Electrical Tester Magazine - Issue 4 I004

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Letter from the Editor
Dear Readers,
Welcome to this fourth issue of Electrical Tester magazine! I think it’s worth
the wait and hope you will agree. I’m grateful for all our contributors and
thank them for sharing their knowledge.
As the publication of each issue draws near, I reflect on the articles that have
come together and can’t help but notice that “like attracts like” as I ponder
the themes that link these contributions. Indeed, while I am reminded of the
quote from the writer Anaïs Nin (“We don’t see things as they are; we see
them as we are”), I nevertheless notice that the unifying themes of this issue
seem to be ‘the changes in complex systems through time’ and ‘helping’.
Jill Duplessis
Editor As part of this, our feature article highlights how DC power has ironically
become such an integral factor in our evolving relationship with electricity and
how it is helping us realise the next steps in our complex and ongoing journey
with electrification. A pendulum swing towards increasing concentrations of
DC in the world’s power portfolio reminds me of the control systems courses I enjoyed so much in college. Whenever
swings and shifts are involved in a system, I immediately think of stability. If the swings start becoming too extreme in
either direction, the system becomes unstable and advances rapidly towards its demise. It’s always comforting to me,
therefore, to see something moving in a steady trajectory towards its centre.
Stability is one aspect of reliability. In protection systems, reliability is primarily spoken about in terms of dependability
and security. Do you know the difference? I’m not speaking about cyber security, by the way. Andrea Bonetti,
Hongliang Zhu, and Nikolay Ignatovski have produced a timely article that discusses this important topic and the need
to achieve balance between these two distinct indicators of reliability.
In a blog post, Dave Pollard summarises the attributes of a complex system. One tell-tale characteristic is that
“everything seems to connect to everything else and depends on something else having been done first”. Indeed, as
change occurs in a complex system, unforeseen ripples may emerge within connected aspects. The digitisation of the
power grid, for example, raises interesting ‘opportunities’ in substation metering for billing that Rannveig Løken shares
in her article. This IEC 61850 implementation work for energy meters in substations will pave the way for smart grid
energy metering as well; with a solution in hand for substation metering, we will know how to do the same for smart
grid metering in ‘smaller substations’. Meanwhile, Stefan Larsson, Andrea Bonetti, and Lennart Schottenius address a
prospective by-product of the Smart Grid – that is, the rapid scale proliferation of self-powered relays and the inherent
challenges in testing them.
With increasing performance demands on our complex grid, particularly on asset reliability, testing must be managed
with more intention than ever. Part of this requires expanding one’s test portfolio when it makes sense. Dr Diego
Robalino, Ken Petroff, and Vince Oppedisano write about a predictive insulation test, 1 Hz, that delivers exceptionally
high value. Another way to manage testing with intention is to become as knowledgeable about test methods and
their applications as possible. This issue is rich with articles that will help everyone do just that and I recommend them
all.
And continuing with the theme of ‘helping’, well today it is more imperative than ever that we help each other. In
that regard, I hope you appreciate Dr Stan Zurek’s inductance article about the three students as much as I do, and I
hope Rickard Jonsson’s short article about reindeer and sustainability will move you. My right-hand assistant editor,
Léonie, shares a great story about how a local community has managed to preserve Tesla’s last remaining lab. As if
to punctuate my conclusions about this issue, on my drive home from the dentist last week, I passed a building with
a huge orange sign with white lettering. It read, “What do we live for, if it is not to make life less difficult for each
other?”
Be well, my friends. Until next time!
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Letter from leadership
Dear ET Community,
Recent times have presented their fair share of challenges. Challenges to

us as individuals, to us as a company, to our business partners, and to our
customers around the world. Though the Covid tide appears to be turning
for most nations, for which we thank our scientists and healthcare workers
worldwide, different challenges now arise. The conflict in Ukraine, the rising
cost of living, and the ever-present need for greater environmental protection
and care are just some of these global issues.
Reflecting on such things brings to mind the various ways we approach

Andrew Boughtwood challenges. It’s the aspect of our resilience. Our ability on many levels to
recognise and adapt to complex problems. Our sustained attention and
efforts to make things better; better for ourselves, better for our companies,
Group Director,
and, most importantly, better for our fellow human beings and our wonderful
Commercial, Sales &
planet.
Marketing at Megger
Group Limited Resilience in ourselves is programmed into us; it’s in our DNA, our mindset,
and our belief systems. Similarly, resilience is a demonstrable strength of
character in Megger. In recent decades, massive challenges have impacted
the electrical supply industry, and these continue today. Among the biggest
of these are the relentless demand for power generation and delivery through
increasingly complex networks and the power network landscape changing to
one where power generation is no longer obtained from a single source but
is instead coming from multiple sources distributed around the grid. Indeed,
many of you reading this article are likely to have your own domestic power
sources, be that solar panels on your roofs, perhaps even wind turbines in
your gardens, or intelligent access to your electric vehicle battery systems.
At Megger, we continue to adapt to these challenges and the subsequent

needs of our customers; to remain important to them and to remain relevant
to them.
In this issue of ET, our incredible team, under Jill’s stewardship, once again
bring you insights on various electrical supply and asset condition matters. To
the many people in the wider Megger community who have contributed to
creating another fantastic ET, I say well done and thank you.
To you, the reader, from us all at Megger, we thank you. Stay strong, nurture
your resilience, and enjoy reading this issue!
Best wishes,
Andrew Boughtwood
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Contents
DC distribution: the swing towards more
direct current flow in the grid .................... 7
Self-powered relay testing challenges ..... 18
Metering challenges in IEC 61850 digital

substations .............................................. 21
IEC 61850 GOOSE is fast, and it can help

increase protection system security!........ 29
What became of Nikola Tesla’s wireless

dream?..................................................... 37
Geek Challenge IV ................................... 43
A global view of power transformer

technology present and future................. 45
Stray currents in water pipes in a reverse

osmosis (RO) plant................................... 51
Electrical Tester team

Jill Duplessis Léonie Alvey
Editor Assistant Editor
Jill Duplessis is Megger’s Content Strategy over 17 years of experience in the condition Prior to working as the Group Content
Director. Her team is focused on customer assessment of substation assets, first as a Editor for Megger, Léonie graduated from
UX; content processes, quality, and Principal Engineer at Doble Engineering Swansea University in 2010 with BA Hons
structure; and messaging, authoring, Company and following as a Primary in Egyptology and Classical Civilisations.
and knowledge management. Jill is the Manager and Regional Application Specialist, Shortly after this time, she began a career
primary author of Megger’s Transformer Transformers, for OMICRON electronics USA. writing, editing, and proofreading for
Life Management (TLM) bulletin series and PR agencies, magazines, web content,
is the author of many articles and papers, She has prior electric utility work experience and sales content across a wide range of
as well as a book titled Electrical Field Tests (with Florida Power Corporation, now industries, both B2B and B2C. Since joining
for the Life Management of Transformers. part of Duke Energy, and Georgia Megger in 2016, Léonie has concentrated
Power Company), where she enjoyed an on improving the quality of written work
Prior to working at Megger, Jill was Director exposure to a wide breadth of engineering across all sectors of the business while also
of Power Programs for a start-up company in functions. Jill received a BSEE degree growing and maintaining Megger’s global
Washington D.C., where she was responsible from Georgia Institute of Technology in LinkedIn channel.
for developing, testing, and deploying new 1991 and completed extensive master
applications of (intensity modulated) optical studies in electrical power engineering at
monitoring systems for transmission and Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY..
distribution utilities. Before this, she gained
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IEC 61850, digital substations, and the How is Megger connected with reindeer
Smart Grid ............................................... 59 herding?................................................... 98
POWERED BY … Andrea Bonetti ............. 65 Inductance measurements can be confusing

– a deeper dive ...................................... 101
The art of recruiting engineers in the power
system protection community.................. 67 Coupling Capacitor Voltage Transformers
(CCVTs) .................................................. 107
Read all about it! .................................... 71
User-driven development in
Batteries are not ‘fit-and-forget’ circuit breaker testing ............................ 112
assets! ..................................................... 73
Primary injection testing of low voltage
Protecting wind turbines through effective circuit breakers ...................................... 115
grounding ................................................ 79
The IEC 61850 Week Conference
Assessing high voltage substation 2021 ...................................................... 122
equipment at 1 Hz ................................... 87
Read all about it! .................................. 124
BOOK CLUB ............................................. 96
Editorial contributors
Keith Wilson The rights of the individuals Views expressed in Electrical
Isobel Fraser-Underhill attributed in Electrical Tester are not necessarily
Technical Copywriter/Editorial
Visual Identity and Content Tester to be identified as the views of Megger.
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Operations Manager
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Manager for Megger, Isobel graduated from control systems, principally for mechanical and Patents Act 1988. of any trademark in this text
the University of Kent in 2005 with BA Hons © Copyright Megger. does not imply trademark
handling and process plant. He is a lifelong All rights reserved. No ownership rights in such
in Visual Design and Advertising. She has member of the Institution of Engineering trademarks, nor does use
part of Electrical Tester
been working within the design industry and Technology and is now a well-known may be reproduced in of such trademarks imply
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by any means, electronic, Tester by such owners.
2013, focusing on the company’s visual mechanical, photocopying,
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6 ARTICLE TITLE
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DC distribution:
the swing
towards more
direct current
flow in the grid
Dr Ahmed El-Rasheed
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Introduction For over 100 years, electricity has almost exclusively been transmitted
and distributed using Alternating Current (AC), but things are changing.
Technological developments as well as economic, political, and environmental
factors are now driving a move toward the adoption of Direct Current (DC)
for transmission and distribution.
Electrical power is classified as AC or DC based on the direction of flow of

the electricity. With AC power, the current changes direction at a defined
frequency, while with DC power the current flows in one direction only. For
many decades, it has been accepted that AC is best for transmission and
distribution of electricity, while DC is best for powering electronic devices like
televisions, computers, and mobile phones.
The electrical infrastructure in most countries is designed for AC transmission

and distribution. An enormous amount of effort and investment will be
necessary to change to DC so the justification for making this change must be
compelling.
Over the next couple decades, however, there will be an exponential increase
in the number of electrical loads that require DC power, like solid-state
lighting (LED), business and consumer electronics, and electric vehicles.
Parallel with this increase in the number of DC loads, there will be a similar
increase in the number of power sources that supply DC. These include solar
PV installations, and battery-based energy storage systems.
These trends will require dramatic changes in the way electricity is transmitted
and distributed. It is important for everyone in the industry to understand
the reasons for these changes and their potential impact. With this in mind,
this article revisits the history of electrical transmission and distribution before
examining recent developments in the field.
In the early days of electrical power, there was the technological battle of the
AC and DC power age between Thomas Edison, who championed DC power, and Nikola Tesla
transmission who pioneered AC power.
For the victor, there was a great fortune to be made and a towering
reputation to be built, so it was almost inevitable that the battle would turn
ugly.
Initially, Nikola Tesla worked for Thomas Edison, but their differences
drove Tesla to move to Edison’s principal competitor, Westinghouse. At
Westinghouse, Tesla demonstrated that AC transmission and distribution were
more efficient and economical than DC because it was so easy to increase AC
voltage using a transformer. Of course, while it improves efficiency, increasing
the voltage also increases the hazards associated with electricity. Edison was
not slow to exploit this and to suggest that his lower voltage DC solution was
far safer.
8 DC DISTRIBUTION: THE SWING TOWARDS MORE DIRECT CURRENT FLOW IN THE GRID
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Figure 1: Ex-circus elephant, Topsy, electrocuted by Edison
To prove his point, Edison went to the cruel and unnecessary lengths of
electrocuting ex-circus animals just to demonstrate the hazards presented by
high AC voltages. This campaign against AC power culminated in the public
execution of an unfortunate elephant, Topsy, an event which Edison even
recorded for posterity using his newly invented movie camera.
At the present time, AC is used almost universally for power generation

Advantages of AC and for the electrical grid. When a consumer connects to a wall socket, it
is AC power that they receive to feed a multitude of devices such as lights,
refrigerators, and washing machines. As has already been mentioned, the
main reason for the dominance of AC power is the availability of a cheap
and reliable method of increasing and decreasing voltage – the transformer –
which makes possible the inexpensive manipulation of voltage and current.
Tesla’s genius insight was to exploit the properties of the transformer to step
up the voltage of the AC power that came from the generating plant, prior to
transmission. For a given amount of power delivered, stepping up the voltage
decreases the current and, since losses in a cable are proportional to the
square of the current, the savings are substantial.
For example, if a generator produces power at 25 kV it would need to

deliver a current of 2 kA to supply a total load of 50 MW and the losses in
a transmission line carrying such a current would be enormous. However, if
a transformer is used to step the voltage up to 800 kV, the current falls to a
mere 62 A and, if the same size cable were used, the losses at this current
would be only 0.01 % of those at 25 kV.
In practice, of course, a much smaller cable would be used, but the savings
would still be huge. So high-voltage transmission saves a lot of money for
power companies and consumers. It also saves energy and reduces pollution
because power plants do not need to make up the losses by using more fuel.
Another advantage of AC transmission and distribution is low maintenance

costs compared with DC. Transformers and associated equipment are very
reliable and last for decades in service. In addition, it is comparatively easy
DC DISTRIBUTION: THE SWING TOWARDS MORE DIRECT CURRENT FLOW IN THE GRID 9
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to interrupt AC current using devices like circuit breakers, since AC current

passes through a zero point every half cycle, which is not the case with DC. In
fact, a typical circuit breaker has an AC current interrupting capacity about 20
times greater than its DC current interrupting capacity.
Edison pushed for the adoption of DC, based on a system that would
Advantages of DC send power at 120 V DC through the cables connecting consumers to the
generating plant. This idea is, however, deeply flawed as losses in the cables
limit the maximum practical distance of transmission to just one or two
kilometres. Unsurprisingly, Edison lost the technological battle in the early
years of the twentieth century. But technology does not stand still, and it is
now possible to easily increase and decrease the voltage of DC supplies. This
has led to the growing adoption of high voltage DC (HVDC) transmission
systems, and has made it possible to take advantage of the hitherto
inaccessible advantages of DC transmission over AC.
Inductance and A major benefit of DC transmission is that it does not suffer from losses due
to capacitance or inductance. Every power line is equivalent to a series of
capacitance on resistors and inductors, shunted by stray capacitance to ground (see Figure 2).
transmission lines And the longer the transmission line, the greater the losses due to resistance,
inductance, and capacitance. However, at DC, inductive reactance is zero and
capacitive reactance is infinite, which means that DC suffers only resistive
losses, whereas AC suffers losses due to all three components.
Therefore, once DC power is stepped up to a high voltage, the efficiency

advantage is with DC rather than AC power. Largely for this reason, HVDC
transmission is being adopted increasingly widely as, for example, in the
undersea power lines between the United Kingdom and mainland Europe.
Figure 2: Equivalent circuit for a transmission line
Electric power is transmitted as AC throughout the UK and mainland Europe

but, on each side of the English Channel (which separates the UK from
Europe), there are two HVDC substations. At one end of the connection,
which can transmit power in either direction, the substation takes AC power
and converts it to HVDC for undersea transmission while at the other end, the
substation takes HVDC power and converts it to AC for connection to either
the UK or European grid, depending on the direction of the power flow.
This may seem like unnecessary complication and expense, raising the
question of why HVDC transmission is used in this application. The answer
goes back to the fact that the efficiency of DC transmission is unaffected
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Figure 3: Subsea power cables during installation
Figure 4: Current costs of DC and AC transmission over distance (km)
by the capacitance and inductance of the transmission line. In an undersea

cable, stray capacitances in particular are much greater than in overhead
transmission lines, and this makes transmission of AC power uneconomic
for distances greater than about 50 km when total costs (power loss and
equipment) are used to compare AC and DC systems (see Figure 4).
As technology continues to improve, the distance where DC becomes more

efficient than AC will become smaller and ultimately it is likely that DC will be
more efficient even over short distances.
Another advantage of DC transmission relates to active and reactive power.

No load power losses DC is concerned with active power only, while AC is concerned with both
active and reactive power. The relationship between total (apparent) power
and its components is given by this formula:
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S = P + iQ
Where:
S is Apparent Power (VA)
P is Active Power (Watts)
i is the imaginary unit (√-1)
Q is Reactive Power (VAR)
Active power is the power that does useful work in electrical devices, while
reactive power is consumed by inductances and capacitances without doing
useful work. Transformers, AC motors, and capacitors consume reactive
power. For example, a laptop charger has a small transformer inside it which
will consume reactive power even when the laptop is not connected. This
situation is repeated for every transformer connected to the supply; it will
consume reactive power whether or not it is supplying a load. Likewise, AC
motors consume reactive power irrespective of their loading. With DC, there
is no reactive component of the power, which improves efficiency and reduces
the load on the power source.
Skin effect AC power transmission also suffers from the “skin effect”, where the
power density in cables is reduced because the AC current does not use the
full cable cross section. The magnitude of the skin effect depends on the
frequency of the alternating current. The higher the frequency, the more the
electric current will be squeezed towards the outer edge (skin) of a cable. At
0 Hz (DC), the current flows through the whole cross section of a cable. This
means that higher power can be transmitted through the same size cables
when using DC rather than AC.
Many devices, such as computers, televisions and other electronic devices,

Reduced AC/DC and even solid-state lighting, need to convert the AC supply into DC before
conversion losses using it. The process of AC to DC conversion introduces additional losses in
the power system. On the other hand, DC to DC conversion is highly efficient
when using the latest technology, such as on-chip buck-boost converters. A
study by DOE (US Department of Energy) in 2014 calculated that supplying
DC power to homes, thereby removing the need for AC to DC conversion,
would provide an efficiency improvement of up to 5 %. This would represent
a significant cost saving for consumers as well as for the power utilities.
DC power has the advantage of simpler requirements for interconnecting

Ease of multiple supplies. To feed a DC power line from two separate sources, it is
interconnecting only necessary to match the voltage level and the polarity of the sources. The
supplies amount of power available is increased by combining the two sources.
With AC power, the process is more complicated because the two sources
must be arranged to have the same voltage level, the same frequency, the
same phase angle, and the same impedance. This is a much more complex
task, with a low tolerance for mismatching; if any of the parameters don’t
match, a potentially catastrophic fault will occur.
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The modern power grid has multiple generation points, and they need to
be safely and economically integrated. As power consumption continues to
rise, the number of power generation sites will increase to meet this demand
and, in the long run, DC power systems are likely to prove a better way of
interconnecting these sites.
Renewable energy There has been an exponential rise in renewable energy installations over the
past 20 years, and this trend is expected to continue. There are environmental
efficiency factors, as well as political and economic factors, that fuel this trend.
Politically, most countries have pledged to reach net zero carbon emissions
within the next few decades, which means that there is a lot of funding
available for renewable energy projects. And, economically, solar and wind
installations demand a relatively low investment of time and money, which
makes them an attractive investment.
The potential for Solar PV is enormous. The US government has published a

Solar photovoltaic (PV) report stating: “PV panels on just 22 000 square miles of the nation’s total
installations land area – about the size of Lake Michigan – could supply enough electricity
to power the entire United States.” Additionally, the average cost of Solar PV
panels has dropped by over 70 % since 2014, while their efficiency has also
improved.
Figure 5: The current PV global installed base is over 700 GW and increasing rapidly
Solar PV panels produce DC power and, for connection to the present-day

grid system, the power needs to be converted to AC. It is undeniably more
efficient to provide the power as DC, especially in local generation and
consumption sites, such as residential and office buildings.
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Figure 6: Installed wind energy base

As has already been mentioned, a growing range of devices operate on DC
power and a rooftop PV panel can provide that power without redundant DC
to AC conversion. The DC to DC voltage change needed is simpler and more
efficient. All of which means that a modern home could have rooftop solar
panels that power its electronics, solid-state lighting, and more efficient DC-
motor-driven refrigerators, freezers, pumps, fans, and air conditioners.
Another popular renewable energy source is offshore wind energy, which

Offshore wind uses wind turbines on the sea. The sea is a desirable location for wind
turbines because it is consistently windy, and it avoids the use of land which
is often needed for other purposes. As a result, the global installed base of
offshore wind energy is expected to exceed onshore within the next decade.
Although most wind turbines produce AC power, in offshore applications it

is necessary to convert it to DC because the power cables run under the sea.
As discussed earlier, undersea AC power connections are inefficient because
of the increased stray capacitance from the proximity of the soil and salty
seawater. Typically, offshore wind turbines are connected to an AC to DC
converter that supplies DC to the undersea cables. In most instances, when
the power reaches the shore, it is converted back to AC for connection to the
grid. However, a DC infrastructure to distribute DC power would bring all the
advantages of DC including improved efficiency
Battery energy storage The increased adoption of renewable energy is a big benefit for the
environment, but few renewable sources can be relied upon to supply energy
consistently. Solar energy, for example, is only available during daylight hours,
while the availability of wind energy increases and decreases with the wind.
Therefore, energy storage becomes an important consideration. There are
various options for this, including water reservoirs at altitude, compressed air
tanks and batteries. The global trend is dominated by battery storage because
of factors that include relative energy density, cost, and footprint. However,
batteries provide DC power and are charged with DC power, which means a
DC infrastructure is a much better fit for batteries.
At present, the electricity grid handles the flow of power from generating
Smart grid, electric plants, through the transmission and distribution network, to the consumers
vehicles, and the homes who make use of that power. Soon, the grid will be ‘smart’, which means
of tomorrow that intelligent devices will be installed throughout, providing a vast amount
of information that will greatly improve the performance and capabilities of
the system.
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Figure 7: In future, power flow will be bidirectional
Bidirectional One of the main features of the Smart Grid is bidirectional (two-way) flow
of power and information. There will be micro-generation sites installed
flow almost everywhere, like rooftop PV panels on houses. These micro-generation
sites will feed power back into the grid. Therefore, a home will no longer
be just a consumption point, instead it will be both a generation point and
a consumption point. Interconnected smart devices will enable the efficient
management of electrical power.
A location could, for example, be providing power for a couple hours and
then consuming power for the next few hours. In some instances, power
consuming and producing locations that are geographically close to each
other will be interconnected to form a distributed energy resource (DER),
which is, in turn, connected to the main grid. DERs may also include energy
storage facilities such as batteries. Arrangements of this type use the
same technology as the smart grid, and have the advantage that, in most
circumstances, power is consumed close to the point where it is produced,
which means that transmission and distribution losses are minimised. The
grouping of power sources and consumers also makes management easier.
DERs, and the Smart Grid itself, require live information about supply and
demand levels, combined with fast and efficient switching and combining of
power sources. There can be little doubt that a DC distribution system with
interconnected smart devices will make these requirements easier to achieve.
Electric vehicles Electric vehicles are being adopted at a much faster rate than most
economists had predicted. The growth rate is exponential, and even the
COVID-19 pandemic has done nothing to slow it.
Many countries have announced plans to ban the sale of any new ICE
(internal combustion engine) cars as early as 2030. This will force the full
adoption of electric vehicles, but the current trend shows that in any case the
market is already heading that way. Approximately 200 million cars are sold
globally each year, and indications are that most of these sales will be electric
vehicles by 2030.
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Figure 8: Global PHEV and BEV sales
Figure 9: The hybrid DC home
This will lead to a large rise in demand for electric power and a huge installed
base of batteries. In general, electric vehicles use batteries for their energy
storage and as discussed, DC power is needed for charging. With AC
charging points, conversion to DC is often carried out within the vehicle, but
the fastest chargers are those that supply the vehicle directly with DC.
The challenges of integrating electric vehicles with the grid was dealt with in
some detail in an article in Issue 1 of ET Magazine – which is still available on
the Megger website – but a point from the article that is particularly notable
is that multiple manufacturers have already made DCFCs (DC fast chargers)
that will charge at a rate of 200 or even 400 kW. A ‘gas’ station with 10 of
these chargers would present a load of 4 MW to the grid which would be
difficult to handle with today’s infrastructure. There’s little doubt that the
most efficient way to provide the power demanded would, once again, be to
use DC power distribution.
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Unfortunately, the infrastructure changes needed to move to DC distribution
are too vast and too expensive to be practical in the short term. A more the
likely scenario is the hybrid DC home where, for example, AC grid power is
connected as well as DC power from locally installed PV panels. The native
DC devices such as the EV and electronics would consume DC power directly,
while devices that need AC will consume power from the grid. DC to AC
conversion will be done to allow superfluous power to be sold back into the
grid. And AC to DC conversion will be done to provide any DC power needed
that is not available from the PV panels or the battery storage.
Conclusion AC power is the dominant method for transmission and distribution of

electric power, but advances in technology are making high voltage DC
to DC conversion much more affordable. This has triggered a change and
DC power systems are now being used in certain situations where they are
more economical than their AC counterparts. In particular, DC power is
favoured for very long transmission lines (over 800 km) and for undersea
and underground power lines longer than 50 km. As the cost of DC to DC
conversion falls even further, these distances will decrease.
On the consumption side, more and more modern devices are DC-native,
such as solid-state lighting, electronics, electric vehicles, and many household
appliances. DC power distribution will remove redundant AC to DC
conversions in these devices and improve energy efficiency by at least 5 %
and, according to some studies, by as much as 15 %.
The move toward the Smart Grid also favours DC power distribution because
it provides advantages in:
Easily interconnecting multiple power sources
Removing losses associated with AC power in no-load situations
Providing higher energy density in cables by eliminating skin effect
Removing redundant AC to DC conversions for DC-native devices
It is difficult to imagine the world changing from AC power to DC power

distribution, and there will certainly be forces that will resist this change,
not least the transformer manufacturers who face seeing their business
decimated. Nevertheless, as we have seen, the advantages of DC distribution
are clear and it’s inevitable that change will happen although, for the most
part, it will be gradual. Hybrid DC homes already exist, and they surely point
the way to the future.
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Self-powered
relay testing
challenges
Stefan Larsson,
Andrea Bonetti, and
Lennart Schottenius
When testing self-powered relays, many technicians are increasingly being installed on the roofs of ordinary
ask why a current of 1 A injected by the relay test set is domestic properties, electric vehicles are being charged
not registered as 1 A by the relay. Stefan Larson, Power at home and at some point, they will hopefully be able
Protection Product Manager at Megger Sweden, provides to deliver energy to the grid (V2G). In other words, the
the answer and discusses other challenges associated Smart Grid will penetrate electrical systems at all voltage
with testing self-powered relays. levels.
For the last 40 years, self-powered relays have been A key factor that will influence the speed of this
used in MV/LV substations in the secondary distribution penetration is cost, and in particular the cost of providing
network. Traditionally, MV/LV transformers larger than adequate protection for the Smart Grid. In principle,
800 kVA were protected by one of these devices, while there would be little problem in protecting the Smart
protection for smaller transformers was provided by an Grid using the proven solutions that have been developed
MV fuse. In the last 15 years, however, power utilities for protecting high-voltage power networks. In relation
have moved toward protecting transformers as small as to the Smart Grid, however, these solutions are too
100 kVA with self-powered relays, which means they are complex and too expensive. Self-powered relays make an
now common in substations and secondary distribution important contribution toward addressing these issues
network kiosks. and it is therefore expected that their usage will increase
significantly as more and more Smart Grid systems are
Self-powered relays take the energy they need to operate
implemented.
from the current delivered to the relay by the current
transformer. This means that the load current – and, Despite their benefits, self-powered relays also present a
when present, the fault current – in the circuit being number of challenges, particularly in relation to testing.
monitored provides the energy needed to power the Because of their integrated switch-mode power supplies,
relay. This arrangement has the big benefit that the they present a very non-linear load to the test set. This
need for an external power supply, which typically means that a nominally sinusoidal 1 A current injected by
takes the form of a battery with its related DC network the test set may be heavily distorted by the relay which,
infrastructure, is minimised or, in many cases, completely as a result, might measure a much higher or a much
eliminated. This simplifies the protection system and lower current.
substantially reduces costs.
Another issue is that of pre-fault conditions. As we have
In the near future, these considerations are likely to already discussed, the energy needed for the operation
become even more important, as the concept of the of a self-powered relay is derived from the current
‘Smart Grid’ becomes ever more pervasive. Solar panels transformers. This means that if there is no load current
18 SELF-POWERED RELAY TESTING CHALLENGES

