
oinandcodei
ne.

Hall
ucinogens
Drugsthatbr i
ngaboutdi st
ort
edsensoryexperiences.Peopl
ewhotakehall
uci
nogenshave
i
ntensesensor yexperiencesandcanent eradreaml i
kestat
e.
LSD, mari
juana,ecst
asy ,MDMA.
Ecstasyhasbeenpl acedi nagroupcall
edentactogensbecauseoft
heiruni
queeff
ectsthatl
i
e
betweenthoseassoci atedwit
hhal l
uci
nogensandst imulant
s.
Negativeeffect
sonat tenti
on,concent
rat
ion,andper f
ormance.

I
nhal
ants
Br
ingi
ntoxi
cat
iont
hroughbei
ngsnuf
fed.Gl
ue,
cleani
ngf
lui
dandpai
nt.

St
ress:
Theef
fect
sofst
ress(
P323)
TheYerkes-
Dodsonlawstatesthatperfor
manceincr
easesasar ousali
ncreases.Butthisi
s
anytr
uewhenst r
essincr
easestoamoder at
elev
elofarousal.Atthi
slev
el ofarousal,
per
formancereachesanoptimallevel
.Whenarousali
sincreasedbeyondthislevel,
per
formancedoesnotincr
easef urt
her-
itst
art
stodecrease.

Per
formancei slowwhenar ousal
levelislow.Theper sonisunderst imulatedandt herefor
e
heorshefindsitdiffi
culttoconcent r
ate.Asar ousallev el
sincr ease,theper sonbecomes
morealert
,andr eacti
onspeedandconcent rat
ionimpr ovesunt ilperf
ormancer eachesan
opt
imallevelofeffici
encyatmoder at
el evel
sofar ousal .I
far ousal l
evelsarei ncr
eased
bey
ondt hi
slevel,thepersonbecomesov erstimulated, physicall
yaswel laspsy chol
ogical
ly.
Heorshebecomesov erlytenseandl osesconcent r
at ion.Athi ghlevelsofar ousal,
per
for
mancest art
st odropt othesamel oadlevelsassoci atedwi thlowerl evelsofarousal
.

Respondspeci
fi
cit
y
Peopl etendt ohav easpeci f
icr
esponsepat terninreacti
ont oast r
essor.Becausecer tai
n
peopl erespondt ost r
essorswithaspeci f
icphy si
ologi
calreacti
onpat tern,theydev el
op
speci f
icweaknessesi nthesesystems.Thus, specifi
cbodilyfuncti
onsdet eri
orateinthe
presenceofst resses,andeventuall
ythephy sical
sy mptomsappeart hatarerelatedto
par t
icul
arsy stem suchast hestomachort hehear t.Li
nkbet weenst r
essandpsy chosomat i
c
diseasessuchashi ghbloodpressure,migraineheadaches, ul
cers,andast hmai swell-
document ed.Lesssev erecompl ai
nts,suchasbackacheandi ndigestionmayal sobest ress
related.

Bur
nout
Effectseconomi cal
lyactiveindi
viduals.Burnoutdevelopsov ermont hsandy ear s.Ift
he
conditionisal
lowedt ocont i
nuewi thoutt r
eatment,
thei ndividual canbecomeser iously
i
ncapaci tat
ed.Burnoutoccur swhenpeopl earesubjectedt ot oomuchst ressfort oolong
periodoft i
me.Whent hishappens, peoplebegintocompl ainthatt heyfeelemot ionall
y
drained,empty,andal i
enatedf r
om t hepeoplearoundt hem.Thef eeli
ngofalienat i
oncauses
asenseofunr eali
ty,
leavingpeoplewi thouthopesandaspi rationsandt heywor k.They
experiencefeeli
ngofi nadequacybecauset heyfeelt
hatt heyhav eachievednot hing,andthat
theyar eunabletodosomet hingabouti t.Toget
her,t
hesef eelingsmayl eadt oadecl inein
performancelev el
s,whichcausesmor estress,
andr epeatsav i
ciouscir
cle.Onecanr educe
thechancesofbutnotbyt r
y i
ngt obecomemor ereali
sti
cinone' sexpect at
ionsr egarding
workandjobsatisf
acti
on.Al l
owingcolleagues,fri
ends,andf amil
y, andshar enegat iv
e
aspectsofyourworkexperiencewiththem.Val ueatthev alueofy ourwor kthaty oudo.
Archersoft
warethanthethingsy oudonowwi llbeasimpor tanttoy ouinaf ewy ear sti
me
astheyarenow[thelif
e-and-deathtast
e].Makesur ethaty outaket imeout .Restrictyour
exposuretoworkrel
atedinteracti
onsandi ssues.Thisisnineast her ace[rest
ricted
envir
onmentalst
imulati
onther apy].

