PROFESSIONALISING STORYTELLING IN AFRICAN

LANGUAGES WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO VENḒA

by

NTSHENGEDZENI COLLINS RAṄANGA

Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY

in the subject

AFRICAN LANGUAGES

at the

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA

PROMOTER: DR TM SENGANI

CO-PROMOTER: PROF. NA MILUBI

NOVEMBER 2008
 Student number: 631-801-0

DECLARATION

I declare that PROFESSIONALISING STORYTELLING IN AFRICAN

LANGUAGES WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO VENḒA is my own work and
that all the sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and
acknowledged by means of complete references.

________________________________ ________________________
(Mr NC RAṄANGA) DATE

i
 DEDICATION

This thesis is dedicated to the following people:

My late father, Charles Raṅanga (Dzianyaṅanga dza Venḓa) Ndabu Nḓou,

whose courageous words to me were “Ṅwananga, u konḓelele tshikolo” (My son,
you must persevere in schooling matters). Such words still resound in my ears.

My late mother, Musumuvhi Merium Raṅanga, who was a pillar of strength to me

in my studies.

Family members: My wife Muḓanalwo Ṋamadzavho Esther, daughters Lutendo,

Seani and Apfaho, and my beloved son, Unariṋe, for the love, support, interest
and encouragement they have shown throughout the study.

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The toil experienced in the completion of this study is likened to climbing to the
top of Mount Pisgah in the Biblical era. On reaching the plateau, one has a better
view of the surrounding areas and of course of the promised land (Deuteronomy
34:1,2). Nevertheless, I cannot brag as if this is one man’s work, for no author is
an island, entire of itself. Every author has had many hands guide his pen and
many minds illuminate his thoughts (Leedy, 1993: V).

No man is an Iland, intire of it selfe; every man is a

peece of the Continent, a part of the maine…

So wrote the great Dean of St Paul’s Cathedral in the seventeenth century, as

quoted by Leedy (1993:v). And so write I now. Those who have contributed
immensely to this work, known and unknown, amateur and professional
storytellers, academics, PANSALB personnel, Department of Arts and Culture
and Department of Education personnel, African languages university lecturers,
SABC-TV and radio personnel voluntary , directors of storytelling institutions,
directors of community theatres which run storytelling festivals – all – are far too
many to be saluted individually. Moreover, those who have written in journals and
books that I have used have added insight to my own thoughts. All of the
respondents and authors were informative and helpful, for all have been “a piece
of the continent, a part of the main”. For that reason my sincere indebtedness,
humble and hearty thanks go to the following:

ƒ God, my creator, the Alpha and Omega who is the creator of the universe,
for giving me physical strength and mental ability to complete this very
demanding work.

ƒ My promoter and co-promoter, Dr TM Sengani and Professor NA Milubi

respectively for their academic mentoring. They have professionally,
expertly and patiently guided me throughout this research. To them I say
bravo! May our Almighty bless you abundantly.

ƒ Dr NE Phaswana and Dr A.P. Kutame for their guidance throughout this

work. They were really a source of solace and inspiration to me.

iii
ƒ The National Research Foundation and the Financial Aid Bureau at the
University of South Africa for assisting me financially in this research
programme.

ƒ Mrs Khakhu Rudzani for professionally and expertly typing this work.

ƒ Mrs Ruth Scheepers for editing this work.

ƒ My wife, Muḓanalwo Ṋamadzavho Esther for her unreserved support.

ƒ My children, Lutendo, Seani, Apfaho and Unariṋe, and the children of my

elder brother, Takalani Grace, Hulisani Thomas, Lufuno, Ndialivhuwa,
Azwihangwisi, Charity and Muṋei, for the encouragement, support and
prayers they have offered throughout. To them I say, “Khaedu!”
(Challenge!).

ƒ Mr A.E Maungedzo, my friend indeed, for the encouragement and the

good working spirit we have established and from which we have
benefited greatly.

ƒ My elder brother, NB Raṅanga, for the financial and moral support he has
given me.

ƒ My colleagues at Dzivhani Primary School who supported me

unreservedly.

• Professor MJ Mafela for his courageous words whenever I popped into his
office.

• My elder brother, Mr Khakhathi Frank Raṅanga, for his financial and moral
support.

• My friend, NS Ṋeswiswa, for his initial editing to this work.

• My friend, “Rudo” Lufuno Rudolf Ndlovu, for helping me in times of dire

need. He helped me in many respects as far as this study is concerned.
To him I say that’s what friends are meant for.

iv
 • Hleziphi Napaai, the African Languages subject advisor who was always
ready to assist me whenever I sought help of some sort in the library.

• “Bongi” Sibongile Maema, a senior librarian at Unisa Library, who was

always there and invariably sacrifice her time to assist me with whatever I
needed. She would patiently take her time to guide me through the library.
To her I say, “Great thanks, Mmamuruti.”

I would be doing a great disservice to my voluntary respondents if I did not

acknowledge my indebtedness to them. I therefore want to express my sincere
gratitude to the following people without whom this work would have been little
more than a pipe dream: Khosi Mazibuko, Nomsa Mdlalose, Zenzele Mvelase,
Thokho Nkomo, Gcina Mhlope, Mboniseni Ṋemaṱangari, Ṋetshisaulu N.C, Moabi
Mogorosi, Maxwell Chiphinga, Prof Sekgothe Mokgoatsane, Peter Christie,
Haven Smith, Paul Middlelijin, Landela Nyangintsimbi, Lerato Moruti, Lawrence
Lubisi, Freddy Sadiki , Dr CD Tlale, Ṅaledzani Ṋetshirembe, Avhatakali Reneth
Ṋeluvhaḓa, Phyllis Klotz, Small Ndaba, Vanessa Bower, Alumbe Helen Namai,
Dr A Mawela, Roney Magotogo, Brother Blue, Denise Valentine, Mandla
Maseko, Joan Bailey, Ashley Ramsdem, Lefu Mosebi, Joan Beeton, Nana
Ndlovana Mthimkhulu, Moruti Lerato, Jurgen Witt and Prof. D.M Kgobe. To them
I say, A vha ri tshileli. “You were really a piece of the continent, which forms part
of the main.”

v
 KEY TERMS

Storytelling, profession, professionalising, professional, folklorist, folktale, African

Languages, storyteller, seasoned storyteller, amateur storyteller, freelance
storyteller, professional storyteller, commercialisation, information database,
categories, missionaries, mass media, open mike session, storytelling circle,
storytelling conference, storytelling workshop, storytelling festival.

vi
 SUMMARY

Unlike in the days of yore where storytelling was primarily known for its
entertainment value, storytelling should be harnessed to make people’s
livelihood.

Chapter 1 serves as prologue wherein the background of the study, problem

statement, statement of aims, research methodology, research questions,
hypotheses, definition of terms and organization of the study are presented.
Storytelling began with the aim of transmitting the culture of people from one
generation to another. There are different theories to account for the origin of
stories. The identified problem is that storytelling is dying because it has not yet
been professionalised in African languages. For storytelling to become viable in
South Africa, storytellers have to be economically empowered. Both qualitative
and quantitative approaches were employed in this study. Various questions
have been prepared for use when interviewing the respondents.

As a point of departure, the research hypotheses were laid down. Various

concepts used in the study have been defined in order to clarify any
misconceptions. For a study to follow a predetermined plan, it has to be
organised in its initial stage. For that reason what has been discussed in each
chapter has been summarised in the first chapter.

Chapter 2 presents views of scholars, researchers and authors in general on how

storytelling could be professionalised. The factors which retard the
professionalisation of storytelling were also provided. The furnished views are
classified according to their similarity.

In Chapter 3, the methodology used in the gathering of research data is outlined.

Both qualitative and quantitative methodologies were used, but the qualitative
method more extensively because this is an explorative study. Data was
collected through interviewing, questionnaires, documents and observation
methods. Two sampling methods were used to select the respondents: the
snowball sampling method and the judgmental or purposeful sampling design.

vii
The setting of the study was determined by the accessibility and the willingness
of the respondents to use the site.

Once the data was collected, it was analysed and interpreted. Chapter 4 focuses
on the analysis and interpretation of the research data collected through
interviews, questionnaires and systematic observations. During data analysis,
similar themes from different respondents were combined in order to interpret the
main findings. All such themes are discussed under major categories. In this
chapter, themes were identified in relation to how storytelling might be
professionalised.

The fifth chapter outlines the main findings arrived at during the analysis and the
interpretation of the data. To make this study more pragmatic, the findings are
accompanied by suggested recommendations.

The final chapter provides a general conclusion to the entire study. The success
of professionalised storytelling and storytellers, the implications in terms of
teaching and professionalisation, the implications for further study and the
limitations of the study are also dealt with in this chapter.

viii
MANWELEDZO

Ngano dzi fanela u thusa vhathu kha uri vha kone u tshila ngadzo madzuloni a
uri mushumo wadzo muhulwane u vhe wa u mvumvusa vhathu fhedzi sa zwe
dza vha dzi tshi ḓivhelwa zwone kale.

Ndima ya u thoma ndi marangaphanḓa ine khayo ra wana muṱoḓo muhulwane

wa ṱhoḓisiso, thaidzo, ndivho, ngona ya ṱhoḓisiso, mbudziso dza ṱhoḓisiso,
mahumbulwa, ṱhalutshedzo ya maipfi na nzudzanyo ya ṱhoḓisiso yoṱhe nga u
angaredza.

Ngano dzo thoma hu na ndivho ya u ṱoḓa u rathisela mvelele ya vhathu u bva

kha murafho muṅwe u ya kha muṅwe. Hu na mahumbulwa o fhambanaho a
ṱalutshedzaho vhubvo ha ngano. Thaidzo ine ya vha hone ndi ya uri ngano dzi
khou fa na u ṱhoṱhela tshoṱhe sa izwi kha nyambo dza vharema muthu a sa koni
u tshila ngadzo. Uri ngano dza sa fe dza ṱhoṱhela tshoṱhe Afrika Tshipembe
vhaanetsheli vha tea u kona u wana malamba ngadzo ane vha nga kona u
tshidza miṱa yavho. Kha ṱhodisiso iyi ho shumiswa ngona ya khwanthithethivi
na ya khwaḽithithethivi. Ho dovha hafhu ha vha na nzudzanyo yo itwaho ya u
vhekanya mbudziso dzine dza ḓo shumiswa musi hu tshi vhudziswa vhathu nga
ha ṱhoḓisiso.

Ho thoṅwa nga u ṅwalwa mahumbulwa a ṱhoḓisiso iyi. Maipfi e a shumiswa kha

ṱhoḓisiso iyi a vhonala a tshi nga khakhisa vhavhali kana a sa pfesesee zwavhuḓi
o thoma nga u ṋewa ṱhalutshedzo yo ḓalaho. Uri ṱhoḓisiso i vhe na ndunzhe-
ndunzhe yo teaho, i fanela u dzudzanywa zwavhuḓi u bva mathomoni ayo.
Zwenezwo, mafhungo e a ṅwalwa kha ndima iṅwe na iṅwe ya ṱhoḓisiso iyi o
nweledzwa kha ndima iyi ya u thoma.

ix
Ndima ya vhuvhili i bvisela khagala mahumbulwa a vhoradzipfunzo, vhaṱoḓisisi
na vhaṅwali vho fhambanaho nga u angaredza kha uri vhathu vha nga kona
hani u tshila nga u shumisa ngano. Zwithithisi zwi itaho uri vhathu vha sa kone u
tshila nga ngano zwone zwo bviselwa khagala. Mahumbulwa e a ṋewa nga
vhathu avha o fhedza a ṅwalwa o khethekana zwi tshi ya nga u fana hao.

Kha ndima ya vhuraru ndi he ha bviselwa khagala ngona ye ya shumiswa kha u

ita ṱhodisiso iyi. Kha ṱhoḓisiso iyi ho shumiswa ngona ya khwaḽithethivi na ya
khwanthithethivi, fhedzi–ha ye ya shumiseswa yo vha khwaḽithethivi. Mafhungo o
kuvhanganywa nga u shumisa ngona dzi tevhelaho, mbudzisavhathu nga u tou
amba ( interview), mbudzisavhathu nga u tou ṅwala (questionnaire), nga u tou
vhala dzibuguni na kha maṅwalwa o fhambanaho (documents) na nga u tou
sedza zwithu zwi bvelelaho muṱoḓisisi a tshi ṅwala (observation). Ho shumiswa
ngona mbili dza u nanga vhathu vha teaho u vhudziswa, dzine dza vha Snowball
Sampling na Judgmental kana purposeful sampling .

Fhethuvhupo ha ṱhoḓisiso iyi ho langulwa nga khonadzeo ya u swikea ha fhethu

henefho na dzangalelo ḽa muvhudziswa kha u shumisa afho fhethu.

Musi mafhungo ayo o no kuvhanganywa, a tea u fhedza nga u senguluswa hu

tshi ṱoḓwa ṱhaluso khao. Zwenezwo, ndima ya vhuṋa yo ḓisendeka kha
tsenguluso na ṱhalutshedzo ya ṱhoḓuluso yo swikelwaho nga u shumisa
mbudzisavhathu nga u tou amba, mbudzisavhathu nga u tou ṅwala na u
kuvhanganya mafhungo nga u tou sedza. Musi hu tshi itwa tsenguluso, thero dzi
fanaho dzo bvaho kha vhathu vho fhambanaho dzi ṅwalwa fhethu huthihi u itela
u swikela ṱhalutshedzo ya mawanwa.Thero idzo dzoṱhe-ha dzi ṋewa
ṱhalutshedzo nga vhuḓalo fhasi ha thero khulwane. Kha ndima iyi, thero dzo
topolwa zwi tshi elana na vhushaka ha nḓila ine vhathu vha shumisa ngano kha
uri vha kone u tshila ngadzo.

x
Ndima ya vhuṱanu i khou dodombedza maṅwalwa mahulwane e a kona u
swikelwa kha tsenguluso na ṱhalutshedzo ya mushumo uyu woṱhe. U itela
zwauri ṱhoḓuluso iyi i vhe na mushumo ngangoho , mawanwa a ṱhoḓisiso iyi o
fhedza o khunyeledzwa nga themendelo.

Ndima ya u vhina i ṋea mafhedzo a ṱhoḓisiso iyi nga u angaredza. Mvelaphanḓa

ya ngano na vhuanetsheli, zwine zwa nga itwa kha u funza na u ita uri vhathu
vha kone u tshila nga dzingano, zwiṅwe-vho zwine zwa khou tea u sedzuluswa
na zwithithisi zwa ṱhoḓisiso iyi zwo vha zwone zwiteṅwa zwe zwa ḓo bviselwa
khagala kha ndima iyi.

xi
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENTS PAGE
DECLARATION ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (i)
DEDICATION ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (ii)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (iii)
KEY TERMS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (vi)
SUMMARY ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (vii)
MANWELEDZO ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (ix)

CHAPTER 1
1. INTRODUCTION ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
1.1 Background to the Study ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 3
1.2 Statement of the Problem ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 23
1.3 Statement of Aims-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 25
1.4 Research Methodology ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 26
1.5 Research Questions ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 27
1.6 Hypotheses ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 28
1.7 Definition of Terms ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 29
1.8 Organisation of the Study ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 40
1.9 Conclusion ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 41

CHAPTER 2
2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ------------------------------------------------------------------ 44
2.1 Introduction ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 44

2.2 The problem of non-professionalisation of storytelling in Venḓa --------------------------- 47

2.2.1 The advent of missionaries in South Africa -------------------------------------------- 48

2.2.2 The role played by the Europeans and early African scholars -------------------- 59
2.2.3 The role played by the South African educational institutions and
publishing companies ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 64
2.2.4 The mass media ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 74
2.2.5 Urbanisation and industrialisation -------------------------------------------------------- 76
2.2.6 Economic status of African storytellers -------------------------------------------------- 79
2.3 Conclusion ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 82

xii
CHAPTER 3
3. METHODOLOGY AND DATA GATHERING PROCEDURES ----------------------------------- 85
3.1 Introduction ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 85
3.2 Research Methodology ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 87
3.3 Design of the Present Study ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 93
3.3.1 Sampling ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 94
3.3.1.1 Population ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 94
3.3.1.2 Sampling techniques --------------------------------------------------------------- 95
3.3.1.3 Sampling size ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 100
3.3.2 Procedure ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 101
3.3.3 Data Collection ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 102
3.3.3.1 Data Collection Techniques ---------------------------------------------------- 103
3.3.3.1.1 Questionnaire -------------------------------------------------------------- 104
3.3.3.1.2 Interviews-------------------------------------------------------------------- 106
3.3.3.1.3 Secondary sources ------------------------------------------------------- 111
3.3.3.1.4 Observation ----------------------------------------------------------------- 112
3.3.4 Research Setting --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 115
3.3.5 Interviewees ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 121
3.3.6 Reliability and validity in qualitative research ---------------------------------------- 127
3.3.7 Ethical issues -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 134
3.3.8 Problems encountered in the fieldwork ----------------------------------------------- 136
3.4 Conclusion ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 137

CHAPTER 4
4. ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA --------------------------------------------------- 140
4.1 Introduction ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 140
4.2 Transcribing the Data ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 141
4.3 Data Analysis Process ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 142
4.4 Coding Scheme --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 149
4.4.1 Open Coding --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 149
4.4.2 Axial Coding ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 150
4.4.3 Selective Coding ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 151
4.5 Identified Themes ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 152

xiii
4.5.1 THEME 1: Factors contributing to the non-professionlisation of
Storytelling ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 152
4.5.1.1 The advent of missionaries ----------------------------------------------------- 152
4.5.1.1(a) Open Coding --------------------------------------------------------------- 152
4.5.1.1(b) Axial Coding ---------------------------------------------------------------- 158
4.5.1.2 . The first African scholars ------------------------------------------------------ 159
4.5.1.2(a) Open Coding --------------------------------------------------------------- 159
4.5.1.2(b) Axial Coding ---------------------------------------------------------------- 160
4.5.1.3 Ignorance, denigration and oversimplification of the
storytelling art form --------------------------------------------------------------- 161
4.5.1.3(a) Open Coding --------------------------------------------------------------- 161
4.5.1.3(b) Axial Coding ---------------------------------------------------------------- 162
4.5.1.4 Storytelling seen primarily as a source of entertainment -------- 167
4.5.1.4(a) Open Coding --------------------------------------------------------------- 167
4.5.1.4(b) Axial Coding ---------------------------------------------------------------- 167
4.5.1.5 The lack of incentives for storytellers -------------------------------- 168
4.5.1.5(a) Open Coding --------------------------------------------------------------- 168
4.5.1.5(b) Axial Coding ---------------------------------------------------------------- 169
4.5.1.6 The absence of institutions for training storytellers --------------- 171
4.5.1.6(a) Open Coding --------------------------------------------------------------- 171
4.5.1.6(b) Axial Coding ---------------------------------------------------------------- 171
4.5.1.7 The absence of story hours at libraries ------------------------------ 176
4.5.1.7(a) Introduction ----------------------------------------------------------------- 176
4.5.1.7(b) Open Coding --------------------------------------------------------------- 177
4.5.1.7(c) Axial Coding ---------------------------------------------------------------- 178
4.5.1.8 Urbanisation and Industrialisation ------------------------------------- 184
4.5.1.8(a) Open Coding --------------------------------------------------------------- 184
4.5.1.8(b) Axial Coding ---------------------------------------------------------------- 189
4.5.1.9 The Mass media and Technology ------------------------------------- 192
4.5.1.9(a) Open Coding --------------------------------------------------------------- 192
4.5.1.9(b) Axial Coding ---------------------------------------------------------------- 196
4.5.1.10 Non-intervention by Government and
Non-Governmental Organisation (NGOs) -------------------------------------------- 205
4.5.1.10(a) Open Coding --------------------------------------------------------------- 205

xiv
 4.5.1.10(b) Axial Coding ---------------------------------------------------------------- 207
4.5.2 THEME 2: Storytelling as part of the School Curriculum and as an
Autonomous Discipline in Institutions of Higher Learning --------------------- 210
4.5.2(a) Open Coding --------------------------------------------------------------- 210
4.5.2(b) Axial Coding ---------------------------------------------------------------- 212
4.5.3 THEME 3: The establishment of Storytelling Organisations and
Storytelling Circles -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 218
4.5.3(a) Open Coding --------------------------------------------------------------- 218
4.5.3(b) Axial Coding ---------------------------------------------------------------- 219
4.5.4 THEME 4: Feasibility of Professional Storytelling ---------------------------------- 223
4.5.4(a) Open Coding --------------------------------------------------------------- 223
4.5.4(b) Axial Coding ---------------------------------------------------------------- 225
4.5.5 THEME 5: Ways and Means of Revitalising and Professionalising
Storytelling ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 230
4.5.5.1 Rendering of Voluntary Service by Amateur Storytellers to
Community functional Gatherings and Schools ------------------ 230
4.5.5.1(a) Open Coding --------------------------------------------------------------- 230
4.5.5.1(b) Axial Coding ---------------------------------------------------------------- 231
4.5.5.2 Storytelling festivals, workshops and conferences --------------- 234
4.5.5.2(a) Open Coding --------------------------------------------------------------- 234
4.5.5.2(b) Axial Coding ---------------------------------------------------------------- 235
4.5.5.3 Establishment of information database for storytellers ---------- 241
4.5.5.3(a) Open Coding --------------------------------------------------------------- 241
4.5.5.3(b) Axial Coding ---------------------------------------------------------------- 242
4.5.5.4 Marketing, publicity and exposure ------------------------------------ 243
4.5.5.4(a) Open Coding --------------------------------------------------------------- 243
4.5.5.4(b) Axial Coding ---------------------------------------------------------------- 243
4.5.5.5 Storytelling as a tourist attraction------------------------------------- 246
4.5.5.5(a) Open Coding --------------------------------------------------------------- 246
4.5.5.5(b) Axial Coding ---------------------------------------------------------------- 247
4.6 Conclusion ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 250

xv
CHAPTER 5
5. FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ------------------------------------------------------------- 252
5.1 Introduction ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 252
5.2 Synthesis of Findings and Recommendations in terms of Data Analysis -------------- 252
5.2.1 The missionaries colonised people’s minds in such a way that they
forgot their culture ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 252
5.2.2 The first African scholars were oblivious to any monetary benefit to be
gained from storytelling ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 256
5.2.3 Storytelling is regarded as an ancient, non-progressive, lowly and
plebeian art form------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 257
5.2.4 The entertainment facet as the only primary purpose of storytelling. ------------------- 258
5.2.5 Some proficient storytellers forsake storytelling because of a
lack of incentives in the storytelling industry -------------------------------------- 259
5.2.6 There is no formal institution recognised by SAQA that trains
storytellers in South Africa ------------------------------------------------------------ 260
5.2.7 The unavailability of storytelling specialists in the South African
libraries as a hindrance to storytelling development ---------------------------- 264
5.2.8 Using urbanisation and industrialisation in the advancement of
storytelling --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 266
5.2.9 Using the mass media and technology to advance storytelling ------------- 271
5.2.10 Storytellers to be financially supported by the government and
non-governmental organisations in order to make storytelling viable ----- 274

5.2.11 Storytelling to be incorporated as part of the school curriculum

and as an autonomous discipline in the institutions of higher learning ----- 277
5.2.12 The unavailability of storytelling organisations and storytelling
circles as the main stumbling block to the enhancement of storytelling --- 282
5.2.13 Harnessing the storytelling art form as people’s livelihood ---------------------- 284
5.2.14 Amateur storytellers to establish and develop themselves by
offering their services voluntarily ---------------------------------------------------- 286
5.2.15 Storytelling festivals, workshops and conferences sensitise
people to the importance of storytelling as a career ---------------------------- 287
5.2.16 Storytellers’ profiles to be stored in information database to
expedite the accessibility of storytellers ------------------------------------------- 289

xvi
 5.2.17 Storytelling to receive adequate and regular publicity as a
business enterprise --------------------------------------------------------------------- 290
5.2.18 Storytellers to be used interchangeably with tour guides ---------------------- 293
5.3 Conclusion ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 296

CHAPTER 6
6. CONCLUSION ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 297
6.1 Introduction ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 297
6.2 Review of the Research ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 297
6.2.1 Background of the study and the research problem ------------------------------- 297
6.2.2 Literature review-------------------------------------------------------------------------- 299
6.2.3 Research methodology ----------------------------------------------------------------- 302
6.2.4 Data analysis ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 303
6.2.5 Research findings and interpretation------------------------------------------------ 304
6.3 The success of professionalised storytelling and storytellers thus far ------------------ 306
6.4 The implications of professionalisation for teaching ---------------------------------------- 309
6.5 The implications for further study ---------------------------------------------------------------- 311
6.6 Limitations of the study ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 311
6.7 Conclusion ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 313

REFERENCES ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 315

ANNEXURE A: LETTER OF REQUEST FOR STUDENT
TO CONDUCT RESEARCH (FROM CHAIRPERSON OF
DEPARTMENT OF AFRICAN LANGUAGES, UNISA) --------------------------- 330
ANNEXURE B: APPROACH LETTER FOR RESPONDENTS------------------------------------- 331
ANNEXURE C: CONSENT FORM ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 333
ANNEXURE D: THANK-YOU LETTER TO PARTICIPANTS --------------------------------------- 334
ANNEXURE E: THANK-YOU LETTER TO NON-PARTICIPANTS ------------------------------ 335
ANNEXURE F: QUESTIONNAIRE ON STORYTELLING
(TO BE COMPLETED BY STORYTELLERS) -------------------------------------- 336
ANNEXURE G: INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR DEPARTMENT OF
EDUCATION AND TRAINING, DEPARTMENT OF ARTS
AND CULTURE AND UNIVERSITIES -------------------------------------------- 343
ANNEXURE H: QUESTIONNAIRE ON STORYTELLING

xvii
 (TO BE COMPLETED BY LIBRARIANS) ----------------------------------------- 345
ANNEXURE I: INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR STORYTELLERS. ------------------------------- 347
ANNEXURE J: INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR SABC-TV AND
RADIO PERSONNEL ------------------------------------------------------------------- 349
ANNEXURE K: EXCERPTS FROM INTERVIEWS----------------------------------------------350

xviii
 CHAPTER 1

1. INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents a detailed discussion of the background to the study,

the problem statement, statement of aims, research methodology, research

questions, hypotheses, definitions of terms and organisation of the study.