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in the protected feeder, there is no energy to power the useful when testing self-powered relays, as the pre-fault
relay and, consequently, the relay is not active. If, under provides the load necessary to keep the relay turned on.
these conditions, a fault occurs, the fault current delivers
The SVERKER 900 is designed to manage current
energy to the relay which then starts up, detects the
generation for self-powered relays, taking into account:
fault, and issues a trip command. The effective operate
time, however, is the normal operate time of the relay 1. The harmonics generated by self-powered
plus the time that the relay takes to start up. relays, which can disturb the control
circuits in a relay test instrument
This situation is related to switching onto a fault
condition: if the circuit breaker is closed onto a fault, 2. The non-linear load presented by self-powered
there cannot be any pre-load into the protection relay relays, which requires high-performance real-
before the breaker is closed. A similar situation can arise time control loops to ensure that the test
instrument generates the correct waveforms
if the breaker is closed, but until a fault occurs, the load
current is below the level necessary to provide enough 3. The need for the test instrument to generate
energy to power the relay. a relatively large amount of power in relation
to the injected current to allow for the power
The issues associated with testing self-powered relays
needed to provide a supply for the relay
can be successfully addressed by using a test set such as
Megger’s SVERKER 900, which has been developed from The spread of Smart Grids means that self-powered
the outset with self-powered relays in mind. The on- protection relays are likely to be widely used in future,
board current generators in the SVERKER 900, together even in smaller power systems. Testing these relays may
with sophisticated adaptive real-time current generation at first seem challenging, but in reality the challenges can
algorithms, allow the reliable testing of protection relays be readily overcome. The key is to use a test set, such as
of all kinds, including self-powered types. the SVERKER 900, which has been specifically designed
for use with self-powered relays and to cater for their
Uniquely, the SVERKER 900 is compatible with the many
special requirements.
different kinds of burden associated with various types of
protection relays. It easily copes with electromechanical
relays, static relays, sophisticated numerical relays, self-
powered relays, and relays with current transformer
operated trip release units. The pre-fault instrument can
perform multiple timing tests, which is particularly
SELF-POWERED RELAY TESTING CHALLENGES 19

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20 ARTICLE TITLE
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Metering
challenges in
IEC 61850 digital
substations
Rannveig J. S. Løken
21
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Statnett is the system operator of the Norwegian Grid tariffs are implemented, the meter values are
power system. The company owns and operates the checked, and the invoices to the customer for the grid
transmission grid and balances consumption and tariffs are issued. In addition, the grid losses in the spot-
production, thereby providing our customers with a market are forecast and purchased, and cross-border
reliable power supply at all times. revenues are monitored. All of this is based on metered
values, so it is important that these values are correct. In
Metering and accreditation – today’s addition, contracts for grid connections with customers
are maintained. These contracts refer to standards and
solution technical requirement documents for the measuring
Figure 1 below shows a metering system for a chain in the transmission grid.
transmission feeder which is typical of today’s practice.
Current and voltage measurements for the kWh meter Standards and technical requirements
are provided via dedicated copper cables connected to
conventional voltage and current transformers. Technical It is a requirement that meters shall be installed on all
requirements apply to the full metering chain, while feeders in the transmission grid so that it is possible to
accreditation control is only concerned with the kWh make a complete station metering balance. A maximum
meter and its associated instrument transformers. discrepancy of 0.5 % is allowed on meters installed after
2016, and a maximum discrepancy of 0.8 % on meters
installed before that date. Furthermore, the documents
Grid settlements state that metering should be tested when new meters
Among the main tasks of the Grid Settlement Department are installed, and that additional tests should be made
in Statnett, the operator of the Norwegian power every 4 or 8 years, depending on the exchange load.
system, is the handling of gross cashflow related to grid Several other technical requirements are specified for the
tariffs, purchase of grid losses, cross-border revenues, metering chain, including time synchronisation and test
and contracts for grid connection. The department also methods for the meters. Changes to the standards and
deals with standards and technical requirements for the technical requirements documents have to be negotiated
measuring chain in the transmission grid. with the organisations that represent the users of
Norway’s central power grid.
Figure 1: Metering system
22 METERING CHALLENGES IN IEC 61850 DIGITAL SUBSTATIONS

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Checking substation metering balance Checking losses on power lines

Meter testing is carried out physically in the substations Figure 3 shows the power flow in a line from substation
by trained experts. In addition, the Grid Settlement A to substation B. The losses should increase with
Department carries out further tests to verify metering the power flow, since Loss = I2R. The system used
values. There are about 1300 meters in the 220 automatically shows the highest losses on the power
substations that Statnett owns. Metering balance and lines, and it checks that the losses correlate with the load
completeness checking are performed for about 290 on the lines.
powerline balances. Figure 2 shows an overview of a
substation with two power lines and two transformers Checking grid losses in a metering
connected to the busbar. The system that Statnett uses
automatically shows balances, with losses on the right
grid area
of the table. This example shows a good balance with Grid losses in the metering grid area are checked. In
a stable loss. A few values in this example have been Statnett, there are 16 metering grid areas. The first step
manually changed because of incorrect measurements is to perform a completeness check of all the meters.
between times 9 and 12. Thereafter, the losses of the power line are checked.
Figure 2: Substation metering balance
Figure 3: Power loss in power line
METERING CHALLENGES IN IEC 61850 DIGITAL SUBSTATIONS 23

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Figure 4: Grid loss in a metering area
Finally, the substation meter balance is checked in each line balance check and will be included in the substation
area by comparing the total energy that has entered the metering balance. The absolute loss might be higher
grid with the total energy that has left the grid. than desired, and the substation metering balance is
not always the best mechanism for detecting an error
In Figure 4, the settlement meters are marked with H and
towards a customer metering point. Sometimes the load
the checking meters are marked with Q. Losses in this
towards the customer is low and the load towards the
example = sum (H-meters) = -40+125+28+14-2*60-20 =
transmission grid is high, as described in the next section.
13 MWh
Further improvements? Example of a metering balance today

Figure 5 shows a simplified substation. The average
There has been discussion about whether it is possible
substation in Statnett has seven connections to the
to detect minor discrepancies in substation metering
busbar. In this example, there are only two power line
balances with a high exchange load when there is a
connections to the transmission grid. The power flow
low load towards the customer metering point. One
in power line 1 is 480 MWh but only 20 MWh goes
of the things that has been studied is the transformer
through T1 to the customer, and only 0.1 MWh is used
metering balance. By providing an extra metering point it
for the auxiliary supply for the control system of the
is possible to have a more accurate metering balance for
substation. 458 MW is taken out from the busbar. The
the power transformer.
metered substation balance/loss in MWh is -480 + 458 +
Statnett sees high exchange loads on power lines into 20 + 0.1 = - 1.9 MWh.
the transmission grid at many of its 200 substations.
Ideally, this balance should be closer to zero. The power
Today’s requirements states that they can have an error
flow from the transformer was 20 MWh, and the loss
of 0.5 % so, if the exchange load is 400 MWh, an error
should have been lower. This discrepancy could be the
of 2 MWh would still be considered acceptable. Minor
result of one of the metering points on the power lines
discrepancies on one or even several of the meters on
showing a minor error of 0.4 % which is within today’s
the power lines will not be easily detected in the power
accepted deviation.

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Figure 5: Metering balance example
Figure 6: Improved metering balance example

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Figure 7: Checking whether metering balance requirements are met
Figure 8: Configuration drawing for pilot project Furuset digital substation
Suggestion: Metering balance around A suggested new requirement is that the maximum
deviation for the whole metering balance should be
the transformer in a digital substation within 0.4 % of the total absolute flow:
Figure 6 shows an improved metering balance system
(Q0003+H0004+L0001) < (abs(Q0003) + abs(H0004) +
that requires one more metering point per transformer.
abs(L0001)) *0.4%
There are metering points on both the primary and the
secondary side of the transformer, which means that This provides information about losses in the transformer
instrument transformers for current and voltage are and would be a stricter requirement than today’s 0.5
needed on the primary and secondary side. In today’s % per metering point. At present, there are no set
standard solution from Statnett, there is no instrument requirements for the station metering balance.
transformer for voltage on the primary side of the
Example of checking whether requirements for metering
transformer.
balance are met
The example in Figure 6 shows the following metering
In Figure 7, the test requirement for metering balance
station balance/loss in MWh: -480 + 458 + 20 + 0.1 = -
is shown. It calculates the loss balance and absolute
1.9 MWh. In addition, the balance around a transformer
balance. In addition, it adds all the metering values to an
in MWh is: -20.2 + 20 + 0.1 = - 0.1 MWh
absolute value of the meter in the substation. Based on

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this value, the absolute maximum acceptable deviation is This idea will need to be thoroughly tested before it
calculated along with the difference between maximum is implemented. Statnett will also have to consider
acceptable deviation and the actual test result. If the future developments related to the calibration of digital
difference is positive – that is, if the maximum acceptable metering chains. These solutions will make it possible
deviation is larger than the test result – the test was to move into a new era and to update the technical
successful. In the example shown, the transformer requirements so that they accommodate substations
metering balance must average a maximum of 0.16 where metering is based on Sampled Values from
MWh for a day for it to be acceptable. Today’s substation instrument transformers.
metering balance (Figure 5) shows a loss of 1.9 MWh
and is not that accurate. Transformer metering balance is
About the author
more precise and can more easily detect discrepancies.
Rannveig S. J. Loken received her
Transformer metering balance in Bachelor of Science in Micro-electronics
digital substations at Trondheim University College in 1990
and her Master of Science in Power
In Statnett, there have been discussions relating to the Electric engineering from the Norwegian
pilot project - Furuset digital substation - about how University of Science and Technology
metering checking should be performed. In a digital (NTNU) in 1992.
substation, it is not possible to carry out the traditional
checks in the substation because the hardwired She works in Statnett, the TSO of
connections to the meters have been replaced by optical Norway, and is the Project manager of
fibres, and the metering values are based on Sampled the R&D Project Digital substation. She
Values instead of current and voltage measurements (see was the Head of Section for the Control
Figure 8 for a configuration drawing of the pilot project and Protection system from 2007 until
Furuset digital substation, where metering based on 2017.
Sampled Values is implemented).
She has been the Norwegian member
The IEC Committee 13, Working group 11 (IEC TC13 WG for CIGRE SC B5 between 2008 and
11) has started discussions about an updated standard 2012, and has worked in several CIGRE
for metering that is applicable to digital substations working groups within SC B5. She was
where measurements are based on Sampled Values. This the secretary of CIGRE SC B5 from August
work will take some time to complete and Statnett would 2012 until August 2018. In August 2018,
like to find an interim solution. A suggestion discussed she became the chair of CIGRE SC B5
in Statnett is using the substation metering balance to Protection and Automation.
check the accuracy of the digital metering.

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28 ARTICLE TITLE
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IEC 61850 GOOSE

is fast, and it can
help increase
protection system
security!
Andrea Bonetti,
Hongliang Zhu,
and Nikolay Ignatovski
29
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Are protection relays fast enough when they receive

GOOSE messages? And what about sending them?
...we have seen that
Are the Ethernet switches fast enough? Will GOOSE GOOSE is fast enough,
messages reach their destination? These are typical switches are fast
questions for which a large part of the protection
community wants to have some answers before
enough, and faults
deciding to use the IEC 61850 standard for protection are cleared as fast – or
applications, instead of the sacred binary outputs and faster – than they were
inputs. Answers to these questions have impact on
the dependability of the protection system, which is its
cleared with binary
capability of clearing all power system faults. This is very outputs and inputs.
important, because a failure to clear a power system fault
often has a dangerous impact on the safety of people
and of assets.
experience spanning many years in power system
If there are many people still questioning the use of protection and have often faced the responsibility of
IEC 61850 for protection applications, however, there explaining ‘what has happened’. During the discussion
are many others that have simply gone and done it. about this article, this comment was made:
Thanks to their experience, we have seen that GOOSE
“Some weeks ago, a problem occurred in a substation
is fast enough, switches are fast enough, and faults
which resulted in an unwanted trip. I ended up discussing
are cleared as fast – or faster – than they were cleared
precisely the situation we are talking about with my
with binary outputs and inputs. Isn’t it time, therefore,
colleagues. Fortunately, unwanted trips don’t happen
to move on and start trying to do things better than
very often, but when they do, the losses, the amount
before? Consider, for example, the effect that using
of undelivered power, and the number of consumers
GOOSE messages might have on the security of a
without electricity are significant. Unwanted trips
protection system. Could GOOSE messages reduce the
risk of unwanted trips? And looking beyond substations, lead to internal investigations, financial penalties, and
thinking about a system of substations situated in many unpleasant discussions. I’m sure this is the case
different locations, we approach the concept of the everywhere”.
Smart Grid with very interesting new applications of this All the authors recognised the description as typical for
simple concept, something that is not discussed nearly
these events, and the decision to write the article was
enough.
made in the hope that it will avoid, or at least reduce,
As we need to go through many concepts, some of those unpleasant discussions. In addition, a peer-reviewed
which will be new to some readers, we have divided IEEE paper has recently been submitted [1].
this article into three parts. The first part will provide the
technical background for two important words in the
power system protection community: dependability and
The purpose of the protection system
security. The second part will explain a common problem and the importance of its reliability
of ‘security’ in relation to analogue protection systems
The purpose of the protection system, or more formally
(implemented with binary outputs and binary inputs).
The third part will introduce the concept of IEC 61850 of the ‘fault clearance system’, is to [2]:
GOOSE messaging; it will provide a solution for the lack 1) Detect power system faults and abnormalities
of security and will discuss several applications where
similar solutions have been successfully implemented 2) Identify the faulty section of the system
Why are we writing this article? 3) Interrupt the faulty electrical quantities,
usually currents, as quickly as possible
Protection security is not a typical topic for technical
articles or papers. When the authors started to discuss Reliability is probably the most fundamental and
the need for writing such an article, the discussion important property of the protection system. It describes
quickly became lively! All the three authors have broad the capability (read probability) of the protection system
30 IEC 61850 GOOSE IS FAST, AND IT CAN HELP INCREASE PROTECTION SYSTEM SECURITY!
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Figure 1: Two recommended books about power system protection that deal clearly
with the concepts of protection dependability and security
Figure 2: Correct selective elimination of a fault. Relays that were supposed to operate operated; relays that were not
supposed to operate did not operate. Users connected to the busbar still received power from the right side of the
power system
to perform its required function. It is the combined ability be a strange word but, once its meaning is understood,
of not having a failure to operate and not having an it doesn’t generate misunderstandings. On the other
unwanted operation. This last sentence may seem a bit hand, ‘security’ of a protection system is a source of
odd, but it addresses the concepts of dependability and many misunderstandings. This is mostly because it is
security of the protection system. today associated with ‘cyber security’, such as ‘whether
someone can tamper with the GOOSE message to
change it’, and questions like ‘how secure is the GOOSE
Protection dependability and message?’, meaning ‘what is the probability that the
protection security GOOSE message will reach its destination?’. These
are questions that concern the dependability of the
Before going into further detail, it is necessary to have
protection system rather more than its security.
a clear understanding of two words that are used in a
very specific way within the relay protection community: In addition, many books do not talk clearly about security
dependability and security. These two words are and dependability of the protection system. They often
fundamental for a relay protection engineer. It has often talk about selectivity, which is actually a combination of
been said that providing protection for a power system security and dependability. The best books we’ve found
is the art of finding the best compromise between that treat these concepts with a degree of formalism are
dependability and security. Power System Relaying [2], which is an academic book,
and Substation Automation Handbook [3], which takes a
These days, ‘dependability’ in relation to a protection
more industrial approach.
system no longer generates confusion. It might seem to
IEC 61850 GOOSE IS FAST, AND IT CAN HELP INCREASE PROTECTION SYSTEM SECURITY! 31
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Figure 3: In this case, the fault has been cleared (correctly) by relays driving CB1 and CB2. The relays driving CB3 have
misunderstood the situation and have tripped CB3. Users connected to the busbar between CB2 and CB3 have been blacked
out by the unnecessary tripping of CB3.
security means that power is disconnected in areas that

Setting protection relays are not affected by a fault. Once again, this is a situation
to provide a good global that is likely to give rise to adverse publicity.
compromise between To become more familiar with these concepts, we will
dependability and security look at some simple schematic diagrams of power
is no easy task, and this is systems and examine how dependability and security are
probably one of the main affected by the behaviour of the protection relays that
reasons for the large amount control the circuit breakers. In Figure 2, we can see that
of respect the electrical there are three circuit breakers. The power line where the
community shows towards fault occurs is, by design, protected by CB1 and CB2. This
means CB3 is protecting the part of the power system to
relay protection engineers.
the right of it.
The status of the circuit breakers after the fault indicate

that the fault has been seen by CB1 (i.e., by the relays
Formal definitions of these two words follow [3]: controlling CB1) as being within its area of responsibility.
Dependability is the measure of certainty that Similarly, CB2 (the relays controlling CB2) has recognised
the protection system will operate correctly for the fault as being within its area of responsibility. CB3
all the faults for which it is designed to operate may or may not have seen the fault. If it has seen it, it
has recognised that it is not in its area of responsibility
Security is the measure of certainty and so has remained closed. The fault has been
that the protection system will not handled selectively: dependability for CB1 and CB2 was
operate incorrectly for any fault satisfactory; security for CB3 was satisfactory.
In power system protection, ‘dependability’ is the Not every situation is as well handled as this one. There
capability of a protection system to clear a power system are many reasons for this: errors in relay settings, errors in
fault if that fault is within its area of responsibility – the protection relays and, it must be admitted, the inherent
‘protected area’. Alternatively, dependability can be impossibility of achieving perfect dependability and
considered to refer to the probability of the protection security at the same time. Protection relays do not have
system clearing such a fault. Lack of dependability can a full view of the situation, as most of their algorithms
lead to a ‘missed trip’ or a ‘delayed trip’. When this are based on local measurements of electrical quantities
happens, a power transformer may burn or even explode (voltages, currents, frequency etc). Information from local
– a situation that is likely to generate adverse publicity. measurements alone is often not enough to allow perfect
‘Security’ is the capability of the protection system to protection of a particular part of the power system, even
NOT operate if there is a power system fault that is NOT if the measurements themselves are 100 % accurate. The
in the protected area. Security can also be seen as the result can look like what is shown in Figure 3.
probability of non-operation for such a fault. Additionally, Another common example of unwanted tripping is
security implies that the protection system will not shown in Figure 4. Two parallel supply lines have been
operate if there is no power system fault at all. Lack of provided because it is very important that power flows
security can lead to an ‘unwanted trip’. Often, lack of
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Figure 4: In this case, a simple ‘unwanted trip’ by CB3 stopped the end of power flow between the left and right part (probably
weak) of the power system. The right part may not manage to supply the required load, leading to large frequency fluctuations,
followed by possible load shedding
Figure 5: Even if it seems strange, CB3 behaved correctly (unless CB3 has been designated as a back-up for CB2)
Figure 6: Another way to represent the compromise between dependability and security. A relay that’s switched off will not
trip for external faults, but neither will it trip for internal faults. We have 100 % security, but 0 % dependability. However, if we
design the differential relay to trip for ANY difference between input and output currents, we have almost perfect dependability,
but it will also trip for faults outside the protected area, so security is very low
from left to right in the system. If one line is affected The connection of a weak electrical system to a strong
by a fault, the second (parallel) line should ensure the electrical system, with the frequency problems that arise
continuity of power. Unfortunately, the fault is correctly when they are disconnected, is a topic that is often
cleared by CB1 and CB2, but CB3 also trips unnecessarily discussed in relation to today’s power systems, where
(typical reasons are current reversal phenomena, failure in the mechanical inertia of a weak system is very low, or
the communication schemes etc. [4]). Note that usually in even zero, because the power is often generated by static
meshed networks, two circuit breakers are supposed to inverters rather than rotating electromechanical machines
trip to eliminate the fault (CB1 and CB2) but only one of [5]. The negative effect of unwanted trips is more evident
them tripping is enough to interrupt the power flow to in weak systems, and it is more necessary than ever to
the load. have methods for mitigating this phenomenon. In other
If the power flow is interrupted and the right-hand words, an important contribution to keeping an electrical
part of the system is weak, even if CB5 is still closed system interconnected is to find ways of increasing the
the generation may not manage to sustain the security of the protection system.
necessary load. This means the power system frequency Here is another example where those who are not
drops, causing the other breakers to be tripped by protection specialists might be confused when
their underfrequency relays, or even triggering UFLS considering the behaviour of the protection system.
(underfrequency load shedding), which is a euphemistic The situation is represented in Figure 5. With the fault
explanation of why power has been interrupted [5]. in the position shown, CB1 operated correctly but CB2
IEC 61850 GOOSE IS FAST, AND IT CAN HELP INCREASE PROTECTION SYSTEM SECURITY! 33
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Figure 7: The so-called bias/delta characteristic, or more formally “restraint element

characteristic”, as shown in IEC 60255-187-1:2021 [4, p. 60255–187]. Courtesy of IEC, Copyright
© IEC 2019
missed the fault (Relay switched off? Wrong settings? How can we compromise between dependability and
CT saturation? Wrong CT dimensioning?). The behaviour security for a differential protection relay? There are
of CB3 is correct, if CB3 is not responsible for operating many ways of doing this but one of the most common
in the area protected by CB1 and CB2. The post-fault is to implement a restrained or bias/delta characteristic.
analysis should be focused on understanding why CB2 did In simple terms, this means that the higher the current
not operate, instead of focusing on why CB3 didn’t save flowing in the protected area, the more differential
the situation. If CB3 was not intended to operate in the current is needed for the relay to trip. The restraining or
area where the fault occurred, the behaviour of CB3 was bias current is a measure of the current flowing in the
correct. CB3 was ‘secure’, or ‘stable’ for the external fault. protected area.
A final example illustrates how protection dependability Intuitively, when the current flowing through the circuit
and security interact in differential protection. Creating to be protected grows, the measurement error grows,
dependable differential protection seems very easy; which is why more differential current is required. When
measure the currents entering the circuit to be protected more differential current is required, however, the
and measure the currents leaving the circuit. If the sensitivity of the relay may be degraded (sensitivity affects
difference is not zero, there is a fault, so trip! Whenever the dependability because if the relay is not sensitive
there is a fault in the protected region, the relay will trip, enough, it will not be able to detect a fault). There could
which means 100 % dependability. But that relay will be an internal fault with high fault resistance and a large
probably also trip for a fault outside the protected region. through load current that increases the bias current and
It will probably also trip without any fault, just because
requires more differential current to trip. The restrained
of the load current flowing through the protected area.
or bias/delta characteristic is detailed in the IEC 60255-
Why? Because of this sentence ‘if the difference is NOT
187:1:2021 standard, “Measuring relays and protection
zero…’. What does ‘zero’ mean? What about CT errors?
equipment - Part 187-1: Functional requirements for
What about math errors in the algorithm? There are many
differential protection” [6, p. 60255–187]. All rights
‘what abouts’. So, in practice, that relay will have security
reserved.
(stability for external faults, or even for no faults at all) of
0 %! Designing a differential relay is not simple; in fact,
designing any kind of protection relay is not simple.
The real challenge in the design of a differential protection
relay is not its dependability, but its security. To go to Also, setting protection relays to provide a good global
the other extreme, to ensure the 100 % stability, we compromise between dependability and security is no
can simply switch off the relay. For sure, it will never easy task, and this is probably one of the main reasons
trip for an external fault – that’s 100 % security! But by for the large amount of respect the electrical community
doing this, we have destroyed the dependability – we are shows towards relay protection engineers.
again facing the compromise between dependability and
security.
Watch our webinar on
Protection relay testing using
IEC61850 GOOSE by Megger