St
ress:
Thepr
ocessofst
ress(
P327)
Thegener
aladapt
ionsy
ndr
ome
HansSel y emodel oft hest r
esspr ocessi sknownast hegener al adaptionsy ndr ome( GAS) .
Themodel i
si mpor tantbecausei tsuggest st hatther eisapat terninthewayi nwhi ch
peopl er eactt ostresses, regardlessoft henat ureoft hestr essor .Theref ore,althoughsome
stressesmaycausemor est ressthanot her s,thepr ocessofst ressr emai nst hesame.The
guestmodel considersst ressasat hree-phasepr ocess.Theset hreephasesar e
1-theal ar m andmobi l
isat ionphase- webecomeawar eoft hepr esenceofast r
essor .The
fi
rstr eact ioni stobeal ar med.Wav eexper ienceshop, andourabi l
it
ytocopewi tht hest ress
ofdr opsbel ownor mal levelsofcopi ng.Thebodyr eact sbyr eleasingahor monet hathel pus
tomobi l
izeagai nstthest ressor.Asar esultourabi l
i
tyt ocopei ncreasest othel evelst hat
exceedournor mal l
ev el ofcopi ng.Ifthest r
essorper sistswemov eintot her esistance
phase.
2-ther esi stancephase- peopl et rytodeal wi tht hestressor .Thecar petlev elsr emai nhi gher
thannor mal .Ifthest r
essesdeal twithsuccessf ul
l
y ,
itdisappear s,butifwef ail
edt ocope, we
ult
imat elyr eacht hepoi ntofexhaust ion.
3-theexhaust ionphase- abi l
it
yt ocopedecl i
nedshar pl yandqui cklydropsbel owournor mal
l
ev elofcopi ng.Ifthesi tuat i
oncont inues, wef inallyreacht hepoi ntwher et henegat iv
e
consequencesofst ressbegi nt oshow.Wemaybecomephy si
cal l
yil
l,findi tdi f
ficultto
concent rate, andsuf ferf rom ahei ght eneddegr eeofi rri
tabili
ty.

Thecont
ext
ual
model
ofst
ress

1.Anev entdoesnothav eauni versal meani ngi ndependentoft hesi tuationinwhichi t

occurs,orindependentoft hepersonwhoper ceivessav ing.Inot herwor ds,anevent
gainsitsmeani ngwheni tisdeceivedbysomebodyi napar t
icularsituati
onst opthis
meanst hatoneper sonmayper ceiveanyev enti sast ressor,whi leitmaynotbe
experi
encedasst r
essf ulbyanot herper son.Ital someanst hataper sonmay
experi
enceanev entt ostressfulont heoccasi onbutmaynotseei tasast ressf
ul i
n
anothersituati
on.
2.Communi t
yshar ebel i
efsandmeani ngs.Thi smeanst hatcommuni t
iesmaysur e
i
nterpretat
ionsoft hest r
essfulnessofcer tainev ents.Thei ndivi
dual member soft he
communi t
yar eli
kel ytoseeanev entt ost ressf ulift
heev enti sviewedast he
str
essorbyt hecommuni tyasawhol e.
3.Whenanev entisper ceivedasast ressor ,theper sonorcommuni ty,assi
gnsa
posit
iveornegat ivev aluet otheev ent ,dependi ngont hesi t
uat i
oni nwhi chtheev ent
 occurs.Positivest
ressesassoci at
edwi thli
feenrichingevents.Theout comeof
theseev entsarebeneficialtotheindividualthecommuni t
y,giventhecur rent
cir
cumst ances.Theygett ostressesassoci atedwithli
fe-t
hreateningev ents.The
outcomeoft heseeventsar ehar mfulordet ri
mentalinthesituationinwhi cht he
personort hecommuni tyfindsitsel
f.
4.Eventskinmeani ngt hr
oughdecept ion.Thereforetheprocessofper cepti
oni sakey
factori
nt hecontextuali
zationofanyev ent.Wehav et oindi
catehowanev entis
perceiv
edandappr aiseifwewi shtodescr i
bet heprocessofst ress.

