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Seminar 1

1) What does phonetics study?

Phonetics is the science that studies the characteristics of human sound-making (especially
those sounds used in speech) and provides methods for their description, classification, and
transcription.

2) What traditional branches of phonetics are generally recognized? What does each of them
study? РУДЕНКО

3 traditional branches of the subject are generally recognized:

Articulatory phonetics is the study of the way speech sounds are made (=articulated) by the
vocal organs.

Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted
between mouth and ear.

Auditory phonetics is the study of perceptual response to speech sounds, as mediated by ear,
auditory nerve and brain.

The 4th branch - functional phonetics (phonology) studies the range and functions of sounds
in specific languages.

3) What is the main distinction between phonetics and phonology?РИСІЧ

The main difference between phonetics and phonology is that phonetics is the study of
speech sounds whereas phonology is the study of sounds, especially different patterns of
sounds in different languages.

4) What branches of study are usually recognized within phonology? What problems does
each of them solve?

Within phonology 2 branches of study are usually recognized: Segmental and

suprasegmental.

Segmental phonology analyses speech as separate segments, such as phonemes.

Suprasagmental phonology studies features which extend over more than one segment, such
as intonation contours.
5) When was phonology originated and what is its theoretical background and main work?
САЄНКО

Phonology was originated in the 30s of the 20th century by a group of linguists belonging to
the Prague school of linguistics - Vilem Matesius, Nickolai Trubetskoy, Roman Jakobson.
The theoretical background of phonology is the phoneme theory whose foundations were laid
down by I. O. Baudouin de Courtenay (бодуА де кОтоней) in the last quarter of the 19th
century. The most important work in phonology is The groundwork of phonology (1939) by
Nickolai Trubetskoy.

He claimed that phonology should be separated from phonetics as it studies the functional
aspect of phonic components of language. Phonetics is a biological science which
investigates the sound-production aspect.

6) What is the phonemic system of a language?

The phonemic system of a language is the complete set of phonemes.

7) What is the average number of phonemes in different languages? ТИМОШЕНКО

The average number of phonemes in different languages varies, but in average it is about 50
segments

8) Explain the interrelationship between a phoneme and an allophone?

Sounds can function as units of language only if they differ from one another. Mutually
distinctive sounds, sounds in their contrastive sense, are sound types which are called
phonemes.

Allophones are variants of a phoneme. They cannot contrast with each other and usually
occur in different positions in the word. The opposition of phonemes in the same phonetic
environment differentiates the meaning of morphemes, words and phrases. For example, said
- says, bath - path, It was cold - It was gold.

9) Discuss the problem of the definition of the phoneme.

Linguists have not arrived at a definition of the phoneme acceptable to all. It is due to the fact
that the phoneme has several aspects and functions and it is actually impossible to devise a
definition that would reflect all its characteristics. Prof. Vasiliev gives the following
definition of the phoneme.

The segmental phoneme is the smallest language unit that exists in the speech of all the
members of a given language.

There is also a more concise form of this definition given by M. Sokolova: the phoneme is a
minimal abstract linguistic unit realised in speech.
10) Speak in brief on the development of the phoneme theory by different scholars and
linguistic schools.

The phoneme theory originated in Russia. Its founder was L.O. Baudouin de Courtenay
(бодуА де кОтоней) from Kazan Linguistic School. He defined the phoneme as a physical
image of a sound.

The materialistic conception of the phoneme was originated by L.Scherba. He defined

phoneme as a real, independent, distinctive unit, which manifests itself with in the form of its
actual realisations - allphones.

The theory of phoneme’s independence

The theory of phonemic variants presenting phonemes in speech.

The Moscow Phonological school held the view that the phoneme is represented by a whole
number of its alternating features.

Prof. Vasiliev developed Scherba's theory and presented the phoneme as a dialectical unity of
three aspects.

The physical view of the phoneme was originated by Prof. Daniel Jones, the founder of
London phonetical school. He defined the phoneme as a family of sounds, as a sum of its
actual realisations.

11) Speak of the phoneme as a bundle of features.

The phoneme is viewed as a bundle of distinctive features by Trubetskoi and Jackobson from
Prague linguistic school.

The distinctive feature is a minimal contrastive unit recognized by linguists to explain how
the sound system of the languages is organized.
For example: English phoneme /p/ can be seen as a result of the combination of the features
of bilabial, voiced and plosive.