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36 ARTICLE TITLE
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What became
of Nikola Tesla’s
wireless dream?
Léonie Alvey
37
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“When wireless is fully applied, the earth will be converted into

a huge brain, capable of response in every one of its parts.”
– Nikola Tesla
Over the years, we’ve written a lot about Nikola Tesla, of carrying out large-scale practical experiments that
of his inventions and of his life. However, we’ve only would hopefully lead to the invention of a wireless
touched briefly on his experiments at the Wardenclyffe power and communication system. This would later be
Tower and until now, have said nothing of what has known as Wardenclyffe Tower. Indeed, the tower itself
happened to the site since it was abandoned. In fact, was intended to be a prototype broadcasting tower that
a great deal of work has gone into saving the site and would be able to broadcast music, news, reports, and
even facsimile images anywhere in the world wirelessly,
drawing wider attention to it. But to fully explain what’s
using the Earth as a conductor.
happened, we must first revisit the site’s history.
Sadly, Tesla would realise none of these ideas. His vision
Why did Tesla build the tower? was greater than his wallet (and the patience of his
patron) and he ran into financial problems before the
Tesla had the revolutionary idea of creating a global, laboratory was even finished. The construction of the
wireless communication and power transfer system. tower itself consumed a huge amount of money and
That is to say, he wanted to supply electricity to homes resources and, partly due to the 1900’s economic crash, it
and businesses wirelessly, without the need of today’s became impossible for Tesla to get the funds he needed
transmission and distribution grid. He saw the world to finish the work. Ultimately, in 1917, the tower was
itself as a source of ‘free’ energy and believed it possible dismantled and sold for scrap to pay off Tesla’s debts,
to transmit electrical power through the Earth’s upper leaving the once revolutionary site a painful, empty
atmosphere - he just needed to find a way of achieving reminder of his failed dream. However, not everything
this. was removed from the site; the original red brick
laboratory and the base of the tower still stand today,
Tesla’s ideas might seem far-fetched, and many in the making it the only Tesla laboratory still in existence.
scientific community considered them impossible, but
experiments he had conducted at his Colorado Springs
laboratory in 1899 had convinced him otherwise. He
Saving Wardenclyffe
also had some success as he had previously managed to After the tower was sold, the site (including the
power three light bulbs from 30 m away without a wired laboratory) spent many decades being used by various
connection. Unfortunately, he’d only been able to do companies until the last business left in 1987. The next
this using near-field effects, meaning that the amount 20 years saw the site unused and neglected until it
of energy transmitted decreased rapidly with increasing piqued the interest of a science museum board from a
distance between the transmitter and receiver, making it local high school. The school museum was looking for a
unworkable over the large distances needed for wireless way to expand to accommodate its growing number of
power distribution. It was this limitation that he needed programs. Wardenclyffe, with its historical significance
to overcome to make his dream a reality and to do so, he and close location, seemed like the ideal place to do this.
needed to conduct larger experiments.
The museum board began by creating the Friends
Seeing the potential in Tesla’s ambitious ideas, in of Science East, Inc (FSE) with the aim of preserving
1900 J P Morgan decided to back him with $150 000 Wardenclyffe and developing it into a science and
(equivalent to about $5 million today). Tesla used this education centre. Over the next few years, FSE raised
to commission celebrated architect Stanford White to awareness and gained financial support from a range
build a red-brick laboratory on a 16-acre site in New of fraternal, civic, and business groups. It then began to
York, along with a 187 ft wooden tower for the purpose conduct business as the Tesla Science Center at
38 WHAT BECAME OF NIKOLA TESLA’S WIRELESS DREAM?

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Wardenclyffe Tower in the early 1900s, courtesy of TSCW
Wardenclyffe (TSCW), a non-profit organisation that had

The restoration
hopes of receiving the site as a donation.
Once Wardenclyffe was safe in the hands of TSCW, the
However, in 2012 the site was put up for sale for $1.6 restoration and preservation work began. The site and
million by the company that owned it. They had a buildings were secured and cleaned, and the grounds
potential buyer who intended to use the site for retail were cleared. Work was done to uncover the hidden
purposes and was likely to tear down the laboratory. At parts of the tower base and to prepare for the erection of
this point, the TSCW needed financial support to save a Tesla statue, which was gifted to TSCW by the People’s
and preserve Tesla’s legacy and one of its supporters, Republic of Serbia at a ceremony attended by over 300
New York State, offered help. The State said that if TSCW people.
could raise $850 000, it would match it, which would
All this work was done by volunteers and their efforts
make it possible for TSCW to buy the site. Yet, even
were eventually recognised in the local press, where they
raising that amount of money would be a significant
were named People of the Year 2013. The work did not
challenge.
end there and over the next few years, TSCW continued
to turn the site into an accessible campus and to remove
The internet steps in dense and invasive vegetation. As a result, the lab and
tower base are now visible from outside the perimeter
In August 2012, popular internet cartoonist and creator
fence and the TSCW headquarters are on site within the
of the card game, ‘Exploding Kittens’, Matthew Inman
Wardenclyffe grounds.
(TheOatmeal.com), became aware of TSCW’s fund-raising
efforts. Having previously expressed his passion for Tesla The success of this restoration project finally got the
in his comics, he wanted to help create America’s first property listed on the National Register of Historic Places
Tesla Museum, so he worked with TSCW to launch an in 2018. The site had been nominated for this listing
online campaign to help raise funds. The original web many times over the course of its long history but failed
page for this can still be viewed on theoatmeal.com/blog/
to get it due to legal issues. The site’s new status was
tesla_museum.
a significant achievement for TSCW and recognises the
With the help of Inman’s large internet following, the historical significance of both its architecture and its
campaign was a huge success and raised $1.37 million. relation to Tesla’s work.
What’s more, Elon Musk, CEO of Tesla Motors, donated
$1 million to the cause! In May 2013, TSCW at last The most recent part of the ongoing restoration project
succeeded in buying Wardenclyffe. was completed in 2020 and involved the chimney and
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Early 1900s images from inside the laboratory, courtesy of TSCW
“As soon as completed, it will other place, however distant. In to predict the future of
be possible for a businessman in the same manner any picture, technology few, if any, have
New York to dictate instructions character, drawing, or print been as successful as Nikola
and have them instantly appear can be transferred from one to Tesla. That his final dream of
in type at his office in London another place. Millions of such transmitting power wirelessly
or elsewhere. He will be able instruments can be operated remains unrealised cannot
to call up, from his desk, and from but one plant of this kind. be seen as a failure – maybe
talk to any telephone subscriber More important than all of this, he could see possibilities and
on the globe, without any however, will be the transmission solutions that are still closed off
change whatever in the existing of power, without wires, which to the rest of us.
equipment. An inexpensive will be shown on a scale large
instrument, not bigger than a enough to carry conviction.” If he had had more funding,
watch, will enable its bearer to and lived a little longer, what
hear anywhere, on sea or land, - Nikola Tesla, Wireless
Telegraphy and Telephony new wonders might he have
music or song, the speech of
magazine, 1908. achieved?
a political leader, the address
of an eminent man of science,
or the sermon of an eloquent Of the many engineers and
clergyman, delivered in some scientists who have dared
40 WHAT BECAME OF NIKOLA TESLA’S WIRELESS DREAM?V

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A view from behind the laboratory, showing the tower in its entirety, courtesy of TSCW
cupola. The chimney needed emergency repair and interacting with the water table below the tower. They
during its restoration an arched brick opening was could even simply be paths to other buildings that
discovered at the base of the eastern chimney wall. weren’t yet built.
This is an unusual feature that the TSCW is currently
When asked about this, Douglas Borge commented: “We
investigating with the help of experts in historic
believe the tunnels were used to accommodate equipment
architecture and archaeology. However, this isn’t the only
for testing and experiments. It’s a long way to climb six
interesting discovery the site has produced.
flights of stairs every time you want to do an experiment,
so it could be possible Tesla’s plan was to have them as
Tunnels under Wardenclyffe staging areas. We are unsure of the purpose of the earth
There were rumours that Tesla built a series of four grippers, but they could have been used in part to map
tunnels underneath the laboratory, as mentioned in some the interior of the Earth to look for precious metals and
newspapers from the 1900s. In 2017, a television crew work on a global radar system. As far as we know, Tesla
from the TV show ‘Secrets of the Underground’ used never wrote anything about the tunnels and earth grippers
ground-penetrating radar to confirm the existence of beyond what Marc J Seifer reported in his book Wizard:
these tunnels and even two potential rooms. The Life and Times of Nikolas Tesla. If anyone comes
across anything else about them, please let us know!”
We interviewed TSCW’s Chief Operating Officer, Douglas
Borge, about these tunnels and he told us: “There were No further research appears to have been published
four tunnels about 60 to 70 ft underground, three of on these tunnels and it seems that they have yet to be
which were 100 ft long and a fourth about 40 ft long. excavated. Borge explains: “We can explore and excavate
Above them were ‘earth grippers’ fanning out like spokes as much as we are allowed, but we face limitations
on a wheel. The North Tower ran parallel to a main from permitting and funding.” So, it is possible that
thoroughfare known as Route 25, around 30 ft away the questions about these mysterious tunnels could be
from the base of the tower. Two tunnels crisscrossed answered in the future.
underneath the tower and at the ends closest to Route
25, they attached to the front tunnel. The 40-ft long back What is Wardenclyffe like today?
tunnel attached to one of the back crossed tunnels on the
Today, even though work on the site has not been
east side. That short tunnel ran parallel to the front tunnel
completed, TSCW regularly holds events at Wardenclyffe.
and moved inwards, west.”
The site has become a landmark for the local area and is
The purpose of the tunnels is uncertain, and many a popular tourist destination for dedicated Tesla fans.
theories have been put forward: they could act as
A major demolition project is planned as part of the next
drainage for the main building, or maybe they were
phase of restoration, in which the surrounding dilapidated
designed to enhance the tower’s connection with
factory buildings will be removed. Additionally, a private
the earth, or maybe even to improve its resonance by
donor has funded the construction of a visitor centre on
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Wardenclyffe as it stands today, courtesy of TSCW
site, enabling TSCW to welcome more guests, provide

historic tours, and pilot innovative STEM-based exhibits,
education, and community events.
Asked about long-term plans for the site after it has been
fully restored, Borge said: “Tesla’s historic lab is at the
heart of the visitor experience. It will be renovated and
reimagined to showcase his legacy and inventions. It will
honour Tesla’s life and work by telling his story accurately
so future generations can fully understand this great
man, the contributions he made to the world, and his
ethos of innovation. The Tesla Lab Experience will attract
visitors with interactive, immersive, and engaging exhibits
and activities that merge history and storytelling with
technology and innovation.
Tesla’s belief in the importance of invention will be

demonstrated through cutting-edge, future-oriented
science exhibits and public EdTech programming, both on-
site and virtual. The focus will be on exploring the process
of innovation and creating a collaborative laboratory Nikola Tesla’s statue outside the laboratory, courtesy of
environment to inspire emerging innovators of all ages TSCW
from around the world.
Wardenclyffe Tower can be seen on the north side of Route
Additionally, we will convene a global virtual network of
25A between the intersection of Randall Road and the Fire
incubators under the Tesla brand for start-ups in Tesla-
Department in Shoreham, Long Island, New York.
inspired industries such as alternative energy, wireless,
medical devices, and electronics. A business accelerator
will hold innovation challenges, both on-site and virtually,
aimed at solving social and corporate problems, and a
maker space will be created to help train people on the
tools needed to invent.”
The TSCW continues to fundraise to restore the

laboratory and its grounds. You can visit its official
website at https://teslasciencecenter.org, where you can
read the full history of the laboratory, get updates on the
site’s development, attend upcoming events held at the
site and donate to the cause.
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A global view
of power
transformer
technology
present and
future
Dr Diego Robalino
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Electrical energy, a fundamental component of human with large power transformers and other critical grid
life today, has not yet become available to all societies. hardware. Interested readers are encouraged to visit the
The need for technological growth to ensure safe and Office of Electricity website for more information.
reliable energy provision is the subject of discussions
The TRAC program looks after coordinated efforts
globally but there are also major concerns about climate
to increase energy efficiency, improve operations,
change and the effect of global warming. Certainly, it is
enhance asset utilisation and management, increase
almost impossible to envisage a perfect balance between
system resilience, and support increased domestic
technological growth and environmental protection, but
manufacturing.
all those involved in energy generation, transmission,
distribution, and consumption have an active part to play TRAC envisions power transformers being flexible and
in making life as sustainable as possible. The net effect adaptable for advanced applications in the future power
of electrification depends most on future advances in the grid. Objectivies include, but are not limited to:
cost and efficiency of electric end-use technologies and
Cost comparable to conventional units
their social impact.
Efficiency > 99 % at all levels of loading
The reliability of power systems is another global
concern. The North American Electric Reliability 25 % size/weight reduction
Corporation (NERC) defines a reliable bulk power system
Controllable impedance range 5 – 21 %
as one that is “able to meet the electricity needs of
end-use customers even when unexpected equipment A flexible transformer can adapt to a range of voltage
failures or other factors reduce the amount of available ratios and impedance levels, which leads to reduced
electricity.” NERC relies on a set of policies designed to manufacturing times and costs compared with today’s
support adequate operation of the grid to maintain a transformers. One important benefit is that flexible
constant balance between supply and demand, as well as transformers will be available to replace damaged
security to respond to and withstand sudden, unexpected transformers in days rather than months as it is at
disturbances, or unanticipated loss of system elements present.
due to natural causes, as well as disturbances caused by
The US Department of Energy (DOE) has regulated the
man-made physical or cyber attacks.
energy efficiency level of low voltage dry-type distribution
The power grid is meant not only to be reliable but transformers since 2007 and has issued a new ruling
also safe and efficient. The grid is evolving to provide on efficiency levels for low-voltage dry-type distribution
a more resilient and cleaner energy future where the transformers. The new efficiency levels, which came into
methods of energy generation and distribution change effect on 1 January, 2016, are commonly referred to
and, therefore, electrical asset design and manufacturing as the DOE 2016 Efficiency levels. Because of the new
evolve to match the current technological demand, regulations, manufacturers have had to redesign their
thereby reducing losses and improving performance. products to increase efficiency.
Research and development, testing, and global co-
On 14 September, 2021, a new Federal Register was
operation are needed to encourage the assessment and
published by the DOE: 10 CFR Part 431 “Energy
adoption of new designs, technologies, and approaches
Conservation Program: Test Procedure for Distribution
that support this continuous evolution.
Transformers”. This reports the technical analyses and
Power and distribution transformer results that support the evaluation of energy conservation
standards for distribution transformers. Changes in test
technology procedures are in-line with the changes in updated IEEE
In the United States of America, the Office of Electricity standards including C57.12.00-2015; C57.12.01-2020;
manages the Transformer Resilience and Advanced C57.12.90-2015; C57.12.91-2020.
Components (TRAC) Program to accelerate the
modernisation of the grid by addressing challenges
46 A GLOBAL VIEW OF POWER TRANSFORMER TECHNOLOGY PRESENT AND FUTURE

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Figure 1: Population without access to electricity (source IEA [1])
Transformer efficiency is not only a current topic in the

North American region. In July 2015, the minimum
energy performance standard produced by CENELEC Electrical energy,
(the European Committee for Electrotechnical a fundamental
Standardization) specified maximum losses for both the
component of
core and the windings of distribution transformers and
the minimum peak efficiency for power transformers. human life today,
Increases in distribution transformer efficiency are based
has not yet become
on a reduction of losses, of which there are two principal available to all
varieties: no-load losses and load losses. No-load losses societies.
occur mostly in the transformer core, and for that reason,
the terms ‘no-load loss’ and ‘core loss’ are sometimes
interchanged. ‘Load loss’ arises mainly in the windings.
95 % of liquid-immersed distribution transformers,
Measures taken to reduce one type of loss typically
whereas commercial/industrial entities use mainly dry
increase the other type. Some examples of options to
transformers.
improve efficiency include: higher grade electrical core
steels, different conductor types and materials, and
adjustments to core and coil configurations.
The renewable energy market
Changes in design and construction are not easily The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)
implemented. For example, the use of amorphous provides an analysis of the grid integration opportunities,
steel presents a number of challenges. First, there are challenges, and implications of renewable electricity
few suppliers: only one in the US, with international generation for the US electric system. The NREL reports
production in China, Japan, Germany, and South Korea. point to major factors in the energy consumption
Second, the cost per pound of amorphous electrical steel forecasts, which include:
is approximately 1.5 times that of a typical M3 grain- Vehicle electrification dominates incremental
oriented electrical steel. As a result, amorphous cores growth in annual electricity demand with
have a very small penetration in the current market, with the average electric vehicle being driven
grain-oriented steel predominating in the manufacture of 12 to 14 thousand miles per year
distribution transformers.
Addition of solar PV, supplying power
The application of distribution transformers varies to commercial and residential buildings,
significantly by type – liquid-immersed or dry – and as well as to transportation systems
ownership. Electric utilities own approximately
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Changes in global climate are tending to increase power transformers. In this context, digitalisation implies
the use of air conditioning and space heating that sensors are embedded in the power transformer
to continuously monitor its performance or condition.
As reported in the World Energy Outlook 2021 published
The sensors may support Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA),
by the International Energy Agency (IEA [1]), a new
energy economy is emerging. It is not quite clear how temperature and moisture measurement, loading profile
the emerging process is going to evolve, but it will be cooling control, and more. The objectives are to facilitate
different in many ways. PV and electric vehicle sales predictive asset management, minimise losses, and
reached new records in 2020. Some of the studies enhance efficiency.
presented in the IEEE Transformers Committee show
The life of a power transformer is in reality the life of
loading is likely to increase by between 10 and 40 %.
its insulation system. Due to their affordability and
It is therefore important to consider a scenario where
beneficial properties, cellulose-based materials are by far
the average equivalent load is close to 50 % of the
the most common type of solid insulation used in power
transformer’s nameplate capacity, but the peak load may
transformers, often used in conjunction with insulating
exceed 100 % of this capacity. One way of dealing with
this potential load increase is by adopting an upgraded fluids. Made from pure cellulose, these materials have
insulation system consisting of natural or synthetic ester excellent electrical and oil impregnation characteristics, as
fluids used in conjunction with thermally upgraded kraft well as good mechanical properties.
paper.
In relation to insulation materials, research objectives
To this evolution of the power grid and the integration established by groups such as TRAC include:
of renewable sources, distributed generation, and
Dielectric strength > 300 V/mil
microgrids, developments in power electronics are
creating the possibility of solid-state transformers (SSTs). Dielectric loss angle (tan delta) < 0.05 % at 60 Hz
These promise to manage the highly variable, two-
Enhanced material properties that remain stable
way flow of electricity between, say, a microgrid and
the main grid. SSTs can be significantly smaller than over the useful life of assets (20 to 40 years)
an equivalent conventional transformer, about half Temperature withstand > 130 ºC
the weight and a third of the volume, but there are in continuous operation
limitations relating to cost and to voltage levels. Future
research can be confidently expected to reveal more Testing is fundamental. More materials are now in the
about SSTs. research and development pipeline and their behaviour
must be well understood, not only by researchers, but
Improved testing and diagnostics also by end-users. In the last two decades, we have
heard more about the use of ester fluids in power
technologies
and distribution transformers. Transformers with solid
From time to time, new terminology appears which insulation immersed in mineral oil represent the most
may sound quite daunting. For example, digitalised significant fire safety hazard in electrical substations. Ester
48 A GLOBAL VIEW OF POWER TRANSFORMER TECHNOLOGY PRESENT AND FUTURE

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development, testing,
liquids however are less of a fire hazard than mineral oils, and global cooperation
as they not only have higher flash and fire points but also
lower net calorific value. By using a less flammable fluid
are needed to encourage
than traditional oil as a coolant and dielectric insulator, the assessment and
the risks associated with potential transformer fires are adoption of new
significantly reduced.
designs, technologies,
In addition, synthetic and natural ester fluids are readily
and approaches that
biodegradable, they show very low oral toxicity, and
they are not classified as toxic to aquatic life. These support this continuous
factors may permit easier use in installations in sensitive evolution.
environments such as water catchment areas and
offshore wind farms.
Turning to solid insulation, high-temperature transformers energy market, if it follows the plan towards the 2050
are now quite common around the world. High- net-zero emissions scenario (NZE), will be much larger
temperature insulation, including enamel and tape wrap than today’s oil industry.
for conductors, winding spacers, and mechanical support
Digitalisation, monitoring, and control of transformer
materials, is commonly used in mobile, locomotive, and
performance are becoming more available and
rectifier transformers. These applications benefit from the
affordable. Predictive maintenance based on advanced
lighter weight, improved reliability, and longer life offered
data processing algorithms is enthusiastically progressing
by the use of high-temperature materials. For many
years, these materials have also allowed manufacturers and the key concern is no longer how to handle the
to provide solutions for repair applications and mobile volume of data involved, but how to be confident in the
transformers. quality of the data.
High-temperature transformers for traction applications The introduction of new types of insulating fluids will
have been produced for many years, but more recently, help with the development of transformers to meet
this technology has become increasingly common in future requirements, but it can also be a challenge for
pole-type distribution transformers and wind-turbine the transformer industry when the behaviour of the
transformers. Those interested in the use of high- new fluids is not fully understood. The performance of
temperature insulating materials in power transformers an insulating fluid is highly dependent on its chemistry
are recommended to read IEC 60076-14. and alternative insulating fluids such as esters behave
differently from the well-known mineral oil.
Summary
Whatever the challenges, however, and irrespective
Demand in emerging and developing economies remains of how the power grid evolves, one thing is certain:
on the growth trajectory that resumed in the second power transformers will continue to play a crucial role in
half of 2020, and it is likely that the projected strong transmission and distribution for years to come. As we
economic recovery for China and India will further
have seen, even though transformers have been with us
accelerate this trajectory. This means that reliability of
for almost a century and a half, progress in their design
supply and affordability of electricity are set to become
and construction continues apace, which means that
even more critical in every aspects of people’s lives.
the future is sure to bring developments that are both
Solar PV and wind already represent rapidly evolving interesting and exciting.
sources of new electricity generation. The renewable
REFERENCES
[1] IEA, Population without access to electricity in the Stated Policies and Net Zero by 2050 scenarios, 2000-2030, IEA, Paris https://www.
iea.org/data-and-statistics/charts/population-without-access-to-electricity-in-the-stated-policies-and-net-zero-by-2050-scenarios-2000-2030
A GLOBAL VIEW OF POWER TRANSFORMER TECHNOLOGY PRESENT AND FUTURE 49