Storytelling is relating a tale to one or more listeners through voice and

gesture. Stories are socially constructed accounts of past events. Collins

(1997:7), quoting IB Singer’s reminder in Naftali the storyteller and his Horse,

says:

When a day passes it is no longer there. What remains of

it? Nothing more than a story. If stories weren’t told or
books weren’t written, man would live like beasts – only
for the day. Today, we live, but tomorrow today will be a
story. The whole world, all human life, is one long story.

Collins echoes the end of the Chinese folktale White Wave:

When the old man died, the shell was lost. In time, the
shrine, too, disappeared. All that remained was the story.

But that is how it is with all of us. When we die, all that
remains is the story.

Man should practise retrospection into his past life. Retrospection in the form

of storytelling could serve as an example or a warning in different spheres of

life. Ransome (1973:6) believes that storytelling began with the cautionary

examples told naturally by a mother to her children, and with the embroidered

1
exploits told by a boaster to his wife or friends. He says that early woman

would discourage her child from going near the fire with a tale of how another

just as he had touched the yellow dancer, and had had his hair burned and

his eyelashes singed.

Life can never be predicted or understood without looking at the past. Birren

in Collins (1997:103) states that life “can only be understood backwards; but it

must be lived forwards”.

People gain understanding by looking backward through history and stories.

An individual can never know where he is going unless he knows where he

has been. Storytelling allows people to be assured of their destination.

Storytelling is as old as mankind. It has been called both the oldest and the

newest of the arts. Chambers (1977:49) remarks that storytelling as a

pedagogical technique has been used by the world’s greatest teachers. Jesus

used it, as did Plato, Confucius and other great philosophers and teachers. It

is an instructional technique that belongs not only in the past but has

relevance to today’s teacher as well. The modern teacher who employs this

technique as a teaching tool is using an ancient method that is as modern as

tomorrow. That teacher is using a technique that has stood the test of time.

Storytelling serves as a way of keeping alive people’s cultural heritage. Every

human culture on earth has its fund of stories: there is no country in the world

which does not possess its own unique collection of stories.

2
The general belief in storytelling is that storytellers are born, not made

(Hardendorff, 1963:59; Lehmann, 1983:17). However, the present study does

not fully concur with this ideology. Storytellers are born with a gift but are also

developed. In supporting this view, Lickteig (1975:169) contends that one

does not have to be a born storyteller, for there are few techniques to

storytelling that cannot be learned. He goes on to say that every parent,

teacher and librarian should cultivate the skill of storytelling. Dennehy

(1999:42) supports the notion that storytelling is a skill that can be learned.

1.1. Background to the Study

Storytelling is a craft that has been constructed and practised since time

immemorial. Chambers (1977:3) regards storytelling as literature from the

mists of time. He says it has existed for thousands of years in all areas of the

world. Storytelling was in practice during the Biblical era. There are several

descriptions of storytelling occasions in the Old and New Testaments. For

example, in Judges 9:7-15, Jotham tells a tale to convince the people of

Shechem of the terrible deeds done by Abimelech, their ruler. When a certain

lawyer asks Jesus, “And who is my neighbour?” in Luke 10:29-37, instead of

an intricate exposition, Jesus tells the story of a Good Samaritan.

No one hazards a guess as to when this craft started. But we know that it

goes back as far as the age of the first people. Dennehy (1999:40) dates it as

far back as fire, whereas Leshoai (1983:1) dates it to man’s origin on the

planet Earth. Brunvand (1986:9) believes that the time and place of its origin

3
remains a mystery, while Thompson (1946:5) pronounces that taletelling is far

older than history.

No person can claim to be the creator or author of these stories as their origin

tends to be obscure. The names of the most famous storytellers also rarely

outlast the memory of a single generation. Lestrade (1956:299) rightly notes

that the creators of tribal Bantu literature tend to be or become unknown; and

those who propagate it tend to be equally obscure. This has been echoed by

Raṅanga (1997:31) who says that in the vast majority of cases, it is utterly

impossible to say whether an individual piece of folklore owes its origin to a

single person or to a group of persons, and what the relation may be between

its form as originally conceived and the form in which it has been handed

down to us. In almost all cases, the names of the original authors of the

pieces have been entirely lost. What we know is that all oral narratives have

been handed down through generations from the remote past in word-perfect

form. The question of authorship in storytelling may be said to be traditional

rather than innovative and communal rather than individual. Finnegan

(1970:14) has this to say:

Oral literature is something that arises communally, from the

people or the “folk” as a whole, so that there can be no
question of individual authorship or originality.

Although Brunvand (1986:9) initially claims that the names of the composers

of stories could be unearthed, he concludes that the majority of these authors

remain anonymous.

4
Storytelling began with the aim of transmitting the whole culture of the people

from one generation to another. These tales were told as a means of

recording some historical events. The black man of Africa had, however, no

means of conserving the fascinating and precious relics of his past, other than

by word of mouth. Mutwa (1966: xiii) remarks that the black man of Africa had

no mighty scrolls on which to write the history of his land.

He goes on to say that the black tribes of Africa had no pyramids on which to

carve the history of each and every crowned chief and tyrant who ruled them

– on which to carve the history of every battle lost and won. But this they did,

and still do! All these were entrusted to the hands of men and women who

proudly transmit them by their good memories and the capacity to remember

words and repeat them exactly as they had heard them spoken. On the

preservation of stories, Mutwa is echoed by Appiah (1997: xi) who focuses on

the tribal communities of Ghana:

Before the arrival of Europeans and the introduction of the

western type of education, tribal communities in Ghana had
evolved a way of preserving and passing on accumulated
knowledge. The older generation – the tribal elders – had the
responsibility of educating the younger in what was necessary to
ensure the continuity of the community: the language, skills,
customs, songs, dances, religion and beliefs, the aspirations of
the people and the mode of behaviour the young should
cultivate for playing their social roles in adult life.

Storytelling may therefore be regarded as a window through which children in

today’s world may view the cultures of previous generations.

5
De Wit (1979:3) not only regards storytelling as an ancient art, but as an oral

art born of the experiences of men and women as they first became aware of

themselves, their outer world, and the strange inner world each person saw

with the eyes of the mind and could not help sharing with others. Older people

have acquired knowledge in their youth. Many of these experiences were

traumatic. They do not want their children to repeat the same mistakes and

become victims in life. In this instance, De Wit believes that storytelling can

act as a warning for future generations, cautioning them not to fall prey as

their forefathers had done.

It is believed that storytelling may have begun with crude chants and dances

thousands of years before the dawn of recorded history. This is supported by

the vestiges of prehistoric paintings on the walls of caves in some areas,

which can be associated with hunters and animals and which may depict

great hunting exploits. With the passing of time, human intelligence

recognised the forces of nature as an action outside itself. People discovered

inexplicable circumstances which frightened and awed them; they then found

their expression through myth and heroic tales.

Theories of the origin of stories are as varied as people’s fingerprints. Jacob

Grimm (1785-1863), a German professor, philologist and mythologist,

propounded a theory relating to the growth of stories. Grimm and his brother

Wilhelm believed that today’s tales, which have survived through the

centuries, began in crude, fanciful form, and were perpetuated by the

peasantry, finally becoming epics in the hands of literary individuals. Most

6
people support Grimm’s theory. Miruka (1994:134) calls this theory

evolutionism and declares that it proposes that oral literature is a reflection of

a previous existence from which it has evolved. He claims that evolutionism

contends that the nature of man is basically universal and that all human

societies develop similar traits even if they are geographically separate. In

support of this theory, Okpewho (1992:6) maintains that evolutionist scholars’

way of perceiving culture convinced them that whatever texts they found were

simply survivals of earlier ones. But as these texts were passed down from

one generation to another, they lost certain qualities which appealed to their

original owners, and whatever survived must have been weakened versions

of the original texts. Okpewho (1992:7) believes that for this reason we can no

longer speak of one author or creator of any one of them, but only see each

text as the common property of joint or communal authorship. He reiterates

that as a story passed from one narrator to another, each narrator added his

or her own touch to it, and since the tales bore no signatures, there was

frequently no way of distinguishing one person’s touch from another’s.

According to Miruka (1994:134), this theory can be explained by euhemerism,

solarism and naturalism. Boyer (1979:12) cites the ideas of Deslongchamps

(1838) on the fact that the Grimms theorised that folktales were deconstructed

myths which had originated among prehistoric Indo-European tribes.

According to Boyer Kuhn (1843,1860, 1862, 1871) found the folklore of the

Indo-German literature to contain recurrent themes, and traced the figures of

various gods and heroes back to Vedic sources (ibid,1979:12). This is known

as euhemerism, a sub-theory of evolutionism. According to euhemerism,

7
primitive man was unable to comprehend the nature of divinity and therefore

resorted to a belief in many gods with deities as his focus of awe and

admiration (Miruka, 1994:134). Miruka quotes David Hume who claims that

primitive societies derived their deities by deifying societal heroes whom they

looked upon as sources of powerful sensation (ibid, 1994:134).

It is believed that folklore fails to develop when placed in a set form. With

freedom it varies continually as it is shaped by the memories, creativity and

needs of individuals in specific situations. This process of change is termed

oral variation. It is believed that the introduction of the printing press has

delayed the growth of some stories. It is only when folklore moves back into

verbal transmission that its development is resumed.

A second theory of the origin of stories is known as the Sun-Myth position.

This theory attributes the origin of stories to human interpretation of natural

phenomena. This theory was supported by the German-born British

philologist, Friedrich Max Muller (1823-1900). He exerted a stimulating

influence on oriental stories. According to Briggs and Wagner (1979:2), Muller

contended that heroes of folktales are regarded as allegorical representations

of the sun, rain, storms, and so on. Miruka (1994:134) calls this theory

solarism and claims that it was propounded by Max Muller, Jacob Grimm and

Wilhelm Grimm. It is believed that in the beginning, people allegedly had

difficulty in distinguishing between nature and their own personalities. Briggs

and Wagner maintain that fanciful interpretations were given to the coming of

dawn, dusk, day and night. The weather conditions experienced by

8
storytellers seem to have influenced their attitudes. Muller notes that the sun

was believed to love the dew but in a rage, slew her with his arrows.

According to him, early storytellers also held that the earth and heaven were

married and used to be close together until they were separated by their

children who had become cramped trying to live between them. According to

Miruka (1994:134), this theory saw the sun as the principal force behind all

tales. He adds that Muller reached this conclusion when he studied Aryan

mythology and found that the tales degenerated into fragments as the Aryan

people migrated westwards to Europe.

A third theory that sought to account for the origin of stories, according to

Briggs and Wagner (1979:2) and Thompson (1946:379), holds that all stories

began in India and may be traced to a common Aryan heritage. This theory is

known as diffusionism or the Historical-Geographical theory, and emphasises

the relationship between and among narratives from different societies with

the aim of proving that there was historical or geographical contact between

peoples. Okphewho (1992:7) maintains that diffusionist theory grew as a

result of the interest shown by European scholars in finding the origins and

the paths of movement of European languages, customs, and other forms of

culture.

Since the diffusionists were engaged in comparative studies of folklore

throughout the world, the German brothers, Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, as

mentioned by Okphewho (1992:7), claimed that if any similarities were found

between tales told in Africa and those told in Europe, the former should be

9
seen as offshoots of the parent Indo-European culture. Okpewho (1992:7)

believes that the Grimm brothers were working under the misconception that

culture can only spread from a superior to an inferior people, not the other

way round, and of course Africa was considered racially inferior to Europe. In

supporting the Grimms’ view, Thompson (1946:48) states that where

similarities existed between European and African folktales, they could be

explained by the probability that the Europeans brought the tales with them to

Africa during the period of the slave trade. The very same ideology is held by

Dorson (1972:8), who postulates that tales move from more advanced to less

civilised peoples. He illustrates his view by pointing out the expansion of

Europe in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries when European colonisers

transported folktales to the continents of North and South America and Africa,

but conversely the tales of Africans and American Indians are not found

among European peasants.

Joseph Jacobs estimates that at least one third of all stories common to

European children come from India (Briggs and Wagner, 1972:2). Briggs and

Wagner (1972:2) further assert that the close relationship between people and

beasts which was fostered by a belief in animism and transmigration of souls

provided fertile ground for the origin of fanciful stories. This theory is

supported by the presence in ancient times of Hindus who were sufficiently

educated and possessed the intellectual ability to conceive and develop plots.

According to Miruka (1994:135) and Thompson (1946:378-380), this theory is

associated with Theodor Benfey, Reinhold Kőhler, Emmanuel Cosquin,

10
Kaarle Krohn and Andrew Lang. Benfey traces the origin of tales to India and

believes they have spread westwards through three channels :

1. Oral tradition – before the tenth century.

2. Literary tradition – before the tenth century along the lines of Islamic

influences, particularly through Byzantium, Italy and Spain.

3. Buddhist material – through China and Tibet to the Mongols and from

them to Europe.

After Benfey, the scholar Reinhold Kőhler, the librarian of the Ducal Library at

Weimar, published annotations of the chief collections of European tales as

they appeared. Through the accumulation of this material, the mutual

relationship of the various tales and motifs was clarified. Although these

studies established India’s importance to European tales, they also showed

that Benfey had overstated his case. However, although Kőhler was an

annotator, he appeared not to have much concern with general theories on

the origin of European tales.

Another proponent of Benfey’s basic ideas was Emmanuel Cosquin. Cosquin

studied scores of tales and motifs with emphasis on the relation to analogues

from India, which he was convinced, represented the source. But Cosquin

modified Benfey’s theory in two respects:

1. He was fully convinced that Benfey was mistaken when he

assigned an important role to the Mongols in the dissemination of

stories through Europe.

2. The Indian tales could have originated in Egypt since Egyptian

civilization is older than that of India. But India has nevertheless

11
 served as the great reservoir into which tales of diverse origins

have flowed and from which they flow out in turn all over the earth.

Kaarle Krohn investigated a group of animal tales particular to Finnish

tradition. In his studies he acquainted himself with folktales from all parts of

the world and was ultimately convinced that an adequate investigation of tales

must have a world-wide scope. His experience with the historical-

geographical technique convinced him that there is no short road to the truth

about the origin and history of the folktale as a whole.

As a matter of fact, he concluded that only by special studies of each story,

based on a large number of versions, could one hope to approach a real

knowledge of the facts of its origin.

The most skillful opponent of the Indianist theory is Andrew Lang

(Thompson,1946:380). The fact that Egyptian folktales from the thirteenth

century B.C as well as those mentioned in Herodotus and Homer have been

discovered caused Lang to disbelieve in the primary importance of India as

the place of origin of tales. Lang called attention to the many primitive ideas in

modern folktales and suggested that the presence of these traits showed that

the tales are survivals from a very ancient time (ibd., 1946:380). Thompson

(1946:380) postulates that Lang was a believer in “polygenesis”. In turn,

Lang’s position was criticised as it is based on the presupposition of a parallel

development of culture everywhere, a parallelism which would manifest itself

in analogous tales.

12
Consequently, Okpewho affirms that at present diffusionist research into

African folktales continues, although without the zeal of the Grimms and

Thompson. What is interesting is that the prejudice which guided earlier

generations of scholars has been completely abandoned. At present the

diffusionist scholars occupy themselves with studying the distribution of tale

units within the various “culture areas” of Africa or with earnest debate on the

African origins of tales told among the blacks of the northern and southern

United States (1992:8).

Okpewho (1992:7-8) outlines the fundamental distinction between the

evolutionist theory and diffusionist theory as follows:

- The evolutionists believe that if two tales from two societies show similar

elements and a similar pattern, it is because human beings all over the

world think alike and the tales reflect the same stage of cultural

development in both societies. The diffusionists, on the other hand,

believe that where such similarities occur it can only be because at

some time in the distant past the two societies had some contact with

one another which caused borrowing of certain cultural ideas by one

from the other.

- Unlike the evolutionists, the diffusionists look closely at versions of a

tale and have a greater opportunity to discover the interesting

differences between one version and another. They concentrate on the

13
 similarities in constituent units (motifs) which these tales employ, and for

them the stylistic differences between tales do not matter.

- Although their methods of research differ somewhat from those

employed by the evolutionists, the diffusionists are nevertheless equally

obsessed with the idea of the origins of culture. Such an obsession has

left them little room to consider the literary qualities of oral literature.

According to Briggs and Wagner (1979:3), a fourth group of folklorists has

attempted to explain the origin of stories by attributing them to a primitive form

of cosmology. These folklorists believe that our ancient ancestors were

concerned about their personal origin, how the world was made and why one

season followed another. They add that people have always had a thirst for

knowledge, have always been concerned about causality, and this is

supported by the discovery of stories throughout the world that end with such

statements as “and that is why a bear’s tail is short”, or “and that is why a

robin’s breast is red”.

Albeit there is some fundamental background on which these theories are

based, there are some flaws which may tempt the folklorist to doubt or

discount such theories. On the interpretation of the sun-myth theory, one

could run the risk of making false analogies between stories originating in

various countries. Those scholars who believe that all stories began in India

have been discounted by a rival group which contends that the Euphrates

Valley is the birthplace of most folktales. This ideology is further weakened by

14
the appearance of similar tales in non-Aryan countries. Those who concur

with the cosmologist’s approach must admit that some primitive tribes are not

concerned about their origin, and are therefore not driven to formulating a

mankind creation myth.

Another shortcoming of these theories is that they do not focus on the creative

aspects of oral narratives but rather on the mechanical classification process.

According to these theories, certain corpora of stories appear universally, but

may not be attributable to any particular community of origin. On the question

of origin of stories, Miruka (1994:136) quotes Stith Thompson who concludes

that he would wish to leave the ultimate origin of a tale with a large question

mark rather than with a dubious answer.

Most myths in Venḓa have been created in order to solve inexplicable

questions about the origin of natural phenomena. In such instances, these

stories are partially grounded on the sun-myth theory. The presence of

cosmology theory is also felt in Venḓa tales as most of them are coined in

order to show the origin of things. The theory of evolution is also felt in Venḓa

stories since most tales enacted at present are survivors of tales created in

time immemorial, of which we only have small vestiges which are no longer

original texts.

15
There was an efflorescence of storytelling in primitive, unlettered societies

because of the great imaginative power, memory and intelligence of

raconteurs. Mutwa (1966: viii) says:

There are men and women, preferably with black birthmarks

on either palm of the hands, with good memories and a great
capacity to remember words and to repeat them exactly as
they had heard them spoken.

The black people of Africa had, however, no means of conserving these

fascinating and precious relics of their past, other than by word of mouth,

passed down the ages from one generation to another. Thompson (1946:5),

however, claims that taletelling is not bound by one continent or one

civilization.

Savory (1974:11) cites migration and war in the distribution of stories. It is

fairly widely accepted that the black man in Africa has originated from earlier

mixing between the Negroes of Africa and Hamitic newcomers from the north-

east, somewhere in the upper Nile basin. According to Barnard and Nel

(1982:222), economic reasons led to a large black migration from central

Africa which spread southward in different migratory movements or waves.

One of the migration branches moved downward along the east coast of

Southern Africa and settled in the present Swaziland, KwaZulu-Natal and

Eastern Cape. Another group moved westwards over the Zambezi River and

inhabited the present Gauteng and Northwest, the Free State, Lesotho and

Botswana. A third group moved even further westward to settle in Namibia.

Groups from later migratory movements settled in the northern part of South

Africa, while others, after clashes in the south, returned northward to settle in

16
Zimbabwe, Angola and Mozambique. As these Great Treks moved

southwards their tales moved with them.

As far as war is concerned, Savory (1974:11) remarks that the reign of terror

by the Zulu King Shaka distributed Zulu tales as far north as Lake Nyasa, in

the country now known as Malawi, when Zwangendaba, one of the Zulu

chiefs, fled with his warriors northward to escape this tyrant’s wrath. Crossing

the Zambezi river, he and his men settled to the east of the lake, founding the

Angoni (Nguni) tribe. This carried many of the Zulu tales to Malawi. Another

chief to fly from the tyrannies of this despot was Matshobane, grandfather to

Lobengula who, with his army, carried Zulu tales to Zimbabwe, where he

founded the Matabele Nation. He took not only his own Zulu tales with him,

but collected fresh ones as his army travelled northwards, sacking villages on

the way and taking the women as wives for his warriors. These mothers of

the future Matabele nation told the tales of their childhood to their Matabele

children while the Zulu fathers added theirs. These were combined,

embroidered, and given different characters and settings, but their source is

still recognizable.

Chambers (1977:4) cites the trade route as the main factor in the

dissemination of stories. He states that the art of the storyteller was used by

the ancient trader who moved across the land on the routes that offered the

easiest access to distant towns and trading centres. After the day’s toil, the

trader would seek lodging at an inn. One of the aspects of such

accommodation traders valued most was the ability of the inn’s resident

17
storyteller. This storyteller would have his opportunity during or soon after

supper. He told his tales and with his words helped to erase the weariness

accumulated on the trail. Often the storyteller exchanged tales with the guests

at the inn. In this way he acquired new stories from distant places for his

repertoire. He told not only the old favourites but also these newly acquired

tales.

Although Briggs and Wagner (1979:4-5) echo some of the factors mentioned

by Savory and Chambers on the dissemination of stories, they also

supplement these. According to them, communication between savage tribes

may have begun the process of spreading stories. Warfare with its

subsequent seizing of women may have furthered the process of

dissemination. Slaves from Africa brought stories to the western world.

Phoenicians and Viking sailors may have exchanged tales with strangers; the

crusades allowed a mingling of Moorish and Christian cultures, and the

migrations of people from the Orient over the Aleutian land chain to North

America could have facilitated story dissemination. Travelling bards and

minstrels who sang and told stories for food and a night’s lodging literally

carried tales. Once the story became popular, nothing seemed able to

contain it. The sophistication of the mode of delivery of the message as man

abandoned primitive hunting and began to establish small communities

serves as an additional factor in the dissemination of stories. Specialization of

arts and crafts began and each person shouldered a certain responsibility,

e.g. soil preparation, reaping, cooking and even storytelling. Those with great

imaginative power and memory, who could hold the audience’s attention with

18
characters in a story they could easily identify with became the bearers of

exciting history and tradition.

According to Briggs and Wagner (1979:5), the greatest period for story

dissemination took place between 950 AD and the 1500s. During that time

proficient storytellers were invited by kings and nobles to live at the castle and

these were eventually remunerated for their efforts. These artists combined

music with story themes and wrote ballads to commemorate important events

such as battles and marriages, and they would perform them for the king and

his guests. Although some of these weavers of tales stayed for a long period

in established households, most of them travelled around. Joining this group

with their own stories were the travellers: gypsies, crusaders and adventurers

of every description. The mingling of these entertainers resulted in the

exchange and adaptation of stories to the extent that pinpointing the origin of

a story’s plot or elements became difficult.

Contrasting views are expressed by, among others, Mutwa (1966) and

Marivate (1973). Mutwa (1966: viii) takes pride in the good memory and great

capacity the storyteller had for remembering the words and repeating them

exactly as he had heard them. He claims that storytellers narrated the history

of tribes, under the oath never to alter, add or to subtract any word. Any

attempt to change any of the stories of his tribe would lead to curses being

passed down from him to his children and his children’s children. Marivate

(1973: xv), however, challenges this view when he says there is no such thing

as the “correct version” in storytelling. To him every tale at a particular time is

19
a unique version. Because of the extemporary nature of stories, tales with the

same motif narrated by different narrators differ greatly. In fact, every

performance differs from one narrator to the next.

Evans-Pritchard (1967:34) says that every teller of a tale has his own

particular style, modes of emphasis, intonation, chanting and expressions, so

that he makes the story his own not only by omissions, additions, selections,

and sequence of incidents, etc., but also by his style, which is never quite the

same as that of others.

Echoing Marivate (1973), Scheub (1975:40) remarks:

There is no single ‘complete’ version of any one ntsomi

image, just as there is not necessarily a ‘best’ version.
While individual artists add and remove episodes and
clichés, the basic structure remains intact.

Chesaina (1997: ix) was perturbed by the cliché that oral literature has been
handed down from generation to generation verbatim. According to him, this
contention needs re-examination as it gives the impression that this is static.
He believes strongly that:

Unlike written literature, which even when reprinted is

handed down to the next generation of readers with little
modification besides the cover and the size of the print,
oral literature has not been handed down from generation
to generation verbatim. It is always being recreated.

The performance of the oral narrative, for example,

illustrates this process of recreation. Every oral artist has
his own unique way of telling a story. As a committed
custodian of culture, the oral artist needs to be sensitive
to the audience at hand. The artist has to identify his
audience’s needs and level of comprehension. Therefore
the story has to undergo certain modifications to suit the
audience. If it is an audience of very young children,
dramatisation is mandatory, while the use of ideophones
and other characteristics of the language of animal

20
 characters adds life to the narrative and enhances
comprehension. As there is no formula or recipe for
narration, a story inevitably gains new literary elements
every time it is told, while retaining its basic thematic
motif.

Chesaina further acknowledges that the interaction between people and

external cultures introduces new elements. As an expression of culture, oral
literature has to respond to cultural changes. He goes on to say that new
songs are created and old ones acquire new overtones (ibid,. 1997: ix).