Distinctive features are also those that the changing of which involves the changing of the
meaning - they are called articulatory.
For example: the presence or absence of voice in a consonant (bad - bat).
The articulatory feature that doesn’t distinguish the meaning is non-distinctive.

12) How can phonemes be discovered?

Phonemes can be discovered by the method of minimal pairs. This method is done by finding
pairs of words which differ in one phoneme.
For example: /tan - ban/ is a pair of words distinguished in meaning by a single change of /t/
- /b/. This is a minimal pair.
Finding words that show which sounds occur or not in identical positions is called a
commutation test through which the phonemes of the language are established.

13) What do the phonemes of a language form? What kinds of opposition are there?

The phonemes of a language form a system of oppositions in which phoneme is usually

opposed to other phonemes in at least one position, in at least one minimal pair in
word-initial, word-medial and word-final position. There are 3 kinds of oppositions: single (if
there is one distinctive/marked feature, e.g. fortis voiceless VS lenis voiced), double (if there
are two distinctive features) and triple (if three distinctive features are marked.

14) What kind of dialectal unity does a phoneme present, according to Professor Vassilyev?
Наташа

According to Professor Vasiliev, the phoneme as dialectal unity of three aspects:

1. Material, real, objective

2. Abstractional and generalised
3. Functional

15) Why is the phoneme material, real and objective?

Because it really exists in the material form of articulatory and acoustic definite(certain)
speech sounds or allophones.

Про всякий випадок: Allophones are the material substratum(basis) of the phoneme.
Allophones of one and the same phoneme are incapable of differentiating words or the
grammatical forms of one and the same word, when pronounced one instead of the other.

16) How can allophones of the same phoneme be classified?

There are two main types of allophones:

1) principle or typical allophones which are free from the influence of the
neighboring sounds;

2) subsidiary allophones which are subdivided into combinatory and positional.

Combinatory allophones appear due to the influence of neighboring speech sounds

(as a result of assimilation, adaptation or accommodation).

Positional allophones are used in different positions (word-final, initial, stressed,

unstressed) traditionally according to the orthoepic norms of the language.

The 3d type of allophones is arbitrary. It appears as a result of idiolect or dialect in

the speech of a single person or group of people.
17)Why is the phoneme an abstraction? Шармар

The phoneme is an abstraction because we make it abstract from concrete

realizations for classificatory purposes.

Додатково: In other words, the phoneme materializes in allophones. Speakers

abstract away those differences in phoneme allophones that do not affect meaning.
This is an example of subconscious phonetic abstraction. The process of abstraction
runs parallel to the process of generalization.

18) What is transcription? What kinds of transcription are there?

Transcription is a visual system of notation of the sound structure of speech. There are 2
basic types of transcription: phonemic/phonological and allophonic/phonetic.
A phonemic transcription is based on the principle: one symbol per one phoneme, i.e. each
symbol denotes a phoneme as a whole, as an abstraction or generalization.
A phonetic transcription is based on the principle: one symbol per one allophone and it
provides a special sign for each variant of each phoneme.

19) Dwell on the functions of the phonemes. (Мечетіна)

The third aspect of the phoneme, its functionality, is reflected in the definition of the
phoneme as the smallest language unit capable of differentiating words and their grammatical
forms.
• The principal function of the phoneme is the distinctive one. It is subdivided into the
morpheme-distinctive (dreamer-dreamy), the word-distinctive (pen-ten) and the
sentence-distinctive function (it was cold-it was gold).
• The constitutive function is inseparable from the distinctive one. It is performed not by
phonemes as such, but by actual realizations of the phonemes or allophones, which constitute
morphemes, words and utterances.
• The recognitive or identificatory function consists in making words and whole sentences
easily recognized or identified. Strictly speaking, this is the function of allophones but not the
phonemes as such: the use of the right allophone in the right places.

Answer the following questions using one-word/phrase answers.