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Stray currents in
water pipes in a
reverse osmosis
(RO) plant
David Stockin,
E&S Grounding
Solutions
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This article has been contributed by David Stockin, President of E&S Grounding Solutions,
a company with extensive expertise in the development, design, and implementation of
grounding systems.
About reverse osmosis filters (a combination of reactors and capacitors),

active harmonic filters, pulse width modulation (PWM)
Reverse osmosis (RO) water plants rely on high pressure technology, isolation transformers, electromagnetic
and an electrochemical process, or more accurately, an compatibility (EMC) filters, grounding bushings for motor
electrochemical gradient, to clean and desalinate water. shafts, isolated grounding electrodes, and more. This
It’s called an electrochemical process because it involves article will not examine the electrical engineering needed
both chemistry and electricity. In this article, we will limit to reduce the impacts of a VFD, other than to say that
details of the process to say that too much electrical flow if you are using VFDs, you probably have objectionable
can not only interfere with the desalination and cleaning electrical noise, which means you should look into
of the water, but can also increase the corrosion rates of improving your grounding systems and using some sort
the steel infrastructure at the plant. of filtering technology.
A good rule of thumb regarding the use of seawater RO Based on these factors, one might start to think that
treatment to clean and desalinate water is that you will many water processing facilities seem to be almost
need a 480 V three-phase system supplying motors with intentionally designed to inject stray currents into the
an aggregate power rating of 300 hp (250 kW) to treat water being processed. Many folks know that clean
about 500 000 gallons (2 million litres) per day, which water does not conduct electricity very well, but saltwater
is around 20 000 gallons (80 000 litres) per hour. This is highly conductive and ‘raw’ water – that is the water
treatment system, with a variable frequency drive (VFD), before it has passed through the treatment membranes
will draw between 400 and 450 A just to supply the – is typically also conductive. Once stray currents start
pump motors! flowing through the water, they must escape somewhere
before the water becomes clean and non-conductive.
The advantages of adding a VFD to an electric motor
cannot be overstated. Not only can it improve electrical If that escape point is where the membranes are
efficiency, it can provide programmable speed changes, situated, these stray currents could interfere with the
improved torque ratings, soft starts, soft stops, smooth electrochemical processes occurring between the layers
operations at lower speeds, improved consistency, higher of the membranes, causing a loss of efficiency. If that
braking torque, and many other benefits. But there is escape point is only through the steel filter casings or
a downside to VFDs. While all electric motors generate steel piping, and currents are forced to travel great
some electrical noise and large electromagnetic fields that distances before they can find a path-to-ground, that
can induce unwanted currents into the surrounding steel longitudinal flow of current can dramatically increase the
infrastructure, VFDs are known to introduce additional rate of corrosion on the steel structural members of the
objectionable resonant, harmonic, and switching RO plant.
frequencies into the electrical system.
Many of these objectionable frequencies will end up on About grounding/earthing

the armature and shaft of the motor, which happens
There are generally two types of grounding or earthing
to be right where the impeller for the water pump is
systems: those that are designed to handle unwanted
connected. This is the perfect place for stray currents to
currents, and those that are designed to protect systems
enter into the raw water side of the RO system.
from those currents. Consider a high voltage electrical
There are many ways to reduce the electrical noise substation or lightning protection system; both are
generated by VFDs, including the use of passive harmonic designed to handle objectionable electrical currents
52 STRAY CURRENTS IN WATER PIPES IN A REVERSE OSMOSIS (RO) PLANT

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and safely conduct those currents to the earth. In these amount of objectionable and stray currents entering the
cases, we want to design a grounding system with lots of water system during the initial pumping stage. Second,
connections and parallel paths so that we can ‘divide and a sound well-bonded grounding system will remove the
conquer’ the current. However, in the case of a sensitive remaining currents, helping to improve the efficiency of
electronic device inside a substation, we will only want the membranes and to reduce the rates of corrosion.
to install single-point or ‘isolated ground’ connections
to prevent objectionable currents from damaging the Testing grounding systems
sensitive equipment. In the case of an RO plant, we
want to divide and conquer the current with lots of How can we make measurements to see if we have stray
connections from the steel components down to the currents in our water system? For this, the best tool is a
earth. Megger DET14C or DET24C Ground Resistance Clamp
Tester. Similar functionality is provided by the DET2/3 and
Note: The term ‘objectionable current’ is often used by the
DET4 products with the so-called “stakeless” method,
National Electrical Code (NEC) to indicate normal neutral currents
which uses two separate clamps. These instruments
that return to the transformer via the grounding system rather
contain two transducing transformers capable of
than via the neutral wire. In this article, we are using the term
accurately measuring alternating currents as low as 0.5
more broadly for all kinds of stray currents, harmonic currents,
switching currents, transient currents, etc. Similar concepts are mA. They can also measure resistance by inducing a test
employed in the various IEC standards in relation to earthing. signal via one of the coils. The first coil is an active coil
that injects a known test signal into whatever object is
This might be a good time to cover a few basic principles: placed between its jaws. The second coil is a passive coil
First, electricity relies on the movement of free electrons capable of measuring the return signal and any losses
and ions, which are contributed by atoms.. Where do we that may have occurred during its travels through the
happen to have a lot of atoms? In the earth! So, if we circuit, thereby allowing the instrument to calculate a
have a well-designed grounding system, we can ‘dump’ resistance value for the circuit under test. We can use this
objectionable currents into the earth to get rid of them instrument to test whether our RO plant has stray and
by providing a conducting path for them. objectionable currents.
Second, copper is 12 to 17 times more conductive than There are several places around our facility where we will
steel. Copper is also diamagnetic so the magnetic field want to make measurements. First of all, let’s measure
can penetrate it to a depth some 250 to 6000 times current by setting the instrument in the ammeter mode
greater than in steel, so high-frequency currents are (dial in the “A” position). In the current measuring
conducted with less concentration on the surface of the mode, the active transducer is turned off, and the passive
conductor. This positive effect is multiplied at the high current transformer is turned on.
switching speeds and harmonics of VFD noise, making a There are some key areas where we will want to make
direct ground system bond to the VFD an effective way measurements:
of conducting objectionable currents directly to the earth
and away from sensitive systems. The Grounding Electrode Conductor
(GEC) at the main electrical panel
Third, the longitudinal flow of current on steel (and other
metals) can increase the rate of corrosion. Providing an The GEC (X0) at the supply
alternative and more conductive path to earth, in the transformer, if possible
form of copper, aluminum, or stainless-steel conductors, The GEC to the main grounding electrode system
will help balance the difference in potential within the
facility. It is one of the best ways to protect your facility The GEC, if installed, at the Variable
from the hazards of objectionable currents. Frequency Drive (VFD)
So, what have we learned? First, it is very important The Equipment Grounding Conductor
to install electrical measures at the VFD to reduce the (EGC) going to the VFD
STRAY CURRENTS IN WATER PIPES IN A REVERSE OSMOSIS (RO) PLANT 53

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All of the equipotential ground grid The GEC to the main grounding electrode system
connections to the RO plant structural steel
The Equipment Grounding Conductor
Any plastic water pipe you can clamp, (EGC) going to the VFD
especially on the raw water side
All of the equipotential ground grid
Megger DET14C and DET24C Ground Resistance Clamp connections to the RO plant’s structural steel
Testers have a built-in automatic noise-current warning
The expected results will vary greatly depending upon
feature that will detect whether there is electrical noise
how the system was built, and which of the circuits we
(transients, harmonics, and other frequencies) on the
are measuring. Here are a few examples to help you
circuit being tested. Make sure to note the current for
evaluate your results:
each object tested and also whether or not the noise-
current warning feature is activated. All of the measured CASE 1 – Loop
currents should be less than 1 A, and they should ideally In some cases, when we clamp the meter
be less than 100 mA. around a conductor, the signal from the active
transducer will travel through the conductive
While it would be nearly impossible in this article to path of the loop back through the passive
discuss all of the possible causes of higher currents, here transducer, passing entirely through metal
are few examples: components. In this case, we are measuring
High current on the XO of the transformer ‘continuity’ (the resistance of an unknown
– you could have an erroneous neutral-to- metallic circuit) and we want to see a very
low resistance, much less than 0.1 ohms. This
ground bond in a subpanel (see NEC 250.6)
confirms that there is at least one full set of
High current on the GEC or EGC of the VFD conductive metallic paths (one loop) with
– you may need an electrical noise filtration effective bonds in that immediate area.
device, as discussed earlier in this article
CASE 2 – Resistance-to-ground
High current on your grounding electrode or at In other cases, when we clamp the instrument
the equipotential steel structural bonds – you around the conductor, the signal will travel down
may have an underrated grounding electrode the conductor, through a grounding electrode,
system that is not capable of conducting the into and across the earth (which will present
current load placed on it into the earth itself as a resistance), up another grounding
electrode, then through a metallic path, thus
High current on your plastic water pipe – you completing the loop back to the instrument. In
could have stray currents in your water system this case, we would expect to see a resistance
of, say, 25 ohms and in some cases much more.
Resistance tests: practical examples CASE 3 – Single-point or isolated ground
To conduct a few example tests, let’s place our Megger In yet another case, when we clamp the meter
DET14C or DET24C Ground Resistance Clamp Tester around the conductor, the signal will travel into
in resistance mode by setting the instrument in the a conductor that is bonded to an electrically
ohmmeter mode (dial in the “Ω” position). As you will floating object with no return path. Imagine
a wood monopole with a single ground wire
recall, this meter has two transducing transformers, one
bonded to a metal box. In this case, we would
active and one passive. In resistance mode, both coils will
expect the meter to return an open circuit
be turned on; the active coil will induce a known signal
reading, confirming that the connection is in fact
into the conductor the meter is clamped around and
single point. An ordinary ohmmeter with test
the passive coil will read the returning signal to provide
leads should be used to confirm continuity back
a resistance measurement up to the limitations of the
to the facility’s grounding system in these cases.
instrument. If no signal is returned, the instrument will
read open circuit (that is, a resistance higher than it can In most instances in an RO plant scenario, we would
measure). With the instrument in resistance mode, we want to see CASE 1 so we can confirm that continuity
will want to measure the following items: exists on our equipotential grounding system and that
the bonds are in good condition.
54 STRAY CURRENTS IN WATER PIPES IN A REVERSE OSMOSIS (RO) PLANT

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E&S Grounding Solutions highly recommends using a site a ‘leaky’ transformer at the substation are believed to be
plan (map) of the facility and placing the results of the entering the water supply and damaging his client’s RO
tests on the plan so that you can visually see where high plant. He is currently investigating the use of a buried
current and/or bad resistance readings occur. Only then anti-EMI copper curtain to protect the plant from these
can you make an educated decision about how to fix any hazards. Of course, what he really needs is for the utility
issues that have been found. company to replace the faulty electrical gear at the
substation!
Is your RO plant mostly composed of plastic
piping and do you have stray currents in the
water that are causing equipment failures Conclusion
and corrosion? Perhaps you need to install Stray electrical currents in water are a big problem
a short stretch of stainless steel pipe that for many people, not only in industry but also in the
is bonded to your grounding system so residential environment. Over the years, we have heard
that your stray currents flowing through from numerous homeowners about stray currents coming
the water will have a path-to-ground up from the water main and into their home causing
that is not via the membrane filters. issues not only with the water pipes, but also with cable
Does the grounding system tied to the VFD televisioin (CATV) systems, telephone systems, and more.
have high levels of noise and current on An electrical isolator on the incoming water main is
it? Perhaps you need an electronic filtering typically a good idea as long as you’re not using your
system and an improved Grounding Electrode water pipe as your main grounding electrode. (Note:
Conductor (GEC) connection to your below- you need a bond to your copper water pipe to your
grade grounding electrode system. grounding system, however you really should use a
Do you seem to have higher than desired dedicated grounding electrode as your fault current path,
currents on just about everything you measured? and not use your water pipe as an electrode). Measuring
Perhaps you need a better grounding electrode the currents in the water with a Megger DET14C or
system and a good panel inspection to see if you DET24C Ground Resistance Clamp Tester by clamping
have objectionable neutral currents traveling around a plastic water pipe can be a great way to quickly
back to the transformer on your exposed see if you have alternating currents travelling through the
conductive metallic parts (see NEC 250.6). water supply (direct currents cannot be measured using
such transducers).
We spoke to Alan Davies, the President of HydroDynamic
Solutions, a leading installer of industrial-grade reverse A properly bonded water supply system that complies
osmosis systems. He tells the story of a client who spends with the National Electrical Code (NEC) Article 250.52(A)
over $100 000 USD each year on water pump losses (1), 250.53(D), 250.68(C), 250.104(A), and other
alone, due to stray currents in the RO plant raw water industrial codes, is always a great starting point for
system. A nearby electrical substation owned by the reducing the impacts of electrochemical issues in your
utility company is believed to be the culprit as he has water system.
inspected his own system carefully. Stray currents from
STRAY CURRENTS IN WATER PIPES IN A REVERSE OSMOSIS (RO) PLANT 55

Earth/Ground testing
It’s a common expression that “the devil is in the detail” and this is
especially true of electrical testing. Often, a technician or operator will
familiarise themselves with a new field of testing, will learn the theory,
the accepted procedures, and master the fundamentals until they fully
understand how and why the test is done. Then, they’ll acquire the correct
Q: Do I just run the leads out, push in the spikes, and executed test and a well-spaced and well-performed one.
run the test? Other procedures use mathematics to weed out bad results.
The math exercise tells the operator the accuracy of the
A: Yes and no. That would be convenient, but it doesn’t
reading and therefore its reliability. In worst-case instances,
always work. It might give you the correct reading, but you
the mathematics may not calculate at all.
don’t know. Ground testing is more procedure dependent
than many other types of electrical testing. That’s because Q: How deep do I drive the probes?
the test item isn’t a discrete object; you’re making a A: Like alligator clips in more common test procedures,
connection to the planet. You may indeed be able to run metal spikes provide the connection needed to execute the
the lead set provided out to full length, make a test, and get test. For ground tests, the connection is with the earth. It
the right answer. But it’s purely a matter of luck (test leads is generally not necessary to pound the probes in as far as
often conform to the 62 % rule, so you’ll have a pretty good they will go. Exceptions do exist, mainly in poor grounding
chance, but it’s not a sure thing). You can’t be confident soil, but in most instances, probes can be pushed in by
in the result, and a client would never accept it. You could hand. Modern testers require only minimal amounts of
still be within the electrical field of the ground you’re trying current and voltage to make highly accurate measurements.
to test, there could be a water main or live buried cable What’s more, a quality tester will have indicators that tell the
right underneath the test probe, or any of numerous other operator if there is any problem with the probes. Pounding
deviations from the ideal. The standard test procedures that probes all the way in is extra work and can also be a hazard
have been devised for the industry can sort out a bad test to one’s back and knees when pulling them out.
from a good one.
Q: If the probe contact is inadequate, what can
Q: How far do I extend the test leads? I do?
A: There’s no simple answer to this. It depends on A: In the ‘old days’, operators had to rely much more
the variables of the test site and can only be effectively on experience and intuition in diagnosing problems when
determined by trial and error. Some standard procedures test results were questionable. There was a lot of educated
– but not all of them – have a built-in proof, and your guesswork. As explained above, modern testers tell you
chances of clearing the proof on the first test are enhanced what’s wrong. But it’s easy to focus on those big digits – or
by following a standard table that relates the size of the on where they should be – and overlook the small details
electrode under test (diagonal of a ground grid, length of a around the edge of the display. Always scan the whole
deep-driven rod, etc) to lead length. These tables occur quite display for potential issues. Indicators will typically tell you,
frequently in the literature and their recommendations may for example, if the test probes aren’t making sufficient
vary. This is because they are practical, not scientific. If you contact with the soil. This is more likely to be an issue with
don’t have the working space (remember, this can easily be the current probe, as it must inject the test current, but it
hundreds of yards for large grids), it doesn’t mean you can’t could be with the voltage probe – or both. Probe resistance
test. Work within the available space and if you’ve followed should never defeat your test. Quality testers can tolerate
a rigorous procedure and the results seem reasonable, all’s thousands of ohms in the test circuit. If the resistance
good. between the probe and surrounding soil does go over limit,
Q: What is meant by proofing a test result? just reduce it by pounding the probes in deeper, tamping
A: Numerous test procedures have been devised by the soil, or possibly adding water. Remember, you are not
field operators over the years to meet different objectives. falsifying or rigging the test by adding water to the probes.
Some are meant to overcome difficult physical conditions, The test does not measure the resistance of the probes; it
some to save time, and some to provide assurance about measures the test ground. If you were to water the ground
the accuracy and reliability of the measurement. Be sure rod that you’re trying to measure rather than the probe,
to understand the purpose of the procedure and which then you would be influencing the result.
of these objectives it is meant to address. The most basic, Q: What about testing in a noisy environment?
accepted, and reliable of all procedures, fall of potential, A: In the ‘old days’, when you couldn’t get the pointer
provides a graph of measurements versus distance. This to stop swinging, you averaged the swings. It’s better
graph will clearly distinguish between a poorly conceived or now. Modern testers have several weapons against noise,
56 Q&A
instruments, read the instruction manuals and head out into the field to
set up the test and - oops! Something unanticipated and unexplained
stops the testing or creates an ambiguity that undermines confidence in
the results. Answers are needed, and in this issue we look at the most
commonly asked questions about earth/ground testing in the field.
including filtering, higher test currents, and frequency good idea to always have a clamp-on ammeter and check
adjustment. Quality testers will tell you when there is noise, the ground current before testing starts.
so that you know what the issue is and are therefore in a Q: Do I have to lift the utility ground?
better position to address it. Some testers automatically
A: Yes. Usually, the on-site ground is paralleled with
initiate corrective measures, some leave it to the operator,
the utility ground feeding the site by a jumper from ground
and some do both. Note that there are noise threats from
bus to neutral bus at the service. A perfectly good test can
both above and below; that is to say, air and ground. Testers
be run without lifting the jumper and you’ll get a perfectly
are better equipped against ground noise, which is mostly
good measurement, but it is of the entire system, not just
composed of wandering currents trying to get back to
the on-site. You can lift the jumper long enough to run
the utility source. But don’t forget that noise sources can
the test, but this leaves the facility unprotected, however
be overhead, as from power lines, and these can be more
briefly. A temporary ground can be installed, but that still
difficult to suppress. Definitely don’t run test leads parallel
leaves the physical hassle of breaking the connection, which
to power lines; try to run them at right angles if possible.
is often a welded jumper. Some testers include a current
Snaking leads instead of having them running parallel to
clamp that can separate test current going to ground on-site
each other helps, as does the use of shielded leads.
from that going back to the utility, and the tester make its
Q: Does the facility have to be de-energised during calculation only on the on-site current. This solution doesn’t
testing? always work, as the utility ground resistance may be so low
A: No. You don’t have to shut down a whole switchyard that it hogs nearly all the test current, but this solution does
in order to test! Modern testers use so little current (a couple provide a viable option in many cases.
milliamps) and such low voltage (less than 50 V) that they do Q: Speaking of clamps, my clamp-on ground tester
not trip protective devices or damage loads. keeps reading over-range or open; is something
Q: Can ground testers/testing be dangerous? wrong?
A: No and yes. There is nothing about ground testing A: Probably not. When a clamp-on ground tester reads
itself that is inherently dangerous, nor are the testers. In the open circuit, you are probably trying to measure an open
‘old days’, yes. Higher voltages and currents were used in circuit! For the clamp-on technique to work, there must be a
bygone times. Modern quality testers, with microprocessor path that the test current induced by the clamp onto the rod
calculation, do not require so much power and so it is can find to complete the circuit. If you’re clamping over an
not used. Be aware, though, that equipment for specialty isolated ground, such as one just installed on a site not yet
applications – deep prospecting for oil, minerals, geologic connected to the utility, this type of tester cannot be used.
layers, and so forth – does need higher power and so such
Q: My clamp-on ground tester keeps reading
specialty instrumentation may require an extra level of
impractically low measurements; is something
awareness and caution.
wrong?
Q: But what about the test item?
A Probably not with the tester. Unlike a traditional
A: Aha! As in much of electrical testing, that’s another story. lead-and-probe tester, where the operator is in complete
We can make testers and procedures infinitely safe, but control by probe placement, the clamp-on controls the test.
they still get connected to potentially faulty equipment and It induces a current onto the clamped rod, and that current
circuitry. For ground testing, the risk is that of an ‘event’ finds its own way back. The operator has nothing to do with
occurring in the utility or on the premises while the test is in it. If the readings are suspiciously low – a tenth or two of an
progress. The chances of this are rather remote, but still, play ohm – the current has probably found an alternative path
it safe and follow industry standard safe-working practices through metal, not the earth. Examine the circuit. The tester
and employ personal protective equipment like gloves, is likely to be reading continuity, not earth resistance.
boots, and mats. In addition, note that substantial current
Don’t let lack of knowledge make you a victim of sloppy
may be flowing on the grounding conductor even when an
work. Ground testing requires more technique and operator
‘event’ is not occurring. This originates from unbalanced
involvement than many more familiar types of electrical test.
loads and wiring shortfalls. There usually isn’t enough
Make sure you can dot the i’s and cross the t’s.
voltage to be a risk, but there have been exceptions. It is a
Q&A 57
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58 ARTICLE TITLE
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IEC 61850, digital

substations, and
the Smart Grid
Niclas Wetterstrand
and Andrea Bonetti
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Niclas Wetterstrand Andrea Bonetti
IEC 61850 was launched in 2003 as a standard for digital substations and it is widely used
in such applications. In principle, however, the Smart Grid is just a regionally distributed
system of electrical substations, so IEC 61850 is also very relevant to the Smart Grid and,
in fact, the IEC has designated it as one of the core smart grid standards.
To find out what Megger is doing in relation to IEC 61850, Electrical Tester arranged for
Niclas Wetterstrand, Megger’s industry director for protection, to talk to Andrea Bonetti,
the senior specialist for relay protection and IEC 61850 in Megger Sweden.
NICLAS: How long has Megger been working with

digital substations and the smart grid?
N: I have heard a lot of discussion about the
KEMA certificate. Can you explain what it is
ANDREA: Megger has a long history of work relating
and how it relates to Megger products?
to IEC 61850. We started in 2008 with the development
of the GOOSER and the MGC (Megger GOOSE
A: The so-called “KEMA certificate” for IEC 61850 is
actually a test report from an accredited test institute – in
Configurator) for which we were granted a patent for this case KEMA (CESI today), although there are others.
some key pioneering concepts such as the comparison The certificate confirms a certain level of compliance
of network data with engineering data (SCL), and the with the IEC 61850 standard in terms of interoperability
secure access point that prevented connecting a PC to and, as it is produced by an independent accredited test
the communication network of the substation. GOOSER institute, it is known as a ‘Level A’ certificate.
was first marketed in 2009 and is now discontinued.
Its functionality is however embedded in relay test A: ‘Level B’ certificate also confirms interoperability,
but it is released by a non-independent accredited
sets in our SMRT and FREJA 5xx ranges. For process
institute, for example, the Hitachi Energy IEC 61850
bus applications (Sampled Values), we implemented
laboratories in Switzerland. It is a common practice to
IEC 61850-9-2 LE (Light Edition) in 2010, when we
perform the tests for the first release of a product at Level
participated in a commissioning project in Central
A, and subsequent small adjustments or improvements
America. Over the years, IEC 61850 has progressed from
at Level B. Megger has ‘Level A KEMA’ certificates for
Edition 1 to Edition 2, and now to Edition 2.1 (which
GOOSE and Sampled Values.
isn’t really an all-encompassing new edition – something
I explained to ET readers in the first issue of this It is widely known that the certificates alone do not
magazine). At Megger, our job is to follow the standard fully ensure interoperability. Additional tests and a
and to incorporate the new concepts in our hardware good specification from the end user are needed if an
and software tools. IEC 61850 project is to run smoothly. Certification is a
minimum requirement which shows that the
60 IEC 61850, DIGITAL SUBSTATIONS, AND THE SMART GRID

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For example, in a practical situation one relay could be

out of service. The GOOSE messages from that relay will
N: How important is to have the correct
description of the substation in the SCL file?
disappear from the network, but they are still in the SCL
file. So, there will only be 80 substation messages but 85 A: Very important because the SCL file is the basic
documentation for troubleshooting when something
messages in the SCL file. Or it could be that somebody
unexpected happens. Moreover, it is the basic
has made changes to some relays but, when asked,
documentation for retrofitting. If the SCL file does not
they say they didn’t change anything. A quick check will
describe the substation, the entire IEC 61850 concept
show if this is true. Or an Ethernet switch may have been
falls apart. Many utilities insist on a comparison check of
replaced with a new switch that has different settings.
the as-built SCL file and the network traffic during factory
This means the VLANs are now different, which will result
acceptance testing (FAT) and site acceptance testing
in errors and warnings.
(SAT). An incorrect SCL file means no acceptance and no
N: What sort of problems have you discovered

in the field by comparing substation and SCL-
payment! By the way, when the SCL file describes the
substation, it is called an SCD (substation configuration
description) file.
file messages?
A: Issues I’ve identified so far include Ethernet
N: So, factory acceptance testing is yet another
switches replaced with the wrong settings, which meant application of the comparison test method?
that some GOOSE messages disappeared, and others lost
their VLAN tag. I’ve also seen IEDs reconfigured, which A: Yes, and it’s an important application. In the hands
of the end user, a comparison test is a powerful tool that
meant that some substation messages didn’t merge (i.e.,
enables them to determine whether or not there are
‘were different’) because of a different configuration
discrepancies. If there are, they need to be investigated
revision (ConfRev); IEDs out of service or disconnected,
and resolved.
which meant that some substation GOOSE messages
disappeared; and additional IEDs inserted so that new Some years ago, I was delivering an IEC 61850 training
substation messages appeared, which the SCL file hadn’t session for Megger. I explained how to test relays and
been updated to expect. I even saw a situation where the then went on to say that every Megger user has access
system integrator gave the customer what was supposed to the comparison test method, although they may not
to be the as-built SCL file. However, just five minutes of be aware of what they can do with it. The following
testing revealed that there were big differences between day, only two out of the ten participants turned up for
the GOOSE traffic and the SCL file – the SCL file did not training. When I asked about the others – wondering
reflect the substation! whether they had a big substation problem as they were
all utility employees – I was told that as a result of my
presentation, they were all around the region checking
their SCL files!
IEC 61850, DIGITAL SUBSTATIONS, AND THE SMART GRID 63