In reality, a slight impact is experienced on the content of stories during their

dissemination process. The stories probably changed as they moved along

the trade route, but the motif or the structure remained intact. In the retelling

of the tales, the names of the characters, the clothes they wore, the food they

ate, the language they spoke or the house in which the characters lived could

possibly change; but their motif pattern and structure remained the same.

Thompson (1946:447) puts it succinctly: the results of historic-geographic

studies show that though the form may keep changing, the plot of the tale

persists. In supporting this notion, Raṅanga (1997:8) notes that a good

narrator would automatically colour and supply flesh to the original skeleton

by means of his or her choice of words, the speed of recital, the imagery

used, the variation in the voice, the gestures and facial expressions, the

manner in which he or she sings and the exaggerations. This does not affect

the plot of the story or the sequence of its main parts.

In 1450 the inventive mind of Johann Gutenberg conceived the idea of

movable type (Chambers, 1977:8). The era of the printing press and mass

media had begun. The stories born in the oral tradition and carried from place

21
to place by the storyteller met the printing press, particularly in the case of the

Greek, Roman, Hebrew, Arab, Asian and European nations.

In Africa, where writing came much later in history, these traditions were still

committed to memory and passed from generation to generation by amateur

or professional storytellers. However, with the advance of science and

industry, the activity has slowly disappeared and many scholars are now

doing their utmost to record and preserve them through books, tapes, CDs,

DVD and video cassette recorder. In this instance, Leshoai (1983:1)

acknowledges that today the art of writing is fairly well developed in Africa,

and it has become quite a common practice for African scholars to collect and

record the oral traditions of their own nations. He remarks that west and east

Africa have made great strides in this exercise, and important anthologies

have been published.

With the innovation of the mass media, dissemination of stories became easy

as a story could be carried to millions of listeners in the twinkling of an eye.

However, the dawn of Western civilization had a negative impact on the

verbal transmission of these stories. Radio and television, school work and

the present family set-up where children no longer live with their

grandparents, all threaten the viability of storytelling. However, if this art

becomes obsolete, most of the stories will vanish from the minds of people

and new stories will no longer be created. It therefore goes without saying that

this is a signal of the death and decay of storytelling. As storytelling is no

22
longer an everyday affair, stories are being forgotten and few will be left for

future generations. Storytellers are also becoming scarcer by the day.

The exercise of recording stories has a negative impact on the development

of storytelling. The stories became frozen in print and never grow. Chambers

(1977:9) quotes Ruth Sawyer, who says:

There is a kind of death to every story when it leaves the

speaker to become impaled for all time on clay tablets or
the written and printed page.

However, although the recording of stories seems to be killing the art and

spirit of storytelling, scholars cannot do away with their recordings. Phasing

out the recordings of storytelling would be like wringing the neck of the goose

that lays the golden egg.

1.2. Statement of the Problem

In African languages, particularly in South Africa, storytelling has not yet been

professionalised in terms of either training or practice. This gives rise to the

problem: storytelling is dying. Many contributing factors have prevented

storytelling from being professionalised:

a) There is no formal training for storytellers. Prospective storytellers have

to grope about and find their own way, either by imitating expert

storytellers or by using trial and error methods in their narration.

23
b) The non-professionalisation of storytelling in African languages could

be attributed to the arrival of missionaries in South Africa. They

marginalised African cultures and rendered them useless. African

culture was condemned as primitive and barbaric. Consequently,

Africans developed a negative attitude towards their own culture and

relics.

c) Pioneer scholars such as Junod (1913), Smith (1940), Vilakazi (1945),

Dorson (1972), Marivate (1973), Oosthuizen (1977), Moephuli (1979),

Msimang (1986) and Makgamatha (1987), who have conducted

research on storytelling, regard the primary significance of storytelling

as nothing else but a pastime and entertainment tool for African

people, not a means by which people can earn their living.

d) Storytelling is not part of the school curriculum in either South African

secondary schools or tertiary institutions because it is not seen as

marketable in the commercial sense.

e) While the introduction of radio and television enhanced storytelling, it

killed the art as it is known and made storytellers redundant.

f) Unlike First World countries, where storytelling has been

professionalised, in most African states, and in South Africa in

particular, storytelling is considered a free commodity.

24
g) In South African society there are no freelance storytellers. Storytelling

is not staged in libraries and is rarely staged in theatres. Storytelling

competitions, festivals, conferences and workshops are rarely held

around South Africa. This leaves no room for storytelling on the

commercial stage.

The collectors who document these stories only gain commercially when the

stories are documented into an anthology. Publishing companies sell the

anthologies but the collectors get little for their efforts.

1.3. Statement of Aims

The aim of this study is to examine ways of professionalising storytelling in

African languages in general and Venḓa in particular.

As an indigenous art, storytelling is gradually dying out with the older

generation who practice it. The professionalising of this art form would create

an imperative to preserve these stories in the collective memory for posterity.

South Africa has a high level of unemployment, particularly amongst the

youth. The harnessing of storytelling as a livelihood could enhance

employment prospects for many people in fields such as tourism, health

education (particularly in the light of HIV/AIDS pandemic facing the country),

industrial theatre, amongst others.

25
Knowledge acquisition in this field could lead to developments such as the

running of workshops in the communities, libraries, schools, theatres etc.

Advocacy initiatives could also be launched to lobby for greater support from

government structures in the Arts and Culture and Education departments as

well as the public media like television and radio stations. Professionalised

storytelling programmes will be launched at libraries, youth groups,

kindergartens as well as at formal schooling institutions right up to university

level. Workshops will be run at community libraries, schools and theatres so

as to disseminate information and impart knowledge to various age groups.

1.4. Research Methodology

Although both qualitative and quantitative approaches will be used in this

study, the qualitative approach will dominate as this is an explorative study.

The data will be collected primarily through in-depth interviews.

Interviews with various storytellers will be conducted and information will be

recorded.

Different communities will be visited with the aim of tracing storytellers.

Interviews will be conducted to get further details with regard to the viability of

storytelling.

26
A questionnaire will be designed to investigate the availability of storytelling

programmes in South African libraries, theatres and educational institutions.

A further questionnaire will be designed to gather information on the history of

storytellers, their personal data and their initial introduction to the art form.

Visiting libraries to investigate storytelling resources and sources that deal

with theories underpinning storytelling in general will be a secondary method

of collecting data.

1.5. Research Questions

In order to ascertain the validity of the professionalising of storytelling in

African languages, the study intends to answer the following questions:

a) Is the culture of storytelling in South Africa developing or dying out?

b) What can we do in order to professionalise storytelling in South Africa?

c) What are the factors which contribute to the non-professionalisation of

storytelling?

d) Why do South African learning institutions not feature storytelling as a

learning area, subject or an autonomous discipline?

e) Why are there no formal institutions offering training for storytellers in

South Africa?

f) What is the Department of Arts and Culture, the Department of

Education and the Pan-South African Language Board doing or

planning to do in order to promote the art of storytelling in the country?

27
 g) What is the mass media doing to promote and professionalise

storytelling in the country?

h) Is a storytelling hour a common feature of South African

state/community or school libraries?

1.6. Hypotheses

The research hypotheses of the study are as follows:

a) Storytelling is regarded as a useless activity which does not need to be

perpetuated for future generations.

b) Most people consider the primary function of storytelling as

entertainment only.

c) Storytelling as a component of folklore is regarded as an activity

practised by primitive societies.

d) Pioneer folklorists in Africa in general and South Africa in particular did

not regard storytelling as an activity from which they could earn their

living.

e) Storytelling is never enacted in South African libraries.

f) There are no permanent slots on television or radio which cater for

storytellers.

g) There is no formal training offered for storytellers at any South African

library, educational institution or formal institution.

28
1.7. Definition of Terms

Some key terms used in the study are defined in the context of this study:

African Languages: According to the “Definitions of African Languages on

the web”, the term African languages refers to the approximately 1800

languages spoken in Africa. Definitions of African language on the web

1.google. Search. Unisa library. 20 December 2006.>

In confirming this, Frawley (2003:44) estimates the number of languages

spoken on the African continent as ranging from seven hundred to three

thousand. Frawley quotes Greenberg (1955) who initially proposed a genetic

classification of African languages into sixteen families, but who in his later

writings presented a revised classification of a reduced number of four, which

are: Niger-Congo, Afro-Asiatic, Khoi-San and Nilo-Saharan, (ibid., 2003:45).

He regards the African continent as the continent with the most complex

linguistic areas in the world.

As stated in chapter 3 below, in terms of population extent the survey will be

conducted in South Africa, so the term African languages will be delimited to

all the indigenous African languages found in South Africa. To be more

specific, these are the nine indigenous African languages which have been

incorporated into the group of South African official languages as well as

those indigenous languages which have not been given the status of official

languages.

29
Africans: In this study this term is used to refer to black South African people,

as distinct from their white South African counterparts.

Amateur Storyteller: These are the storytellers who do not earn their living

through storytelling. They perform the story for the love of it, not for the sake

of any financial incentive. This does not necessarily mean that they are

inexpert or imperfect storytellers.

Commercialisation: This is the way in which people make a profit by selling

a product.

Categories: This refers to themes which recur several times throughout the

discourse. Strauss and Corbin (1990:61) define it as a classification of

concepts: such a classification is discovered when concepts are compared

one against another and appear to pertain to a similar phenomenon. They say

that the concepts are grouped together under a higher order, a more abstract

concept called a category.

Database: An organised set of data that is stored in a computer and can be

consulted and used in various ways.

Electronic Storyteller: This is a storyteller who performs on radio, television,

film or any modern device.

30
First World Countries: These are countries which have many industries and

complex economic systems. Examples of such countries are the USA and

Great Britain.

Folklore: The word “folklore” is a compound noun. It is constituted from two

words, “folk” which refers to people and “lore” which means the stories and

traditions of a particular group of people. Folklore can therefore be defined as

the traditions, stories and customs of a community. Abrams (1981:66)

maintains that folklore includes, amongst others, legends, superstitions,

songs, tales, proverbs, riddles, spells, nursery rhymes, pseudo-scientific lore

about the weather, plants and animals, customary activities at births,

marriages, and deaths, and traditional dances and forms of drama which are

performed on holidays or at communal gatherings. All this lore is believed to

be transmitted from one generation to another by an ideal vehicle of word of

mouth rather than in written form. Apart from transmission by the word,

Archer Taylor (1948) in Brunvand further notes that folklore can be handed

down by tradition of custom and practice (1986:3).

Folklorist: The term is used in this study when referring to a scholar of

folklore. The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English

Encyclopedic Edition defines a folklorist as a person who studies folklore,

especially as an academic subject.

Freelance Storyteller: This is an independent storyteller who earns a living

by selling his or her services. The freelance storyteller can move from one

place to another for the sake of providing service to clients. Such a storyteller

31
has devoted his or her time and energy to stories and can provide both

expertise and artistry wherever he or she performs. The freelance storyteller

is always ready to perform if the hosts meet the requirements. In supporting

this, Geisler (1997:129) maintains that freelance storytellers have devoted

their time and energy to stories.

Heathens: The term is used in this study to refer to people who do not believe

in any of the world’s chief religions, especially those who are not Christian,

Muslim nor Jewish. Simpson and Weiner (1989) in the Oxford English

Dictionary take it as applied to persons or races whose religion is neither

Christian, Jewish nor Muslim, but rather pagan or gentile.

Indigenous African Languages: These are languages of the people who are

regarded as the original inhabitants of Africa. Most of these languages have

much in common. When referring to the characteristics of African languages,

Frawley (2003:46) postulates that there are some features which are found

only in Africa, or which are widespread there.

Marketing: This is the way in which a product is skillfully advertised to the

extent that prospective buyers are fully convinced of its worthiness, quality

and value so that they ultimately have to have it.

Mass Media: This refers to sources of information and news such as

newspapers, magazines, radio, internet and television, which reach and

influence a large number of people.

32
Missionaries: These are people (especially church ministers) who were sent

to many parts of Africa from European countries with the aim of bringing

Christianity to the dark, uncivilised continent of Africa. In his foreword in the

book entitled Tales from Southern Africa, Jordan (1973: xiii) remarks that the

missionaries imported from Europe by the colonising powers were a key

element in the transformation of African society.

Open Mike Session: This is a type of performance programme which often

takes place during storytelling festivals. After a performance by seasoned

storytellers, an opportunity is provided for any person from the audience to

ascend the podium and narrate a story. According to the coordinators of the

Sibikwa Storytelling Festival in Benoni, open mike (microphone) sessions help

to discover hidden talents among prospective storytellers.

Pan-South African Language Board (Pansalb): This is the Language Board

which serves as the custodian of all official languages and those languages

specified in the constitution of South Africa. Since each official language in

South Africa has its own board, this board remains the overseer vested with

overall authority. Pansalb is responsible for the promotion, development and

advancement of the stated languages in South Africa. Phaswana (2000:45)

describes it as an independent statutory body appointed by the Senate in

terms of the Pan-South African Language Board Act (Act No. 59 of 1995)

which promotes and creates conditions for the development and use of all

official languages and those languages specified in the South African

Constitution.

33
Polygenesis: Origination of a race or species from several independent

ancestors or germs: in reference to man usually called polygeny. The Oxford

English Dictionary states that ethnological polygenesists assert that, during

the whole historic period, there have existed the same differences in the

human races that are seen at the present time.

Profession: A profession is an occupation, especially one requiring advanced

education and special training. This is emphasised by Freidson (1972:71) who

says a profession is a group of people who perform a set of activities which

provides them with the major source of their subsistence – activities which are

called “work” rather than “leisure” and “vocation” rather than “avocation”. He

goes on to say that such activities are performed for compensation and are

combined to be useful or productive, which is why those who perform them

are compensated by others. Freidson therefore defines a profession as an

occupation, an activity which enables one to derive an economic benefit at the

end of the day (ibid., 1972:71).

Professional: A professional person is one practising something as a full-

time occupation or for payment or to make a living. Hughes (1975:249)

acknowledges that professionals profess, i.e. they profess to know better than

others about certain matters, and to know better than their clients what ails

them or their affairs. Subsequently, Freire (1972:46) says that traditionally, a

professional’s approach to client advice, or education, has been prescriptive –

that is, the professional, as the expert, prescribes what the client needs to

know, passes on that information or advice and expects compliance. The

34
emphasis is on a one-way transmission of knowledge, from an expert to a lay

person. The role of the professional is to develop an understanding of his or

her client’s perceived needs, and to share his or her expert knowledge and

skills, in so far as they serve these needs.

Professionalisation: This is the stage at which an art form or activity is made

more professional by incentivising the participants by a form of living.

Edwards et al. (1998:77) believe that in order to further the cause of

professionalisation, professional training needs to focus on a body of expert

knowledge as the foundation for professional practice. But in order to develop

practitioners who are more effective at helping their clients, the need is for

training which focuses on personal and interpersonal skills, on building on

experience, developing intuition and common sense.

Professional Storyteller: This is a type of storyteller who earns his or her

living entirely through storytelling.

One interviewed respondent, a professional storyteller from Brazil in South

America, Respondent D.19, defines a professional storyteller as somebody

who does nothing other than storytelling to make a living or somebody who

supports his or her family through storytelling. He further distinguishes two

types of professional storytellers, a professional who is highly skilled in what

he or she does but does not make a living out of it, and a professional worker.

Such a distinction has been reiterated by Miruka (1994). According to Miruka

(1994:158), professional storytellers can be differentiated by artistic expertise

and economic type. A skilled and artistic storyteller is a professional in the

mastery of the art while the economic storyteller derives economic benefits

from the art. The economic storyteller regards storytelling as a commercial

35
practice. Greene (1996:28) regards this type of storyteller as a person who

makes his or her living solely or primarily through storytelling. This has been

echoed by Torrence (1983:279) who says that a professional storyteller is a

new breed who makes a living by travelling throughout the nation spinning

tales to all who will listen. In this study, the term professional storyteller refers

to an economic type storyteller or a professional worker who supports his or

her family through the art form. However, after extensive research, Raṅanga

(1997:29) eventually concludes that in Venḓa, folktale narration is usually

practised by non-professionals who possess a certain degree of skill.

Salempore: This is a loose garment usually worn by Venḓa women. Van

Warmelo (1989) defines it as a long piece of cloth with strips sewn on

crosswise at the top to make it longer, and with two tapes of the same

material to tie over the shoulder. It is called ṅwenda in Venḓa.

SAQA: The South African Qualifications Authority, established by section 3 of

the South African Qualifications Authority Act, 1995 (Act No. 58 of 1995).

The South African Qualifications Authority is a body of 29 members appointed

by the Ministers of Education and Labour. The functions of the Authority are

essentially twofold:

• To oversee the development of the NQF, by formulating and publishing

policies and criteria for the registration of bodies responsible for

establishing education and training standards or qualifications and for

36
 the accreditation of bodies responsible for monitoring and auditing

achievements in terms of such standards and qualifications.

• To oversee the implementation of the NQF by ensuring the registration,

accreditation and assignment of functions to the bodies referred to

above, as well as the registration of rational standards and

qualifications on the framework. It must also take steps to ensure that

provisions for accreditation are complied with and, where appropriate,

that registered standards and qualifications are internationally

comparable.

SAQA must advise the Ministers of Education and Labour. The Authority is

required to perform its tasks after consultation and in cooperation with all

bodies and institutions responsible for education, training and certification of

standards which will be affected by the NQF.

The objectives of the NQF as outlined in the SAQA Act No. 58 of 1995 are as

follows:

• To create an integrated national framework for learning achievement;

• To facilitate access to, and mobility and progression within education,

training and career paths;

• To enhance the quality of education and training;

• To accelerate the redress of past unfair discrimination in education,

training and employment opportunities;

• To contribute to the full personal development of each learner and the

social and economic development of the nation at large.

37
About SAQA-NQF objectives 1. google. Search. 23 July 2008 .

<http://www.saqa.org.za/about/nqfobjectives.htm>

Storyteller: Simply put, a person who tells stories, also known as the

narrator. With every story, there is a purpose that the storyteller wishes

listeners to realise. The storyteller uses words as a means of transportation –

a vehicle to transport children and adults to an imaginary land. Gerhardt

(1963:40) defines a storyteller as a man who in transmitting a story, be it

orally or in writing, and bringing about a new version of it. The expert

storyteller has that skill and talent to flesh out the scenes and characters of a

skeletal story, using imagination to create vivid word pictures. The artist is

able to combine different versions of a story successfully.

Each individual performer has his or her particular idiosyncrasies and unique

way of telling stories. Raṅanga (1997:28) notes that power of the imagination,

a good memory, and intelligence all play a vital role in storytelling activities.

Storytelling: Relating a tale, be it fictitious or factual, in order to conscientise

and entertain the listener(s).

Collins (1997:94) defines storytelling as a communication between a

possessor of a tale and a listener who wants to be possessed by the tale and

the telling. In order for listeners to be immensely possessed, the possessor

should be a consummate performer. This becomes possible when the

38
storyteller conveys the story not only through voice, but also through gesture

and pantomime.

Traditionally, scholars were shortsighted in that they envisaged the primary

function of storytelling as entertainment only. More recently, however, people

have become aware that they were ignoring hidden treasure as storytellers

are now beginning to harness this art form to make a living.

Storytelling Circle: A group of storytellers who are connected by virtue of

their art form. These storytellers frequently meet to share issues of common

interest.

Storytelling Conference: A meeting which usually lasts for some days and at

which storytellers and people interested in storytelling affairs come together to

discuss issues relating to storytelling. Most storytelling conferences are

graced with live performances by seasoned storytellers and storytelling

workshops.

Storytelling Festival: A series of storytelling performances by various

storytellers usually held once a year at the same venue. This type of festival is

interspersed with open mike sessions and storytelling workshops. The

attendees pay an entrance fee in order to gain access to the festival.

Storytelling Workshop: A meeting where people learn about storytelling by

discussing their experiences and taking part in practical exercises in

39
storytelling. These include a period of discussion and practical work in which

seasoned storytellers or people who are knowledgeable about storytelling

share their knowledge and experiences. Participants are expected to pay an

entrance fee to attend such a workshop. Although they may be staged on

their own, storytelling workshops are often conducted during storytelling

festivals and conferences.

Third World Countries: This term is used in this study to refer to poor

countries which are in the process of advancing their industries and economic

systems. Some examples of such countries are: India, African countries and

countries in the Middle East.

Zanendaba Storytelling Organisation: This is an organisation established in

1992 by the legendary Gcina Mhlophe. The word Zanendaba is a derivative

which can be loosely translated as “za” (come) “ne Ndaba” (with a story). .

1.8. Organisation of the Study

This study is organised into six chapters.

Chapter one presents an introduction to the study, and discusses the

background to the study. The chapter also presents the statement of the

problem, the statement of aims, research methodology, research questions,

the hypotheses, and definitions of terms and the organisation of the study.

40
Chapter two concentrates on the literature review. Literature on storytelling

from both First and Third World countries is referred to.

Chapter three focuses on the research design, methodology and procedures

followed in the study.

Chapter four provides the presentation, analysis and interpretation of data.

The data obtained through in-depth interviews and related sources will be

presented and analysed.

Chapter five presents the synthesis of findings and recommendations in terms

of the data analysis.

The last chapter is the conclusion. In this chapter the entire research study is

reviewed. Furthermore, the success of professionalised storytelling and

storytellers, the implications in terms of teaching and professionalisation, the

implications for further study and the limitations of the study are presented.

1.9. CONCLUSION

Storytelling is the presentation of a story to a listener or number of listeners

through voice and gesture. Through storytelling man can understand the past

and predict the future. Storytelling is as old as mankind.

41
The origin of stories is not attributed to a particular individual or groups of

persons, but arises communally and the question of authorship can never be

traced. Four theories for the origin of storytelling have been realised. The first

is evolutionist theory which proposes that oral literature is a reflection of a

previous existence from which it has evolved. The sun-myth theory attributes

the origin of stories to human interpretation. The third theory is diffusionist

theory which believes that all stories began in India and can be traced to a

common Aryan heritage. The last theory attempts to explain the origin of

stories by attributing them to a primitive form of cosmology.

These stories have been handed down from one generation to another. Three

main factors are responsible for the dissemination of these stories: migration,

war and trade routes. The innovation of mass media has greatly enhanced the

dissemination of stories although it has had a negative impact on the art form.

In their dissemination, stories may be twisted into different versions.

Recording of storytelling has also had a negative impact on folk literature as

stories have ceased to be living folk literature and have become specimens of

folk art.

The problem identified in this work is that storytelling is suffering the

consequences of non-professionalisation as there is no training for novice

storytellers. In order to further the cause of professionalisation, professional

training must focus on a body of expert knowledge as the foundation for

professional practice.

42
Both qualitative and quantitative research methods will be used to collect

data.

The basic research questions which underpin the validity of the entire study

have been tabled. The main hypothesis is that storytelling is regarded as an

activity practised by primitive and barbaric people, the primary function of

which is entertainment only.

In order to pre-empt any misconceptions, some basic terms have been

defined in terms of their usage in the study. The organisation of the entire

study has been outlined.

43
 CHAPTER 2

2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

2.1. Introduction

Chapter one served as an introduction to the entire study. Its purpose was to

provide a background to storytelling which in turn encapsulates the statement

of the research problem. The identified problem is that storytelling in South

Africa is dying out because it has not been professionalised in terms of either

training or practice.

The focus of this chapter is on highlighting what other researchers have found

in regard to the professionalisation of storytelling. It is also hoped that some

gaps which exist as far as the professionalisation of storytelling is concerned

will be identified. The present study will therefore work towards bridging such

gaps through this literature review. The review serves as the foundation upon

which the entire study is built. De Vos et al. (2002:129) acknowledge that a

literature review provides the framework of the research and identifies the

area of knowledge that the study is intended to expand. Mouton (2001:87)

believes that researchers should start with a review of the existing scholarship

or available body of knowledge to see how other scholars have investigated

the research problem in which they are interested. After such investigations,

the researcher will be in a better position to attack the problem with deeper

insight and more complete knowledge (Leedy, 1993:87).

44
A literature review literally involves looking again at the literature of a related

area (an area not necessarily identical with, but linked to one’s own area of

study) (Leedy, 1993: 87). McMillan and Schumacher (2001:109) regard

related literature as that which is directly relevant to the problem under

research. Pelegrino (1979:42) regards a literature review as the orderly

collection, review, sifting, sorting, synthesis, and critical analysis of the

pertinent and essential information needed to give credence and support to

the research hypotheses or assumptions. De Vos (2002:131) refers to it as a

simple way of scrutinising all relevant sources of information.

Pelegrino (1979:42) further views the review of literature as the base from

which one’s study should move. According to him, a worthwhile literature

review is a well-proved, well-marked roadway on which to drive and arrive

safely at the destination. Neuman (1997:89) states that the literature review is

based on the assumption that knowledge accumulates and that we learn from

and build on what others have done. He notes that today’s studies are built

on those of yesterday. The most common reason for writing a literature

review, according to Neuman, is to create a link with a developing body of

knowledge (ibid., 1997:89). Neuman (1997:89) lists four goals of a literature

review:

1. To demonstrate a familiarity with a body of knowledge and establish

credibility. A good review increases a reader’s confidence in the
researcher’s professional competence, ability and background.

2. To show the path of prior research and how the current project is
linked to it. A good review places a research project in a context

45
 and demonstrates its relevance by making connections to a body of
knowledge.

3. To integrate and summarise what is known in an area. A review

collects what is known up to a particular point in time and indicates
the direction for future research.

4. To learn from others and stimulate new ideas. A review tells what
others have found so that a researcher can benefit from the efforts
of others.