Jordandescribesthecontextualst
ressmodelasapr ocessconsi
sti
ngoff
ivephases.
Phase1:encount eri
ngpot ent
ial
str
esses
uni
v er
salevents-affectst
hemaj or
it
yofpeopleinsociet
yorintheworl
d
personalev
ent s-
affectsapersonorcommuni t
y
microevents-
ef f
ectsaper sononanev er
ydaybasi
s

Phase2:per
formi
ngaprimar
yapprai
sal
aneventi
spercei
vedasposi
ti
ve,
negati
ve,
neut
ral
,orambi
guous.

Phase3: exper
iencingstr
ess
thefeeli
ngofstressesassociat
edwi
thhei
ght
enedpsy
cho-
phy
siol
ogi
cal
arousal
.Wef
eel
physical
lyandemot ional
l
ytense.

Phase4: perf
ormingasecondaryapprai
sal
i
nt hecaseoft henegat
iveevent
,thestr
esswil
l i
ncr
easefurtherandbecomeevenmore
negati
veifthepersonthinkst
hatheorshewil
l notbeabl
et ocope.However
,ift
heperson
feelst
hatheorshewi llbeabl
etocope,thest
resswill
diminishandbecomelessnegati
ve.

Psychologi
calhardiness-
ref
erstothetendencytocommi tour
selves,
andapti
tudef
or
chall
enges,andtheabi l
it
ytotakecontr
olofthesituat
ion.Peoplewithhi
ghlev
elsof
psychologi
calhardnessseem tobemor eresist
anttostresses,andareabl
etohandl
est
ress
Morrissey thant hosewit
hlowerlevel
sofhar di
ness.

Learnedresourcefulness-r
efer
st otheabil
it
ytotryvari
ousapproachestofi
ndawayt owork
throughadiff
icultsituat
ion.Peoplelear
ntoactinahel pl
essmannerwhent heyar
e
constant
lysubjectedt osit
uati
onsi nwhichtheyfeelt
heyhav enocontr
ol.I
fthi
scarr
ieson
forprol
ongedper iodsoft i
me, t
heybegintofeelempatheticanddespondent.

Phase5: appl
y i
ngcopi ngst r
ategies
problem-sol
vi
ngst rat
egies-acceptr esponsibil
it
yandt hinkthi
ngsthrough.Theydealwi
th
mat t
ers,andadapt ivebehav iouralinr at
ionalways.
Avoidancestrategies-donott akeper sonalresponsibi
li
tybuttrytofi
ndexcusesforthei
rlack
ofcopingbybl ami ngext ernalfactors.Theydonotr eactrat
ional
ly,
butpreferemoti
onal
ly-
basedar gument sinanat t
emptt ol owert heexperiencesofstress.
Socialsuppor
tst rategies-advicefrom ot hers

St
ress:
ThePsy
chophy
siol
ogyofst
ress
(
P334)
Sympatheti
call
ydominated-hi
gherbasi ctensi onlevel
Parasympatheti
cdominated-l
owerbasi ct ensionlevel
Highdegreeofautonomichomeost asis-physicalarousali
ssmoot
handsteady
,and
ther
eforeyouareli
kel
ytoexperiencelessemot i
onal t
ensi
ont
hansomebodywit
halow
degreeofautonomichomeostasis(l
abilener voussy stem)

Psy
chophy
siol
ogi
cal
arousal
=theconnect
ionbet
weenphy
sical
andemot
ional
tensi
on