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N: What happens if we get, say, ten difference

warnings from a comparison test? What
N: How do these concepts relate to the smart
grid?
should we do then?
A: I would say that one of the main associations
A: It depends on the situation. If it’s a factory
acceptance test, it may be enough to write a report
is the cost. Nobody wants to pay for a periodic test
on a system that is still working correctly. On the one
about the warnings to withhold approval of the SCL hand, we want to have the best possible availability,
file. Or, you may want to join in with investigating why and on the other, we want a system that’s simple and
the differences have occurred. If you use it correctly, inexpensive, and that gives automatic alarms when
the Megger tool can identify the differences in the something needs to be repaired. The development of
comparison. This can be very difficult to determine automatic maintenance procedures will therefore help
manually, so the time savings can be enormous. The tool the development of the Smart Grid in all areas of society,
can’t resolve the differences, but it can pinpoint them.
even in our homes.
N: All of this sounds like it’s going to be very

expensive. N: But we don’t have an automatic system in
place...
A: Actually, it’s not. Every Megger user has access
to the comparison method, since the MGC software A: That’s correct, at the moment it’s manual, but
we have all the competences needed to implement an
for IEC 61850 is included as standard with Megger test
automatic system. What Megger needs is a friendly
equipment. But many Megger users don’t realise they
customer who is sensitive to these topics and willing to
have it! This method does, I’ll admit, need a certain level
of competence in relation to IEC 61850, which goes work with us to implement automatic comparison testing
beyond ‘relay testing’, but once you’re used to it, it’s not as a smart grid project.
rocket science. Even so, it would be much more effective
if comparison testing could be done automatically as N: Thank you, Andrea, for finding the time to take part
some sort of continuous monitoring. Moreover, I see that in this interview. It’s been both interesting and thought
others have only recently taken on this manual compare provoking. And I hope you’ll get some positive responses
concept that we brought to the market in 2009. relating to your search for a partner to work with you to
develop your ideas. Also, I’d just like to mention that we’d
N: What would be the advantages of automatic
comparison testing?
welcome feedback on this interview and, if ET readers
have questions, please forward them to us via the editor
A: We’re talking about self-supervision procedures,
automatic maintenance routines, event driven
([email protected]).
maintenance, and the like. The benefit of implementing

these is that they greatly increase the availability of
the system, compared with the use of periodic manual
testing procedures.
64 IEC 61850, DIGITAL SUBSTATIONS, AND THE SMART GRID

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POWERED BY
… Andrea Bonetti
At Megger, we strive to deliver exceptional innovations and great
products that make life easier for everyone performing electrical
measurements. It goes without saying that Megger’s stellar
achievements result from the efforts of its team of extraordinary
people. One of these is Andrea Bonetti, whom we had the pleasure of
interviewing for this month’s “Powered by …” series. Here’s what he
had to say:
1. Andrea, what is your role at Megger? digital techniques, for many reasons. One reason is that
new generations of engineers have grown up with these
I am a senior specialist in power system protection and IEC techniques, and they need to be conservatively guided to
61850 applications. apply new thinking to power system protection. Yet adopting
too many new ideas at the same time is as risky as doing
I work ‘horizontally’ between Sweden and the USA, which nothing. Nevertheless, we don’t want to discourage the new
is great for me. I’ve worked for a successful international generation from entering our field, so we need to find the
company previously, and I am grateful to have the best compromise.
opportunity to contribute to the growth of the Megger
International Group. My role is to try to get the diverse and 4. What do you like to do in your spare time?
positive strengths out of every element of this group.
I have many activities that I start, stop, and re-start. Chinese
People say I am a doer, and this is true. Thanks to the and Japanese martial arts have been a passion since I was
many projects with IEC 61850 that I participate in, 14. And, since I was 15, I have been a magician (https://
where people with very different competences need to www.magician.org/member/thebonniekids) - but this is now
push in the same direction, I have learned to motivate on hold. You need the passion to do it and at the moment,
groups. Being a doer allows me to lead by example. So, I I don’t have it. But it will probably come back again.
consider myself a “motivator outside of PowerPoint’”.
Planetary sky watching is something else that occupies
2. What do you most enjoy about your job? my time. I would recommend everybody to look up at the
night sky occasionally. I have also recently started to play
The fact that I never have the chance to get bored! Power golf; it is difficult and challenging – very challenging! I
system protection is a challenging field and, by definition, it should have started with it many years ago. A suggestion:
is not an exact science. Many say that it is an artform, and if you are thinking “maybe I should try it one day”, just
I agree with that. Commissioning tests, troubleshooting, do it. The longer you wait, the more difficult it will be!
and ‘making sure that the system works’ are tasks full of
responsibility. Every system has its own protection scheme 5. Tell us something about yourself that not many
and no two are ever the same. You can’t get bored! people know.
I also enjoy very much the team environment we have Well, when people find out that I am a magician, they
in Megger Sweden, and across the entire Megger always ask me to tell them how to cut a person into
business. Something that I’m particularly proud of is three. At that point, I tell them that they want to know
that we have clear values in Megger, and many of our “something that not many people know”, and I ask
managers show them upfront when they start their them if they can keep a secret. The answer is always
presentations. I think this is really motivating for the rest “yes”. And the reply from me is always “me too”!
of the team and helps reinforce what we believe in.
6. If you were president of the world, what would be your
3. What has been your biggest work-related challenge to first executive order?
date?
My long-term desire, inspired by Elon Musk, is to make
I think that the biggest work-related challenge has been, reasonable efforts for us to become a multiplanetary species.
and still is, finding a compromise between adopting a new, My short-term wish would be to obligate every company
forward-thinking approach and being conservative in our to spell out its values upfront. I proudly work for Megger,
field – which is historically conservative. We shouldn’t forget where the top management drives our values, which are
that when the lights work in our homes, this is in large part always visible. If I couldn’t compel companies to do this, at
thanks to the conservatism of our field. least as president of the world I should be able to launch this
message to all: don’t work for companies that don’t spell
Power system protection has to be conservative, because out their values up front, or that don’t have values at all.
of the high responsibility behind this job. On the other
hand, I am convinced that we need to be open to new
POWERED BY: ANDREA BONETTI 65

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The art of
recruiting
engineers in the
power system
protection
community
Ahmad Olia, with an
introduction by Andrea Bonetti
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Why this article? fairs, and if all of that is not effective, hiring external
recruitment agencies. Despite all these investments in
I e-met Ahmad Olia some time ago because of his time, effort, and money that companies put towards
interest in using digital twins in relay protection testing. talent acquisition, often, the result is not what they were
After our meeting, we discussed our jobs and I was looking for. There are some missing pieces in this puzzle.
curious about his, which was, in my words, a head- In this article, we are going to first highlight some of the
hunter for the electrical industry, with a focus on power most important challenges that the electrical industry
systems and power system protection.
faces in recruitment and then we offer a road map to
Throughout my years of experience within the power complete this puzzle.
system protection industry - as a relay manufacturer, a
consultant, and now a relay test equipment manufacturer Challenges in the recruitment process
- I have faced a recurring issue from my colleagues,
customers, and competitors in that they find recruiting
today
an engineer with power system protection competence When hiring managers have an opening on their team,
rather difficult. When I heard of Ahmad’s job, I exclaimed: they often know exactly the specific skills and knowledge
“This is a niche in a niche! How did you come up with
that this person should possess to be impactful in the
such a business idea?”
role. Based on that, a job description is created, and the
The explanations from Ahmad were so insightful and recruiters will start looking for that unicorn candidate
charged with such enthusiasm, that I asked if he was based on the job description and some keywords. But
willing to contribute to Electrical Tester. I thought that can keywords help with getting access to the candidates
Ahmad’s experience could be beneficial for many readers of interest? Let’s review some of the most important
of the magazine, no matter the role they have in the challenges when it comes to recruitment for the electrical
power system protection community. industry.
The answer from Ahmad was “yes”, so here’s the article!
Let me say this: for many reasons, I like to share my Complexity of the electrical industry
knowledge with others and appreciate articles written
The electrical industry is a vast and sophisticated industry
by others. This article from Ahmad is really captivating.
I recognised so many of the descriptions that he gave in with multiple fields of work and expertise. Workers in
my own experience, and many times have found myself this industry can specialise in different fields such as
saying “so true”! How many times will you say the power systems, electronics, control and automation,
same? telecommunications, etc. In an industry like this, titles
and keywords don’t necessarily define one’s specialty, but
Enjoy the article and make sure your next recruitment,
their work does. ‘High voltage’ in electronics and ‘high
no matter what your role is in the process, will not be a
voltage’ in power systems share the same letters but they
‘flight risk’.
represent two very different worlds. ‘Relays’ in power
system protection and ‘relays’ in control and automation
Introduction offer the same word but convey two separate meanings.
When it comes to recruitment, companies - depending Therefore, in this industry, keywords and titles are not
on their size, industry, and needs - utilise a combination only unhelpful in finding the right talent but can also
of different solutions to find the right talent for their cause confusion, and waste time and resources. All of
organisation. Human resource professionals invest in this means that strong knowledge of the industry while
solutions such as job postings on multiple job boards, looking for a candidate is one of the most important
employing internal recruiters and talent acquisition missing pieces of the puzzle for ‘efficient and successful
teams, participating in academic and industrial job recruitment’.
68 THE ART OF RECRUITING ENGINEERS IN THE POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION COMMUNITY

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Cherry-picking the correct candidate is not an easy task, especially in the power system protection industry.
Lack of effective networking

Another challenge that recruiters have is effective
...strong knowledge of the
networking. Many of the groups, forums, and
conferences are exclusive to industry experts. An industry while looking
electrical engineer, for instance, can get into these hubs for a candidate is one
easily and network with other industry experts because
of the most important
they share a similar technical background. With access
to these networks, the talent acquisition team could missing pieces of the
effectively start a targeted talent search and find the right puzzle for ‘efficient and
candidates for the position.
successful recruitment’.
Scarcity of experienced talent
There is also a scarcity of some of the specialties in algorithms, etc. - but they might not be strong speakers
the electrical industry. Let’s take relay and protection or writers.
engineers as an example. Out of 100 electrical Many of the experts come from different backgrounds
engineers, it is not unusual to have only a handful of and sometimes there is also a language barrier. On top of
relay and protection engineers. Discussions on LinkedIn
that, many in this field only interview a few times in their
suggest that less than 10 % of all electrical engineers
entire career, and as a result, employers often decide to
specialise in power system protection. When there is
pass on these candidates, no matter how good of a fit
a shortage of experienced workforce in a field, such
they are. Companies should be more creative with the
as protection, companies use different methods to
way they interview their technical staff to effectively
retain their experienced employees. Methods such as
assess the technical and interpersonal skills of the
offering higher than average salaries, attractive perks like
candidates.
company shares, longer paid vacations, better retirement
contributions, and so on. Experienced engineers in high
demand rarely need to look for a new job, or in a better When it didn’t go as wished (at the
word, they are never active job seekers. In a market beginning at least)
like this, it’s very common that these engineers also get
multiple messages from different recruiters on a regular The process of recruitment and changing jobs is
basis to engage them in a job change. The question is, complicated. This is because the subject of this
how can your approach and your job stand out and grab transaction is a personal one; a future is at stake and, in
their attention? many cases, a family’s too. People make career changes
for multiple reasons such as better compensation, long-
Interview challenges term career growth opportunities, a change of lifestyle,
technical skill growth, or a desire to work with leaders
Interviewing can be an uncomfortable process for many
in a particular technology, etc. Successful recruitment
people, especially technical experts. These individuals
happens when the candidate has a valid reason for a
are strong in technical topics - math, logic, developing
THE ART OF RECRUITING ENGINEERS IN THE POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION COMMUNITY 69

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career move, otherwise the placement is what we call in manufacturer as an engineer, but fate had a different
recruitment, a ‘flight risk’. plan.
Let me give you an example. I was asked to work on an Right after finishing my master’s degree, like everyone
assignment where my client needed a candidate with else, I was actively looking for employment opportunities.
the combined skillsets of a senior electrical engineer I was shocked to see that even well-known companies in
and a civil engineer in order to work as a senior our industry had positions left open for months. At the
distribution engineer. They also had a strong preference same time, I was approached by multiple recruiters who
towards finding a person who already had worked were offering me opportunities that were not relevant to
with a particular utility company. It is hard to find both my background nor my interest.
electrical and civil design skills in one person, let alone
When I investigated the reason, I realised that I was
experience with a specific utility. The key was to find a
appearing as a good match for the roles based on
candidate with compelling reasons for a career change.
their keyword search results and the recruiters couldn’t
In my search, I came across a candidate who was doing
differentiate me from an electronics engineer or a
the same line of work with the utility of interest. When
communications engineer. This was because of a lack
I talked to her, she told me that at this branch of the
of relevant technical background of the recruiter. That’s
utility, there is no further room for growth until someone
when I realised that there is a unique need in this industry
retires. She was not able to relocate to another city
for a technical recruitment firm that has the knowledge
due to family concerns and felt stuck in her current
and the network of industry experts at its disposal for
job. This meant that the candidate was looking for a
talent acquisition purposes. It was from this realisation
company where she could use her skills and be able to
that MeshGrid HR was born!
look forward to growth in her long-term career plan.
Long story short, my client offered her the job to work
remotely and both employer and the candidate were Very special gratitude:
happy because she is a long-term hire. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Andrea
Bonetti and the team of ET Magazine that provided
The key points that made me think me with the opportunity to share MeshGrid HR’s story.
about this business opportunity We are dedicating our education and experience to
improving a key service in our industry and I hope the
When I was close to the end of my bachelor’s degree in readers find this article and MeshGrid HR as a solution for
electrical engineering, I became very interested in power their technical staffing challenges.
systems, especially power system protection. I decided
to do a master’s degree in protection to strengthen my
technical background with the purpose of joining a relay
About the authors: their expertise and networks to match the right
talents with the right opportunity.
Ahmad Olia
Owner and President of MeshGrid HR For any inquiries about Ahmad or MeshGrid HR and
our services please reach out to:
Ahmad Olia is a Master of Applied Science in
electrical engineering specialising in power system Email: [email protected]
protection. He spent three years in the renewable LinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/in/ahmad-olia/
energy industry as a consultant before getting into MeshGrid website: www.meshgridhr.com
technical recruitment. Ahmad is the founder of
MeshGrid HR, a fast-growing technical recruitment Andrea Bonetti
agency with the purpose of improving recruitment Megger Sweden AB
experience in the electrical industry. To this end,
MeshGrid HR has gathered a team of electrical Senior specialist in power system protection and IEC
engineers and industry experts who have the desire 61850 applications.
of serving their industry differently by contributing
70 THE ART OF RECRUITING ENGINEERS IN THE POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION COMMUNITY

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Read all
about it!
ICYMI: IPS Energy joins the Megger family
Megger’s business strategy is based management insights into electrical power
around three levels of offering for its systems through advanced analytical
customers: test and diagnostics (the core capabilities.”
of what we currently offer), condition
Both businesses have continued as usual
IPS, a company specialising in energy monitoring, and asset performance
and will do so for the foreseeable future,
and process solutions, is now a Megger management. The acquisition of Power
operating as two separate companies
strategic partner. This partnership marked Diagnostix was our first step into
within a joint partnership. Rickard
the culmination of many months of condition monitoring and our partnership
Jonsson was appointed as Liaison Officer
discussions and is a significant milestone with IPS Energy takes us further on between the businesses and manages
in our evolution as a company. It is the that journey into asset performance product integration opportunities
building of these long-term relationships management. between test and measurement hardware
that help us to grow as a business and to
and IPS Energy software products, as
widen the scope of our operations. “We were thrilled to announce our
well as actively promoting collaboration
partnership with IPS, and since then, we
Our partnership with IPS Energy will throughout the partnership.
have been excited about our working
extend our capabilities for providing together on a global basis”, Jim Fairbairn, The Megger family thanks IPS; together,
insight and diagnostics relating CEO of Megger, said of the acquisition. we will continue to create greater
to electrical network assets by
“We were very impressed with the customer value through enhanced test
integrating off-line and on-line test
company during diligence and in particular and measurement capabilities. This
and measurement data to provide full
the quality of the team at IPS. The move will strengthen our relationships with
asset performance management. We
was aligned with the Megger strategy of current customers and allow us to create
will be able to serve our customers
extending our leadership in electrical test excellent opportunities with new ones.
better by supporting the adoption
and measurement to include condition
and implementation of predictive
monitoring, enabling asset performance
maintenance practices.
Megger acquires Metrycom, a technology leader in Smart Grid

monitoring solutions
Metrycom, a provider of grid network practices along with improved detection industry move to on-line monitoring
sensors and analytics to the electrical and location of unplanned outages. solutions and complements Megger’s
supply industry, is the latest organisation This also enables improved grid partial discharge monitoring solutions
to join the Megger family. system reliability year over year, with for substation GIS and GIL assets. This
improvements in SAIDI, SAIFI, and CAIFI acquisition underpins our medium-term
Metrycom supplies unique grid sensor
grid reliability indices. vision to become a connected, digitally
and analytics solutions for on-line
fluent, value-added analytical partner
measurements, condition monitoring, Jim Fairbairn, Megger’s Chief Executive
for electrical utilities and all customers
and fault location using extensive Officer, said “We are delighted to bring
engaging in power management.”
detection and prediction algorithms for Metrycom into the Megger family.
medium and high voltage grid networks. Metrycom’s Smart Grid sensor technology Liron Frenkel, Chief Executive Officer of
Smart grid sensor networks bring insight is best-in-class, enabling power utilities Metrycom said: “We are very pleased
to grid operators, enabling them to track better visibility into MV networks to to have been acquired by Megger
real-time energy consumption, phase assist in grid operation management as this complements the Metrycom
imbalance, and power flows across and preventative condition-based business, providing outstanding business
the grid including distributed energy maintenance, all of which improve grid development opportunities and extended
resources. reliability. reach to new customers who can
benefit from our high-quality Smart Grid
Analytics provide decision makers with On the purchase supporting Megger’s
monitoring solutions”.
predictive analysis of future faults, growth strategy, he said, “The addition
supporting predictive maintenance of Metrycom supports the longer-term
READ ALL ABOUT IT 71

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Batteries are not

‘fit-and-forget’
assets!
Megger North America
Technical Support Group (TSG)
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Regular testing of storage batteries, particularly those Annually, when the battery has reached 85 %
used to provide emergency supplies, is essential. The of expected service life, or if the capacity has
batteries often sit unnoticed and unused for long periods, dropped more than 10 % since the previous test,
and they give little outward indication of deterioration or or is below 90 % of the manufacturer’s rating.
failure. Yet if they fail to perform as expected when called
If the impedance value of the battery
upon to do so, the result can be catastrophic.
has changed significantly.
The two most widely adopted approaches to assessing
Concerns are sometimes expressed that discharge testing
battery condition are impedance testing and discharge
reduces the life of a battery: in fact, it has been called
testing. Impedance testing is an on-line procedure that
destructive testing because weak cells may fail during the
can be carried out frequently to identify individual weak
test. It is, however, better to discover these weak cells
cells before they fail. This test estimates the performance
during a test than when the battery is required to supply
that can be expected from the battery in its current
its load!
condition. It provides valuable information, but the
results are always ‘best estimates’ rather than a definitive In theory, the test does indeed slightly shorten the life of
evaluation. the battery. However, a typical battery will have a life of
at least 1000 charge/discharge cycles, and discharge tests
In contrast, the discharge test, which is also known
are likely to be performed only four or five times over the
as a load test or a capacity test, is an off-line test that
battery’s entire life. Since this is such a small percentage
measures the actual output of the whole battery string.
of the total available charge/discharge cycles, the impact
It is the only test that can accurately measure the true
on battery health and overall life, in practical terms, is
capacity of a string, and for this reason, it is required by
negligible. In reality, it is far better to know the true
IEEE standards. A discharge test reveals what will actually
capacity of the battery and to confirm that it will actually
happen if the battery is required to take the load.
support the required load, than to worry about the
Relevant standards are IEEE 450-2002 Recommended minuscule effect that load testing may have on overall
Practice for Maintenance, Testing, and Replacement of battery life.
Vented Lead-Acid Batteries for Stationary Applications,
and IEEE 1188-1996 Recommended Practice for Problem-free discharge testing
Maintenance, Testing, and Replacement of Valve-
Regulated Lead-Acid (VRLA) Batteries for Stationary While discharge testing is the only true test of the
Applications. capacity of a battery string, it undeniably requires a
considerable amount of time and effort, hence it is
Because they are time consuming and they require the important to make sure that it proceeds smoothly and
battery to be taken off-line, discharge tests are, in most without the need for re-runs. The following steps will
applications, performed infrequently. Typically, it is help to ensure that this is achieved:
recommended that this type of test be performed in any
of the following conditions: 1. Make sure that the battery (or batteries) to
be tested has been maintained in its fully
When the battery is new, as part charged condition (typically by float charging)
of the acceptance test. for at least 72 hours before starting the test.
This will ensure that the discharge test results
Within two years of the initial
accurately represent the battery’s capacity.
test, for warranty purposes.
2. Carry out an impedance test and measure
Subsequently, as a minimum, every 25 % of the resistance of the inter-cell connections
the battery’s expected service life or every before starting the discharge test. This will
6 years, whichever is the shorter interval. ensure that the electrical path in the battery
string has been checked thoroughly before
high current discharge commences.
74 BATTERIES ARE NOT ‘FIT-AND-FORGET’ ASSETS!

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Figure 1: Sample battery discharge test specifications sheet
Figure 2: Current capacity vs voltage for the TORKEL 900 Series
3. Decide on the type of discharge test to

carry out. There are many different types of
discharge test including constant current,
constant power, constant resistance, and A discharge test
load profile. Constant current is the type reveals what will
of test performed most frequently.
actually happen
4. Check the discharge test specifications for if the battery is
the battery under test. This will help with
planning the test. The specifications will required to take
include the end cell voltage (which is typically the load.
1.75 V or 1.8 V per cell for lead-acid batteries)
and a table of discharge rates. Using the
table, the test duration can be chosen based
on the duty cycle of the battery and this 6. Make sure that the load bank can handle the
will allow the corresponding test current required test current. With high test currents,
to be determined. As an example, with the a single load bank may not be sufficient. This
table shown in Figure 1, a test current of 19 issue can be addressed by using additional
A would be needed for a 5-hour discharge load banks connected in parallel, or by
test on the selected battery model. using a lower test current and increasing the
duration of the test. For load banks in the
5. Arrange for a backup battery bank if needed.
TORKEL 900 series, comprehensive information
A backup battery bank can be used to supply
about discharge capability is given in the
the load while the battery string under test is
data sheet (see Figure 2). As a further aid,
off-line. The backup battery will also be needed
the TORKELCalc software package can be
after the test is completed to allow time for the
used to determine the configuration needed
string which has been tested to be recharged.
to suit a particular discharge current.
BATTERIES ARE NOT ‘FIT-AND-FORGET’ ASSETS! 75

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Figure 3: Voltage sense leads

connection
Figure 4: Discharge test setup with BVMs for cell voltage measurement
Figure 5: Screenshot from the TORKEL GUI showing the test limits
7. Make the test connections safely while the V per cell x 24 cells = 42 V). Examples of these
battery to be tested is still connected to the settings on a TORKEL test set are shown in
charger. The connections need to be properly Figure 5. An additional warning limit could be
made to ensure that the high current flowing set at a voltage slightly higher than the end
during the test does not lead to excessive battery voltage, so that the person performing
heating. The battery terminal voltage can be the test is alerted when it is almost complete.
measured accurately by using separate voltage
sense leads, as shown by the dotted connections 10. Be aware that some cells will reach the end
in Figure 3. This arrangement eliminates the voltage earlier than the others. The discharge
effect of voltage drop in the current leads test discharges all cells, and inevitably some will
between the test set and the battery under test. discharge sooner than others. The test should
not be stopped when one cell reaches the end
8. Monitor individual cell voltages. Bad cells cell voltage, rather it should carry on until the
in a string can discharge much faster than average cell voltage is equal to the end cell
good ones. To allow the discharge test to voltage. For example, if the end cell voltage
continue, bad cells may need to be bypassed for the battery under test is 1.75 V and the
to avoid effects like polarity reversal. It is battery has 60 cells, the test should continue
therefore important to monitor the voltage until the battery voltage is 60 x 1.75 V = 105 V.
of each individual cell in the battery string At this point, it is perfectly possible that some
while the discharge test is being performed. cells will be at 1.8 V while others are at 1.6 V.
This can be done with battery voltage
monitor (BVM) accessories, as shown in 11. Be ready to bypass bad cells. Some cells in the
Figure 4. The correct voltage probes should battery string will discharge faster than others.
be used to ensure that the connections IEEE test procedures for lead acid batteries (VLA
to individual cells can be made easily. and VRLA) state that the discharge test may be
paused once for bypassing cells that are nearing
9. Program the test parameters in the discharge polarity reversal. The maximum permitted
test set. These include the test method, capacity duration of this “downtime period” is 10 %
calculation method, test temperature, test of the test duration or 6 minutes, whichever
current, test duration, nominal capacity (test is shorter. After the bypass, the end battery
current x test duration), warning limits, and voltage needs to be adjusted based on the
stop limits. A warning limit could be set for remaining number of cells in the string. It is also
the individual cell voltage (for example at 1.75 necessary to evaluate the need for bypassing
V per cell). In addition, a stop limit could be cells. If there are only a few bad cells in a string,
set for the battery voltage (for example, 1.75 the test can continue, but if, for example, half
76 BATTERIES ARE NOT ‘FIT-AND-FORGET’ ASSETS!