Leedy (1993:87, 88), Mouton (2001:87) and McMillan and Schumacher

(2001:109,110) summarise the purpose of a literature review as follows:

1. To define and limit the problem.

2. To place one’s study in a historical and associated context in
relation to earlier and more primitive attacks on the same problem.
3. To avoid unintentional and unnecessary replications of previous
studies.
4. To discover the most recent and authoritative theorising about the
subject.
5. To discover the most widely accepted empirical findings in the field.
6. To identify the available instrumentation that has proven validity and
reliability.
7. To ascertain the most widely used definitions of key concepts in the
field.
8. To develop research hypotheses.
9. To provide new ideas and approaches that may not have occurred
to the researcher.
10. To introduce one to significant research personalities, of whose
work and collateral writings the researcher may have had no
knowledge.

46
 11. To reveal sources of data that the researcher may not have known.
12. To reveal investigations similar to the researcher’s research
problem, and to show how the collateral researchers have handled
such situations.
13. To select promising methods and measures.

The areas of literature to be reviewed in this research project include the

following:

(a) Work by scholars who provide critical analysis on the advent of

missionaries in Africa.
(b) All literature which deals with African folklore and economic
development.
(c) Work by scholars on the African Renaissance.
(d) Work by scholars on Black Economic Empowerment.
(e) All literature which deals with the professionalisation or
commercialisation of storytelling.

2.2. The problem of non-professionalisation of storytelling in Venḓa

The following factors have contributed to the non-professionalisation of

storytelling: the advent of missionaries in South Africa, the role played by

African scholars in South Africa, the role played by South African educational

institutions and publishing companies, the mass-media, the economic status

of African storytellers and urbanisation and industrialization.

47
2.2.1. The advent of missionaries in South Africa

The focus here is on determining the extent to which the missionaries

misinterpreted African traditional lore in general and storytelling in particular

when they arrived in South Africa and to propose ways of redressing these

issues.

Africa was once obscured by a dark cloud of colonial powers. These powers

were concerned mainly with raw materials for their growing industries and

outside markets for their processed products. Okpewho (1992:8) maintains

that these powers pretended that they were bringing a different and civilised

culture (in the sense of European civilization) to a primitive race of people.

From the earliest times Africa has been regarded as a dark slumbering giant

devoid of any good (Milubi, 1988:4). For that reason Okpewho (1992:8)

believes that Africa had to be illuminated with the light of European culture,

considered at that time to be the highest mark of human achievement. This

has been echoed by Mokitimi, as cited in Moila (1987:116), who takes the

school as the starting point of Africans in their advance from darkness to light.

Eiselen in Schapera (1967:65) expresses the notion that the missionaries’

view of coming to Africa was that of conquering the Dark Continent for Christ.

They literally poured into the continent. Technology and Christianity,

according to Okpewho (1992:8), were regarded as the key elements in

attaining European culture. European culture was seen as equal to

Christianity. This has been supported by Moila (1987:117), who claims that

the missionaries were influenced by technology to reject the material culture

of Pedi society.

48
In supporting this notion, Roscoe (1971:1) sees Africans as people who have

no choice at all. He believes that Africans have no cultural traditions of their

own, no religious, economic or political background worthy of serious

attention, and certainly no history of glory in their creative arts. Burton (1943)

depicts African culture as savage and therefore believes that oral literature

has nothing that interests or soothes the feelings or arrests the passions of

the people. He further notes that according to what he has heard, the African

people’s custom of going naked has denuded their minds and destroyed all

decorum in their language (Burton, 1943: xii).

Milubi (1988:7) ironically takes a swipe at Roscoe who regards Europe as the

model, the teacher and the one who knows what is good for Africa, better than

Africa herself. Milubi believes that in the field of literature, the continent of

Africa has traditionally been regarded as crude, backward and uninteresting,

not worthy of any serious literary attention by a student of the western world.

But the truth is that African oral literature has been judged by Western

standards (Milubi, 1988:4, 5).

The missionaries who worked among the Pedis perceived the task of the

church as threefold, namely; to destroy the Pedi culture, to institute Western

culture, and ultimately to bring about a true culture which could be labelled

Christian (Moila, 1987: 158). Such views have been reiterated by Eiselen in

Schapera (1967:65), who views the coming of missionaries in South Africa as

twofold, viz. to uproot heathen beliefs and customs and to replace them with

49
Christian ideals and Christian life. Moila (1987:167) points out that any Pedi

Christian who behaved in accordance with any Pedi custom was said to have

committed a sin which deserved harsh church discipline. On the other hand,

he (Moila) contends that Pedi Christians who adopted Christian standards and

practices were regarded as righteous. Moila (1987:164) believes that this

practice among the missionaries was a major obstacle to the progress of the

mission in Pedi society as many people, especially men, did not even dream

of being converted to Christianity as they would have had to reject their

customs.

In order to spread European culture in Africa, the colonial administrators

worked hand in hand with the Christian missionaries. Although Joubert

(2001:190) regards the missionaries in South Africa as agents of change, to a

large extent their advent impacted negatively on African culture. This has also

been observed by Moila (1987:113) who notes that the history of missionary

enterprise was characterised by their eagerness to destroy Pedi customs. In

trying to explain who these Pedi people were, Mönnig (1967) argues that most

authors regard all the people in the then Transvaal, i.e. Gauteng, North-West,

Mpumalanga and Limpopo Sotho tribes, as Pedi. However, according to him,

the only group who can primarily call themselves Pedi are those people and

tribal groups directly descendent from the original Pedi tribe which settled in

Sekhukhuneland and eventually became the paramount tribe of that country

(Mönnig, 1967: vi).

50
The missionaries saw African people as heathens, savages and barbarians.

This has been supported by Tshithukhe (2001) in his paper, The politicization

and commercialization of some Tshivenḓa initiation school songs. According

to Mafenya as quoted by Tshithukhe (2001:2), missionaries who were

responsible for the introduction of Christianity into our country regarded

initiation schools and their songs as a sign of paganism without even

investigating their merits. This was because they considered them barbaric

and something to be discouraged. Mafenya further avers that missionaries

had a negative attitude towards initiation schools and therefore tried hard to

convince members of their churches to distance themselves from such

barbaric schools. Moila (1987:199) indicates that the missionaries condemned

Pedi dances as heathen as their intention was to replace the Pedi religion with

Christianity. He considers the missionaries to be people who lacked any

patience whatsoever with Pedi customs. He also quotes Krige who claims

that in those days Christianity tolerated no compromise with pagan practices;

Christianity could not envisage the salvation of souls except through the

eradication of heathen custom (ibid., 1987:116). The very same view is held

by Milubi (1988:6) who claims that the paramount objective of the

missionaries was that of moulding new beings that would shed the sheath of

paganism. This is reiterated by Mathivha (1985:74), who quotes Rose who

believes that formal education for the black man was introduced solely for the

purpose of Christianising him rather than of helping him to adapt to his

changing environment and shifting social status. As a result, most of the

African’s attire, lore, values, cultural activities, cultural behaviour and lifestyle

were seen as outdated and something which need not be preserved for future

51
generations. Moila (1987:117) writes that Christians were encouraged to opt

for different styles of building and dressing.

The Venḓa female African attire, salempore (ṅwenda) and anklets (vhukunda)

for example, were taken as belonging to a heathen culture and something

which Christians were not permitted to wear. The missionaries went to the

extent of changing African names and insisting that people be given Christian

names. After baptism a candidate was to be given either an English or

Afrikaans name, or any name from the Bible. Mathivha (1985:249) highlights

this when she indicates the year 1877 as a turning point in the history of the

Tshivhase mission station. In that year the widow of Mutshaeni, Mufanadzo,

was the first Venḓa to be baptised at Pentecost. After baptism, Mufanadzo

was given the new name Johanna.

This is also evident if we consider Madima’s novel, Mmanga Mawelewele. In

this novel, the character Alway states:

Riṋe ri tshi thoma tshikolo ro ḓi tou fara khakhathi ya u

ḓinangela madzina maswa a Tshikhuwa. Ho vha hu na
muṅwe mudededzi, muḓuhulu wa Vho-Mavusa, uyo a thi mu
hangwi. O vha a sa vhuyi a funa na u pfa dzina ḽa Luvenḓa,
a tshi ri ndi madzina a vhahedeni. We a vha a sa koni u
wana dzina nga eṱhe o vha a tshi sokou fhiwa ḽeneḽo-vho.
Khaladzi anga Mushaisano o vhingwa a tshi vho pfi Mariṱa.
Madzina aya o ri dina ngauri ri tshi vhidzwa ngao ngei
dzibuguni dza Muvhuso ri si ṱavhanye ro ḓivha uri hu
vhidzwa nnyi, vhunga ho vha hu na vhanzhi vha na dzina
ḽithihi.

Nga madekwana ri hayani ro vha ri tshi tamba ri tshi

vhidzana ngao. Vhathu vha wana zwi zwiṅwe zwithu. Fhedzi

52
 vho ṱavhanya vha zwi ḓowela ngauri na vhaḽa vhahulwane
vhe vha ḓilugisela ndovhedzo vho tendelwa vho no swa
ḽiṅwe ḽa anea madzina.

(When we began school we took the trouble of choosing

ourselves new English names. There was a certain teacher,
Mr Mavusa’s nephew, whom I won’t forget.

He did not want to hear a Venḓa name, saying that they

(Venḓa names) were heathen names. Whosoever could not
get a name by himself/herself was just given any old name.
My sister, Mushaisano, was called Martha when she got
married. These names worried us because we could not be
certain as to who was called when our names were read
from the official attendance register, as there were many (of
us) with similar names.

Early in the evening at home, we used to call ourselves by

these names while playing. People found this extraordinary.
However, they soon got used to it because even the elderly
who had prepared themselves to be baptised were allowed
to be called by one of these names.) (Madima, 1961:13).

In supporting this, Milubi (1988:112) notes that the immersion of a person in

water implied discarding his tribal name and adopting a new biblical one. He

further illustrates this in the example of a Muvenḓa woman convert who would

after baptism be distinguished by a new name, say, Maria, and a new style of

clothing.

As illustrated above, females were to wear dresses instead of their African

attire. Moila (1987:114) intimates that the Pedi Christians were discouraged

from doing anything which was traditional and the missionaries were hostile to

all Pedi customs. This is supported by the fact that most of the hymns

composed by these missionaries were revolutionary by definition. For

53
example, Schwellnus (1976) in hymn 140, verse 2, conveys the following

message,

Khosi na dzone ndi vhathu fhedzi/Ni vha fulufhelani?/ Muthu

ndi mavu ha nga ni tshidzi,/U ṱuwa o ri ṋeani?/Litshani
vhathu vha faho,/ U hone a ri tshidzaho/

(Chiefs are also mere people/why do you put your trust in

them? Man is soil he will not save you. / What does he give
us before he disappears? / Leave the mortal being / He is
there who saves us).

The motive of this verse is to call Christians to undermine allegiance to mortal

rulers. Moila (1987:113) takes this as an intentional flouting of the great

commandments of Pedi religion, which are taught at circumcision school,

namely: honour your elders; respect or trust your chief; and sacrifice to your

ancestral spirits. The fact that the missionaries conveyed the notion of

despising the chiefs has been supported by Mathivha (1985:114,115). She

believes that the German missionaries created a barrier between the so-

called converted Venḓa Christians and their counterparts – whom they

considered to be heathens. The converts went to the lengths of emigrating

from their place of abode and settling on mission stations or “zwiṱasi”.

Examples of such mission stations include Tshakhuma, Beuster,

Georgenholtz, Getrudsburg and Mandala. According to Mathivha, the

establishment of such “zwiṱasi” resulted in a clash with the chiefs because the

converts took these missionaries as their landlords and felt that they were

exempt from serving their chiefs as demanded by tradition. Mathivha regards

such a step as detrimental to Venḓa social organization, in which the unit of

society is the family, followed by the extended family, and thereafter the clans

54
which constitute the tribe headed by a chief. Therefore it goes without saying

that storytelling could not be practised in settings such as “zwiṱasi”.

The missionaries arrived with the main aim of teaching Africans about God.

As these Africans were illiterate, schools where they were taught to read and

write were established. Of course, as Joubert (2001:190) says, the

missionaries were the ones who opened new horizons of knowledge and

opportunity with the establishment of hospitals and schools. Consequently,

Milubi (1988:8) remarks that despite the missionaries’ shortcomings, their

educational endeavours in committing the Venḓa language to writing are

highly commendable. This was an attempt to free them (the Africans) from

darkness (Moila, 1987:116). Scholars such as Moila and Mathivha believe

that the missionaries saw the school as the most powerful missionising agent.

Mathivha (1972) records some of the roles of the missionaries in Venḓa as

follows:

Such was the state in which C.F. Beuster and Klatt found
themselves when they first arrived in Venḓaland in 1872.
They found a people speaking a language which had a store
of traditional lore which had not been submitted to writing.
Beuster immediately began to learn the language of the
people he had come to convert to Christianity. He started by
pointing at things and the people would give him the names
or concepts in Venḓa while he recorded that in his early
exercise books. (p.11)

From the above quotation it is evident that the viability of traditional Venḓa

lore depends on the capacity of people to remember it. The missionaries

become the pioneers in the recording of this lore. The new converts were

55
used to collect much-needed material. According to Makhura, as quoted in

Joubert (2001:190), the new elite (black pastors and teachers) were said to

have served their masters (missionaries) and the colonists better than the

society from which they came.

Almost all African traditional epics, such as folksongs, folktales, riddles and

traditional dances, were taken as belonging to heathens. This point is also

remarked on by Jordan (1973), who says:

The missionaries imported from Europe by the colonising

powers were a key element in the transformation of African
societies…. These missionaries brought with them the
values of the society from which they came – hard work
(indeed the very virtue of work), thrift, temperance, and
respect for authority. They pressed their converts to adopt
the standards of dress, agriculture, and living of their
societies, vilifying the local traditions as savage, pagan and
ungodly. Every convert to Christianity became also a convert
to the Christian way of life. In order to acquire the
paraphernalia for his new life, the convert had to sell his
cattle to get money or else enter into employment with a
white farmer, if he was not a man of means. (pp. xiii-xiv)

As storytelling among the Africans did not appear European or Christian, the

missionaries undermined it. Storytelling was regarded as an activity practised

by heathens. What Jordan says is reiterated by Mathivha (1972:11) who notes

that C.F. Beuster paid little attention to the lore of the Venḓa, but the

recording of the lore was left to the missionaries who followed him in the

writing of the Tshivenḓa language. The missionaries saw no reason for

respecting or inculcating storytelling. Although the missionaries took a giant

step by putting the traditional literature into print, they neglected the

56
fundamental part and the backbone of it: that of commercialising it. Lestrade

(1950:291) remarks:

The bulk of this traditional literature was in existence before

the advent of the European in South Africa, although as far
as is known none of it was recorded. Its written record is
largely the work of European missionaries and other
scholars, although the Bantu themselves have taken and are
taking an appreciable and increasing part in this work.

Mathivha (1972:11) puts it thus: they (the missionaries) came from a

civilization which had developed a system of writing with the result that they

liked certain things which existed amongst the Venḓas and disliked others.

Mathivha further supports A.R. Louch’s remarks that it is in the nature of man

to prize or oppose certain things.

When one sees the extent of the damage done by missionaries to most of

these African languages, one can fully comprehend why most of this oral

literature is still oral and amateur in nature today. If the missionaries had

prized African oral literature they would immediately, without any doubt, have

put everything into print. But instead, much of this African treasure

disappeared before being transposed into print.

Of course, what the missionaries did could not be condoned. Echoing what

appears in Matthew 5:17, Moila (1987:185) declares that the Pedi Christians

in general believe that Christ did not come to destroy people’s customs.

According to Moila, God does not reject the culture of any society as either

too evil or too imperfect to serve as the vehicle for his incarnation (Moila,

57
1987:173). He argues that since God knows that the converts cannot escape

their culture, he does not require that they abandon their own cultural systems

as concomitant to their conversion to Christianity. He believes that the

missionaries were wrong to think that Western culture was the only way

through which Christianity could be expressed. He believes that God uses any

given culture as the vehicle for interaction with human beings (ibid.,

1987:179,180). Such a view has been echoed by Ntsukunyane (1980:13) who

condemns the practice of assessing African literature by Western standards.

He argues that African work of art should be judged according to its own

merit. Mathivha believes that the missionaries committed a grave mistake by

destroying the organizations and customs of the black people without

discriminating between good and bad (1985:80). She further quotes Loram,

who holds the view that the missionaries destroyed what they were not able to

rebuild and left many black men in a worse state than they had been in before

(Mathivha, 1985:80). She notes that, had the missionaries studied the life of

these people, they would have found some good qualities which could have

served as a basis for the superstructure of Christianity and European

civilization.

Recent trends have led to an increase in interest in African oral literature

(Finnegan, 1970:28). The dawn of this new perception of African literature,

according to Finnegan, occurred in the second half of the nineteenth century.

Like many other disciplines, African literature has attracted many scholars as

a field of academic research (Milubi, 1988:9). Such a revival of interest in

African literature has been a real blessing for the entire African continent.

58
Scholars who had undermined the credibility of African oral traditions have

now come to realise that they were trampling on hidden treasure.

2.2.2. The role played by the Europeans and early African scholars

The main purpose of this section is to ascertain whether some European and

early South African scholars have dared to mention professionalisation of

storytelling as one of its functional values.

In general, oral literature in Africa suffered extensively at the hands of

European scholars. Okpewho (1992: 9) maintains that the peculiar nature of

African oral literature could not be fully recognised because the colonial

government felt it had a mission to civilise the African peoples away from their

crude, primitive habits of life and expression. The colonial scholars’ objectives

coincided with those of the Christian missionaries. Okpewho (1992: 9) posits

that many Europeans treated African culture and everything from it as

primitive or inferior to their own. This is supported by Moila (1987:156) who

regards one of the main aims of the missionaries as that of making the Pedi

feel that by virtue of their culture they were inferior to Whites. According to

Moila, in order for Pedi converts to develop and maintain holiness, they had to

withdraw, escape, isolate, and insulate themselves from the world of the Pedi.

Moila (1987:158-159) further points out that the Pedi culture was regarded as

either too evil or too imperfect to be built into a single harmonious system with

Christian culture. The main focus of the missionaries was to change Pedi

society from a lower to a higher type of race, modelled of course on a

Western race (ibid., 1987: 159).

59
Although European linguists played a major role by translating some texts of

Christian doctrine such as the Bible and the hymn books into indigenous

languages, the damage which they did is irreparable. According to Okpewho

(1992: 8), these scholars only gave credit to the oral literature which upheld

good conduct (such as morality tales). Such scholars did not encourage the

study of texts which showed any evidence of moral laxity. Okpewho (1992:9)

adds that these scholars also took the liberty of editing the texts to get rid of

any material they considered to be impure by European standards.

The first African scholars could have played a major role in illuminating the

notion of professionalising these stories. Fenwick (1990:2) puts it positively:

storytelling was much more than a pastime as for some it was a profession.

Instead, these scholars sailed in the same boat as the missionaries and

envisaged the primary function of storytelling as nothing more than

entertainment. Joubert (2001:190-191) puts it succinctly: the new elite (black

pastors and teachers) began to despise their traditional system of education

as well as other social institutions, regarding them as heathen, undermining

the psychological capacity of the Hananwa to defend their independence

against all odds.

Junod (1913:350) refers to storytelling as the most refined amusement of the

natives. He says that before the advent of radio, storytelling was the main

pastime of African people. Such a view has been echoed by Moephuli

(1972:4) in his pursuance of Bascom’s definition. He regards folktales as an

activity: they are not meant to be taken seriously, but to be told only for

60
amusement. Moephuli postulates that the very same functional value of

storytelling, that of amusement, was supported by Guma. Nkoki shares this

notion with the above scholars. He regards storytelling as something told for

the sake of telling a story. According to him, storytelling is popularly known for

its aesthetic value and for amusing the younger generation and serves to

educate them in the art of speaking (Nkoki, 1968:4). Marivate (1973:137)

considers the primary function of Tsonga folktales as entertainment. Like

Junod, Marivate (1973) believes that stories are told mainly to amuse.

Although Smith (1940:64-83) outlines several functions of the folktale, he

does not cite commercial use as one of them. He concurs with other scholars,

however, on the fact that the primary function of folktales is to entertain. The

same functions of comic entertainment and educational value are mentioned

by Canonici in his study Tricksters and trickery in Zulu folktales (1996:14).

Makgamatha (1987:15-19) regards the outstanding functions of folktales as

those of amusement, didactics, discipline of young children and maintaining

conformity. In discussing the functions of folktales, Vilakazi (1945:191)

mentions that they are primarily didactic and aim at building moral lore. Such

functions have also been acknowledged by Phophi (1992), the Venḓa

ethnologist and folklorist, in the introduction to his anthology of folklore. Fikry-

Atallah (1972:397) believes that the primary function of tales among the Wala

of Wa is entertainment. He believes they should not be taken seriously.

Maumela (1987), in the introduction to his anthology of folklore, supports such

views and posits that such folktales are primarily meant for entertaining

primary school children. Oosthuizen (1977:38) agrees with all these scholars

that these tales are told primarily for entertainment. She adds that they are

61
told mostly to children. This supports Msimang, who further articulates that a

folktale performer is both an entertainer and an educationist or moralist

(1986:22, 136). Singano and Roscoe (1974:viii) support this view in their

remark that students despise oral literature as they regard it as not grounded

in reality, something which is not true and which has no bearing on the

modern world. What the above scholars allude to is echoed by Phafoli

(2002:2) who states that African folklore has for some time been studied as

mere knowledge of the past, handed down from generation to generation,

without specific reference to its economic role in any given society. He further

points out that for a period, African folklore has been sidelined if not relegated

to the backyard by some scholars, and of course those artists making a living

out of it.

There are no distinctive differences between the Europeans and the first

African scholars in their perception of African oral literature. The first group of

African scholars took over from European scholars and the missionaries.

They more or less practised what their masters (European scholars and

missionaries) had taught them. According to them, storytelling was meant

primarily for whiling away time and teaching morals to younger generations.

Hence the telling of these tales was communally entrusted to the hands of

people in the society who were not economically active. No training for these

storytellers was ever envisaged.

The missionaries used folktales as short stories or novels. Then African

authors started to collect these folktales and to compile them into folklore

62
anthologies. These anthologies were later used in schools and tertiary

institutions. At colleges of education, prospective teachers were taught

different methods of teaching these stories to children. They focussed more

on the narration of these stories to children in the lower grades, whereas at

university level, students and scholars concentrated more on the structural

analysis and the theoretical functional value of these tales.

Some form of commercialisation is only felt when folklore anthologies are

prescribed in South African schools. The worst part of it is that the authentic

storytellers are exploited as they do not receive any of the royalties which

authors claim from publishers. This has inevitably discouraged these

storytellers from perpetuating the relics of storytelling.

Venḓa folklore anthologies include the following:

1. Lestrade, G.P. 1942. Some Venḓa folktales. The Lovedale Press.

2. Mabuya, L.T.L. & Khathi, N.P. 1986. Mahovhovhoho. Errol Marx
Publishers
3. Ṋenzhelele, P.H. 1990.Ngano. Educum Publishers
4. Maumela, T.N. 1987. Dzingano na dzithai dza Tshivenḓa. J. L. van
Schaik.
5. Gavhi, G.T. 1990. Ngano dza vha kale. Centaur Publications.
6. Mafela, M.J. & Raselekoane, N.R. 1990. Dza Makhulukuku. Nam
Publishers.
7. Maumela, B.H. 1990. Ngano dzashu na maambele a Tshivenḓa.
Centaur Publications.
8. Maumela, B.H. Kha ri pfe ngano, thai na zwidade. Fulani Press cc.
9. Phophi, W.M.R.D. 1990. Ngano dza vhana vha Vhumbedzi: Centaur
Publications.

63
 10. Phophi, W.M.R.D. 1990. Ngano dziṅwe dza Vhavenḓa. De Jager-
Haum Publishers.
11. Mafela, M.J. 1991. Marubini . CTP Printers
12. Mafela, M.J. & Raselekoane, N.R. 1991. Ri a dzedza. Nam
Publishers.
13. Khuba, A.E. 1994. Zwa ṅwaha wa mmbo na tsikidzi. Travis
Publishers.
14. Ṱhagwane, E.M. 1995. Muvenḓa na ngano dzawe. Vivilia Publishers.
15. Ramaliba T.Z., Maḓadzhe, R.N. & Rankhododo, T.K. 1995. Tshisima
tsha mvelele. Actua Press.
16. Raṅanga N.C. 2001. Zwiḽa kale. Lobelia Publishers.

2.2.3. The role played by South African educational institutions and

publishing companies.

As educational institutions are known for their pivotal role in training and

disseminating knowledge to younger generations, the main aim of this section

is to investigate whether South African institutions have ever taken folklore

and storytelling in particular as something valuable which should be

perpetuated and included in their curricula. This section further posits the

involvement of prospective South African storytellers in training in various

storytelling techniques.

In South African primary schools storytelling has long been introduced from
Grades 1 to 7. Phafoli (2002:4) recommends that African folklore be
implemented from pre-school up to tertiary level. For example, the syllabus for
Grade 1 (1999:11) notes:

64
 The telling and acting (dramatization) of stories and also of
songs may all form part of conversation lessons.

The Grade 3 syllabus (1997:13) states:

Telling, re-telling and dramatization of suitable short stories

and fables: answering of questions based on stories. Pupils
must be encouraged to relate their own stories.

The syllabus for the Higher Primary School Course (1975:11) contains the
following information for Grade 6 oral composition:

Telling and re-telling of stories, at this stage with more

attention paid to the form.

The Grade 5 syllabus (1975:9) prescribes:

Telling and re-telling of fables and stories told by the teacher
or of stories from class readers and other books.

It also states that:

In writing short stories, pupils should at first rewrite briefly
stories told or read, before attempting original stories.

The new system of education, Outcomes Based Education (OBE), is totally

different from the previous system. The old curriculum was too prescriptive,

whereas according to OBE the only prescriptions are the learning outcomes.