1. People engaged in the study of phonetics are called… Руденко

Phoneticians

2. Variations in pitch, prominence, and tempo are called…Руденко

Prosodic/suprasegmental

3. The basic component of the phonic substance of language is called…

САЄНКО

segmental

4. A unit of spoken message larger than a single sound and smaller than a word
is called…

syllable

5. What unit of speech corresponds to the phoneme?

allophone

6. What features are superimposed on the segmental chain of

sounds?Тимошенко

Prosodic

7. Give the name of the founder of phonology.

Nickolai Trubetskoi

8. A process of using language for communication is called.

Speech

9. Grouping speech sounds according to their major articulatory features is

called…

allophones

10. Phonemes can be discovered by the method of commutation test.

11. Realizations of phonemes in definite positions in words are called

allophones/variants

12. The founder of the phoneme theory is… Рисіч

Baudouin de Courtenay

13. The materialistic conception of the phoneme was originated by…

L. Scherba

14. Features of phonemes involved in the differentiation of the words are

called…

distinctive/relevant

15. Allophones that are free from the influence of the neighbouring sounds and
are called representative of the phoneme as a whole are called …
(Мечетіна)

typical or principal and subsidiary

16. The phoneme is material, real and objective because it really exists in the
material form of…

speech sounds or allophones

17. The smallest (i.e. further indivisible into smaller consecutive segments)
language unit (sound type) that exists in the speech of all the members of a
given language community as such speech sounds which are capable of
distinguishing one word from another word of the same language or one
grammatical form of a word from another grammatical form of the same
word is called… Шармар

the segmental phoneme

18. The phonemes of a language form a system of… Наташа

Oppositions

19. What is the principal function of the phoneme?

The principal allophones(variants of a phoneme) are free from the

influence of the neighboring sounds.

20. The articulatory features which do not serve to distinguish meaning are
called …

non-distinctive, irrelevant or redundant

Seminar 2
1) How is a speech sound produced? РУДЕНКО

A speech sound is produced as a result of definite coordinated movements and positions of

speech organs, so the articulation of a sound consists of a set of articulatory features.

2) What is an articulatory classification of speech sounds?РУДЕНКО

An articulatory classification is grouping speech sounds according to their major

articulatory features.

3) According to what are speech sounds divided into vowels and consonants?
САЄНКО

According to the specific character of the work of the speech organs, sounds in practically all
languages are subdivided into two major subtypes: vowels and consonants.

There are articulatory, acoustic and functional differences between vowels and consonants.

4) What differences are there between V and C? Чорнобрива

1) Articulatory
2) Acoustic
3) Functional

5) Explain the essence of

• Articulatory differences between V and C

The most substantial articulatory difference between vowels and consonants is that
in the articulation of vowels the air passes freely through the mouth cavity, while in
making consonants an obstruction is formed in the mouth cavity and the airflow
exhaled from the lungs meets a narrowing or a complete obstruction formed by the
speech organs.

Consonants' articulation is relatively easy to feel and as a result is most conveniently

described in terms of PLACE and MANNER of articulation.

Vowels have no place of obstruction. The whole of speech apparatus takes place in their
formation, while the articulation of consonants can be localized. An obstruction or
narrowing for each consonant is made in a definite place of the speech apparatus.

• Acoustic differences between V and C

Vowels are called the sounds of voice; they have high acoustic energy;
 Consonants are the sounds of noise which have low acoustic energy.

• Functional differences between V and C. Наташа

Functional differences between vowels and consonants are defined by their role in
syllable formation. Vowels are syllable forming elements; Consonants are units
which function at the margins of syllables, either singly or in clusters.

6) Give a few examples of classification of speech sounds. ТИМОШЕНКО

The sounds of a language can be classified in different ways. H.Giegerich and

M.Pennington use a set of basic binary ( two - way ) distinctions in terms of phonation, oro -
nasal - process and manner of articulation.

Phonation

● Sonorants are sounds whose phonetic content is predominantly made up by the sound
waves produced by their voicing .
● Obstruents (noise consonants) are sounds produced as a result of obstruent
articulation involving an obstruction of the air stream that produces a phonetic effect
independent of voicing. They can typically occur in voiced and voiceless variants

Oro - nasal process

● Oral sounds are sounds in the production of which the air escapes through the mouth.
● Nasals (nasal sounds) are sounds in the production of which the soft palate is lowered
and the air escapes through the nose

Manner of articulation

● Stops (plosives) are sounds made with a complete obstruction or stoppage of the
airflow coming up from the lungs.
● Continuants are sounds in which the obstruction of the airflow is only partial , so that
the sound can be prolonged for a period of time.
● Vowels are one type of continuants and there are three consonant types of continuants:
fricatives, affricates and approximants.
● Fricatives are sounds whose phonetic content includes a hissing noise, produced by
turbulence in the air stream as it is forced through the narrow gap between the
articulators.
● Affricates are complex sounds which consist of two components which correspon to
two phases of articulation - an oral stop phase followed with a short friction phase.
● Approximants are sounds in the production of which one articulator moves close to
another, though not so close as to cause a turbulence and to produce friction.