Watch our webinar on 'Introduction to
battery Testing_ Bite, BGFT and Torkel'

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Protecting
wind turbines
through effective
grounding
Sameer Kulkarni and
Dr Ahmed El-Rashed
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The share of wind power in electricity generation is were the biggest driving force behind the record warranty
expected to increase, and with that comes a requirement claims that amounted to €175 million (US $212 million)
for this carbon-free source to be more reliable. The wind in the second quarter of 2020 alone. Wind turbine
turbine, which is the most important component of a manufacturers and installers, such as Vestas, recognise
wind power system, is exposed to harsh environmental the immense danger of lightning strikes and take great
conditions and electrical transients, such as lightning
care in the design of turbines. Nevertheless, operators
strikes. Naturally, understanding the lightning protection
and owners of wind turbines must implement a robust
scheme of a wind turbine and checking its integrity
and effective maintenance program for their assets.
is vital to protecting it during lightning strikes so that
continued, reliable operation is achieved.
Recent international studies have shown that in one

Lightning protection systems
European country, 80 % of insurance claims on wind A growing number of studies speculate that rotating
turbines resulted from lightning-related damage. wind turbines may be more susceptible to lightning
Similarly, a major US utility reported that over 85 % of strikes than stationary structures. Wind turbines are at a
its wind turbine downtime was due to lightning-related high risk of being struck by lightning due to their height
damage. and the locations used for wind farms, and lightning
This article provides a general overview of the lightning faults cause more loss in wind turbine availability than
protection system of a wind turbine, best practice for other faults. Wind turbines are equipped with lightning
lightning protection on wind turbines, and verification protection to minimise damage from direct lightning
of effectiveness. It discusses the need and advantages of strikes and to shield sensitive equipment integral to
various tests performed to verify the continued integrity wind turbine operation. Lightning strikes not only
of lightning protection systems, and shares reference produce large current flows but also impress unwanted
values for testing parameters along with expected results, electromagnetic fields across components housed in the
while reviewing some practical and safety considerations. nacelle and base of the tower. The lightning protection
system (LPS) performs the function of directing the
Wind power current from strikes to ground.
Renewable energy — and wind power in particular —

is growing at a rapid pace. In 2020, new wind power
Lightning protection zones
installations provided 93 GW globally. The year-on-year To facilitate the coordination of protection functions,
growth is 53 %, with both the United States and China it is prudent to divide the wind turbine into lightning
leading the world in new installations of wind power protection zones (LPZ). The lightning protection zone
generation. Wind power answers the pressing needs concept is a structuring measure for creating a defined,
and circumstances of today. It is a relatively inexpensive electromagnetically compatible environment in an object
and green energy source that addresses constrained
while being cognisant of the object’s stress withstand
infrastructure budgets as well as climate change policies.
capability. IEC 62305, Standard for Lightning Protection,
Most market analysts indicate that wind power will
defines the LPZ for structures and can be applied to
continue to grow at a fast rate because all the driving
a wind turbine. The zones are classified as external or
factors for its adoption persist.
internal based on their exposure to direct lightning.
This is great news for the electrical power industry, as
there will be growth and opportunity for many years
to come. However, this growth will require improved
External zones
maintenance programs to protect investments and LPZ 0A is the zone where the threat is due to
maximise the profits from wind power. the direct lightning flash and the full lightning
electromagnetic field. The internal systems may
Lightning strikes be subjected to full lightning surge currents.
The biggest maintenance problem for wind power is LPZ 0B is the zone protected against direct
lightning strikes (Figure 1a and Figure 1b). According to lightning flashes but where the threat is
Vestas CEO Henrik Andersen, intense lightning strikes
80 PROTECTING WIND TURBINES THROUGH EFFECTIVE GROUNDING

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Figure 1b: Lightning damage to a wind turbine
Figure 1a: Lightning damage to a wind turbine
due to the full lightning electromagnetic

field. The internal systems may be subjected
to partial lightning surge currents. Figure 2: Simplified wind turbine, external LPZ
The rolling sphere method is used to determine LPZ 0A
— the parts of a wind turbine that could be subjected spatial shielding may be used to further
to direct lightning strikes, and LPZ 0B — the parts of a attenuate the lightning electromagnetic field.
wind turbine that are protected from direct lightning The LPS essentially works by providing a low resistance
strikes by external air-termination systems or air- path-to-ground. The path goes from the blade’s tip to the
termination systems integrated in parts of a wind turbine base of the turbine. This path is shown in Figures 4 and 5.
(for example in the rotor blade), as seen in Figure 2 and
Figure 3. In the event of a lightning strike, current will flow to
ground through the LPS, not the sensitive equipment
in the wind turbine. As lightning current is dissipated
Internal zones through the grounding system, it is important that it
LPZ 1 is the zone where the surge current should not cause thermal or mechanical damage or arcing
is limited by current sharing and isolating that may lead to fires or injuries to personnel. To ensure
interfaces and/or by surge protection devices that the protection will work effectively when needed,
(SPD) at the boundary. Spatial shielding may the resistance of the path-to-ground should be measured
attenuate the lightning electromagnetic field. at regular intervals to check that it meets the limits
specified by the turbine manufacturer (typically limited to
LPZ 2 to LPZ n are the zones where the surge 15 to 30 mΩ, depending on turbine size). For these tests,
current may be further limited by current use of a low resistance ohmmeter is recommended.
sharing and isolating interfaces and/or by
additional SPDs at the boundary. Additional
PROTECTING WIND TURBINES THROUGH EFFECTIVE GROUNDING 81

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current and potential probes are 180 ° apart, is also
employed to measure low resistance values. The use of
any other methods such as a two-wire method may not
be suitable, as the measurement will include the contact
resistance values of the probes, which makes the results
less certain.
Testing wind turbine lightning

protection
The most important test on an LPS is to test the
conductor from the blade tip to the down conductor
inside the hub that ultimately connects to the ground
grid, as was shown in Figure 5 and is depicted in Figure 7
and Figure 8.
This conductor is placed under significant strain as the

blade flexes with the wind during normal operation.
Under strain, the conductor may fracture. Unfortunately,
it is not enough to simply check continuity because, if the
Figure 3: Air termination systems installed for wind turbine
fractured conductor is touching at the break point during
nacelle
a continuity test, the result of the test will be misleading.
Because of this, a test current magnitude of 1 A or more
Methods for verifying lightning is recommended for this test.
protection systems
The length of a typical turbine blade can be seen in
Measurement of low resistance is affected by factors such Figure 9. The size of the turbines poses a problem
as measurement type, test current magnitude, length of because low resistance ohmmeter test leads are typically
test leads, and placement of leads/probes. very short. Due to the size of the wind turbines, extra-
long leads are required, often up to 100 m. This is a
Four-wire method huge increase in length over standard test leads for
low resistance ohmmeters. The long leads must be
The four-wire method (Figure 6) is most appropriate designed with a low enough resistance to ensure that
because it uses separate current probes to inject direct a measurement is still possible. To achieve this, it is
current (DC) and separate potential probes to measure important to understand the test instrument design.
the voltage drop across the test specimen.
Some instruments have a compensation factor to allow
Figure 4: Current path for

lightning discharges Figure 5: Foundation earth electrode at wind turbine base

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Figure 7: Lightning conductor resistance measurement at blade

Figure 6: Four-wire method tip
important to use an appropriate range and test current

because it is essential for the length of test leads to
accommodate the length of the wind turbine blades.
Results
In one such example, the LPS on a wind turbine with
32 m (105 ft) blades was tested using a low resistance
ohmmeter. The instrument was used in its ‘long test lead’
mode, which applies a 1 A test current and can measure
Figure 8: Lightning conductor resistance measurement at
accurately down to 0.01 mΩ when using 100 m long
wind turbine hub
(330 ft) test leads. Testing consisted of measuring the
for power loss in standard test leads. When using long system’s resistance from the tip of each blade to the hub,
test leads, this compensation will no longer be sufficient and from the hub to the base. The lightning system in
and the test range of the instrument will be reduced. this case terminated with interconnected ground rods at
When the resistance of the test leads is increased, the the base of the turbine tower.
value of R in the following equation will also increase. Each measurement was taken three times to evaluate
P = I2R repeatability. The variance meter on the instrument
automatically recorded three measurements in a row and
Where: calculated their variance. The raw results from this test
R is (resistance of load) + (resistance of test leads) can be seen in Table 2; total results are shown in Table 3.
P is output power of the test instrument The low variance provides confidence in the
measurement. In the field, test engineers must take every
I is output current of the test instrument care to remain safe and follow best practice. This will
provide the best possible measurements.
Since the maximum power output (P) of the test
equipment cannot change, the rise in test lead resistance The manufacturer of this wind turbine prescribes a pass
will cause the maximum current (I) to be reduced. Table level for the lightning system of 20 mΩ or less. This
1 shows how lead length impacts the ability of an test proves that the lightning system has been installed
instrument to measure low resistances. It is clear that correctly and is in good working order. Therefore, this
accurate and repeatable measurements will depend on a turbine has good lightning protection in line with the
combination of test current, lead length, and resolution. manufacturer’s specification.
As seen in Figure 10, the performance of the low

resistance tester at 1 A (2.5 W) is the most suitable for
the lead lengths that are typically employed for testing
wind turbine LPSs. For wind turbine applications, it is
PROTECTING WIND TURBINES THROUGH EFFECTIVE GROUNDING 83

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Figure 9: Wind turbine blade before installation
Table 1: Resistance range for varying test current magnitudes for a popular low resistance tester
Table 2: Raw measurements, variance, and averages
Table 3: Total resistance values and results

Watch our webinar 'Prevent your wind
turbines from future failures' here.
Watch our webinar 'Fundamentals of Low
Resistance Testing' here

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86 ARTICLE TITLE
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Assessing
high voltage
substation
equipment at 1 Hz
Dr Diego Robalino,
Vince Oppedisano,
and Ken Petroff
87
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It is common practice to evaluate the average insulation condition of high voltage (HV)
substation equipment in the field by measuring dielectric losses. This practice involves
applying an AC signal to an insulation system at a frequency close to the line-frequency
(60 or 50 Hz) and measuring the current and the angle between current and applied
voltage to determine the insulation dissipation factor (tan delta) or power factor.
Line-frequency (LF) insulation dissipation factor (DF) or power factor (PF) depends on the
frequency of the applied signal, the dielectric properties of the insulation material, the
insulation temperature, and the geometrical design, as well as aging and contamination
that might be present within the insulating medium.
Field experience suggests that tables of factors for temperature correction do not reflect
the true thermal behaviour of the insulation system and, consequently, a DF or PF trend
analysis may be misleading due to incorrectly temperature-compensated test results.
Throughout the service life of an electrical asset, line-frequency dissipation factor (LF DF)
may stay the same, may increase or sometimes may even decrease and the reason for
these changes is not always clear.
Research carried out by the authors shows that even an apparently ‘good’ line-frequency
DF is not always ‘good’, and that to reliably determine the condition of the insulation
system, assessment of the insulation should also consider an additional DF value obtained
at another, very specific, frequency.
This article provides a clear demonstration of the benefit of measuring insulation DF at LF

(50 or 60 Hz) and at 1 Hz. This simple combination of procedures carried out at the same
time and with the same test instrument provides a more reliable and more efficient way
to evaluate the condition of critical high voltage substation equipment, including power
transformers, bushings, and instrument transformers.
88 ASSESSING HIGH VOLTAGE SUBSTATION EQUIPMENT AT 1 HZ

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Theoretical background: response provides This article

an instantaneous provides a clear
image of the
Dielectric response in the frequency domain demonstration of the
condition of the
Non-invasive and non-destructive methods for insulation system, benefit of measuring
determining the dielectric characteristics of insulation and it therefore insulation DF at LF
systems have evolved significantly in the last two allows on-site (50 or 60 Hz) and at
decades. The methods typically involve applying a assessment and
sinusoidal signal to the insulation system. This is not
1 Hz.
comparison
done to stress the insulation but to measure its dielectric against historical
properties: capacitance, dissipation factor (DF), complex values – but
permittivity, and conductivity. only if accurate
temperature correction is carried out in line with the
The ratio of imaginary to real components of the complex
Arrhenius equation (Equation 2), which defines the
permittivity is the insulation DF (tan delta, δ).
relationship between frequency and temperature.
Equation 1
Equation 2
Physical and/or chemical properties of organic and
Where Ea is the activation energy of the insulation
inorganic materials can change due to aging and due
material in eV, kB is the Boltzmann constant (8.617 x
to thermal, chemical, electrical, or mechanical stress.
10-5 eV/K), and T is the Kelvin temperature of the object.
A non-invasive and non-destructive method to trend
Activation energies are in the range of 0.70 - 1.18 eV for
these changes in insulating materials is the measurement
oil impregnated cellulose insulations.
of dielectric losses performed over wide ranges of
frequencies or temperatures. The dielectric frequency
Figure 1: Dielectric response of OIP insulation (new oil and paper with 2 %
moisture) tested from 0 °C to 40 °C
ASSESSING HIGH VOLTAGE SUBSTATION EQUIPMENT AT 1 HZ 89

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The Arrhenius equation allows normalisation of the Dissipation factor at 1 Hz
dielectric response to a reference temperature, which
More than 25 years of information that was obtained
is typically 20 °C. This approach is known as individual
using full spectrum (1 mHz to 1 kHz) dielectric frequency
temperature correction (ITC). The effect of temperature
response (DFR) in the field to assess the condition of
on an oil-impregnated paper (OIP) sample is shown in
power transformers has been thoroughly analysed at
Figure 1.
various frequencies.
Line-frequency dissipation factor (LF DF) As can be seen in Figure 1, at LF (60 Hz) the variation of
The measured LF DF value by itself does not provide DF as a function of temperature is very small compared
much information unless it is properly corrected to 20 °C. to the variation observed at 1 Hz. The differences at LF
In a power or distribution transformer, the interwinding are quite difficult to observe, particularly for a specimen
insulation, as well as the winding-to-ground insulation in very good condition, with no contamination, less than
systems, are tested using an applied voltage of 10 kV (or 0.5 % moisture in the solid insulation, and very low oil
below rated voltage of the winding under test) at line conductivity.
frequency. The resulting normalised values are subject Here is the where the importance of the 1 Hz test comes
to at least one of three typical evaluations: comparative in. As shown in Figure 1, the higher frequency region of
analysis, trending analysis, and acceptance within the response represents a relatively linear low-loss system.
limits established by international standards. It is not At a resonant frequency ω , the dielectric response
r
only the LF DF value that is of importance but also the transitions into a lower frequency region represented
capacitance value. Field experience has, however, shown by higher losses and greater dispersion of the dielectric
that HV equipment may fail even after an LF DF test with response. The resonant frequency will shift to higher
apparently acceptable results. values when temperature increases and lower values
Reasons for not detecting insulation problems with LF when temperature decreases, as shown in Figure 2. It
DF are related to the temperature dependence of DF is important to know to what degree a change in test
and the very marginal effect of emerging contaminants temperature has caused the resonant frequency to shift
at LF. Carrying out the test at an additional frequency because changes in the vertical or horizontal axis imply a
is a practical approach to improving the assessment by change in the dielectric condition. Therefore, to eliminate
providing two measurement points within the dielectric temperature as a factor for an observed change, the
response spectrum. entire response must be properly normalised to 20 °C
every time a measurement is made at a non-20 °C
temperature.
Figure 2: Resonant frequency shift in a dielectric response at different temperatures

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Field applications: maintenance work. Changes in capacitance may be
indicative of a short between capacitive layers in C1 (the
main core insulation) and changes in dissipation factor
Bushings
(or power factor or tan delta) may indicate insulation
Condenser-type bushings, more commonly known as degradation and/or contamination. Contamination
capacitance graded bushings, have been in service for of the insulation due to overheating or excessive
a long time and have been tested in many ways. The generation of partial discharge (PD) and consequently of
dielectric response of a bushing in the time or frequency PD by-products such as X-wax, has a clear influence on
domain is mainly dominated by its construction, the dielectric response [2].
temperature during the test, and the properties of the
As presented in [3], the influence of contamination on
materials. In most HV and EHV (extra high voltage)
dielectric response may be significantly more pronounced
bushings, a geometric design for the main insulation
at non-line frequencies than at LF. Assuming accurate
replicating a graded capacitor is commonly used. Oil-
temperature correction using the ITC algorithm, the
impregnated paper (OIP) insulation is used in the vast
authors suggest that the insulation condition of OIP
majority of field-installed bushings, wherein the liquid
bushings can be assessed as shown in Table 1.
insulation is mineral oil, and the solid insulation is
typically kraft paper with a 55 °C rise thermal rating.
Both materials possess well known and excellent
mechanical and dielectric characteristics. Other common
types of HV bushings are resin-impregnated paper (RIP)
and resin-impregnated synthetic (RIS).
Because the failure of bushings has a large impact on

transformers, the condition assessment of HV bushings
has been extensively investigated and CIGRE has recently
published a very detailed document describing the
reliability of HV and EHV bushings [1]. Several of the
methods used for testing HV bushings are sometimes
Table 1: OIP bushings assessment for 1 Hz DF at 20 °C
ineffective and the results inconclusive. Off-line testing of
capacitance and dissipation factor is generally carried out Transformers
at line frequency as part of acceptance, commissioning, The dielectric response of power and distribution
routine testing and troubleshooting, or after corrective transformers over a wide range of frequencies has been
Figure 3: Randomly selected OIP transformers - LF DF within acceptable limits

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investigated for the last 25 years. In the last decade,
Field experience:
several accelerated aging experiments have been
carried out and published, particularly for distribution
Commissioning new 69 kV RIP bushings
transformers [4]. Aging of distribution transformers
has been shown to have very little effect on the LF DF Commissioning tests conducted in the field in early 2021
value, but much greater changes were observed at lower involved dielectric assessment of new 69 kV RIP bushings.
frequencies, specifically at 1 Hz. Nameplate data is provided in Table 3.
Assuming accurate temperature correction using the ITC

algorithm, the authors suggest assessing the insulation
condition of OIP transformers as shown in Table 2.
Table 3: New RIP bushings C1 nameplate information
An LF DF test was performed at 3 °C. The curves

provided in section 5.2.2.2 of [1] were used for LF DF
temperature correction.
Table 2: OIP Transformers assessment for 1 Hz DF at 20 °C
Instrument transformers (CTs, VTs, and CVTs)

Instrument transformers monitor power flow and
serve several purposes, including metering (for
revenue purposes), protection, and control. For current
transformers (CTs), the insulation system is like that of HV
Table 4: Tertiary winding new RIP “Y” bushings LF DF results
bushings, and an assessment is made on the dissipation
factor of the overall insulation. Voltage transformers The results, as presented in Table 4, fall within the
(VTs) and capacitive voltage transformers (CVTs) also ‘acceptable’ limits prescribed in CIGRE guidelines [1] for
have something in common with CTs and HV bushings. new RIP bushings – (see Table 5).
Instrument transformers usually have insulation consisting
of kraft paper and mineral oil, and the volume of paper
insulation is dominant. The measured capacitance of
instrument transformers and HV bushings is typically less
than 800 pF. Therefore, to make measurements at low
frequencies, an HV source may be required to offset the
Table 5: Limiting values LF DF at 20 °C [2]
negative influence of EMI and to increase the signal-to-
noise ratio (SNR). During commissioning, a Megger DELTA 4310A
Dielectric frequency response (DFR) testing has been dissipation factor test set was used for DF tests at LF
used to monitor the dry-out process of CTs and CVTs in and at 1 Hz. The application software corrected the
the factory [5], down to levels below 1 % moisture in % DF values from 3 °C to 20 °C using the individual
the solid insulation. For CTs, DF at 1 Hz and LF should temperature correction (ITC) algorithm. The results are
reach values below 0.3 % at 20 °C. Similar values apply shown in Table 6.
to CVTs. It is shown in [6] that the insulation condition
of HV and EHV CTs can be readily evaluated in the field
by using LF DF values in conjunction with 1 Hz DF values.
The authors suggest that the assessments shown in Table
1 for OIP bushings can also be applied to instrument
transformers.

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The ability to make early

and conclusive decisions
about insulation
condition is critical for
Table 6: RIP LF and 1 Hz DF values corrected by ITC
the reliability of HV
The results in Table 6 show a significant difference in electrical power systems.
the temperature correction of the 60 Hz % DF results
for bushing Y2 compared with bushings Y1 and Y3:
the correction decreases the value for Y2 but increases
the values for Y1 and Y3. With a good bushing, bushings were returned to the site (approximately six
temperature correction would be expected to decrease weeks after the original tests) they were retested at 5 °C.
the value obtained at 3 ºC to yield its 20 ºC equivalent The results are shown in Table 7.
value, as was the case for Y2. Tests conducted on a
sister transformer did, in fact, confirm that temperature
correction decreased the values for all three bushings, as
expected.
After applying ITC to the results, the Y1 and Y3 bushing

LF DF values at 20 °C are above the acceptance limit
(> 2 times nameplate DF value according to IEEE
guidelines). These two bushings were therefore assessed
as ‘investigate’. The large difference observed between Table 7: Reconditioned RIP bushings – LF DF and 1 Hz DF
the corrected DF values at 1 Hz for bushings Y1 and Y3, results
which are more than five times higher than the value for
Drying out improved Y1 and Y3, resulting in all Y
Y2, is clear indication of an insulation issue.
bushings coming within 0.02 % of nameplate values.
When the results were discussed with the commissioning These tests allowed the Y bushings to be approved for
team, it was reported that the Y bushings had been use in this new transformer.
improperly seated during transport and water had been
observed in the plastic wrapped around them. They asked New transformer (2019) – 16 MVA 138 kV –
for action to be taken to remedy the problem and the elevated moisture
transformer manufacturer decided to have the bushings
The presence of moisture in power and distribution
returned to a maintenance facility for inspection, repair,
transformers has a negligible effect on the LF DF
and drying out. To confirm improvement, when the
value obtained at 20 °C. It is only when the moisture

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concentration is typically greater than 2 % that
significant changes are seen in this value.
A new transformer was tested after assembly and before

energisation. Dryness of the solid insulation is critical to Table 9: ASTM D1533 results
ensure the longevity of the transformer and reliability
during operation. Figure 4 shows the influence of EHV Capacitive voltage transformer (CVT) – 765
temperature and moisture on the service life of a typical kV
transformer [7], while Table 8 shows the LF DF and 1 Hz
Instrument transformers and, more specifically, CVTs
DF results obtained for the new transformer under test.
have no monitoring instrumentation mounted on them
to detect any changes in the insulation condition. Oil
sampling is only an option during planned outages,
and it is not a simple process. EHV CVTs typically have
no oil sampling ports available for each capacitive
section (stack) and therefore accurate assessment of the
insulation condition through non-invasive and non-
Table 8: Interwinding insulation DF results
destructive methods is extremely important for utility
The LF DF values corrected to 20 °C using ITC are operators.
excellent. Nevertheless, reference to Table 2 will show
In this example, during planned maintenance on an
that the 1 Hz temperature-corrected DF ITC corresponds
A-phase CVT, a small oil stain was seen on the surface of
to a ‘good’ transformer rather than a ‘new’ transformer
the adjacent B-phase CVT C1-1 stack. As shown in Table
as expected.
10, LF DF results are higher than the results for sister
Full-spectrum DFR confirmed the presence of 1.6 % stacks, but these results on their own are not necessarily
moisture in the solid insulation, and the need to dry enough to take decisive action.
out the unit before energisation. After seeing the LF,
1 Hz, and DFR test results, the customer requested a
complete oil analysis. The physical-chemical analysis of
the oil confirmed the presence of moisture (see Table 9)
exceeding the acceptance level of 10 ppm suggested in
IEEE Std. C57.106 Table 2.
Figure 4: Influence of temperature and moisture on solid insulation lifetime [8]

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the Individual Temperature Correction (ITC) algorithm,
provides high sensitivity to changes in the insulation
system of HV equipment.
The combined analysis of LF DF plus 1 Hz DF (ITC

corrected) allows quantitative condition assessment of
new and service-aged transformers and bushings as
suggested by the authors in Tables 1 and 2. The 1 Hz
DF with ITC assessment does not require trend analysis,
Table 10: LF and 1 Hz DF values obtained from B-phase EHV although it is also possible to trend the results.
CVT
Traditional line frequency measurements and reference
Once again, however, 1 Hz DF results confirm that temperature correction tables based on averages may
the C1-1 insulation is degrading. Such degradation be misleading and using them may sometimes make it
may result in catastrophic failure affecting adjacent impossible to carry out reliable assessments in both hot
equipment, the environment, and personnel working and cold environments.
in the area. The unit was removed from service for
Supplementing traditional 10 kV LF DF measurements
investigation. Upon disassembly, a puncture was found in
with 1 Hz DF (ITC corrected) testing marginally increases
the C1-1 stack, which was allowing the oil to leak.
the overall time required for testing – usually by less
than one minute – but it helps to extend the life of
Conclusions and recommendations: HV and EHV assets by providing reliable support for
sound technical and financial decisions, or for future
Insulation condition is the most important factor in
investigations and definitive analyses using DFR
determining the life expectancy of a transformer. The
technology.
ability to make early and conclusive decisions about
insulation condition is critical for the reliability of HV
electrical power systems. The use of LF DF together with
1 Hz DF results, all properly corrected to 20 °C using
REFERENCES
[1] CIGRE TB 755, ‘Transformer bushing reliability’, CIGRE WG A2-43, 2019
[2] Güner I., Robalino D. M., Werelius P., ‘HV and EHV bushing condition assessment – field experience’, Proceedings of the 2016 CIGRE-IEC
Colloquium, Montreal, Canada, 2016
[3] Robalino D., Alvarez R., ‘Advances of Dielectric Frequency Response Testing for HV OIP Bushings’, Proceedings of the CIGRE Session 48,
paper A2-206, Paris 2020x
[4] Robalino D. M., Breazeal R… C., ‘Evaluation of Distribution Class Transformers Using Narrowband Dielectric Frequency Response Mea-
surements’. Proceedings of the IEEE 2020 Electrical Insulation Conference, 2020
[5] Perrier C., Roman Z., Kieffel Y., ‘Monitoring of active part drying for instrument transformers by dielectric measurements’, Proceedings of
the CIGRE Session 48, paper D1-122, Paris 2020
[6] Robalino D., Güner I.,’HV and EHV current transformer dielectric condition assessment and root cause analysis’, Proceedings of the 2019
CIGRE Canada Conference, paper CIGRE-133, Montreal, 2019
[7] CIGRE TB 445, ‘Guide for Transformer Maintenance’, CIGRE WG A2-34, 2011