Initially, teachers played a major role in telling stories, but in this new system

of education learners are primarily encouraged to be the chief creators and

narrators of these stories. The policy documents of the current system of OBE

prescribe folklore, and storytelling in particular, as follows:

Foundation Phase (Grade R to 3) (1997), Intermediate Phase (Grade

4 to 6) (1997) and Senior Phase (Grade 7 to 9).

Key Terms: LLC = Language, Literacy and Communication.

65
 SO = Specific Outcomes

The Foundation Phase (Grade R to 3):

LLC SO3 – Learners respond to the aesthetic, affective, cultural and social

values in texts. The aim of this outcome is to develop a learner’s appreciation,

use and creation of text as an artistic expression of thoughts, feelings,

attitudes and values through exposure to a wide variety of genres. The

development of learners’ listening, reading and viewing skills to recognise and

use literary devices enriches the quality of their own language use and lives

(Policy Document, Foundation Phase, 1997:20).

Range Statement:

- At this level learners engage with a range of appropriate texts in different

contexts. The emphasis in terms of context is on:

• the expression of stylistic devices (e.g. rhyme, repetition, alliteration) in

all kinds of texts.

• responding to literary, visual, auditory and multi media texts (Policy

Document, Foundation Phase, 1997:20).

Performance Indicators:

- Learners can listen actively and attentively to a variety of texts.

- Learners can evaluate a range of appropriate texts according to suitability

of topic, aesthetic value and emotional impact etc. (ibid., 1997:21-22).

Assessment Criteria:

- Responses to the artistic effects of texts are demonstrated.

- Response to text is linked to personal life and the lives of others (ibid.,

1997:21-22).

66
Levels of Complexity:

- Listen to and understand stories, rhymes and songs.

- Learners are exposed to plays and stories with a greater degree of

complexity.

- Compare simple, well known stories, pictures.

- Evaluate stories, poems, plays (ibid., 1997:21-22).

The Intermediate Phase (Grade 4 to 6):

LLC SO3 – Learners respond to the aesthetic, affective, cultural and social

values in texts.

The aim of this outcome is to develop a learner’s appreciation, use and

creation of text as an artistic expression of thoughts, feelings, attitudes and

values through exposure to a wide variety of genres. The development of

learners’ listening, reading and viewing skills to recognise and use literary

devices enriches the quality of their own language use and lives (Policy

Document, Intermediate Phase, 1997:23).

Range Statement:

- At this level learners engage with a range of appropriate texts in different

contexts.

- The emphasis in terms of context is on the expression of stylistic devices

(e.g. personification, onomatopoeia) in all kinds of texts responding to

literary, visual, signed, auditory and multi media texts (ibid., 1997:23).

Performance Indicators:

- Learners express an initial response to texts.

- A wide variety of written, visual and auditory texts is explored and shared

(ibid., 1997:23-24).

67
Assessment Criteria:

- Responses to the artistic effects of texts are demonstrated.

- Literary effects of texts are recognised and described (ibid., 1997:23-24).

Levels of Complexity:

- Responding to stories, songs, poems and plays (1997:23-24).

The Senior Phase (Grade 7 to 9):

LLC SO3 – Learners respond to the aesthetic, affective, cultural and social

values in texts.

The aim of this outcome is to develop a learner’s appreciation, use and

creation of text as an artistic expression of thoughts, feelings, attitudes and

values through exposure to a wide variety of genres. The development of

learners’ listening, reading and viewing skills to recognise and use literary

devices enriches the quality of their own language use and lives (Policy

Document, Senior Phase, 1997:23).

Range Statement:

- At this level, learners engage with a wide range of texts in a variety of

contexts.

The emphasis in terms of content is on:

• the expression of stylistic devices (e.g. extended metaphor) in all kinds

of texts).

• the study of literary, visual, signed, auditory and multi media texts

(Policy Document, Senior Phase, 1997:23).

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Performance Indicators:

- Learners are able to discover and describe the characteristics of

certain genres.

- Learners are able to compare examples to discover varieties within a

genre (ibid., 1997:24).

Assessment Criteria:

- Responses to the artistic effects of texts are demonstrated.

- Literary effects of texts are identified, analysed and described (ibid.,

1997:24).

Level of Complexity:

- Strong focus on a few genres.

- Learners develop vocabulary to support impressions: setting, contrast,

ethos, metaphor, mood, milieu, ellipses, tone etc. (ibid., 1997:24).

After examining the syllabi and the policy documents on storytelling, one can

infer that:

- Folklore, and storytelling in particular, was introduced at primary school

level many years ago.

- In the previous education system:

• Emphasis was on knowledge of content, telling or acting narrated or

read stories.

• Stories came mostly from teachers, class readers and other books.

- Whereas, the present education system (OBE) emphasises

• Expression of stylistic devices in all kinds of texts by learners.
• Creation of stories by learners.
• Learners reading, listening or narrating the story with the aim of
analyzing it thereafter.

69
 • Development of learners’ listening, reading and viewing skills in the
recognition and use of literary devices which ultimately enriches the
quality of their language use and lines.
• The need for Grade 8 and 9 learners to learn about folklore.

It is obvious that the system of education that is most advanced as far as

storytelling is concerned is OBE. This type of education system enables

learners to be independent, creative and more original in their studies and

eventually in life. The previous education system was mostly restricted to

telling and acting (dramatization) of stories.

Folklore has recently been introduced in South African secondary schools.

The first prescription was made in 1987 in Grade 10 with the folklore

anthology in Tshivenḓa entitled Dzingano na dzithai dza Tshivenḓa by T.N.

Maumela. This was followed by the prescription of folklore for Grades 11 and

12 in 1991. The only unfortunate aspect is that folklore has been prescribed

only in Grades 10 to 12. There was no valid reason for the exclusion of

folklore from Grades 8 and 9 or other grades as most scholars aver that

folklore, and storytelling in particular, such as Izinganekwane and

Izinsumansumane (children’s tales) is meant for children. There is the threat
that folklore could be phased out of the South African secondary school

curriculum. In the Limpopo Province, for example, the Department of

Education phased out traditional literature in all secondary grades except in

Grade 12 for a period of five years, i.e. from 1997 to the year 2001. From

2002 it was reintroduced in Grade 12 only, not as literature for which learners

prepare for their final examination, but as a component of continuous

assessment portfolios.

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Although some people are natural storytellers, most need practice (Fenwick,

1990:6). Fenwick claims that teachers in training often make the mistake of

assuming that because these activities are extremely popular with children

and are unlike other lessons, careful planning is not really necessary.

However, Greene (1966:67) considers storytelling to be an art and, like all

arts, to require training and experience. The absence of a prescribed pattern

and training for novice storytellers has left the activity in the hands of those

few who are endowed with such skills, talents and abilities. There are only a

few educational institutions in South Africa which offer training on storytelling

techniques. Although Hill (1940:288) agrees with most scholars on the fact

that skillful storytellers are born not made, she emphasises, nonetheless, that

storytellers need formal training. This is echoed by Lickteig (1975:169) who

says that certain people are so competent at storytelling that they are apt to

be called born storytellers. But she conversely points out that a person does

not have to be a born storyteller. She maintains that there are some

techniques to storytelling that can be learned and every parent, teacher, and

librarian should try to cultivate those skills. Agalic (1978:264) takes the Bulsa

storytellers in Northern Ghana as an example of people who literally live from

hand to mouth and who are considered idlers by the people. He says there

are no professional storytellers among this nation in the sense of making a

living from their art. According to him, storytelling is not a profession which is

handed down from father to son or taught in any formal manner. Among the

Bulsa people, anyone who is gifted may act as a storyteller. Referring to the

enactment of folktales, Vilakazi (1945:191) says:

This branch of prose was developed by the aged men and

women, no longer fit for heavy occupations such as field
work, grinding and providing food, and military service.

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Most South African universities do not have storytelling programmes. If

storytelling is studied, it is under the aegis of other subjects or disciplines.

When referring to folklore in this regard, Thosago (1999:1) remarks:

Notwithstanding the elitism of this subject as specialised and

therefore in demand of academic expertise, folklore has a
dubious standing in South African tertiary institutions for
nowhere in the country has it been accorded an autonomous
status as an academic discipline. Whenever it happens to
appear incidentally in university curricula and syllabi, it is
always studied under the aegis of other departments, mainly
sociology, anthropology and the literatures of the various
language departments.

Zipes (1997:11) holds the view that most university courses and studies of

literature seem to imply that oral storytelling ended with the rise of the printing

press, or if not, has become insignificant in people’s lives. He contends that

such a notion is not true as most literature courses, except for courses on

folklore, rarely take the connections between oral storytelling and literature

into consideration. Zipes argues further that such connections are difficult to

trace and subsequently further investigation requires some training in

anthropology, ethnology and communication. Thosago (1999:2) laments that

folklore studies finds itself mired in difficulties from which it has to find

practical means of extricating itself or else learn to deal with the bitter

prospect of facing an inevitable death. Unlike South African institutions, in the

USA regular instruction in storytelling is provided by many of the institutions

where nurses are trained (Shedlock, 1951:102). The demand for training in

storytelling, as Hill (1940:289) points out, is emerging in the public libraries of

72
America; and he is optimistic that slowly but surely, the universities and

training schools that do not include storytelling will recognise its place later.

Phafoli (2002:4) recommends the staging of music competitions, and the

same could be done for storytelling. He points that the school could, for

instance, solicit funds from companies with the intention of holding

competitions for students from various schools to compete among

themselves. Phafoli further recommends that the government should assist by

embarking on regional or national competitions annually or biennially. He is of

the opinion that at national level winners from different regions should be

brought together to select the best (ibid., 2002:5). The winners could be given

rewards in the form of prizes and money in order to boost their morale. Phafoli

avers that it is through such rewards that they would be in a better position to

understand the importance of such activities in their lives.

On the recommendations of African cultural activities, Phafoli (2002:6) states

that through the livelihood they earn, the performers could establish more

training centres throughout the country. He believes that training personnel

could even erect their own training buildings with the necessary facilities to

make their job easier. He believes that the expansion of such centres could

mean a reduction in unemployment and in the number of street children and

ultimately in criminal offences.

Many missionary organisations had publishing companies, but these were

used solely for the purpose of recording and not for empowering or

developing new authors.

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Today, the myriad writings on folklore published focus on earning money or

on the prescription of such anthologies for a certain grade. Today, if a

publishing company reviews a folklore manuscript and finds that it does not

meet the prescription standard in one way or another, it is unlikely that it will

be published.

2.2.4. The Mass Media

The purpose of this section is to check the efficacy of the mass media in both

the marketing and the publicising of storytelling and to verify whether

storytelling has a regular slot in programmes which could assist storytellers in

earning their living.

Stories were not published in the defunct Mvelaphanḓa government magazine

or the Ṱhohoyanḓou government newspaper. This magazines proves the

point that the intelligentsia in Venḓa did not consider storytelling as something

valuable. Right now current and newspapers around South Africa do not

promote storytelling in any way. As is evident today, if the media which is the

sole mechanism of transmitting information does not promote storytelling, the

future of this art form looks bleak.

At present storytelling has no permanent slot on SABC-TV. This is really

discouraging as storytellers are unable to promote, market or publicise

themselves. Storytelling has no permanent slot on Phalaphala FM, Munghana

lonene or Thobela FM radio stations. Amateur storytellers rarely perform on

these radio stations. This inevitably jeopardises the chances of amateur

storytellers to develop, market or publicise themselves.

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Phafoli (2002:9) notes that the use of the internet in the promotion of African

folklore could boost tourism in various countries and likewise their economy.

Makgamatha (1987:14) differs from Phafoli in that to him the importance of

folklore in general, and “dinonwane” in particular, has diminished with the

spread of modern devices such as radios, motion pictures and television.

Canonici (1993:266) believes that the mass media often produce programmes

based on traditional folktales. The tale may be completely acted out by

puppets dressed as folktale characters, or a narrator will tell the story in the

background, while puppets perform it.

Phafoli (2002:6) states that the media is one important channel through which

African folklore could be marketed by advertisement and promotion. He adds

that we are living in a modern world of technology and this affects our lives,

directly or indirectly. He therefore claims that African folklore is not static in

nature, but remains ever changing and dynamic. Consequently, he

recommends that people, especially the media, should harness this

technology, promoting it in order to fulfill their goals.

Nevertheless, electronic storytellers can never be equated with live

storytellers. Chambers (1979:10) remarks that once storytelling is mass-

produced it no longer retains its original flavour and magic. According to him,

professional storytellers need not fear the competition of electronic

storytellers, as these are a poor substitute for a personal experience that even

a novice storyteller can provide. This has been echoed by Sanborn

75
(1949:274) who stresses that mass media such as radios, records, moving

pictures and television can never surpass the expert teller of tales.

2.2.5. Urbanisation and industrialisation.

The main focus under this sub-heading is that of assessing the impact of

urbanisation and industrialisation on storytelling today.

Urbanisation can best be defined as the movement of people from rural to

urban areas, whereas industrialisation refers to the growth in the development

of industries. Canonici (1993:265) mentions that urbanisation has resulted in a

gradual uprooting of Africans from the cradle of their prevalently rural culture.

Such a view has been clearly illustrated by both Raṅanga (1997:5) and

Canonici (1993:265) who agree that at present most people live in towns or

townships, in small-sized nuclear families with no live-in grandmothers to tell

them stories. Raṅanga (1997:5) claims that nowadays children do not receive

much exposure to storytelling as they spend most of the early evening

studying, listening to programmes on the radio or watching television. This

point is supported by Livo (1994:xviii) who remarks that people no longer

spend the long, dark winter nights telling one another stories. According to

Livo, one opponent of too much television in peoples’ lives said that the light

bulb – not television – destroyed storytelling. Raṅanga concludes that the real

nature of the enactment of storytelling is fading away. Livo (1994: xviii) puts it

vividly: with the advent of print, stories have now been frozen in books. He

further points out that people now learn most of their stories from books.

76
Phafoli (2002:7) prefers this channel as he intimates that it lasts for a long

period and that information can be passed from one generation to another

without changes. Although Raṅanga (1997:14) is of the opinion that these

stories exist in written form for reasons of preservation, he contends that they

only attain their true fulfilment when performed.

Although the school is a very important institution today in the upbringing of

children, Canonici (1993:265) claims that it has cut deeply into the children’s

free time, traditionally devoted to relaxing activities. He continues that the

technical and scientific bias of our educational system leaves no room for the

faculty of the imagination, so essential in helping children develop a sense of

adventure and of personal discovery.

Canonici (1993:265) considers the fragmentation of community life, from

patriarchal clan to cosmopolitan township, as one of the contributory factors

which causes people to lose their cultural ties and identity. The individual’s

function is seen within the nuclear family, to the exclusion of even the closest

neighbours who may be regarded with suspicion as strangers or possible

enemies. Unlike the days of community villages where children used to play

outside in the moonlight, Canonici (1993:266) points out that in the township

mothers are scared to allow their children to play in the street and to meet

their peers. He believes that this has brought an end to the kind of community

life which is essential for the creation and performance of stories.

77
One of the means of communication brought by industrialisation is the mass

media. According to Canonici (1993:266), this has invaded every home. He

goes on to say that the mass culture is superficial and fragmentary and

cannot replace the holistic traditional culture which was known and sanctioned

by the whole society. Quoting Stewart, de Vos (1991:5) perceives the aim of

storytellers today as that of restoring what television is destroying: the ability

to visualise and to use one’s imagination.

On the aspect of setting, Canonici (1993:266) mentions that electricity has

destroyed the atmosphere of mystery necessary for a folktale performance,

where fantasy and reality merged. Contrasting the traditional and the modern

setting, Canonici concludes that in the modern home a cold and motionless

electric light penetrates every corner, leaving nothing to the vivid imagination

of the child. Even when the grandmother is present and would like to tell a

story, her movements have no magnified effects (in contrast to the traditional

setting where there is a fire in the centre of the hut and where the movement

of the artist is magnified by the shadows on the wall), they convey no mystery,

her voice no longer sounds as if it comes from the past.

Urbanisation and industrialisation have inevitably had a negative impact on

the renaissance of African culture and hence the professionalisation of

storytelling. Junod (1938:58) elucidates: these days there are so many

elements of interest for the family, so many people coming back from journeys

with fresh news, that tale telling is fast disappearing. He complains that when

he attempted to re-introduce this literary amusement, the people at his

78
mission station were at first rather reticent, not thinking that there was any

great value in it. Leshoai (1998:1) states that the advancement of science and

industry has caused storytelling to slowly disappear. Such views have been

echoed by Junod who articulates that owing to the rapid industrialisation of

the Tonga tribe, and to the conditions under which Africans in general live,

there is no doubt that, unless many students collect tales in African

languages, they will soon disappear for good (1938:58). Canonici (1993:267)

remarks that there has been a tendency in the past to overlook what is

typically African or to consider it of little value. Credit should be given to the

African elites who have done their best to rescue and redress the situation.

The African elite, according to Canonici (1993:267), has for a long time

advocated a return to the sources and the roots of African culture. Canonici

intimates that there has been a renaissance of a feeling that African culture,

as enshrined in the oral tradition, has a great deal to contribute to the proper

development of a national culture.

2.2.6. Economic status of African storytellers

The objective of this section is to highlight the setbacks suffered by African

amateur storytellers in their self-development as a result of their economic

status, and thence to propose intervention by various organisations such as

the government and non-governmental organizations (NGOs).

Historically, Africans have been economically disadvantaged in South Africa.

Because of poverty, low wages, illiteracy and unemployment they were

frequently not economically viable. Even after the dawn of Western civilization

79
most African storytellers were unable to earn their living through storytelling

because of their illiteracy and low economic status.

Most of the laws imposed by the government of the day were very restrictive

in nature with the result that African people did not dare to initiate any

entrepreneurship. Sceales and Edom (1991:21) are of the opinion that

apartheid destroyed the entrepreneurship, creativity and independence of the

indigenous African people through the imposition of restrictive laws and the

denial of essential social services and infrastructure. They further remark that

as a result, the African people became economically dependent on the

government for their well-being. As there is no black economic empowerment

in the field of storytelling, its commercialisation is unlikely.

Masango (1994:12) defines black empowerment as a process designed to

afford disadvantaged groups access to resources corresponding to their

percentage of the total population. He further claims that in all cases, black

empowerment policies are intended to assist those who, in the past, have

been systematically oppressed, denied equal access to resources, skills and

opportunities and branded as socially or racially inferior. The

professionalisation of black storytellers could be relevant in this process, but

unfortunately nothing is being done to redress the past. In terms of black

empowerment, the disadvantaged groups shall enjoy special compensatory

education and training to enable them to compete more effectively for

employment opportunities (Masango 1994:112). Retrenchment and

unemployment is rife in South Africa. This will remain unsolved for years to

80
come if South Africans (particularly Africans) do not learn to be creative and

entrepreneurial. On the other hand, Sceales and Edom (1991:21) make it

clear that to correct this disastrous situation, the government must intervene

by restoring economic freedom to the people, facilitating access to resources

and providing essential social services and infrastructure. This could be

possible if people are discouraged from believing that the government will

provide them with jobs and higher incomes. According to Sceales and Edom,

the creation of such an expectation eventually becomes dangerous and

counter-productive.

There are some developing and naturally talented storytellers around South

Africa who are trying to capacitate themselves. Storytellers such as Gcina

Mhlophe, Nana Mthimkhulu, Andrea Dondolo, Peter Christie, Bhekhi

Mkhwane, Nandi Nyembe, Nomsa Mdlalose and Khosi Mazibuko are some of

these. Although all these storytellers are professionals, owing to a lack of

economic empowerment from the government and other non-governmental

organisations, life is sometimes very hard for them. They sometimes spend

months without any income.

One of these storytellers, Gcina Mhlophe, has come up with a brilliant idea

and has established a storytelling organisation, the “Zanendaba Storytellers”

(loosely translated “Come with a story”). The “Zanendaba Storytellers” is a

fully-fledged organization with a number of storytellers, an office in

Braamfontein, Johannesburg and an office-based secretary. Despite this, the

problem remains the same: members sometimes go without their monthly

81
salaries. Although most storytellers vow not to forsake storytelling for any

reason, it becomes extremely hard for them to cope without money. Some

resort to taking up storytelling as a part-time job, while others eventually

forsake the storytelling profession altogether.

Although Sceales and Edom (1991:21) argue that black economic

involvement must not be limited to informal and small business, its

involvement in storytelling has not been felt as yet.

2.3. CONCLUSION

Various literature on storytelling has been reviewed in this chapter.

Storytelling has been professionalised in most First World countries. The

failure to commercialise storytelling in South Africa is killing its spirit.

Storytelling is left in the hands of a few economically inactive people: the

economically active are vying instead for those activities which bring financial

rewards. South Africa has a high unemployment rate, and the failure to foster

storytelling through economic empowerment compounds this problem.

The absence of formal training for storytellers is a factor which perpetuates

the non-professionalisation of storytelling. In order to be a professional

worker, one must undergo specific training.

The missionaries did not attach any economic significance to storytelling

activities. They condemned African culture as heathen and their intention was

to replace it with Christianity. The first scholars in South Africa regarded

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storytelling as a pastime for entertaining people, both young and old. The

economic significance of storytelling was not taken seriously by South African

institutions. However, in recent times they have introduced folklore in general,

and storytelling in particular, into their curricula with the aim of preserving

these art forms.

The non-commercialisation of storytelling in South Africa in general and in

Venḓa in particular, has led many people to undermine this relic. Storytelling

is taken as an art practised by people who are not economically active.

The absence of permanent slot for storytelling programmes in South African

television broadcasts or on radio stations adds to storytelling’s insignificance.

As expert storytellers are not called on to perform on television or radio or

allowed to earn a living this way, many of them are forsaking the art.

As people cannot earn their living by storytelling, the Venḓa people are not

serious about their documentation. They document stories with the sole aim

of prescribing their anthologies for schools. If these collections are not

prescribed, it is the end of it all as people rarely buy them to read for pleasure.

Although urbanisation and industrialisation play a significant role in the

transmission of storytelling, their negative impact on this relic cannot be

ignored.

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African storytellers in general are economically disadvantaged and have

difficulties in initiating storytelling centres and marketing themselves locally

and abroad.

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 CHAPTER 3

3. METHODOLOGY AND DATA GATHERING PROCEDURES

3.1. INTRODUCTION

In the preceding chapter various schools of thought on professionalising

storytelling in African languages were reviewed in order to find a possible

panacea for the problem of the continued amateur status of storytelling in

South Africa. The information gleaned from various scholars formed the basis

of the investigation of this study and created a link to a developing body of

knowledge. The previous chapter helped to reveal some gaps in the study

which will be bridged by the present chapter which will further prepare the way

for a logical hypothesis construction.

This chapter presents the methodology used in the gathering of research

data. The ideal data collected will be used as the raw material which will be

processed into a final product. This means that the research problem of non-

professionalisation of storytelling in African languages which is leading to the

inevitable extinction of this relic will be investigated through the use of

relevant methodology in collecting data.

From the beginning of time, mankind has always faced complexities and

uncertainties in life. For our world to be inhabited amicably and responsibly,

humankind must be able to access and discover answers and solutions to a

85
variety of complex problems. In the process, man becomes inquisitive and

inevitably engages in research.

In their endeavour to elaborate, De Vos et al. (1998:38) state succinctly that

the research process is largely circular in configuration as it begins with a

problem and ultimately ends with that problem solved. Drew, in Bell (1993:2),

like De Vos et al. (1998), argues that research is conducted to solve problems

and to expand knowledge. He further stresses that research should be

perceived as a systematic way of asking questions, i.e. a systematic method

of inquiry. This is in line with Pelegrino’s (1979) perception of the purpose of

research. Pelegrino considers it the way of discovering answers to questions

through the application of scientific procedures (1979:10). Krenz and Sax

(1986:67) perceive the purpose of research as that of obtaining reliable

knowledge: with such information people will either choose to do nothing or to

act on it. Pelegrino argues further that the reasons for asking research

questions are of two general kinds, namely;

(a) Intellectual – based on the desire to know or understand. Despite

the fact that most interviewees were of the opinion that storytelling

is progressing, they did concede that there was a great deal to be

done in order to professionalise it. Government intervention,

frequent promotion of storytelling by the mass media and the

introduction of storytelling lessons and programmes at various

institutions were among the suggestions made which the

interviewees believed could make storytelling viable and

marketable, and

86
 (b) Practical – based on the desire to know for the sake of being able to

do something better or more efficiently (ibid., 1979:10).

The reason for asking questions in the present study is practical in nature.

That is, if after thorough inquiry into professional storytelling in South Africa, a

gap which needs immediate attention is identified, this research project could

play a significant role in bridging it.

3.2. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

There are various approaches that may serve as guiding principles and

conceptual frameworks in carrying out desired research. These approaches

cannot all be used at one time. Each work will require some particular, limited

approach, depending on what the researcher wants to explore and achieve.

However, there are primarily two methods for collecting data: quantitative and

qualitative. Both research methodologies will be used in this study. Since the

aim of this study is to investigate the professionalisation of storytelling in

African languages and not the degree or intensity of professionalisation of

storytelling, the qualitative approach is the chief approach used to elicit data.

A quantitative methodology will be followed in limited scope: the researcher

will provide the number of libraries and storytellers furnished with

questionnaires. The number of libraries and storytellers which completed and

returned the questionnaires, the number of libraries with storytelling

87
programmes and also the number of informants interviewed will be critically

analysed.

The use of one research methodology at the expense of another depends

largely on the nature of data collected and the competence of the researcher.