R, w, j are termed central approximants because the air passes through the oral tract along the
center of the opening ;
I is called a lateral approximant because the air passes out along the side / s of the articulator .
H is a glottalapproximant.

In some phonological systems approximants are treated as semi - consonants (I, r) or semi -
vowels (w.j )

In accordance with the given grouping of sounds, the sounds of English can be classified as
follows:

7) What are cardinal vowels? МЕЧЕТІНА

Cardinal vowels are a set of reference vowels used by phoneticians in describing the sounds
of languages. Prof. Daniel Jones desived the system of 8 cardinal vowels or physiological
basis. The positions for cardinal vowels were capied from X-ray photographs of the positions
of the articulatory organs.

8) What criteria are used for the classification of the English vowels? Рисіч

The analysis of articulatory constituents of the quality of the English vowels allowed
phoneticians to suggest criteria which are important in classificatory description.

The criteria include:

1) stability of articulation,

2) tongue position,

3) lip position,

4) character of vowel end.

5) length,
6) tenseness.

9) Dwell on the principles of classification of RP vocalic system.

10) What articulatory features of consonants are considered essential from the
classificatory point of view?Шармар

Traditionally phoneticians have a lot of argument about what articulatory features of

consonants should be considered essential from the classificatory point of view. According to
Prof. Jones, the first principle of consonant classification is according to the place of
articulation. In Prof. Vasiliev's view, primary importance should be given to the type of
obstruction and the manner of production of noise. Sokolova et al point out that on
articulatory level each consonant may be identified by stating two general facts about it:

1) what sort of articulatory posture it is formed by;

2) where in the mouth or pharynx it is produced.

Consonants may be defined as speech sounds in the production of which:

● there is an articulatory obstruction of some kind

● muscular tension is concentrated at the place of articulation
● the air pressure is rather strong
11) Give a generalized set of classificatory principles for the articulatory description
of English consonants. КРЕМЕНЧУК

1. The consonant is a sound in the production of which the air stream meets
an obstruction in the mouth cavity and a certain degree of noise is heard.

2. English consonants are classified according to:

- the degree of noise

- the manner of articulation

- the place of articulation and the active organ of speech

3. According to the degree of noise English consonants are divided into noise
consonants and sonorants. Noise consonants are further classified according to
the work of the vocal cords. When the vocal cords are brought together and vibrate,
voiced consonants are produced; when the vocal cords are drawn apart, voiceless
consonants are heard. Sonorants are always voiced, in their production tone prevails
over noise.

4. According to the manner of articulation consonants may be occlusive,

constrictive and occlusive-constrictive (affricates).

When an occlusive consonant is produced, the air stream meets a complete

obstruction in the mouth cavity. Occlusive noise consonants are also called plosives
as they are produced with a kind of slight explosion when the obstruction is released.

Constrictive consonants are those in the production of which the air stream meets an
incomplete obstruction. Constrictive noise consonants are also called fricatives as
the air escapes from the mouth with some friction.

Affricates are noise consonants produced with a complete obstruction which is

slowly released and becomes incomplete.

5. According to the active organs of speech consonants may be labial, lingual and
glottal.

Labial consonants are made by the lips. They are bilabial (produced only by the lips)
or labio-dental (produced by the upper teeth biting the lower lip).

Lingual consonants are forelingual, mediolingual and backlingual. Forelingual

consonants are articulated with the tip of the tongue (apical articulation). According
to the place of obstruction consonants may be alveolar, post-alveolar, palato-alveolar
and interdental. Mediolingual consonants are produced with the front and the central
part of the tongue raised towards the hard palate. Backlingual consonants are
produced with the back part of the tongue raised towards the soft palate (velar
articulation). The glottal consonant [h] is articulated in the glottis.