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BOOK CLUB
The 6th Lamentation
by William Brodrick
This is the first book in William Brodrick’s Father Anselm series and
one of the best I have read in the past two decades. Brodrick is a
former Franciscan friar who left the order to become a barrister. His
main character, Father Anselm, left the law to become a monk. The
story interweaves various mysteries tied to the French Resistance in
WWII. Seemingly unrelated events wind together through the pages
to challenge the reader’s perceptions of reality, betrayal, vengeance,
and justice. Not only could I not put the book down, but I also
slowed my reading as I neared the end because I did not want the
story to be over – this is truly a ‘hidden gem’ of a book.
Graeme Thomson
Sales and Marketing Transition Leader
The book opens by exploring that energy is a mysterious

property that has fascinated many for millennia, and
that it is not a simple ‘thing’. It goes on to look at the six
major renewable energy sources of solar, wind, biomass,
hydro, geothermal, and ocean; the technologies used
and how they may play a part in the future of electricity
generation.
It’s summed up in a thought-provoking chapter on how

collective human imagination on a global, political,
engineering, and economic scale is needed to harness
renewables and become low or zero carbon.
It’s a small book that is useful for someone interested in

renewables to get background information in an easy-to-
Pocket Einstein: Renewable Energy read, jargon-free manner. It’s written for a non-scientific
– ten short lessons audience, (although it does include some equations) and
is highly topical with current climate change and carbon
By Stephen Peake emission concerns. Although it’s unlikely to add much
This book is written by one of my university professors. value to existing engineers, it’s still worth a read and
It’s a short book that covers the key issues and adding to your book collection!
technologies for a sustainable energy future. Amanda Kinbrum, engineering student
96 BOOK CLUB 96
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BOOK CLUB
Characterisation of Soft Magnetic Materials
Under Rotational Magnetisation
By Dr Stanislaw Zurek
Soft magnetic materials are at the heart of motors and
generators of every kind and, in these applications, they
experience rotational magnetic fields. The response
of the materials to these fields and, in particular, the
magnetic losses involved have, over the years, received
much attention. In this book, Dr Stan Zurek, who is Head
of Research and Innovation at Megger, offers an up-to-
date review of the measurement techniques employed
to evaluate the performance of soft magnetic materials
under rotational magnetic field. The rotational magnetic
loss has a very peculiar behaviour such that it is much
higher than under ordinary alternating magnetisation,
but it reduces when the material approaches magnetic
saturation. While theoretical aspects are covered in some
detail, the focus throughout is on practical applications
and examples, and the book features numerous
“Practical Comments” that clarify the real-world
implications of the topics under discussion.
excellent reference for all readers. With this in mind,
The book opens with a brief introduction to magnetism, Characterisation of Soft Magnetic Materials Under
and proceeds to look at methods of measurement, Rotational Magnetisation can be strongly recommended
sensing techniques and magnetising apparatus suitable as a useful, comprehensive and well-presented source
for the rotational measurements, which are much more of information that is often hard to find elsewhere, and
challenging from the technical viewpoint than those as an excellent reference book for all those whose work
under alternating magnetisation. Later sections deal involves measurement of magnetic properties of soft
with the important but frequently neglected topic of magnetic materials.
measurement uncertainty analysis, where Zurek’s stated
aim is that the text ‘clarifies many of the confusing Keith Wilson, electrical engineer
concepts of uncertainty.’ A comprehensive list of
references, which includes numerous PhD theses, is
provided and will prove invaluable for those looking for
extended discussions on particular aspects of the
material covered in the book.
Given its theme and scope, the book necessarily

contains many mathematical equations, but “Booksare
“Books arethe
theultimate
ultimate Dumpees:
Dumpees: put put
themthem
downdown
and and
they are clearly explained and thus the content they’llwait
they’ll waitfor
foryou
you forever;
forever; paypay attention
attention to them
to them and and
remains accessible to those with a degree-level
they
theyalways
alwayslove you
love back.”
you back.”
John Green,
John An Abundance
Green, of Katherines
An Abundance of Katherines
education in engineering, and can serve as an
BOOK CLUB 97
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How is Megger connected with

reindeer herding?
Rickard Jonsson, Senior Advisor – Substation Business
Development
Read on to find out how Megger provided support for there remained professional walk-in cooling and freezer
a business that has been operating continuously for rooms. These were fully functional and in good condition,
thousands of years. but they were definitely not items that would be easy for
buyers to carry away! However, some Megger employees
Sustainability and growth have aspects that may
had an inspired idea and so they used their free time to
seem contradictory – and sometimes they are. But the
carefully dismantle the rooms, including the temperature
truth is that many possibilities open up when there
control equipment and the compressors.
is engagement and willingness to find solutions for a
sustainable future. And that’s exactly what happened They then made contact with a group of people in a Sami
recently when Megger Sweden AB needed to expand. village in Ammarnäs, in the northern part of Sweden.
After discussions, it was agreed that the cooling and
Megger Sweden AB has seen tremendous growth since
freezing rooms would be donated to a young family
2007 when it became part of the Megger Group. Sales of
who were going into the business of processing meat
its substation test and diagnostic equipment have almost
from traditional Sami reindeer herding. Truly green
tripled in recent years. Even though the company moved
meat production! Re-using the surplus equipment will
to new, larger facilities in 2012, these have proved to
help to bolster the economy of this small and authentic
be too small to cope with recent growth and further
mountain village, keeping old traditions alive.
expansion became essential.
The Sami are recognised by the UN as the only
Fortuitously, an opportunity arose to lease more space
indigenous people remaining in Europe. They populate
in the existing building, but it was necessary to remove
northern Norway, Sweden, Finland, and the Kola
fixtures and fittings belonging to the restaurant that
Peninsula in Russia, and their culture is very much centred
had previously occupied the space before it could be
on reindeer herding. Their tradition has always been to
reconfigured as offices. Some of the items were sold, but
maintain balance and harmony in their relationship with
98 HOW IS MEGGER CONNECTED WITH REINDEER HERDING?

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100 ARTICLE TITLE

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Inductance
measurements
can be confusing
– a deeper dive
Dr Stan Zurek, DSc, PhD
101
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An apprentice asked: “Master, I measured the value of an inductance and it was X. Is

this correct?” The master replied: “It is correct.” Then the second apprentice said: “But
I measured the same inductance and the value was Y, am I wrong?” And the master
answered: “You are also correct. Indeed, you are both correct.” The third student objected:
“They cannot be both right if the two results differ!” And the master agreed: “You are also
correct.” All three students were perplexed…
Introduction saturation. This way, maximum benefit can be gained

from the presence of the core.
Inductance L is the property of an electric circuit which
The windings in motors, generators, and transformers
quantifies its ability to store energy in a magnetic field.
exhibit significant inductance, and certain electric,
The amount of energy stored is proportional to the value
magnetic, and even mechanical faults can be diagnosed
of inductance and to the square of electric current I
or detected by measuring the value of inductance
flowing through it:
for each accessible winding. The more accurate the
E= L·I2/2 measurement, the better the fault diagnosis. But what
does it mean to measure inductance accurately?
Hence, a component with a higher inductance can store
more energy for the same current. In inductors without a
magnetic core, the maximum practical current is limited Variation of permeability and
only by the heat dissipated in the wire. inductance
Inductance is directly proportional to the effective relative Even though permeability of magnetic materials can be
permeability μr of the material enclosed by the coil: very high (typically μr > 1000 for electrical steel under
L=μr·μ0·N2·A/l nominal operating conditions), it is also highly non-linear
and, at a sufficiently high current, the material saturates
(Where μ0 – permeability of vacuum, N – number of turns and permeability decreases significantly (contributing to
of the coil, A – area of the coil, l – length of the coil). such phenomena as the inrush current in transformers).
The value of permeability depends on a plethora of
The relative permeability of air or any non-magnetic
factors, significantly more so on some than others, such
material is very low (μr = 1), and therefore the inductance
as the few listed here:
is low for a given number of turns. An advantage of
this is that non-magnetic materials cannot saturate Level of excitation – at low excitation, the so-
magnetically, so inductors with a non-magnetic core called initial permeability is low and increases
have a very linear characteristic even for extremely large significantly (see Figure 1) to some peak value
currents. (called maximum permeability) before dropping
again towards saturation (not shown).
On the other hand, magnetic materials can have very
high permeability (μr >> 1). They are used extensively Previous history of magnetisation – if the
for ‘magnetic circuits’, to concentrate and guide the material has been exposed to a high magnetic
magnetic flux, so that components can be designed to be field, for instance due to a fault current in the
smaller, more efficient, and less expensive. The operation device, then some magnetisation remains in the
of every 50/60 Hz power transformer is based on the core and affects the permeability (this is why
presence of a suitable magnetic core. The same applies some magnetic devices need to be ‘degaussed’
to motors and generators. Magnetic cores are designed or ‘demagnetised’ before a measurement).
to operate at as high a level of excitation as possible
(to minimise size), but at a level low enough to avoid
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Figure 1: Typical magnetic permeability curves for grain-oriented electrical steel, at low
excitation up to B = 100 mT. (Transformers are typically used with B = 1.5 T). For a given
magnetic core, flux density B is a function of the applied current.
Frequency of excitation – the internal magnetic will behave differently at higher frequencies
structure (alignment of internal magnetic (rather than the magnetic core). The effect is
domains) behaves differently at different more pronounced for windings with more layers.
frequencies (Figure 1). At lower frequencies
The impact of each of these effects depends on the
the differences are small, but with increasing
actual type of device and magnetic core, so it is not
frequency an additional phenomenon called
possible to define some hard rules as to which effect is
the ‘skin effect’ (magnetic field cannot
dominant in a given case.
penetrate the inside of the lamination or the
core) begins to play a dominant role, and the
permeability reduces to a much smaller value. Useful effects of changing
Mechanical stress – typically, compressive
permeability and inductance
stress introduced during manufacturing Some of the effects listed above give useful information
(such as clamping of the laminations about the condition of the device under test. For
for assembly and mounting) lowers the example, when sweep frequency response analysis
magnetic permeability of the core. (SFRA) is performed on transformer windings, the level
of excitation and frequency range are standardised.
Temperature – the direct effect of temperature
Therefore, the excitation conditions are always the same,
is rather small, but measurements performed
and changes between impedance measurements (which
on a still-hot motor can differ from those
are affected by changes in inductance) can indicate
made on a cold machine, because different
that some physical change has taken place, such as a
internal stresses will be acting on the
displaced winding, or damage to the core. Hence, a fault
magnetic core. Additionally, resistivity of
can be detected.
the laminations will also differ, which might
impact measurements at higher frequencies. However, by looking at Figure 1, it is clear that the
excitation level and the frequency range must be the
‘Proximity effect’ in the windings – this is an
same for comparable tests, because otherwise the
additional high-frequency effect linked to the
permeability can differ significantly, and thus apparent
skin effect, which leads to further non-linear
differences in measurements may be found even where
behaviour of the current distribution in the
there are no changes in the magnetic properties,
windings. For this reason, in some high-power
material, or device. The magnetic core could be
synchronous generators, the windings are made
demagnetised or degaussed on purpose to make sure
with continuously transposed conductors (CTC,
that the same reference point is available for each test.
or ‘Roebel cable’). It is the winding itself that
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However, if the test is carried out for fault finding, then an additional change of permeability, as shown in
degaussing could be counterproductive, as it could mask Figure 1.
the presence of a fault.
If the same test instrument is used to measure inductance
Transformer turns ratio tests rely on the assumption of the windings in all three phases, the level of excitation
that the voltage ratio reflects the turn ratio. This and the test frequency will be the same and relative
approximation holds better for magnetic cores that changes can be detected. These techniques are used
have higher permeability. These tests are typically extensively in testing motors and generators, for example
performed with a very small test signal, because it is not with the Megger Baker ADX and the MTR105.
conveniently possible to generate nominal AC voltages
for a high voltage transformer. This would require tens or Not-so-useful effects
even hundreds of kV which is not practical in a portable
instrument, and would in any case be very costly. So, It is true that some frequencies are more suitable for
the excitation used during a test makes the core operate detecting particular types of faults, whereas other
at a fraction of the nominal range (tens of volts) where, frequencies are better for different purposes. But
unfortunately, the permeability is much lower (Figure 1). referring again to Figure 1, it is very clear that even
if the same test equipment is used for performing
It is therefore beneficial to use a test configuration measurements on the same winding – but at two
which generates higher flux in the core, because the different frequencies – the results will differ significantly,
permeability will be higher and the measurement more yet both measurements will be correct! For example,
accurate. This is easily achieved by applying excitation at an excitation of 100 mT (the maximum value on the
to the winding with lowest nominal voltage. This horizontal axis), the permeability at 400 Hz is around
winding will have a lower impedance and thus the same 9000 (red circle), whereas at 50 Hz it is as much as
test voltage will result in a higher current, making the 18 000 (blue circle). This is a ‘factor of two’ difference yet
measurement more accurate. This approach is employed, both values are correct. The difference in measurements
for example, when using the Megger TTRU3, a true three is simply a result of the real behaviour of the magnetic
phase transformer turns ratiometer. Using this approach, core, as dictated by the fundamental properties of the
smaller differences can be discerned, and incipient faults magnetic material.
can be diagnosed more reliably.
For this reason, direct comparison of absolute values
Changes in inductance are also used to diagnose measured with different test equipment is largely useless.
faults in motors and generators. For example, all three This is because the level of excitation is almost certain to
phases should have very similar inductance, and if one be different due to differences in the internal hardware
winding is significantly different, this typically indicates design. For example, if a handheld LCR meter tests with
some problem with the winding, the core, or even a 0.5 V excitation, rather than 5 V as might be used by a
mechanical problem with the bearings (because the shaft larger device, then for the 50 Hz curve in Figure 1, the
could be misaligned and thus affect the eccentricity of measured value could be 10 000 (green circle) rather
the air gap). than 18 000, which is a difference of 80 %. It should be
In motor testing, the inductance of the windings changes stressed that such a difference is not an error of the test
significantly when measured with the motor fully equipment! Both values are correct, and also neither of
assembled (rotor in place) and with the rotor out. This them is correct, because there is no single value which
is because of the difference in the amount of magnetic can be used as a ‘fixed’ reference point, which applies
material in the magnetic circuit in the two cases. Air has under all conditions. Comparisons can be made only if
a much smaller permeability than the rotor, so the effect the excitation is the same.
on the measured inductance is large. However, the lack Why are different excitation levels used for different
of rotor makes the stator more difficult to magnetise. testers, even by the same manufacturer? One reason is
Therefore, with the same test current, significantly less the amount of power available. A handheld LCR will have
magnetisation is produced in the core and hence there is
104 INDUCTANCE MEASUREMENTS CAN BE CONFUSING – A DEEPER DIVE

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only small batteries (low power) and so the test signal Watch our webinar on 'Inductance Test
will be limited. Also, test equipment may be designed on a 3 Phase Motor'
with appropriate input protection. Such safety measures

can put additional requirements on permissible levels
of excitation and the way the signals are measured. For
example, there could be an additional impedance in the
Watch our webinar on 'Surge Test For
internal measuring circuit which will affect the amount of Electric Motors Modern Variables for
available drive signal depending on the measured value of the Diagnostic of the Winding
inductance. Insulation Condition'
Who is right?
It is therefore very difficult to verify in the field which
inductance measurement is ‘correct’, or which test
equipment gives more ‘accurate’ readings. Even extremely
precise measurements performed with a calibrator class
instrument can and will differ significantly if the level of
excitation is changed.
Worse still, even the accuracy specification of the

instrument cannot be trusted, for precisely the same
reasons. In addition, some manufacturers are known
to be less than honest with the actual performance of
their instruments, claiming an unlikely level of accuracy.
Therefore, it is always advisable to use test equipment
from a trustworthy manufacturer with well recognised
brand, that is known to state measurement accuracy
honestly, in line with the true capability of the instrument.
So, who is correct? The actual accuracy of a measurement

can be only verified in laboratory conditions, not in the
field, unless specially designed stable inductors are used
and are measured at the same frequency. Nevertheless,
relying on reputable test equipment from a trustworthy
brand is always the best line of attack.
INDUCTANCE MEASUREMENTS CAN BE CONFUSING – A DEEPER DIVE 105

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Coupling
Capacitor Voltage
Transformers
(CCVTs)
Volney Naranjo
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Introduction below 120 V. The EMU typically incorporates trimming

windings to ensure that the required levels of accuracy
Instrument transformers perform the important function are achieved.
of providing windows on the power grid’s electrical
Essentially a CVD is composed of two capacitors, C1
behaviour. Protection, control, and measuring devices
and C2, although in practice C1 either may be made
require these ‘windows’ yet they also need electrical
up of a single capacitor stack or several capacitor stacks
isolation from the grid as they function at much lower
connected in series. When there are several stacks, these
voltages and currents. Instrument transformers provide
are designated C1-1, C1-2, etc., or in infrequent cases,
the solution; they are go-betweens that provide isolation
B1, B2, etc. Every CVD has, as a minimum, a C2 and a
by magnetically coupling secondary monitoring and
C1-1 (or B1) capacitor. When only these two capacitors
measuring devices to the grid. There are several types of
are present, the CCVT is referred to a single-unit or
instrument transformers, but one of the most common
single-stack device. The C1-1 capacitor is located directly
on higher voltage transmission systems is the coupling
above the C2 in the bottom-most housing (insulator) of
capacitor voltage transformer (CCVT).
the device, and the appearance of the CCVT resembles
CCVTs are devices capable of dual function. One function a terminal box with an insulator on top. A two-unit
they can perform is to provide highly accurate voltage CCVT, where C1 is made up of C1-1 and C1-2, has
conversion for measuring devices, protection relays, and two insulators with C1-2 in the top insulator and C1-1
automatic control systems, while the other is to couple and C2 in the bottom insulator; a three-unit CCVT has
high-frequency power-line carrier (PLC) signals onto three insulators with C1-3 in the top insulator, C1-2 in
the transmission system for communication and control the middle insulator, and C1-1 and C2 in the bottom
purposes. insulator, and so on.
The EMU, in addition to an inductive voltage transformer,

CCVT construction contains a tuning circuit and protection against ferro-
In terms of construction, a CCVT is both a capacitor resonance (Figure 1). The tuning circuit is a reactor
voltage divider (CVD), and an electromagnetic unit. The that compensates for magnitude errors and phase shift
capacitor divider is an assembly of capacitor elements caused by the CVD, making it possible to have the CCVT
that steps down the primary high or extra high voltage with a characteristic on the secondary side that is similar,
to an intermediate voltage level (typically 5 to 20 kV) and in terms of error and phase deviation, to that of a purely
the electromagnetic unit (EMU) steps the voltage further inductive voltage transformer.
down to the required output level, which is usually
Figure 1: Typical CCVT circuit diagram
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In some circumstances, the CVD capacitive reactance can in most CCVTs. This is not always true of the potential
resonate with the magnetizing reactance of the inductive terminal, which is located between C2 and C1 (or
voltage transformer and the compensating reactor cores. between C2 and C1-1 for multi-stack CCVTs).
This unwanted effect is called ferro-resonance and can
On older style CCVTs, the potential terminal is typically
give rise to large and damaging voltages across the
accessible. However, for modern CCVTs such as those
inductive and capacitive elements. To avoid this, a ferro-
supplied by Trench, the potential terminal is inaccessible.
resonance damping circuit is installed in parallel with one
Even in these cases, however, C2 can still be tested.
of the secondary windings.
CCVTs have a potential ground switch that provides
the means to ground the potential terminal. With the
Testing CCVTs potential ground switch closed, the carrier terminal can
Compared with purely inductive voltage transformers, be energised, a low voltage lead connected to the line
at voltages of approximately 72 kV and above, CCVTs terminal (top of C1), and a C2 test performed in the
are lower cost components. Therefore, if replacement GST-guard mode. Note that the carrier terminal must be
cost was the only consideration, extensive testing would disconnected and isolated from ground potential and the
be hard to justify. However, single or multiple failures drain coil (also, if applicable, from any accessory leads) for
can occur in the capacitor stack causing a decrease in the C2 test. In addition, the test voltage (typically 500 V)
ratio and an increase in phase error. Degradation of used to energise the carrier terminal must not exceed the
the dielectric in the capacitor stack can also lead to a voltage rating of the terminal. In summary:
catastrophic equipment explosion. The EMU can suffer Carrier output terminal to be
degradation because of aging, exposure to vibration, disconnected from ground
or for other reasons, resulting in reduced accuracy or
insulation failure. As an aid to guarding against these Grounding switch: CLOSED
eventualities, testing is fully justified. Various test Carrier assembly ground switch: OPEN
techniques, as described in the following sections, can be
used. Test mode: GSTg-R
Maximum test voltage: 2 kV RMS

Insulation tests Capacitance test results should be compared with
Capacitance and line frequency power factor (PF) nameplate values and to other previous capacitance test
measurements should be made routinely on CCVTs. results, if available. Unfortunately, such comparisons
Insulation power factor tests are most informative often result in confusion. The CCVT nameplate, affixed
when the amount of insulation included in the test is to the base box, frequently provides the rated design
minimised. For this reason, tests are performed on each capacitance value CN (also called CT). CN for a capacitor
individual component of the CVD (e.g., C1-1, C1-2, divider is the resultant capacitance calculated from
…, and C2). Typical overall PF values range from 0.2 % the C1 and C2 measurements by using the formula
to 0.5 %, but power factor values under 0.05 % are (C1*C2/ (C1+C2)). On Trench CCVTs, CN is found on
normal depending on the insulating materials used for another smaller nameplate attached to the top of the
construction. first (i.e., bottom) stack. This represents the capacitance
of the entire bottom stack, or C1-1 in series with C2. It
C2 testing is generally thought to be more difficult
is also important to note that the nameplate data may
because isolating the C2 component is not always
give design values rather than measured values. This
straightforward. C2 is ‘bookended’ by a potential
is particularly likely if the nameplate values are round
terminal and a carrier terminal. The carrier terminal,
numbers.
located in the ‘terminal box’ (when available), provides
access to the bottom of C2. This terminal, labeled ‘HF’ The nameplate typically includes the C2 measured value.
by some manufacturers, is identifiable and easy to access However, for a two-unit CCVT, C1-1 and the C1-2
COUPLING CAPACITOR VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS (CCVTS) 109

Watch our webinar on 'Test Field Practices for
Testing Instrument Transformers - CTs, VTs, CVTs'