Leedy (1993:139) postulates that all research methodology rests upon a

bedrock axiom: The nature of the data and the problem for research dictate
the research methodology. This axiom has been echoed by Neuman
(1997:30) who notes that it takes skill, practice and creativity to match a
research question to an appropriate data collection technique. Maurice and
Maurice (1987:24) suggest that there is no one best method for research. This
ideology is complemented by Bell (1993:1) who puts it thus:

Different styles, traditions or approaches use different

methods of collecting data, but no approach prescribes
nor automatically rejects any particular method.

Quantitative research methodologies emphasise the collection of data in the

form of numbers with the goal of providing statistical descriptions,

relationships and explanations (Denzin and Lincoln, 1994:6; Holliday, 2002:2;

Leedy, 1993:243; McMillan and Schumacher, 2001:40; and Nieswiadomy,

1993:150).

Bogdan and Taylor (1975:4) maintain that qualitative methodology refers to

research procedures which produce descriptive data: people’s own written or

spoken words and observable behaviour.

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Clarke (1999:531) considers qualitative research a lengthy procedure which

requires creativity, imagination and insight on the part of the researcher to

produce a trustworthy, reliable and coherent account. On the presentation of

qualitative results, Clarke (1999:531) quotes Parahoo who asserts that

qualitative findings are reported textually, and are supported by relevant

quotes from respondents. Such ideology is echoed by Neuman (1997:418)

who avers that qualitative data is in the form of text, written words, phrases, or

symbols describing or representing people, actions and events in social life.

Orpen (1987:250) also shares the idea advanced by the above scholars when

he argues that the qualitative researcher is permanently concerned with the

significance of events, situations, and objects to people, in the belief that only

if we know what things mean to particular people will we be able to make

sense of their behaviours. Orpen (1987:250) further quotes Van Maanen who

makes it clear that the objective of the qualitative researcher is to uncover the

meaning, not just the frequency, of human events in organisations. Sayre

(2001:4) chooses the qualitative method because of its emphasis on

processes and meanings. Neuman (1997:418) states that except for the

occasional content analysis study, qualitative researchers rarely use statistical

analysis. The same opinion is held by Tesch (1990) who states that

information gathered by research which is not expressed in numbers is known

as qualitative, or ”soft”, data. This data, according to Clarke (1999:531),

usually consists of the words or actions of research participants, gained

through interviews, observation, documents or diaries.

89
Researchers such as Britan (1978), Campbell (1974) Cook and Cook (1997),

Stake (1978), Denzin (1970), Eisner (1977), Erickson (1977), Rist (1977) and

Sieber (1973), as cited by Reichardt and Cook (1979:20), recommend that

qualitative and quantitative methods be used together profitably in the context

of evaluation research. The use of both methods (qualitative and quantitative)

in the collection of data has been viewed as complementary rather than as

opposing by Campbell and Fiske (1959) and Webb et al. (1966) as cited by

Jick (1979:602). Such a combination of qualitative and quantitative styles of

research and data is called triangulation. Fielding and Schreier (2001:199)

argue that triangulation is not the only way in which qualitative and

quantitative methods can be combined. They distinguish sequencing and

“hybrids” as two other complementary approaches to method combination.

According to them, sequencing refers to a case where qualitative and

quantitative methods are used within the same study, although in different

phases of the research process. “Hybrids” are approaches which constitute a

combination of qualitative and quantitative elements which are so closely

packed that they become practically indistinguishable (ibid, 2001:199).

The combination of qualitative and quantitative methodologies has both

advantages and disadvantages in the evaluation of one’s study. Reichardt

and Cook (1979:21) identify the following potential advantages in the

combined use of qualitative and quantitative methodologies:

• Since evaluation research usually has multiple purposes, so this

variety of needs often requires a variety of methods.

90
 • The combination of two methodologies for the same purpose will
complement each and offer insights that neither one alone could
provide.

• Since all methods have biases, so the use of qualitative and

quantitative methods together enables the researcher to triangulate on
the underlying truth.

Subsequently, Reichardt and Cook (1979:25) outline the following

obstacles in the use of qualitative and quantitative methodologies:
• Their ultimate combination is too costly.

• The use of qualitative and quantitative methods requires a lot of time.

• It may happen that researchers do not have adequate training in both

method types to use both methodologies.

• Faddism and the adherence to dialectical forms of debate can serve as

negative factors.

Qualitative research has various strategies of enquiry. De Vos et al.

(2002:272) maintain that those undertaking qualitative studies face a baffling

choice of strategies. As a result, qualitative researchers use different types of

research strategies depending on the purpose of the study, the nature of the

research question, and the skills and resources available to the researcher.

The present study uses two types of qualitative research strategies, that is

applied and action research (Denzin and Lincoln, 1994), as well as historical

studies (Burns and Grove, 1987; Denzin and Lincoln, 1994; and

Nieswiadomy, 1993).

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(a) Applied and action research

Work done from this perspective aims to make qualitative research more

humanistic and relevant to the lives of people. Some sort of social change is

usually intended. Human beings are seen as capable of creating their own

reality and data are thus collected in cooperation with research participants or

subjects who are empowered by the researcher to undertake their own

research (De Vos et al., 1998:80-81). This type of qualitative research is

relevant to this research study since through the art form of storytelling,

people will be able to address social and economic issues including the

alleviation of poverty.

(b) Historical Studies

Historical studies focus on people and events in the past. This strategy

is significant since we study the past in order to predict the future.

Nieswiadomy (1993:155) maintains that historical studies centre on the

identification, location, evaluation and synthesis of data from the past.

The main aim of this approach is to learn more about past events with

the aim of relating these events to the present in order to predict the

future. Leininger (1985:109), as cited by Nieswiadomy (1993:155),

points out that there is no meaning to the present without the past, and

people cannot develop a sense of identity either as individuals or as

members of groups without retrospection. In order for a historical study

to be considered as qualitative research, Burns and Grove (1987), as

cited by Nieswiadomy (1993:15), identify the hard and fast rule that the

study:

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 must identify concepts, examine relationships, draw
inferences and emerge with an increased understanding
of the impact of the studied event on the meanings we
place on events of the present and our strivings toward
the future.

The main focus of historical studies research is to examine the roots of

storytelling from a historical perspective. The game of storytelling, which was

historically, originally and primarily known as a pastime to while away the time

and for amusement, could be harnessed to making a living.

3.3. DESIGN OF THE PRESENT STUDY

The present research has been designed in such a way that the strategic

investigation of the research problem is feasible. Different strategies for

grappling with the identified problem have been laid down. In supporting this

notion, Pelegrino (1979:56) maintains that before any study can be

undertaken, a definite plan or course of action must be in evidence. Without

such a plan, the study will have no rhyme or reason. In trying to define

”design”, De Vos et al. (2002: 392) quote Thomas (1981:590), who makes it

clear that design is a planned and systematic application of relevant scientific,

technical and practical information to the creation and assembly of

innovations.

The design of this study entails the following: sampling, population, sampling

techniques, sample size, data collection, data collection techniques. research

setting, procedure, interviewees, reliability and validity in qualitative research,

ethical issues and problems encountered in the field

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 3.3.1. Sampling

It is practically impossible for the researcher to collect the data from the entire

population. For the researcher to get information on a large group, a small

sample should be taken and tested in order to obtain information about the

whole group. De Vaus (1991:60) regards it as prohibitively expensive and

impractical to collect data from large groups of people. He suggests that a

cheaper, faster and easier procedure is to collect data from a few people in a

group in such a way that their responses and characteristics reflect those of

the entire group. Such a principle is called sampling. In confirming this view,

Bogue (1981:78) states that sampling is when some instances are used to

represent the whole.

3.3.1.1. Population

The population of the present research comprises the storytellers in African

languages. Although the generic focus of this study is on storytellers in African

languages, it will be further pared down to Venḓa storytellers in particular.

Population has been defined as all or a larger pool of cases or elements that

conform to some designated set of specifications (De Vaus, 1991:60;

Nachmias and Nachmias, 1987:180; Neuman, 1997:202; and Riley,

1963:148).

Rossi et al. (1983:24) and Neuman (1997:203) express the term population in

more specific terms: target population and survey population. They define

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target population as the collection of elements that the researcher would like

to study, while survey population is the population that is sampled and from

which data may be obtained.

Nachmias and Nachmias (1987:181) argue that the specific nature of

population depends on the research problem. A population may be a group of

people, doctors, wild animals, and so on. However, Nachmias and Nachmias

(1987:181) emphasise that the population must be defined in three terms,

namely content, extent and time.

In terms of extent, the survey will be conducted in South Africa although the

researcher could cite some examples from countries abroad where

storytelling has long been professionalised.

The survey of the present research will focus on the period stretching from the

20th century to the early 21st century.

3.3.1.2. Sampling techniques

In the above section it was indicated that the population of this study

comprises storytellers in African languages at large. The purpose of sampling,

then, is to find a way of selecting a few representatives from the pool of

African language storytellers. Sampling is distinguished into two types:

probability sampling and non-probability sampling.

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The present study opted to use non-probability sampling. This is due to the

fact that professional storytellers in South Africa are relatively scarce and

probability sampling would not be applicable in this case.

In non-probability sampling, some people have a greater, but unknown,

chance (probability) than others of being selected (De Vaus, 1991:60;

Nachmias and Nachmias, 1987:184-185). Leedy (1997:204) postulates that in

non-probability sampling, there is no guarantee that each element in the

population will be represented in the sample. Only those respondents who are

willing and available to complete the survey will be considered (Fink and

Kosecoff, 1998:39). Neuman (1997:204) regards non-probability sampling as

a type of theory which is limited. Non-probability theory can be distinguished

into four types, namely; haphazard, accidental or convenience sampling,

quota sampling, purposive or judgemental sampling and snowball sampling.

The idea of qualitative research, according to Cresswell as cited in De

Vos et al. (1998:46), is purposefully to select informants (or documents

or visual material) that will best answer the research question. De Vos

et al. (2002: 379) assert that key informants are usually selected

because of their expertise in the relevant area of service, or because

they wield power in the environment where the decisions have to be

made. The same view is held by Sayre (2001:105) who believes that

the success of an interview depends entirely on the quality of an

interviewee. In supporting this view, Denzin and Lincoln (1994:228)

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quote Morse, defining a good informant as one who has the knowledge

and experience that the researcher requires; one who has the ability to

reflect, one who is articulate, has the time to be interviewed, and is

willing to participate in the study. The goal here is to select cases that

are likely to be “information rich” with respect to the purpose of the

study (Gall et al., 1996:218). Patton (1990:169), like Gall et al. (1996),

stresses that the logic and power behind purposeful selection of

informants is that the sample should be information rich.

One non-probable sampling method that is used in this study is the snowball

method as recommended by Neuman (1997), Kumar (1996), Strydom and

Delport (in De Vos et al., 2002), and Strydom and De Vos (in De Vos et al.,

1998). According to these scholars, the snowball method is to be used in

situations where very little knowledge and/or few respondents are available.

Snowball sampling (also called network, chain referral, or reputational

sampling) is a process of selecting a sample using networks. According to this

method, each person or unit is connected with another through a direct or

indirect linkage. The snowball sampling method commences with one or a few

respondents. In turn this/these person/s is/are requested to recommend

further respondents who may make up the sample. Information is collected

from them, and again these people are further requested to identify other

people whom they recommend for further sampling. This process is continued

until a sufficient number of cases has been reached or the point when no new

names are given; which ultimately indicates a closed network, or a network

97
that is so large that it is the limit of what the researcher can study (Neuman,

1997:207).

As far as this research project is concerned, the snowball method applies in

that the researcher learnt about a storytelling festival which was to be staged

in the Sibikwa Community Theatre in Benoni from an advertisement in the

Sowetan. At this festival, he met several storytellers, three of whom belonged

to the Zanendaba Storytellers group.

The Zanendaba Storytellers requested the researcher to organise workshops

on their behalf with the Department of Education in Limpopo Province in

Vhembe District. These took place in April 2003 in four different areas, namely

Mutale, Soutpansberg, Malamulele and Ṱhohoyanḓou. Participants were

accommodated at Bougainvilla Lodge in Ṱhohoyanḓou. Three Zanendaba

storytellers were interviewed there.

These Zanendaba storytellers suggested some other storytellers who could

be interviewed. A professional storyteller from Pretoria was then interviewed.

On her recommendation, a storyteller residing in Bluff, Durban was

interviewed. The researcher received an invitation from the Zanendaba

Storytellers to their first Southern African International storytelling conference

which was held in New Museum Africa, Johannesburg. Five professional

storytellers were interviewed there: one from Johannesburg, one from

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Surinam, one from South America, one from England, one from Canada and

another from Australia.

The SABC Assistant Commissioning Editor: Sotho Drama at Auckland Park,

Johannesburg, was also interviewed. The Editor recommended names of

professional storytellers who perform on television and also the names of

institutions which promote storytelling programmes.

As the researcher has formed a close relationship with the Zanendaba

Storytellers, they informed him about the annual storytelling festival which was

to be hosted by the Sibikwa Community Theatre in Benoni in October 2005.

The festival was to be graced with the arrival of forty-nine American

storytellers who would open the festival. The researcher managed to attend

this festival and was able to interview two professional storytellers there, one

from Botswana and the other from Malawi. The researcher was also able to

interview three professional American storytellers.

This sampling method is complemented by a judgemental or purposeful

sampling design. The role of every research study is to find a definite answer

to the identified research problem, and the researcher has the task of

identifying suitable and capable informants who can skillfully and willingly

furnish the best information in order to achieve the objectives of the study.

This is called judgemental or purposive sampling. Gall et al. (1996:218) point

out that the goal of this sampling method is to select cases that are likely to be

“information-rich” with respect to the study.

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As indicated earlier, there is a dearth of storytellers in the country. The fact of

the matter is that the number of South African storytellers is dwindling. For

this reason, the storytellers interviewed in this study were highly suitable

either because of their expertise, their information of or their credentials in the

field. Some interviewees, for instance, were interviewed because they

belonged to storytelling organizations, ran schools of storytelling, or were

responsible for formulating, designing and establishing work plans in their

respective departments.

Although authors such as De Vaus (1991:61) and Neuman (1997:204)

recommend the use of probability sampling since they believe this is more

likely to produce representative samples, uses powerful statistics and yields

precise results about sampling, the present study found it unsuitable because

it is has many flaws. In supporting this view, Phillips (1985:185) points out its

limited accuracy.

3.3.1.3. Sampling size

There is no rule of thumb to determine the size of a sample. Different scholars

make numerous suggestions about the necessary size of a sample.

In acknowledging this notion, Neuman (1997:221) argues that the size of a

sample depends on three things: the kind of data analysis, the accuracy of the

sample to the researcher’s purposes and the population characteristics.

Nachmias and Nachmias (1987:195), on the other hand, hold the view that

100
the size of the sample is properly estimated by deciding the level of accuracy

which is required and the size of error which is acceptable.

The size of the sample in the present study has not been determined by a rule

of thumb as such. Since the professionalisation of storytelling in South Africa

is not as yet a business of the day, the sampling has been done on a smaller

population ratio because non-probability sampling was conducted on different

heterogeneous subgroups of the population. During the interview process, the

researcher tried consciously to guard against any bias among the informants.

This was possible as the researcher used an interview schedule during the

interview process. The consent form for the informants, comprising the ethical

considerations, also helped to prevent bias.

3.3.2. Procedure

The researcher firstly secured appointments with the participants, face to face

or telephonically. The researcher told the participants who had suggested

their names. This helped to establish a good rapport between the participants

and the researcher. It is imperative for participants to understand the nature

and purpose of the research and they should give consent to take part without

any coercion. Thus the researcher informed the participants of the purpose

and nature of the interview. In order to clear any suspicion on the part of the

participants, the researcher requested a letter from the University of South

Africa which included the following: the name of the institution where the

researcher was studying, the particulars of the researcher, the topic of the

101
research study, requisition of permission to do research on behalf of the

student, the name of the head of the department and his/her contacts there

(See Annexure A). Once consent to an interview had been secured from the

participant, or when the researcher proposed that the participants participate

in his project, he furnished the participants with this letter.

In some cases the researcher issued letters and consent forms to prospective

participants (see Annexure B and C respectively). As supported by Burns

(2000:18), De Vos, et al. (2002:65), Kumar (1996:192) and Phaswana

(2000:268-271), potential participants should sign an informed consent form

which describes the purpose of the research, its procedure, risks and

discomforts, its benefits and the right to withdraw.

Since the researcher is not well versed in any African languages besides

Tsonga, most of the interviews were conducted in English. After securing

permission from the interviewee the researcher captured the content of

interview using a tape-recorder. The researcher immediately transcribed the

interview while the information was still fresh in his mind. After each interview,

the researcher sent a letter of thanks to participants and non-participants (See

Annexure D and E).

3.3.3. Data collection

Since the focal point of this research study is on the professionalization of

storytelling, the data gathered is relative to the development and promotion of

storytelling in African Languages.

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The common language used while collecting data was English. However,

there were some interviews conducted in Tshivenḓa with Venḓa speakers.

That was done to ensure that interviewees felt at ease and it also helped the

interviewee to provide all the required information in detail as he/she was not

struggling with language issues. Questionnaires were, however, written in

English. This was done in order to meet the diversified cultural needs of South

African respondents.

As indicated earlier, during the recording process, the interviewer also

engaged in note taking. The use of the tape recorder does not eliminate the

need for taking notes (Bell, 1993, 348). Bogdan and Taylor (1975:65), Rubin

(1995:127) and Bell (1993:349) agree that notes can serve several purposes.

The interviewer found it useful to take notes during the interview process

since this forced him to listen for the main points, and also provided a backup

in case of technological failure.

3.3.3.1. Data Collection Techniques

In this study, data was collected using four methods: a questionnaire,

interviews, secondary sources and observation.

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1.1. Questionnaire

A questionnaire is a ready-made list of questions on paper, to be answered by

respondents (Kumar, 1996:110). The questionnaire is generally regarded as a

form distributed through the mail or filled out by the respondent under the

supervision of the investigator or interviewer (Pelegrino, 1979:84). Begin and

Boivin (1980:743) state that the questionnaire is still the most popular method

of gathering information among researchers.

The use of the questionnaire in research, according to Burns (2000:571), is

based on one basic underlying assumption: that the respondent will be both

willing and able to give truthful answers. In support of this notion, Marshall

and Rossman (1995:96) remark that in using questionnaires, researchers rely

totally on the honesty and accuracy of participants’ responses.

Authors such as Selltiz, Wrightsman and Cook (1977), Hersen and Barlow

(1976), Webb, Campbell, Schwartz and Sechrest (1966), and Campbell and

Stanley (1963), as cited by Begin and Boivin (1980:743), are not at all

convinced of the validity of questionnaire data. Begin and Boivin (1980)

further quote Edwards (1957) and Crowne and Marlowe (1964), who suggest

that people may refrain from expressing their actual attitudes or behaviours if

they believe that these are generally disapproved of or that the information

given could present an unfavourable image of themselves. The solution to this

problem lies in the rationale of projective techniques, as reported by Smith in

Begin and Boivin (1980:743), which proposes that an individual is more likely

104
to express himself truthfully on sensitive issues if he/she is not asked to talk

specifically about himself/herself. Smith suggests that such questions should

rather be formulated generally, in a “most people” form, assuming a person

may hesitate to report a sensitive behaviour, but will consider it less

threatening to admit the behaviour under this more impersonal form (ibid.,

1980:743). This is supported by Kumar (2000:114) who notes that in some

situations when sensitive questions are asked, if a questionnaire provides

greater anonymity it helps to increase the likelihood of obtaining accurate

information.

The first type of questionnaire was sent to storytellers to enquire into their

lives and backgrounds, their societies and times and also their art in general

(see Annexure F). This revealed that none of the so-called professional

storytellers had undergone any training in storytelling. Most of them

developed a passion for the art form because a family figure was a seasoned

storyteller.

In this study some questionnaires were distributed personally by hand and

others were mailed to interviewees. Pre-paid and self-addressed envelopes
were provided with the mailed questionnaires. This inevitably increases the
response rate. The researcher prefers to use questionnaires in the collection
of data since it contributes to standardisation of responses as all respondents
receive identical questions which have been phrased in the same way.

Another reason for using questionnaires in this study was that the potential

respondents in the research study were scattered over a wide geographical

105
area. Kumar (2000:110) believes that this method saves time, human and

financial resources.

The second type of questionnaire was sent to university, community and

school libraries and also to museum, in order to enquire about the availability

of storytelling programme (See Annexure H).

Description of the sample

Province No. of No. of No. of No. of Total

community university school museums
libraries libraries libraries
Limpopo 6 1 4 1 12
Gauteng 1 1 - - 2
Mpumalanga 3 - 3 - 6
TOTAL 10 02 07 01 20

As was postulated in the hypothesis, the majority of South African libraries

have no storytelling programmes as a regular activity. What is interesting is

that all libraries expressed a passion to institute storytelling programmes if

given help. One museum in Limpopo used to have a storytelling programme,

but due to the lack of financial back-up from the local municipality, this has

been discontinued.

1.2. Interviews

The bulk of data in this study was collected through an interview process. This

technique is very valuable since the researcher gets first hand information,

106
from the horse’s mouth as it were. Such data is therefore treated as authentic

and credible.

Although the term “research interview” could be defined as the interaction

between the interviewer and the informant/s, Neuman (1997:254) considers it

as secondary social interaction between two strangers with the explicit

purpose of one person’s obtaining specific information from the other. The

interview can also be defined as a verbal interchange, often face to face,

though the telephone may be used, in which an interviewer tries to elicit

information, beliefs or opinions from another person (Burns, 2000:423).

Schurink (2002:297) treats the face-to-face interview as a pipeline, extracting

and transmitting information from the interviewee to the interviewer. In this

way the face-to-face interview helps us to understand the closed worlds of

individuals, families, organisations, institutions and communities.

The main focus of interviews in this research is to obtain original, authentic

and genuine information about storytelling. Furthermore, the researcher wants

to identify strategies, ways and means of harnessing this activity in answering

some of the socio-economic problems which are prevalent among South

Africans.

Various groups of people, organizations and institutions have been

interviewed intensively with the objective of determining how storytelling could

be made more humanistic and relevant to the lives of people in this country.

Both professional and amateur storytellers were interviewed. The main aim of

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interviewing professional storytellers was to discover how they had managed

to become professionals. Any problems they encounter and possible solutions

were also investigated. Professional storytellers were also requested to share

their ideas, strategies and experiences on how to enhance and

professionalise storytelling in the country. As far as amateur storytellers are

concerned, the researcher was interested in what they were doing to become

professional storytellers . Ideas on how to enhance, professionalise and make

storytelling more lively and interesting were also elicited. The researcher also

enquired into the problems these novice storytellers were grappling with (See

Annexure I).

Members of the Department of Education and Training, Department of Arts

and Culture, the Pan-South African Language Board and institutions of higher

learning were also interviewed. These departments are involved with

designing and formulating curricula and work programmes, and with the

performing arts respectively; the language board is the custodian of

languages in the country; and institutions of higher learning are tasked with

teaching and training people in autonomous disciplines within their diversity.

For these reasons the researcher felt it relevant to interview them. Moreover,

these are the departments and institutions which could make or break the

professionalisation of storytelling in South Africa (See Annexure G for an

interview schedule).

As the mass media plays a major role in the professionalisation of storytelling,

SABC television and radio personnel were also interviewed. Storytellers can

108
access millions of viewers and listeners within seconds through these media.

Professional storytellers could be called to perform in the studio: the interview

focused on identifying the efforts that have been made by respective radio

and television stations to rekindle an interest in and professionalise

storytelling (see Annexure J).

As a matter of course, the researcher first sought permission to record the

interview as soon as the interviewee gave consent to take part in it.

In some instances, data was written down in a notebook and not recorded by

any technological device. However, capturing data by hand was used only

where the interview was brief.

The nature, setting and circumstances of the interview influenced the

researcher’s choice of whether to use a tape recorder to capture the

discussion. Such recordings were always accompanied by written notes. Bell

(1993:347) stresses the point that no matter what style of interviewing is used,

and no matter how carefully one words interview questions, it all comes to

naught if the interviewer fails to capture the actual words of the person being

interviewed. Seidman (1998:97) recommends that an in-depth interview

should be tape-recorded. This technique of recording data helps the

researcher to capture the material in an accurate and retrievable form.

In this study, a semi-structured interviewing technique was used in the

collection of data. The researcher used a research schedule in all the

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interviews. Some interviewees went to the extent of requesting that an

interview schedule be sent to them before they engaged in the interview

process. The questions on the interview schedule centred on storytelling and

how to professionalise it. This was done in order to guide the researcher

throughout the interview process, though questions were not asked in a

particular sequence (see Annexure G, I and J).

During the interviewing process, some respondents wandered and drifted off

course, and by using the interview schedule, the researcher did not find it

difficult to steer and carefully redirect the respondent to the main topic.

Schurink (1988) and Schurink (2002) regard semi-structured interviewing as

an unstructured interview with a schedule. Greeff (2002:303) also states that

the aspects mentioned under unstructured interviews should be applied to

semi-structured interviews as well. In an elaboration of semi-structured

interviewing, Burns (2000:424) clearly points out that this has been used

either as part of a structured interview or an unstructured interview.

The semi-structured interview method allows the researcher to develop an

interview guide for some parts of the study in which, without fixed wording or

fixed ordering of questions, direction is given to the interview so that the

content focuses on the crucial issues of the study. This allows greater

flexibility than the close-ended type of question and permits a more valid

response from the respondent’s perception of reality (Burns, 2000:424).

Bridgemohan (2001:85) cites Burgess who says that in semi-structured

interviews, the interviewer strives to keep the informant relating experiences

110
and attitudes that are relevant to the research problem and encourages the

natural and free discussion of these experiences . Phaswana (2000:96) also

points out that this type of interviewing system provides a relaxed and

unhurried atmosphere which is neither stressful nor intimidating to the

interviewees. Similarly, Greeff (2002:302) maintains that the semi-structured

interview allows the researcher and participant much more flexibility.

According to him, the researcher is able to follow up particularly interesting

avenues that emerge in the interview, and the participant is able to provide a

fuller picture. In the present study, the researcher had a set of predetermined

questions on an interview schedule; but the interview was guided by the

schedule rather than dictated by it (ibid., 2002:302).

Since some of the respondents were Venḓa, Sotho, Zulu and Tsonga

speakers, it was vital to code switch and code mix to put the respondents at

ease and eventually to develop a good rapport with them.

Although Kumar (1996:04) argues that no data collection method provides

100 percent accurate and reliable information, in this study the interview

method was found to be the most useful one, and most of the reliable and

authentic information was collected in this way.

1.3. Secondary Sources

The researcher used various literature sources to substantiate whatever point

or view was under discussion. In order to avoid unethical plagiarism, the

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researcher always acknowledged all views, thoughts, words or ideas by

including them in a reference list. Reliable information on professionalising

storytelling has been obtained from various secondary sources such as

textbooks, published and unpublished dissertations and theses, newspapers

and articles. Secondary sources of data refer to instances where the data

have been documented by other authors and the researcher needs to extract

the required information for the purpose of the study (Kumar, 1996:124).

Kumar (1996:124) delimits only four secondary sources and groups them into

government or semi-government publications, earlier research, personal

records and mass media.

1.4. Observation

There were some instances where data were captured through observation.
The researcher paid a visit to participants in their homes or workplaces either
as participant or as complete observer. The researcher then recorded all the
significant events in his notebook. Such recordings were done during the
observation process or immediately after the observation of such events.

Kumar (1996:105) defines observation as a purposeful, systematic and

selective method of watching and listening to an interaction or phenomenon

as it takes places. Patton (1990:26) describes it as the observer’s notes

becoming the eyes, ears, and perceptual senses for the reader. Nieswiadomy

(1993:229) contends that although observation can be made through all the

senses, generally speaking it is mainly concerned with gathering data through

a sense of sight.

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The main aim of using the observational method was to form a global

perception of transpiring events in their respective natural settings.

Bridgemohan (2001:88) quotes Miles and Huberman who recommend that

researchers should strive to procure first-hand information on how their

participants go about their daily lives by paying them a visit and ultimately

spending time with them in their own surroundings. They believe that by so

doing, the participant observers will experience the ordinary, usual, routine or

natural environment of human existence. As far as methods for collecting data

are concerned, Bell (1993:109) recommends observation rather than the

interview method, since he argues that it can be particularly useful to discover

whether people do what they say they do, or behave in the way they claim to

behave.

The researcher observed professional storytellers while they were performing

at three storytelling festivals in the Sibikwa Community Theatre in Benoni and

at a storytelling conference in the New Museum Africa in Johannesburg. At all

these events, the professional storytellers received honoraria from the

coordinators. All participants were required to pay a certain amount as their

entrance fee. In all such instances, the researcher accumulated data as an

objective observer.

At both the storytelling festivals and the conference mentioned above,

professional storytellers conducted workshops on the skills and techniques of

storytelling. The researcher again attended a storytelling workshop conducted

at the Mutale Circuit Office hall, given by Zanendaba Storytellers on their visit

113
to Limpopo Province. The coordinators of the workshop used various methods

in their presentations. Attendees were taught how to use puppets when telling

stories. They were later expected to use these puppets in their own stories. In

some instances, they were given pictures of different animals and some

keywords. They were then expected to tell a story using these keywords and

pictures. These workshops groom people who wish to become creative

storytellers. The researcher observed and interacted as “observer-as-

participant”.

At all these storytelling festivals and conferences storytellers from abroad

were present. The hosts took the responsibility of bringing them out to South

Africa.

During the festivals, some storytellers dramatised their narrations. Some used

glove puppets to tell their stories. On each day of the festival there was a set

time for an open mike session. On the last day a storytelling competition was

run, with prizes being awarded. These open mike sessions and storytelling

competitions help to unearth hidden talents among prospective storytellers.

In the present study, the researcher observed events, situations and

behaviours in their natural settings and recorded all these observations in a

narrative form immediately thereafter. The observational method makes it

possible to record events which cannot be audio-recorded as they occur.

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 3.3.4. Research setting

Setting is the site or place where an activity or event takes place. In this study,

setting will, for example, refer to a context where a storytelling activity,

interviewing process, storytelling conference, storytelling festival and/or

storytelling workshop takes place. For the interview to be successful,

authentic and credible, the setting and time should be determined by the

respondent, but the interviewer should have access to the site.

Neuman (1997:350) defines setting or field site as the context in which events

or activities occur, a socially defined territory with shifting boundaries. He

further identifies three relevant factors which are essential when choosing a

field research site or setting: richness, unfamiliarity and suitability of data.

Sites that present a web of social relations, a variety of activities, and diverse

events over time provide richer, more interesting data. Beginning field

researchers should choose an unfamiliar setting (Neuman, 1997: 351).

Bogdan and Taylor (1975:28) assert that researchers should choose settings

in which the subjects are strangers and in which they have no particular

professional knowledge or expertise.

The setting of the present study was determined by the accessibility and the

willingness of the respondents to use that particular site. In order to glean

valuable and reliable information from the respondents, the researcher

requested that the respondent be interviewed where he/she felt most

comfortable and at his/her preferred time. This idea is shared by Bell

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(1993:96), who intimates that participants who agree to be interviewed

deserve some consideration: the researcher is thus bound to fit in with their

plans, irrespective of how inconvenient it may be for the researcher. A site

may be perfect for its representativeness, interest, and the range of examples

of the phenomena under study, but if the researcher cannot gain access to it

or to the range of groups and activities within it, the study cannot succeed.

Similarly, if the researcher is uncomfortable or even endangered in the site,

the study will be hampered (Marshall and Rossman, 195:51).

The interview of a storyteller from Pretoria took place in one of the offices of

the Department of Education in Pretoria, on the corner of Walker and Gerard

Moerdyk Street, where the storyteller was employed. The interview lasted

approximately two hours and proceeded without any interruption. From that

interview, the following categories were identified:

• Inventions brought by industrialization and modernization have taken

the place of storytelling in the early evening.
• Capable grandmothers should be organised as freelance storytellers
and a database should be established in order to store their profiles.
• Some early scholars did not regard storytelling with a progressive eye:
for them, the primary aim of storytelling was entertainment.
• Storytelling should be part of the school syllabus.
• Amateur storytellers should publicise themselves by doing voluntary
work without expecting any form of honorarium.
• Developing (amateur) storytellers should approach nearby councillors
to sell their services as storytellers.
• Storytelling should be reshaped in such a way that it withstands the
present environment.
• A storytelling organization should be established to promote storytelling
and to fend for the rights of storytellers.

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 • Storytellers should get support from government.

The interview with the Assistant Commissioning Editor: Sotho Drama of

SABC-1 took place in his office in the SABC building in Auckland Park,

Johannesburg. The interview took an hour. During this discussion, the

following categories were identified:

• The Department of Tourism should organise that storytellers render

their services to the tourists. They should be remunerated for this.
• Time slots allocated to storytelling on SABC television and radio are
inadequate.
• Storytellers should form their own organization to promote storytelling
and to fend for their rights.
• The community should intervene and develop amateur storytellers into
fully-fledged professionals.
• The purpose of the missionaries was to rob the identity of blacks in
South Africa.
• Industrialisation should be harnessed to enhance storytelling in the
country.

The interview with a prominent professional storyteller from Bluff/Brighton

Beach in Durban took place at the home of the storyteller. This interview took
approximately one hour. The atmosphere was ideal for the interview as there
were no interruptions. The researcher was able to identify the following
categories from the discussion:

• Storytelling must be professionalised by the staging of different

storytelling festivals.
• Amateur storytellers should publicise and develop themselves by
rendering free volunteer work in the community.
• Educational institutions should introduce training for storytellers.

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In January 2004 the researcher received an invitation from Zanendaba

Storytellers to their 1st Southern African International Storytelling Conference

which was to be held in the New Museum Africa in Johannesburg in April of

that year. Five professional storytellers were interviewed at this conference.

Two were men: one of these was from Surinam in South America, while the

other was from England. One female professional storyteller from Australia

was also interviewed in the reception lounge of the Parktonian Hotel. Each

interview lasted about an hour. The categories transpiring from these

interviews are:

• The invention of the printing press and the electric light presented a
stumbling block to the development of storytelling.
• Radio, television, computers, the internet and other devices have
distanced us from nature, living with nature and living with each other.
• The strongest storytelling medium at the moment is cinemised film.
• The broader public undermines the art form of storytelling.
• Teachers should be trained to incorporate storytelling in the classroom.
• The mass media enhance or impede storytelling: it depends on how
people use it.
• Storytelling by a live storyteller is a complete dimension.
• The government should play a role in professionalising storytelling.
• The missionaries’ tendency to undermine storytelling was part of their
method of conquering traditional nations.
• Storytellers should be called to render their services wherever there is
a function or gathering.

Two other professional storytellers, a man from Johannesburg and a woman

from Canada, were interviewed in the workshop rooms at New Museum

Africa. The place was not ideal for an interview since the din made by

conference attendees was distracting. The interview took about half an hour.

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From this interview, the interviewer was able to capture the following

categories:

• Storytelling could be professionalised by people with talent and a

desire for storytelling.
• Storytelling could be used to teach various subjects.
• The mass media reaches many people.

The Chief Education Specialist in the Department of Education and Training

under the GET band was interviewed in September 2004. This interview took

place in his office in Pretoria and lasted about an hour. The following

categories were identified:

• Storytelling is still clustered under performing art in the learning area

arts and culture, from the intermediate phase to the FET band.
• In the GET band the Department of Education is building a holistic
person who is culturally and psychologically aware of the world around
him/her by providing learners with all the necessary skills.
• When people move out at the exit point (institutions of higher learning)
they will be able to specialise.
• Specialisation in a specific field at an institution of higher learning
becomes possible because the interest was generated in both the GET
and the FET bands.
• Learners cannot be channeled to follow a specific field at the
foundation phase.

In August 2005 two participants were interviewed in Pretoria. The first was the

National Language Coordinator: Curriculum – GET band. The initial

appointment was with the National Director of Education under the FET band.

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But owing to some unforeseen circumstances the Director of Education was

unable to honour this appointment and the researcher met with her

subordinate (National Language Coordinator). The interview took place in one

of the offices and it lasted about an hour. The following categories were

identified during the interview:

• The mass media has encroached on the time that could be used for

storytelling.

• In the foundation phase storytelling is a component of the learning area

literacy, whereas from the intermediate phase to the FET band it is
incorporated in the learning area languages.
• Storytelling could become an autonomous discipline at institutions of
higher learning.
• The primary level learning areas are too general, but institutions of
higher learning could allow for specialisation.
• Profiles of storytellers should be stored in a database.
• Technology plays a major role in perpetuating storytelling.
• The missionaries encouraged people to disregard their culture.

The second interview conducted that day was with the Deputy Director of the

Department of Arts and Culture. The initial appointment was with the Director

of the same department. Due to some unforeseen commitments, however, the

director requested that her deputy be interviewed instead. Nevertheless, the

Deputy Director was able to share rich information with the researcher. The

interview lasted an hour. The following categories were identified:

• Night media entertainment such as television and radio leave no time

for storytelling to develop.

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 • Places like state theatres and market theatres are not accessible to
ordinary South Africans.
• The Department of Arts and Culture is addressing and promoting
storytelling and related activities through Language Research and
Development centres at selected universities.
• Respondents from those centres who are consulted by the researcher
will get recognition in the form of a monetary incentive.
• Professional storytellers should perform at large gatherings so as to
inspire young people.
• The Department of Arts and Culture is looking forward to establishing a
Professional Council which will begin by acknowledging the
professional status of storytellers and people who earn their living
through the language arts.
• Developing storytellers could market themselves and promote their art
form by performing stand-up comedy on television.
• Storytellers remain amateurs because they do not receive recognition
from the community.
• The missionaries perceived everything that is fundamentally African in
a negative light.
• Technology is killing the spirit of storytelling.

3.3.5. Interviewees

Since the main focus of this study is on professionalising storytelling in African

languages, with the ultimate aim of redressing the compounding problem of

unemployment in South Africa, the following individuals were interviewed:

storytellers, SABC television and radio personnel, lecturers in the African

Languages at universities, staff members of the Department of Education, the

Department of Arts and Culture and the Pan-South African Language Board,

directors of storytelling institutions and directors of community theatres which

run storytelling festivals.

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Both amateur and professional storytellers were interviewed. The main aim of

interviewing these storytellers was to find out from the horse’s mouth, as it

were, whether storytelling is developing or dying out. If they expressed the

opinion that it is dying out, the storytellers were asked for their views on how

this art form should be resuscitated. On the other hand, if respondents

believed that storytelling is developing, they were asked to substantiate this

view and to suggest strategies for professionalising it. It transpired that

storytellers held different views on the viability of storytelling in the country.

Some regarded it as an activity on the brink of dying out, whereas others

argued that it could never become obsolete or extinct. Most storytellers

blamed the government for the failure to professionalise storytelling.

The National Department of Education, the Department of Arts and Culture at

national level and the provincial government in Limpopo Province, as well as

the Pan-South African Language Board were interviewed in order to establish

whether there was any provision for storytelling in their recent or projected

programmes. The mechanisms which the said departments and language

board were using in order to preserve and promote storytelling were also

questioned. The same questions posed to the Department of Education were

also directed at the university lecturers in African languages as

representatives of their institutions. The researcher further inquired as to

what, if anything, the Department of Education, the Department of Arts and

Culture and the institutions of higher learning were currently doing in order to

professionalise storytelling in the country. This ultimately helped to form an

overall picture and to verify the viability of storytelling from primary to tertiary

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level. The interviews were conducted with three African languages lecturers

from three different universities. This was done in order to gain an overall

impression of storytelling at tertiary institutions.

The Department of Education acknowledged that, according to the revised

national curriculum statement, storytelling is treated as a component of

literacy in the foundation phase. In the intermediate and senior phases it

forms part of performing art in arts and culture and is also a component of

languages from the intermediate phase in the GET band to the FET band.

The education personnel have shifted the responsibility of treating storytelling

as a separate entity to the institutions of higher learning as they argue that

universities deal with specialization.

As far as the Department of Arts and Culture is concerned, storytelling will be

revamped by the Language Research and Development Centres. These

centres have been instituted at various universities to serve the needs of the

local language groups. Within these centres are focus areas, one of which will

be the promotion of literature and storytelling.

The personnel of the Department of Arts and Culture agree that

professionalisation of storytelling is becoming increasingly difficult because

the art form receives no recognition in this country.

Storytelling, according to one lecturer at an institution of higher learning, falls

within the broader concept of folklore. There is no autonomous discipline of

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storytelling per se. But the university does not deny the fact that as an

institution of higher learning it should offer storytelling as a separate discipline.

Specialisation, however, requires interested students and money, among

others. According to another university lecturer, storytelling is despised by

many people and therefore lacks recognition. Professionalisation of

storytelling would never become a reality if South Africans continued to

undermine the art form.

SABC-TV and Phalaphala FM, Thobela FM and Munghana Lonene FM radio

personnel were interviewed to establish whether they were taking cognisance

of storytelling. The strategies used to promote storytelling, incentives given to

storytellers and the publicity given to storytelling programmes if there were

any, were amongst the questions asked.

The SABC-TV and radio personnel acknowledged that there was very little

time allocated to storytelling. Regular programmes on storytelling are

educational ones which are not run by seasoned or professional storytellers.

Professional storytellers are only given a slot if a company is commissioned

by the SABC to provide storytelling material. In such a case, the said

company would record and hand the material to the SABC.

On the issue of professionalising storytelling, SABC personnel suggested that

a storytelling organization should be established. Such an organization would

protect the rights of storytellers. They believed that this type of organisation

would empower storytellers to organise themselves, and to convene a

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symposium where they could formulate their aims and initiatives as

storytellers.

Members of the Pan-South African Language Board (Pansalb) (Manager:

Research and Development) were interviewed to find out what Pansalb as the

custodian of language was doing in order to resuscitate and professionalise

storytelling in the country. According to the Manager of Research and

Development, Pansalb deals only with literature in general and does not delve

into the components of literature in particular. But the Manager of Research

and Development did affirm that there is a dire need for storytelling

programmes in the country.

During the Zanendaba International Storytelling Conference, the researcher

interviewed two storytellers who were directors of storytelling institutions in

their own countries. One was running a storytelling institution in England,

where students could enrol for a year’s foundation diploma in storytelling or a

six-month certificate course. The other, from Surinam in South America, runs

an academy of storytelling in Holland. The researcher wanted information on

the logistics involved in the establishment of a storytelling institution. The

admission to such institutions does not consider age, and the main

requirement is the person’s interest in the art form. The content of the syllabus

includes working with voice, movement, gesture, basic skills of the storyteller,

types of stories and meaning of stories.

The directors of Sibikwa Community Theatre, known for staging flamboyant

storytelling festivals, were also interviewed. The focus was on finding out how

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they managed to organise such successful festivals. The researcher inquired

why no training for storytellers was offered at their various institutions. The

coordinators noted that they worked according to a set plan. The institution

makes time for each aspect of the performing arts within a specific year.

Sometimes storytelling workshops are conducted for educators and librarians.

But the difficulty of securing financial support from local municipalities and

government as a whole is an obstacle to the implementation of a programme

to train storytellers at institutions. Students enrol for a National Qualification

Framework performing art course – level 4 – which comprises 120 units. In

such a course students are taught courses like computer skills, storytelling,

vocational skills, drama, dance and so forth.

Since the respondents came from diverse cultural and language backgrounds

and the researcher is not conversant in all African languages, most interviews

were conducted in English, in some instances interspersed with code

switching between other African languages. Some interviews were conducted

in Tshivenḓa since that is the mother tongue of the interviewer.

DESCRIPTION OF THE SAMPLE

Family group of informants No. of males No. of Total

females
Storytellers 6 11 17
SABC-TV personnel (assistant
commissioning editor and project
manager) 1 1 2
SABC radio marketing managers 2 0 2
African language university
lecturers 3 0 3
Department of Education staff
(Chief Education Specialists)
2 0 2
Department of Arts and Culture
personnel (Deputy Director) 0 1 1

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Directors of storytelling institutions 2 0 2
Pan-South African Language Board 1 0 1
members (Managing Director of
Research)
Directors of Community theatre 1 1 2
which runs storytelling festivals
Total number of interviewees 18 14 32

3.3.6. Reliability and validity in qualitative research

The researcher may diligently and tirelessly collect a great deal of data for the

intended study, only to find that the data are worthless scientifically because

the assessment techniques used are not reliable or valid. It is therefore vital

for each scientific researcher to learn more about reliability and validity before

embarking on the research process. In order for the data to be reliable and

valid, certain conditions must be met during the data-collection process.

Bell (1993:64) argues that any procedure selected for collecting data should

be examined critically to assess the extent to which it is likely to be reliable

and valid.

There are a number of setbacks which, according to Burns, can render

research worthless, such as unreliability and invalidity of data, assessment

techniques and the creation of unsatisfactory internal and external validity by

the design features (2000:420). Reliability and validity are therefore

indispensable ideals in both quantitative and qualitative research, hence

Neuman (1997:138) declares that reliability and validity are central issues in

all scientific measurement.

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Reliability is defined as the extent to which a measuring instrument is stable,

dependable, accurate, consistent and constant, the extent to which it will

produce similar results on repeated administration under comparable

conditions (Appleton, 1995:996; Bell, 1993:64; Burns, 2000:417; Delport,

2002:168; Kumar, 1996:140; McMillan and Schumacher, 2001; Neuman,

1997:138; Nieswiadomy, 1993:159; and Pelegrino, 1979:178).

Some researchers define validity as the extent to which an instrument

measures what it is supposed to measure (Adcock and Collier, 2001:530;

Bell, 1993:65; Burns, 2000:418; Delport, 2002:166; Gall et al., 1996:249;

Kumar, 1996:137; Leedy, 1993:40; MacMillan and Schumacher 2001:181;

Neuman, 1997:141; Nieswiadomy, 1993:204; and Pelegrino, 1979:178).

However, MacMillan and Schumacher (2001:407) go further and define

validity as the degree to which the explanations of phenomena match the

realities of the world.

The similarity between the two is that the end results are expected to be

unwavering, true and constant. A slight difference lies in the fact that in

reliability, the assessment is done several times under different conditions,

while in validity the instrument is used only once, but with the expectation of

producing the same normal results.

Neuman (1997:140) argues that it is rare to have perfect reliability. Such

ideology has been strongly supported by Kumar (1996:140) who contends

that it is impossible to have a research tool which is 100 percent accurate. In

128
his endeavour to substantiate this, he postulates that it is both impossible for

the research instrument to be 100 percent accurate and to control the factors

affecting reliability.

Nieswiadomy (1993:204) believes that if the validity of an instrument is

greater, then it is possible that it will obtain data that will answer the research

question or test the research hypothesis. Moreover, if an item is unreliable, it

will also lack validity; on the other hand, a reliable item is not necessarily

valid. It could produce similar responses on all occasions, but may not be

measuring what it is supposed to be measuring (Bell, 1993:65). McMillan and

Schumacher (2001:181) regard validity as a situation-specific concept for the

reason that validity depends on the purpose, population and situational factors

in which measurement takes place. They further argue that the results of a

test, questionnaire or other measure can be valid in one situation and invalid

in another.

Kumar (1996:140) has tabulated several factors to substantiate the fact that

the reliability of the instrument cannot be 100 percent accurate. The

researcher uses the very same factors to minimise threats to reliability.

(i) The wording of questions

If there is a slight ambiguity in the wording of questions or assessments this

will inevitably affect the reliability of a research instrument as respondents

interpret the questions differently at different times, resulting in different

responses.

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In the present study the researcher deliberately used unstructured interviews

with a schedule (semi-structured interviewing) with the aim of guarding

against ambiguity in the framing of questions.

(ii) The physical setting

Any change in the physical setting at the time of the repeat interview may

affect the responses given by a respondent, which may ultimately affect

reliability.

In order to prevent similar problems, the researcher took into consideration

the fact that respondents should be interviewed where they feel most

comfortable and at their preferred time. Another aspect of the present study is

that each and every interview conducted was started and completed in the

same physical setting.

(iii) The respondent’s mood

A change in a respondent’s mood when answering questions or completing a

questionnaire could change and this could affect the reliability of that

instrument.

After securing the appointment with a respondent, the researcher always left it

to the respondent to determine the day and time of the interview. This gave

respondents more freedom to be interviewed or to answer the questionnaire

at a time they found most convenient.

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During the interviews for the present study some respondents postponed the

interview because of fatigue or because they were in a sombre mood on that

particular day. This eventually helped to ensure reliability of the data

collected.

(iv) The nature of interaction

In the interview situation, the interaction between the interviewer and the

interviewee can have a significant impact on the responses of the interviewee.

In this study there were cases where the respondents showed a negative

attitude to the interviewer and seemed reluctant to participate, although they

had given their permission. In such cases, the interviewer always manoeuvred

the way forward by breaking the ice with something amusing, albeit

extraneous, comment which ultimately regained the attention of the

interviewee. In this way, good rapport between the interviewer and the

interviewee was established.

(v) The regression effect of an instrument

After an instrument has been used to measure attitudes towards a certain

issue, some respondents may feel that they were too negative or too positive

about the issue. The second time they are interviewed they may express a

different opinion altogether, and this will affect reliability adversely.

In order to avoid a similar situation, the researcher presenting this study has

used the snowball sampling method in the selection of respondents. Such

respondents were chosen because of both their expertise and their being

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information rich in the relevant area. In addition, the respondents were

interviewed only once.

In order to enhance validity in the present study, the researcher used the

following essential strategies as recommended by McMillan and Schumacher

(2001:407 - 410):

(i) Prolonged and persistent fieldwork

Fieldwork in the present study was conducted persistently to the point where

no new information emerged about storytelling. In this way the opportunities

for continual data analysis, preliminary comparisons, and corroboration to

refine ideas and to ensure the match between research-based categories and

participant reality were realised.

(ii) Multimethod strategies

Multimethod strategies allow researchers to employ several data collection

techniques in a study, although the researcher can select one as the central

method. This type of strategy permits triangulation of data across inquiry

techniques.

The present study involved several data collection techniques: observation,

interviews, document review and questionnaires. The central methods were

document review and interviews. The significance of employing different

strategies in a study is that of yielding different insights into the topic and

increasing the credibility of findings.

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(iii) Participant language and verbatim accounts

Informant interviews, phrased in the participants’ language, are less abstract

than many instruments used in other designs.

In some few instances the researcher in the present study used the language

of the respondent during the interview. There were some cases where the

researcher was compelled to use English since he was not well versed in the

participant’s language. Nevertheless, respondents code switched and code

mixed to their respective languages. In all such cases validity was not

hampered since all informants were fluent in English.

All interviews were transcribed verbatim. Those interviews not conducted in

English were later translated into English.

(iv) Low-inference descriptors

Low inference occurs when the researcher uses literal descriptions during

interviews so that any important terms are understood by the participants.

Low-inference descriptions form a contrast to the abstract language of a

researcher.

In all interview situations the interviewer used low-inference descriptions.

Where the participant was unable to get the gist of what was being said,

explanations were provided.

(v) Mechanical recording of data

A tape recorder, camera and video camera of high quality were used in this

study. All the desired information was captured and recorded. Tape

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recorders, photographs and videotapes enhanced validity by providing an

accurate and relatively complete record. However, for the data to be usable,

the researcher had to note situational aspects that affected the data record, in

order to facilitate interpretation.