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User-driven development in
circuit breaker testing
Niclas Wetterstrand and Nils Wäcklén
Circuit breaker analysers are key items in the toolkits of the hard-pressed test engineers in
the power sector. There is no shortage of analysers on the market, but do they really meet
users’ needs? Megger asked them. Niclas Wetterstrand, Megger’s Industry Director Utilities –
Protection, and Nils Wäcklén, product owner of circuit breaker products at Megger, report on
their answers and explain how these guided the development of an innovative instrument
that sets new standards for speed, convenience, and safety in circuit breaker testing.
Our customers told us that the vast majority of circuit Main contact resistance (and PIR resistance value
breaker tests they perform these days are standard measurement) is also included in the standard
measurements of contact resistance and main contact measurements and is acquired with an external unit.
timing. There are two main reasons for this. First, Some instruments from other suppliers integrate contact
circuit breaker reliability has improved over the years, resistance measurement within the main instrument and
which means that asset owners are now asking for this might initially seem an attractive feature. Indeed,
less information to validate correct operation. Second, during discussions with customers, many asked for this,
time and cost pressures have driven the adoption of a but after the pros and cons had been discussed, almost
streamlined set of measurements, which are sufficient all changed their minds to favour a separate lightweight
to confirm that the asset is working as intended, but no unit.
more.
The only advantage of a built-in resistance measurement
In the past, there was time to acquire additional is that when they bring the instrument to the test
information by making a wider range of measurements, location, users know they have everything they need
but now tests are often carried out by a subcontractor to conduct the full range of standard measurements.
who gets paid a fixed amount per circuit breaker. This
However, this can easily be arranged when a separate
leaves no opportunity to carry out measurements that
resistance measurement unit is used simply by providing a
have not been explicitly requested. What’s needed today
transport case that will accommodate both this unit and
is the fastest possible way to get the job done, and this
the main instrument. On the other hand, the integrated
includes everything from collecting the test equipment
solution has many disadvantages. For example, it means
from the stores, through to the test itself, and right up to
extra weight in the main unit, it limits options for
returning the equipment to the stores.
performing measurements on items other than circuit
With this in mind, Megger has developed a new circuit breakers, and it requires the use of longer cables that add
breaker analyser – the EGIL200 – to provide standard even more weight.
measurements that include main contact timing, PIR
contact timing, auxiliary contact timing, station voltage Another topic which came up frequently in the
and coil current. All these measurements can be made discussions with users is why it often takes around an
without the need to disconnect and reconnect the hour to figure out how to connect the test cables, when
instrument. Additional facilities, which can be activated actually performing the measurements takes only a
if and when needed, include motor current and motion few minutes. We have addressed this issue by looking
measurements. carefully at every aspect of the design of the instrument
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and its associated accessories, including the transport to provide a streamlined setup for basic measurements
case, cable bags, cables, test preparation, connection with a minimum of settings, while not unduly limiting the
guidance, result evaluation, report creation, etc. We have user’s flexibility.
found, for example, that with well thought out cable bag
We have achieved this by arranging for our new
and cable design, colour coding and connection support,
instrument to start with a quick-test menu, where the
big savings can be made in overall testing time.
user selects the type of breaker to be tested, what
In particular, the cabling arrangements for our new needs to be measured and what operation should be
instrument are convenient and practical for field use. performed. Initially, a connection screen is displayed
Since users have told us that cable wear is an issue, the to show how the test connections should be made
cables are designed to be durable, with thicker insulation and to confirm that they are correct. After that, the
and liberal use of cable sleeves. The cable bag has also measurements are performed using the results and
been optimised to make it easy to carry while keeping analysis screen. Last but not least, the instrument
the cables properly organised. For further convenience, generates a report to provide evidence that the test was
the bag is equally suitable for use as a backpack, or as a performed in line with contractual requirements and that
handbag. either the circuit breaker meets its specification, or there
is an issue that needs action or further investigation.
Test preparation and setup are other areas that our users
told us were important and we’ve made a lot of effort The option to produce professional reports with
to streamline these processes. Many instruments have a recommendations for further action without having
setup procedure that focuses on the test channel rather to spend hours working on them in the office or hotel
than the test object. By focusing on the test object room was something engineers particularly wanted as
and what needs to be measured, we have been able an aid to reducing their workload. In addition, accurate
to reduce setup to a few clicks, with big time savings. and professional reports have been shown to give the
Furthermore, if a similar asset of the same design needs contractor higher credibility with network owners and, in
to be tested, the basic tests can be repeated without the most cases, if the report recommends further action, the
need for further settings. contractor is asked to provide it, which generates extra
income.
Another thing we discovered from our discussions
with users was that, in this era of outsourced breaker As we have explained, the development of Megger’s
testing, the test engineer often does not have a specific new EGIL200 has been driven by the input from users,
test plan relating to the asset under test. Most often, which ensures that it accurately and efficiently meets
the engineer will arrive on site and set up the test on the requirements of today’s engineers. This means that
the fly. Once again, this calls for a fast and streamlined EGIL200 is not just another test instrument, it’s a long-
setup procedure. To provide this, we involved a range term partner which will help and support those who
of customers in trials of user-interface mock-ups during commission and maintain circuit breakers during difficult
an early stage of the development project for our new times as well as good times.
instrument. We found that the biggest challenge was
USER-DRIVEN DEVELOPMENT IN CIRCUIT BREAKER TESTING 113

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114 ARTICLE TITLE

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Primary injection
testing of low
voltage circuit
breakers
Megger North America
Technical Support Group (TSG)
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Primary injection
testing has the
Too important to leave to chance important benefit that
Circuit breakers used in low voltage (LV) applications it tests all parts of the
include air, insulated-case, and moulded-case types, as
protection system,
well as miniature circuit breakers. They typically function
as the incoming device on low voltage switchboards. In
whereas secondary
the event of an overload or short circuit, current sensors injection testing tests
in the breaker measure the increased current and send only the trip unit.
feedback to the trip unit.
The trip unit is the brain of the circuit breaker; its built-
in logic determines how the circuit breaker operates. ability to conduct current adequately. For instance,
Many moulded-case circuit breakers (MCCBs) now contact erosion over time can lead to heating issues that
incorporate electronic trip units but, in smaller frame eventually result in breaker failure. Contact resistance
sizes, these may not be as sophisticated as the trip units values should typically be in the micro-ohm range,
found in air circuit breakers. Older MCCBs may have although in the case of MCCBs with low current ratings,
electromechanical thermal and magnetic trips. values can be around 1 mΩ. As current ratings increase,
contact resistance values tend to be smaller. Similar values
To properly isolate a fault, the circuit breaker must act in
should be measured on all poles of the breaker, with
a timely and reliable manner. Failure of a circuit breaker
deviations greater than 50 % warranting investigation.
to do this can result in a widespread outage area, loss
Breaker manufacturers can provide information about
of revenue, damage to equipment, injury and, in a
expected contact resistance values for their products.
worst-case scenario, loss of life. Hence, it is essential to
carry out regular maintenance on the circuit breaker at
regular intervals throughout its service life. Typically, a
Insulation resistance measurement
preventative maintenance program will include a range of Insulation resistance can be measured between phases,
activities, but this article focusses on the electrical testing from each phase to ground with the breaker closed, and
of LV circuit breakers. across each pole with the breaker open. The measured
values will depend on the type of breaker and the
Testing low voltage (LV) circuit application, but any values less than 1 MΩ definitely
breakers indicate a need for further investigation.
The ANSI/NETA MTS Standard for Maintenance Testing

Primary injection testing
Specifications for Electrical Power Equipment and
Systems recommends the electrical tests detailed below Primary injection testing involves injection of current
as part of maintenance testing on LV circuit breakers. The through the poles of the circuit breaker to verify that
first two tests assess the integrity of the breaker’s original the breaker will operate according to the trip unit logic.
construction. Tests in the third group are functional This contrasts with secondary injection testing where the
checks, not only of the breaker itself, but also of the test current is injected directly into the trip unit. Primary
whole protection system, including current sensors, trip injection testing has the important benefit that it tests
unit, and tripping mechanism, as well as the internal all parts of the protection system, whereas secondary
wiring and connections. injection testing tests only the trip unit. However, primary
injection requires higher test currents and hence larger
Resistance measurement test sets (for a more detailed discussion of primary versus
secondary injection testing, see the December 2019 issue
By measuring the contact resistance on each pole of of Electrical Tester, which is available on the Megger
the circuit breaker, it is possible to check for contact- website).
related issues that may interfere with the circuit breaker’s
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Figure 1: Sample time-current curve
Primary injection testing for LV circuit breakers involves to 2.5 times the short-time pickup setting. The
four tests: test current is injected successively through
each pole of the breaker, and the trip time is
1. Long-time delay and pickup. A breaker’s long-
recorded for each. The results are validated
time delay characteristic provides overload
by referring to the time-current curves
protection. The pickup value is typically set to
published by the manufacturer (Figure 1). The
the overcurrent protection device’s continuous
trip time recorded is typically in the order of
current rating. The test current injected is
milliseconds, or a few cycles of the supply.
usually three times the long-time pickup value.
The test current is injected successively through 3. Instantaneous pickup. The instantaneous trip
each pole, and the trip time is recorded for characteristic provides protection against short-
each. The results are validated by referring circuit or fault conditions but doesn’t include
to the time-current curves provided by the any intentional time delay. In this test, pulses
manufacturer. To avoid unnecessary tripping of current (pulse duration between 5 and 10
caused by short duration overcurrents, the cycles) with steadily incrementing magnitudes
trip time is usually in the order of seconds. are injected through each pole until the
circuit breaker trips. The starting pulse is set
2. Short-time delay and pickup. A breaker’s short-
at around 70 % of the expected pickup. The
time delay characteristic provides protection
value of the pickup at which the breaker trips
against short-circuit or high current fault
is recorded. Manufacturers typically allow a
conditions. An intentional delay is provided
tolerance of ±10 % to ±25 % on the pickup.
for coordination or selectivity with other
protection devices. The short-time pickup 4. Ground-fault delay and pickup. This
setting is higher than the long-time pickup characteristic provides protection against
setting. The test current typically used is 1.5 ground faults. The ground-fault pickup
PRIMARY INJECTION TESTING OF LOW VOLTAGE CIRCUIT BREAKERS 117

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Figure 2: Input current of primary injection test system as a function of output current
Figure 3: DC offset as shown in NEMA AB-4
is typically a fraction (20 % to 60 %) of

Input specifications
the continuous current rating of the
overcurrent protection device. The test The input voltage will determine the output of the
current injected is typically between 1.5 and primary injection test set. It is essential that the
2.5 times the pickup. This test is required input voltage is within ±5 % of that specified by the
for many service entrances by NFPA 70, manufacturer of the test set. In addition, the input
National Electrical Code (NEC 230.95).
breaker must be sized appropriately. As the test set
is operated at higher currents, higher losses occur. As
Primary injection test procedure a result, the relationship between the input current
considerations and the output current for primary injection test sets
is exponential (Figure 2). When working with a high
Several factors, such as the input specifications, test current test set, it is important to install an input breaker
connections, DC offset, and ground fault protection on that is sized to handle the input power required for the
the trip unit, must be carefully considered if a primary maximum test currents that will be used for testing the
injection test is to be carried out successfully. breakers.

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The connection leads between the input voltage supply During
and the input voltage terminals on the test set also must
be suitably sized and short in length. Long connections instantaneous trip
can result in a drop in voltage at the input terminals, thus tests, errors can
affecting the performance of the test set.
occur because of
Test connections DC offset in the
As high current test sets have a very low open-circuit
voltage (typically 5 to 10 V), the maximum output
current pulse.
from the high current source is limited by the circuit
impedance, which in turn primarily depends on the
impedance of test connections. For breakers with low
current ratings, the test connections are typically made High current test sets used for testing draw-out-type
using cables, and it is important that these connections circuit breakers use stab sets for connections to ensure
have an adequate current rating. This may necessitate the circuit impedance is as low as possible. Stab sets of
connecting multiple cables in parallel but, in all cases, the various types are available to suit different types of circuit
shortest possible cables should be used. Where possible, breakers.
the cables can also be twisted together to further reduce To overcome the problem of high circuit impedance while
the impedance of the circuit. testing at relatively lower currents, some high current test
Figure 4: Difference between peak/√2 and true RMS values observed in output
current for various firing angles
Figure 5: Current waveform at firing angle of 4 º

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Figure 6: Current waveform at firing angle of 70 º
Figure 7: Current waveform with automatically adjusted firing angle
Figure 8: Two poles connected in series to bypass ground-fault protection
sets have a modular design that allows multiple current adjusting the firing angle (the point on the voltage wave
sources to be connected in series to achieve a higher at which the output is energised). A measure of the
open-circuit voltage. DC offset is the difference between the peak/√2 and
RMS values (see Figures 4, 5, 6, and 7). For a perfectly
DC offset sinusoidal waveform, these values would be equal.
During instantaneous trip tests, errors can occur because

of DC offset in the current pulse (Figure 3). Ground-fault protection on trip unit
The asymmetrical nature of the first few current cycles When testing circuit breakers equipped with trip units
results from a high X/R ratio in inductive circuits. The DC that provide ground-fault protection, it is necessary to
offset can be minimised by manually or automatically disable the ground-fault function while running the other

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tests, as the currents involved in these tests tend to be permits automatic current control. This eliminates the
higher than the ground-fault pickup. Some trip units additional step of adjusting the output setting to achieve
provide an option for disabling ground-fault protection, the desired current prior to starting the test, as well
but breakers where this option is not available can still as the need to manually adjust the output current to
be tested by injecting the test current through two poles maintain it at a constant level during a long-time test.
connected in series, as shown in Figure 8.
A further useful feature is software that includes a library
of time-current curves from various manufacturers. If
Selecting a primary injection test set the test set incorporates software of this type, the user
Primary injection tests have been carried out for decades doesn’t need to spend time finding and interpreting
and traditional technology is still relevant, although it is the manufacturer’s published time-current curves to
now augmented by newer developments that provide determine the trip-time limits for specific tests.
useful benefits. Primary injection test sets are available in The wide variety of primary injection test systems
a range of sizes depending on their output current rating. now available gives users the opportunity to make
The test sets used for testing power circuit breakers are an informed choice of equipment to suit their own
typically large and weigh hundreds of pounds/kilos. individual requirements, based on multiple factors such
Primary injection test sets that operate at relatively as portability, ease of use, size of breakers to be tested,
low currents can be mounted on wheeled carts, which and the test currents required.
facilitates testing outdoors in substations. Having a
portable test set also helps if testing needs to be done Conclusion
in elevated or difficult-to-access locations. Portable
Primary injection testing can be seen as the ‘gold
primary injection test sets can deliver currents up to a few
standard’ for low voltage circuit breaker testing as
thousand amps.
it verifies that every part of the protection system is
As previously mentioned, primary injection test sets functioning correctly. This includes the current path
sometimes feature a modular design that gives the tester through the poles of the circuit breaker, the current
some flexibility in achieving different output currents and sensors, the wiring, the trip unit, and the breaker
voltages. Higher currents can be achieved by connecting operating mechanism. It is true that primary injection
multiple sources in parallel, whereas a higher open- testing can be somewhat more difficult to implement
circuit voltage can be achieved by connecting multiple than secondary injection testing, and that it often
sources in series. Some primary injection test sets include requires larger test sets. Modern test equipment helps to
additional features like secondary measurement channels, minimise the impact of these issues and, given the many
which allow them to be used in other applications, benefits of primary injection testing discussed in this
such as CT ratio testing or the measurement of circuit article, the extra effort involved is amply repaid in almost
parameters (Z, R, etc.). every case.
Traditionally, the output current of primary injection test

sets has been controlled manually, but newer technology
REFERENCES
[1] National Fire Protection Association. NFPA 70, National Electrical Code (NEC 230.95). Quincy, Massachusetts.
[2] National Electrical Manufacturers Association. NEMA AB 4-2017, Guidelines for Inspection and Preventive Maintenance of
Moulded-Case Circuit Breakers Used in Commercial and Industrial Applications. Arlington, Virginia.

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The IEC 61850 Week Conference 2021

Jill Duplessis
The 8th annual IEC 61850 Week Conference took place Digital Twin technology has been a hot topic in recent
from 18th to 22nd October 2021 via the Swapcard virtual years, but this is the first time that the technology has
event platform. The year’s event was more interactive been used to achieve virtual relay protection testing. The
and engaging than the first virtual event held in 2020, presentation attracted interest from the IEC (International
with lengthier and more frequent live Q&A sessions, Electrotechnical Commission), which published an article
interactive speaker hangout sessions during refreshment mentioning it on its blog (https://www.iec.ch/blog/digital-
breaks, and many more roundtable discussions. Megger grid-transformation-boosted-pandemic).
and Schneider Electric were gold sponsors for the event.
Smart Grid Forums, the organisers of the IEC 61850
The week began with a practical workshop on ‘System Week Conference, are now starting the planning process
Specification’ led by Christoph Brunner with contributions for the 9th annual event which will take place from 17th
from Thomas Sterckx of Elia and Joerg Reuter of Helinks. to 22nd October 2022 in person, in London.
This provided utilities with a solid framework for the
Asked what sets this event apart from others in the
end-to-end specification of next-generation digital
calendar, Mandana White, CEO of Smart Grid Forums,
substations, enabling them to leverage their suppliers’
commented: “Our programmes of content-heavy
expertise whilst remaining in the driving seat of the
implementation-focused conferences and seminars
specification and implementation processes.
provide the in-depth insights that smart grid teams need
The main three-day conference showcased a series of to drive the implementation, operation, and maintenance
utility implementation case studies covering a range of of new technologies. Time and again, we see individual
topics that would enable a culture of ‘rapid replacement’ specialists and cross-functional teams come to our forums
to help utilities meet new regulatory pressures. with a combination of excitement and trepidation at the
Among the top-rated presentations were sessions on implementation task at hand and leave with exponentially
‘Implementing IEC 61850 between the Substation and greater insights and awareness that empowers them to
Control Centre’ delivered by Renaud Renaud-Drouin of drive investment decisions and implementation action with
Hydro Quebec, ‘Top-Down Engineering’ delivered by greater confidence and ease.”
Bas Mulder of TenneT, and ‘Metering Data Accuracy’
These forums are immersive peer-to-peer exchanges
delivered by Rannveig Løken of Statnett.
focused on progressive outcomes that support rapid
The week was rounded off with an in-depth seminar change and embed new ways of working through
addressing cybersecurity considerations for digital the perfect alignment of people, processes, and new
substations. With presentations on the threat landscape, technologies. Mandana regularly hears success stories
defence-in-depth strategies, and standards such as IEC about how the forums have helped utilities to sharpen
62443 and IEC 62351, participants came away with a their business plans, speed up board approval, secure
comprehensive overview of the cyber-physical security new resources, and propel teams into action at a pace
implications of next generation IEC 61850 digital previously unimagined.
substations.
She believes this is the result of a perfect alignment
Megger experts Niclas Wetterstrand and Andrea Bonetti between the aims of the forums as learning providers,
delivered an informative presentation on Digital Twin and those of the participants as pioneering change
Advances for Virtual Relay Protection Testing, where makers. The formula is simple yet highly impactful. The
digital twins of Siemens protection devices and Megger combination of objective audience research, in-depth
test sets were used. technical content, end-user driven speaker selection,
122 THE IEC 61850 WEEK CONFERENCE 2021

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Read all
about it!
IEEE electrical insulation conference: a doubly
unique event!
Held as an in-person event for the first time since 2019, insulation. The 2021 Eric O Foster Distinguished Service
the 40th Electrical Insulation Conference, which is fully Award was presented to Professor Paul Lewin, IEEE Fellow,
sponsored by the IEEE Dielectric and Electrical Insulation the University of Southampton, UK, in recognition of
Society (DEIS), was not only an outstanding success, but his sustained leadership, support, and contributions to
it was also unique in two ways. It was the first time that the advancement of the field of electrical insulation and
this globally recognised conference has partnered with the dielectrics.
Impulse Power Modulator and High Voltage Conference
In addition to chairing the conference, Dr Robalino co-
(IPMHVC) to form a single joint event, and it was also the
presented two papers: Parameter Identification of the
first time that the conference was chaired by someone
Electrical Debye Model for Power Transformer Multilayer
who had chaired a previous conference: Megger’s Dr Diego
Insulation Systems, which he co-authored with Giovanni
Robalino.
Hernandez and Abner Ramirez of VTC West in Mexico, and
The joint conference had, in fact, been planned for 2020 Practical Considerations for the Usage of Ester Fluids in
but COVID intervened to prevent the plans from coming Distribution Transformers, co-authored with Alan Sbravati
to fruition until this year. Dr Robalino also owes his second of Cargill USA and Robert Breazeal of Southern California
term as conference chair to the COVID disruption, as he first Edison.
took up the role in 2020 when the conference had to be
Dr Robalino noted that, like almost all of the other papers
held as a virtual event.
presented at the conference, his papers were the result
This year’s event, held in Knoxville, Tennessee, USA, of close cooperation between two or more organisations.
attracted a huge amount of interest and enthusiasm from Like the conference itself, he sees this as an important
around the globe. Almost 160 abstracts were received from demonstration of the way businesses in the sector and
23 countries and, ultimately, 104 papers were presented educational institutions are happy to work together to
during the conference, which was attended by over 400 further the advancement of the science and technology of
delegates. Given the ongoing travel restrictions in many electrical insulation.
parts of the world, this level of attendance was a remarkable
Léonie Alvey, Content Editor
achievement and a clear demonstration of the feeling that
there are big benefits to be gained by meeting in person.
The broad scope of the event is demonstrated by the range

of sessions offered. These included cables and accessories,
failure analysis, new materials, partial discharge, rotating
machines, switchgear and outdoor insulation, transformers,
and testing technologies. The papers delivered in these
sessions were complemented by a wide range of workshops
and poster presentations.
Among many other conference highlights was the

presentation of two prestigious awards. The 2022 IEEE
DEIS Thomas Dakin Distinguished Contributions Award
was presented to Dr J Keith Nelson, Professor Emeritus,
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, who has made important
contributions to understanding the ageing of electrical
124
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Read all
about it!
Thousands attend Megger’s virtual renewable
energy maintenance congress in Latin America
During 2021, Megger Latin America organised a host with colleagues, organisations, suppliers, and customers. The
of events related to new technologies and regulations, main topics discussed included commissioning, diagnosis,
including the Energy Efficiency Congress in Guatemala and a and electrical maintenance in PV and wind farms, as well as
Congress in Chile on the Requirements of the New Electrical innovation in renewable energies and regulations.
Regulation. However, none were as popular as the virtual
Almost 4000 attendees heard from guest speakers such
Renewable Energy Maintenance Congress.
as Hector Pagani from the Argentinian Wind Energy
According to IRENA (International Renewable Energy Association, Santiago Barbero from the National University
Agency), Latin America has some of the most innovative of La Plata, and Marcelo Alvarez from the Argentine
energy markets in the world, with a large majority of Chamber of Renewable Energies. Attendees also had the
primary energy coming from renewables, including a strong opportunity to ‘visit’ virtual booths from Megger, Hitatchi
investment in solar, wind, and photovoltaic (PV) power. Energy, Comulsa, ANXOR Ingenieria, and Artec Ingenieria.
The facilities that make up renewable energy generation are As large, face-to-face events were not possible in 2021,
well established in the area, with some operating for many taking advantage of available technologies to be virtually
years. As with any electrical system, constant monitoring and present and be involved in technical communities was
maintenance is required. The three-day congress focused on essential.
reviewing the aspects that these actions involve, especially in
Roberto Sartori, Regional Manager (Argentina)
electrical installations that support renewable generation.
Karen Becerril, CSA Marketing Manager
Over the course of the event, 38 high-level academic
speakers shared their knowledge and exchanged information
ARTICLE TITLE 125

ELECTRICAL
TESTER
ELECTRICAL TESTER MAGAZINE I004 2022
The rights of the individuals attributed in Electrical Tester to be identified as authors of their respective articles has been asserted by them in accordance with
the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. © Copyright Megger. All rights reserved. No part of Electrical Tester may be reproduced in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photo-copying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of Megger.

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E

Be well, my friends. Until next time!

Recent times have presented their fair share of challenges. Challenges to

Reflecting on such things brings to mind the various ways we approach

At Megger, we continue to adapt to these challenges and the subsequent

Self-powered relay testing challenges ..... 18

Metering challenges in IEC 61850 digital

IEC 61850 GOOSE is fast, and it can help

What became of Nikola Tesla’s wireless

Geek Challenge IV ................................... 43

A global view of power transformer

Stray currents in water pipes in a reverse

Electrical Tester team

POWERED BY … Andrea Bonetti ............. 65 Inductance measurements can be confusing

Electrical power is classified as AC or DC based on the direction of flow of

The electrical infrastructure in most countries is designed for AC transmission

Figure 1: Ex-circus elephant, Topsy, electrocuted by Edison

At the present time, AC is used almost universally for power generation

For example, if a generator produces power at 25 kV it would need to

Another advantage of AC transmission and distribution is low maintenance

to interrupt AC current using devices like circuit breakers, since AC current

Therefore, once DC power is stepped up to a high voltage, the efficiency

Figure 2: Equivalent circuit for a transmission line

Electric power is transmitted as AC throughout the UK and mainland Europe

Figure 3: Subsea power cables during installation

Figure 4: Current costs of DC and AC transmission over distance (km)

by the capacitance and inductance of the transmission line. In an undersea

As technology continues to improve, the distance where DC becomes more

Another advantage of DC transmission relates to active and reactive power.

S is Apparent Power (VA)

P is Active Power (Watts)

i is the imaginary unit (√-1)

Q is Reactive Power (VAR)

Many devices, such as computers, televisions and other electronic devices,

DC power has the advantage of simpler requirements for interconnecting

The potential for Solar PV is enormous. The US government has published a

Solar PV panels produce DC power and, for connection to the present-day

Figure 6: Installed wind energy base

Another popular renewable energy source is offshore wind energy, which

Although most wind turbines produce AC power, in offshore applications it

Figure 7: In future, power flow will be bidirectional

Figure 8: Global PHEV and BEV sales

Figure 9: The hybrid DC home

Conclusion AC power is the dominant method for transmission and distribution of

 Easily interconnecting multiple power sources

 Removing losses associated with AC power in no-load situations

 Providing higher energy density in cables by eliminating skin effect

 Removing redundant AC to DC conversions for DC-native devices

It is difficult to imagine the world changing from AC power to DC power

18 SELF-POWERED RELAY TESTING CHALLENGES

SELF-POWERED RELAY TESTING CHALLENGES 19

Figure 1: Metering system

22 METERING CHALLENGES IN IEC 61850 DIGITAL SUBSTATIONS

Checking substation metering balance Checking losses on power lines

Figure 2: Substation metering balance

Figure 3: Power loss in power line

METERING CHALLENGES IN IEC 61850 DIGITAL SUBSTATIONS 23

Figure 4: Grid loss in a metering area

Further improvements? Example of a metering balance today

Easily interconnecting multiple power sources

Removing losses associated with AC power in no-load situations

Providing higher energy density in cables by eliminating skin effect

Removing redundant AC to DC conversions for DC-native devices