3.3.7. Ethical issues

These are general rules or scientific laws that govern the research throughout

its process. A researcher is not at liberty to do as he/she wishes during

research, and certain principles must be considered for the research to be

authentic, credible, reliable and valid. It does not matter whether the

respondent is aware or unaware of his/her rights, but under no circumstances

should a researcher tamper with these rights.

Ethical principles, rules and conventions distinguish conduct which is socially

and morally acceptable from that which is socially and morally unacceptable

(Burns, 2000:17; De Vos et al., 1998:24; McMillan and Schumacher

2001:196; Mouton, 2001:238). Nieswiadomy (1993:41) equates these ethical

principles with the Biblical Ten Commandments. Neuman (1997:445)

contends that concern over the treatment of research subjects only started

after the revelation of gross violations of basic human rights perpetrated

against Jews and others in the name of science in Nazi Germany. He adds

that such notorious violations of human rights occurred not only in Germany,

nor long ago. Researchers have the right to the research truth, but not at the

expense of the rights of other individuals in society (Mouton, 2001:239).

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Unlike the Biblical Ten Commandments that have stood the test of time,

Nieswiadomy (1993:41) asserts that ethical principles frequently change with

time and the development of new knowledge. Kumar (1996:190) argues that

no code of conduct can be uniformly applied across all professions. According

to him, each profession has its own code of ethics, though there are

commonalities. De Vos et al. (1998:24) claim that different authors identify

different ethical issues.

In this study ethical issues were ensured by the following:

• The researcher always introduced himself to the interviewees and spelt

out the objectives of the study (see Annexure B).

• Since the snowball sampling method was used, the name of the

person who had made the referral was always disclosed to the

interviewee/s.

• Permission to conduct the interview was then sought from the

respondent without any coercion (see Annexure B).

• Interviewees/respondents were requested to sign a consent form (see

Annexure C). The informed consent form was signed once the

interviewees had read a covering letter which explained the purpose

and procedure of the study, voluntary participation, the opportunity to

terminate their participation at any time without any penalty (see

Annexure B).

• Code numbers and fictitious names for the interviewees were used to

ensure anonymity and confidentiality.

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 • The informants were assured that under no circumstances would their

privacy be invaded (see Annexure B).

• The participants were assured of their rights to see or secure the final

draft of the findings if they so wished. Interested participants were

furnished with the researcher’s address and telephone number.

• The permission to audio-record or video-record the interview was

always sought before doing so.

• The researcher recorded all thoughts, ideas, and paraphrased words in

a durable and appropriately referenced form.

3.3.8. Problems encountered in the fieldwork

The most significant problem encountered in this study was a lack of funds for

travelling when doing fieldwork. It was clearly spelt out in the researcher’s

proposal that in order to consolidate the present study, he would endeavour to

solicit funds in order to further his research abroad. Unfortunately, the funds

obtained from the National Research Foundation and the Financial Aid

Bureau, which were contracted for three years, were not sufficient for this

purpose. This fact has had a detrimental effect on the study. All foreign

professional storytellers interviewed in the present study were those who

visited South Africa to attend a storytelling conference, festival or for some

other reason.

Another obstacle encountered in this study was the failure of some

prospective respondents to honour their promises after they had given

136
consent to be interviewed. The researcher travelled long distances, only to

find that for one reason or another, respondents had failed to honour their

appointments.

A third problem encountered in the study was the failure of some members of

government departments to honour their appointments. The responsibility was

then shifted to their subordinates.

3.4. CONCLUSION

In this chapter, it was described how both quantitative and qualitative

research methodologies were used to elicit data.

The qualitative method was used extensively because quantitative

methodology focuses on gathering data based on statistical descriptions. It is

argued, however, that qualitative research is any kind of research that

produces findings not arrived at by means of statistical procedures or other

means of quantification. Qualitative methodology refers to research

procedures which produce descriptive data: people’s own written or spoken

words and observable behaviour.

The chapter discusses the following issues of study design: sampling,

population sampling techniques, sampling size, data collection, data collection

techniques, research setting, procedure, interviewees, reliability and validity

checks, ethical issues and problems encountered in the fieldwork.

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Data was collected through interviewing, questionnaires, document review

and observation methods. A semi-structured interview method was used in

this study. The groups of informants interviewed included storytellers, SABC-

TV personnel, SABC radio marketing managers, university lecturers of African

languages, and Department of Education and Department of Arts and Culture

staff members. Two types of questionnaires were disseminated to

respondents: one type to librarians and the other to storytellers. Further

information was collected using secondary sources. The data were also

collected through observation. Complete-observer and observer-as-participant

types of observation were used to collect data in this study.

Two non-probability sampling methods were used in order to select the

participants, namely the snowball sampling method and the judgemental or

purposeful sampling design. The snowball sampling method was used with

one or a few respondents who in turn recommended other respondents who

made up the sample. The purposeful sampling design was used to identify

suitable and capable respondents who would provide the best information in

order to achieve the objectives of the study. The setting of the present study

was determined by the accessibility and the willingness of the respondents to

use a particular site. Various factors and strategies were used by the

researcher to assess the validity and reliability of the methods.

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The authenticity of the study was ensured by the application of ethical

considerations throughout the process of data collection. Problems

encountered during the collection of data were outlined.

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 CHAPTER 4

4. ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

4.1. INTRODUCTION

The preceding chapter provided a basic background to the collection of data.

Since the entire study focuses on the feasibility and viability of storytelling as
a professional means of earning one’s living, so the previous chapter
presented the methodological approaches used in collecting reliable,
supportive research data.

The present chapter focuses on the analysis and interpretation of the

research data. Data was collected through interviews conducted with
storytellers, SABC-TV personnel, SABC radio personnel, university lecturers
of African languages, Department of Arts and Culture personnel, Department
of Education personnel, directors of storytelling institutions, directors of
community theatres which run storytelling festivals and the Pan-South African
Language Board members. Furthermore, some data were collected through
questionnaires and systematic observation.

During data analysis, common themes among the respondents were

combined in order to interpret the main findings. All such themes are

discussed under main categories in order to substantiate and eventually arrive

at the findings. The supportive interview discussion is always informed by

literature relevant to such findings.

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4.2. TRANSCRIBING THE DATA

There is no hard and fast rule or a standard form or code for the transcription

of research interviews. The transcriber can transcribe the entire interview tape

or only part of it, depending on the intended use of the transcript. In the

present study, the full tape method of transcription has been adopted. As

Seidman (1998:98) states, this type of approach was preferred for the

following reasons:

• Pre-selecting parts of the tapes to transcribe and omitting others tends

to lead to premature judgements about what is important and what is
not.
• Once the decision is made not to transcribe a portion of the tape, that
portion of the interview is usually lost to the researcher.

Seidman (1998:98) further quotes Briggs who points out that in working with
the material, it is important that the researcher starts with the whole.

Since the tape recording was of a high technical quality, the transcription of a
90-minute tape recording took between four to six hours.

The interviews which took place in Tshivenḓa were later translated into

English. All the transcriptions were done verbatim by the researcher.

The transcriptions were initially handwritten and later sent to a typist to be

typed. The typed draft was then sent to an editor to be prepared as a final
draft. The transcription of data was regarded as the beginning of data
analysis.

After all the transcriptions had been completed, the researcher verified them

by replaying the tape and editing the transcription accordingly for the sake of

accuracy. Slight errors were detected which were then duly corrected. Most of

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such errors were experienced in areas of spelling, omission of some words or

expressions, punctuation and capital letters.

4.3. DATA ANALYSIS PROCESS

Data analysis is the in-depth reading of the constituent parts of the whole in

order to understand more about the whole. It may also be regarded as a way

of reducing and organising data into meaningful units with the ultimate aim of

interpreting them. Mouton (2001:108) postulates that it involves breaking up

the data into manageable themes, patterns, trends and relationships. Marshall

and Rossman (1995:111) regard data analysis as a process of bringing order,

structure and meaning to the mass of collected data. They further define it as

a search for general statements about relationships among categories of data

and something which builds grounded theory. The main aim of analysis is to

find meaning in the data (Burns, 2000:430). Mouton (2001:108) concurs with

Burns on the purpose of analysis as he perceives it as a way of understanding

the various constitutive elements of one’s data through an inspection of the

relationships between concepts, constructs or variables, and of discovering

whether there are any patterns or trends that can be identified or isolated, and

of establishing themes in the data. Hence Corbin (in Chenitz and Swanson

1986:91) defines it as the “nitty-gritty” of qualitative research.

Clarke (1999:532) and Liamputtong and Ezzy (2005:258) believe that analysis

begins as soon as the first data are collected and continues until no new

insights are generated. However, Bryman and Burgess (1994:217-218) state

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that analysis in qualitative research is continuous in that it intervenes in other

aspects of the research process such as research design and data collection.

Burns (2000:432) rightly points out that early coding (course analysis) assists

the interviewer in focussing on essential features of the project as they

develop.

The various approaches to data analysis are as varied as fingerprints. Chenitz

and Swanson (1986:91) acknowledge that there are several approaches

available for the analysis of qualitative data.

Poggenpoel (2002:337) argues that there is no right or wrong approach to

data analysis, although he does maintain that there are general guidelines a

researcher can adhere to as well as strategies for analysis that have been

utilised by qualitative researchers. As Poggenpoel (2002) points out, there are

many qualitative researchers who have formulated related and diverse

approaches to data analysis. The adoption of a particular approach by a

researcher to data analysis depends on several factors, such as:

• The nature of collected data;

• The plausibility of that particular approach to collected data; and
• The researcher’s competency in data analysis.

During data analysis in this study, the researcher used the raw unassimilated

data from the interviews. He engaged in “contemplative dwelling” during data

analysis. This refers to undisrupted listening, reading and re-reading of the

transcriptions to ultimately uncover the real meaning.

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Giorgi (1975), in Tesch (1990:93), believes that data is searched-for

“meaning units” that form common “themes” and are then transformed into a

professional/abstract language. In this study, similar meaning units have been

clustered together to form different sub-categories, which ultimately fit into

fully-fledged categories. Eventually, all these categories are organised as

themes.

In the analysis of data the researcher adopted the eight steps of Tesch’s

(1990:142-145) approach. The following steps describe how the researcher

analysed the data:

• In order to get a sense of the whole the researcher carefully read all

transcriptions. The researcher wrote down ideas about the data as they

came to mind. Marshall and Rossman (1995:113) postulate that

reading, re-reading and reading once more through the data forces the

researcher to become familiar with those data in intimate ways. As

demonstrated by Van der Wal (1992:125), this is a very time-

consuming process.

• The researcher selected one interview at a time and thought profoundly

about the underlying meaning of its information. Any thought or topic

which came to mind during review was written in the margin. In

support of this, Chenitz and Swanson (1986:102) remark that at the

beginning of the study, the analyst codes data in the margins of the

field notes or interviews, rather than coding on a separate sheet of

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 paper. The following process was applied during initial (open) coding of

data:

o Writing the actual fact as presented by the respondent in the first

column on an analysis sheet.

o Stating the code or conceptual label applied to the fact in the

second column.

o Writing a theoretical note which explained some of the thoughts

and questions going through the analyst’s mind as coding

proceeded (Van der Wal, 1992:126).

In this step, however, data is analysed line by line, and the process in

the data is identified and the codes are ascribed accordingly. Stern

(1987:82), as quoted by Van der Wal (1992:126), points out that these

codes are called substantive codes because they codify the substance

of the data and often use the very words used by the actors

themselves. Strauss and Corbin (1990:61) refer to this as open coding:

• After completing the task for several respondents, a list of all topics

was made. Comparisons between all topics were drawn. Making

comparisons is an important strategy in discovering initial categories as

well as in building categories. It simply means comparing two or more

incidents or cases and looking for similarities and differences between

them. It is, however, a wonderful strategy to use initially and when the

analyst appears to have reached a dead end or becomes stuck

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 somewhere along the analytic process (Chenitz and Swanson

1986:96). Chenitz and Swanson (1986:96) further remark that in order

to make these comparisons, one might draw upon past experiences,

literature on the subject, or other conceptually related situations.

• Similar topics were clustered together and formed into columns that

were arranged into major topics, unique topics and leftovers. Van der

Wal (1992:128) asserts that data are coded and compared to other

data and assigned to clusters of categories according to obvious fit.

• The researcher made copies of the documents already worked on and

returned to the data. Topics were abbreviated as codes and then

written next to the appropriate text. A coding system helps the

researcher to see how well the topic descriptions correspond to the

data and it also assists the researcher in discovering new topics. The

researcher kept notes of whatever ideas about the data came to mind.

• When the researcher found the most suitable wording for the topics,

they were turned into categories. The total list of categories was

reduced by grouping together topics that related to each other. Related

categories were written on a big sheet of paper with corresponding

lines between them. The number of categories which a researcher

ultimately identifies depends on the purpose of the research project

and the nature of the data. Van der Wal (1992:127) calls this step

reduction. During reduction categories are compared to see whether

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 they form clusters or whether they are in some way connected or

linked. Stern (1987:83), as quoted by Van der Wal (1992:127),

intimates that reduction is a vital step in discovering the major

processes (called “core variables”) which explains the action in the

social scene. Lindlof and Taylor (2002:211), however, concedes that

data reduction does not mean that data should be thrown away as one

never knows when unused data will be needed for another purpose.

Instead, he recommends that data are to be reduced by categories and

codes that put the researcher in touch with only those parts of the

material that count toward his or her claims.

• The researcher then finalised the abbreviation for each name category

and eventually alphabetised the codes. The abbreviations were then

added to the original list. Whenever a segment of a category was too

rich in content to fit in one category, the researcher split it into two or

three categories. Marshall and Rossman (1995:114) posit that as

categories emerge, the researcher searches for those that have

internal convergence and external divergence. That is, the categories

should be internally consistent but distinct from one another.

The strategies proposed by Chenitz and Swanson (1986:94-95) include

asking questions appropriate to the research question. These

questions can be based on experience, literature, theory, and

philosophical stance. Other strategies advanced by these authors are

breaking the data down into bits and pieces and comparing initial

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 codes and categories. However, breaking the data down is done by

reading the data line by line and paragraph after paragraph, looking for

incidents and facts. Van der Wal (1992:128) concedes that one may

draw on past experiences, literature on the subject or any other

conceptually related situation.

• After coding, the researcher assembled the data material belonging to

each category in one place, and performed a preliminary analysis,

looking at the collection of material one category at a time. Eventually,

the researcher identified and summarised the content of each category,

taking heed of the following:

(a) commonalities

(b) uniqueness

(c) confusions and contradictions

(d) missing information with regard to the research question or

topic.

This step is similar to what Chenitz and Swanson (1986:98) term linking

categories. According to them, linking categories is a means of imposing

conceptual order on a mass of data. They do warn, however, that making

linkages should not begin too soon because it tends to foreclose on category

emergence and development. Furthermore, this step resembles what Strauss

and Corbin call axial coding (1990:96). Strategies for linking categories

therefore include moving a category from a lower to a higher level of

148
abstraction and posing questions about relationships or formulating

hypotheses and testing them (Chenitz and Swanson, 1986:98).

During analysis, the researcher always kept a focus on the research project in

mind. This helped him to avoid any irrelevant and unnecessary data.

4.4. CODING SCHEME

A coding scheme is the first step in data analysis. Patton (2002:463) puts it

that raw field notes and verbatim transcripts constitute the undigested

complexity of reality. In order to simplify and make sense of that complexity, a

content analysis is required. In a sense, a coding scheme is a way of

developing some manageable classification, hence without classification there

would be chaos and confusion. Content analysis involves identifying, coding,

categorising, classifying, and labelling the primary patterns in the data (Patton

2002:463). This means analyzing the core content of interviews and

observations to determine what is significant.

Three aspects of coding are open coding, axial coding and selective coding.

These are discussed in the following sections.

4.4.1. Open Coding

Strauss and Corbin (1990:62) define open coding as a process of breaking

down, examining, comparing, conceptualising and categorising data.

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According to Liamputtong and Ezzy (2005:268), open coding involves

comparisons between events, actions and interactions. Strauss and Corbin

regard it as that part of the analysis that pertains specifically to the naming

and categorising of phenomena through close examination of data (1990:62).

During open coding the data are broken down into discrete parts, closely

examined, compared for similarities and differences and questions are asked

about the phenomena as reflected in the data. In support of such a view,

Liamputtong and Ezzy (2005:268) assert that the analyst searches for

differences and similarities between events, actions and interactions and

applies conceptual labels to these, grouping them into categories.

By breaking down and conceptualising, Strauss and Corbin (1990:63)

illustrate that they mean taking apart an observation, a sentence, a

paragraph, and giving each discrete incident, idea, or event, a name,

something that stands for or represents a phenomenon. They add that they

compare incident with incident as they go along so that similar phenomena

can be given the same name. Open coding could be thought of as the “first

run” at coding data. It aims to look at the data in new ways, to observe new

relationships between events or interactions, and to develop new ways of

describing these relationships (Liamputtong and Ezzy, 2005:268).

4.4.2. Axial Coding

Axial coding is defined as a set of procedures through which data are put

back together in new ways after open coding, by making connections between

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categories. In trying to put it more clearly, Liamputtong and Ezzy (2005:269)

illustrate that if open coding attempts to break down data and reconceptualise

it, then axial coding puts those data back together in new ways by making

connections between a category and its sub-categories. Strauss and Corbin

(1990:96) remark that the connections between the categories are made by

utilising a coding paradigm involving conditions, context, action/interactional

strategies and consequences. Liamputtong and Ezzy (2005:269) emphasise

the point that axial coding involves scrutinising the codes to ensure that each

one is fully elaborated and delineated.

4.4.3. Selective coding

This is a process of selecting the core category, systematically relating it to

other categories, validating those relationships, and filling in categories that

need further refinement and development (Strauss and Corbin, 1990:116).

The processes involved in selective coding are much the same as those in

axial coding, but at a higher level of generality. The codes, or categories, are

compared and a central, or core, code may be identified that provides a

theoretical point of integration for the study (Liamputtong and Ezzy 2005:269).

Liamputtong and Ezzy claim that some qualitative researchers reject the idea

that there should be a “core” code or category, preferring instead to

encourage complexity and multiplicity of interpretations (2005:270).

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4.5. IDENTIFIED THEMES

The following themes were identified in this study: factors contributing to the

non-professionalisation of storytelling; storytelling as part of the school

curriculum and an autonomous discipline at institutions of higher learning; the

establishment of storytelling organizations and storytelling circles; feasibility of

professional storytelling; and ways and means of revitalising and

professionalising storytelling.

4.5.1. THEME 1: Factors contributing to the non-professionalisation of

storytelling

In an attempt to find a way to professionalise storytelling in African languages,

the obstacles were more evident than the solutions. The following section will

therefore discuss how these obstacles retard the progress of professionalising

storytelling, and offer proposals as to how such hindrances can be turned into

opportunities.

4.5.1.1. The advent of missionaries

4.5.1.1. (a) Open Coding

Respondents D.2 and D.29 are of the opinion that the main motive of the

missionaries was colonising Africans’ minds. They assert that the

missionaries colonised Africans’ minds causing them to forget about what

God had given them. Respondent D.2 believes that when a person’s mind has

152
been colonised for a long time, it is very difficult to change. She likens it to a

chained dog which is living in its enclosure. She claims that it would be very

difficult for that dog to change. She therefore argues that it would take years

and years for people to change because they have been colonised for such a

long time. Respondent D.29 postulates that the missionaries could not come

and shoot people at once: they had to befriend them first. And as people

welcomed them, so the missionaries learned their ways and what bound them

together, and after that they ultimately broke them.

Respondent D.9, D.20 and D.21 are of the same view on the point that the

use of English by African storytellers in their narrations both retards the

growth of storytelling and robs it of the splendour and aesthetic value of our

indigenous languages of which we feel so proud when telling stories.

Respondent D.20 remarks that there are people like Gcina Mhlophe who tell

their stories in English which makes storytelling inaccessible to many Africans

since the majority of African people in South African do not understand

English. In supporting this view, Webb (1998:129) confirms that black South

Africans who have a reasonably proficiency in English make up only about 25

percent of black people. In order to differentiate between original rural

storytellers and commercial storytellers, Respondent D.9 notes that the

difference lies in the fact that when storytelling is commercialised, the

aesthetic value of indigenous languages, which Africans feel proud of in

storytelling, is lost. He argues that commercialization of storytelling further

leads to multilingualism in terms of using English and indigenous languages,

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the point at which we lose the dramatic element of the story. In a similar vein,

Respondent D.21 scathingly attacks storytellers who tell their stories in

English. She argues that such stories tend to lose what they have in terms of

cultural values that are embedded in the language. In substantiating this,

Ngugi wa Thiong’o (1986:8-13) remarks that any language has a dual

character, that of serving as a means of communication and as a carrier of

culture. He further points out that in any African language, one can glean the

social norms, attitudes and values of a people from a word, a group of words,

a sentence and even a name. According to Respondent D.21, even if such

stories are written in English and then translated into African languages, they

would not be done justice. She stresses the point that English is not the

storytellers’ mother tongue and they do not really know how to use it, although

they might have studied it as a first language. She further states that if a

storyteller tells a black story and writes it in English and later translates it into

one of the indigenous languages, such a storyteller is missing the creativity of

that language. To illustrate her view point, Respondent D.21 posits that when

she was working on subtitles on “Muvhango”, a television soap opera, her

friend remarked that she wished she could understand the language. She

claims that so much beauty is lost in the English subtitles. In supporting such

a view, Mutwa (1966:558) regrets that he could have done much better if he

had written his book in his own language, but because he felt compelled to

use a foreign language (English), his own African people were to blame and

(of course) suffered.

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Discussing the influx of missionaries into Africa, Respondent D.19 avers that

in every country which has been colonised there is a common experience. He

argues that the missionaries, through the Bible and their beliefs, turned things

upside down. They tried to twist our minds, and it really happened. He

believes that undermining storytelling was part of their way of conquering the

nations, making people children of God and ultimately making them slaves.

He substantiates his viewpoint by citing a story entitled “The rebuilding of

Anansi”, in which the missionaries are exemplified as being commanding

people, saying:

You have been told to pray, get down on your knees. Close
your eyes, think big, think heaven.

And he illustrates that, to their dismay, when the people opened their eyes

their land was gone, and next their culture was gone also, and in lieu they

found themselves chained to different European godly hands.

The sin committed by the missionaries, according to Respondents D.4, D.13,

D.20 and D.25, was that of regarding everything that was fundamentally

African as negative and primitive and something which needed to be

eradicated and destroyed. Such a view is substantiated by Moila (1987:113)

who intimates that the missionaries were not merely hostile to Pedi customs,

but that they actively worked against everything which was recognised as

custom. He believes that missionaries discouraged Christians from

participating in anything which was traditional, such as storytelling. These

were believed to be activities practised by barbarians and anti-Christians. In

155
the same vein, Milubi (1988:112) maintains that the Venḓa people were

forced to forsake their traditional way of life and to accept a new one. Moila

(1987:167) explains that any Pedi Christian who was perceived to be

preserving any of the Pedi customs was seen as one who had committed a

personal sin and one who deserved harsh church discipline.

According to Respondents D.9 and D.24, the aim of the missionaries was to

rob Africans of their identity and ultimately to dress them in Western values.

The task of the church, according to Moila, was to destroy the Pedi culture

and to establish instead a Western culture labelled as Christian (1987:158).

Hence, the aim of the missionaries was to make the Pedi feel that, by virtue of

their culture, they were inferior to Whites. By conforming to the missionaries’

values and standards, the Africans began to lose their identity, respect and

unity as a people, and they began to think individually rather than communally

(ibid., 1987:156).

Since Africans were seen as primitive and heathen by the missionaries,

Respondents D.13 and D.25 claim that whatever they did was remarked as

diabolical. Their dress and whatever art form they practised were all taken as

contrary to the Bible. Respondent D.25 acknowledges that Africans eventually

succumbed to their oppressors, and by so doing they helped to obliterate their

nation and identity such that later generations would never know their identity

or their roots. Respondent D.9 condemns the Africans’ adopted Christian

mentality of changing their dress code and names as most unfortunate. This

type of ideology, according to Singano and Roscoe (1974: vii, viii) simply

156
signifies that colonial scars have not yet healed. They go on to say that

African students, by and large, do not appear to value their past. They stress

that students despise oral literature claiming that it is not grounded in reality;

they add that it cannot be true and has nothing to say in the modern world

(ibid., 1974: vii, viii).

Respondent D.13 argues that on their arrival, instead of proclaiming the word

of God, the missionaries spread the notion of oppressing the black mentality.

He claims that even at the present moment black people are still suffering

mental oppression because they have not yet learnt to respect their culture.

Supporting the above respondents, Respondent D.21 expresses anger at the

practices of missionaries. She believes that no missionaries came to South

Africa to empower Africans because that was not the script of the constitution

of the country. White missionaries were unable to embrace the Africans’

stories because they realised that these stories were meant to empower

them. According to the script of apartheid, their purpose was to weaken the

Africans.

Respondent D.21 expresses the opinion that, after apartheid, churches could

not reposition themselves, and they could no longer give people value. She

claims that there was a Roman Catholic Church for Whites and another for

black people, each preaching an altogether different message. She reiterates

that one of the powers of black men was their stories which the missionaries

targeted and destroyed, thereby destroying the black person.

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On the other hand, Respondent D.10 thinks there are differences between

Anglican, Roman Catholic and other missionaries. Her impression is that

Roman Catholic missionaries were more open to what they found and more

responsive. She claims that conversely, the Presbyterian, Methodist and

Anglican churches were of the opinion that what they were bringing was right

and what they found here was wrong. They condemned everything which was

African and upheld everything European. She claims that the missionaries of

such denominations would probably not recognise the value and power of

something like storytelling. They would have regarded it as barbaric and anti-

Christian.

4.5.1.1 (b) Axial Coding

In acknowledging the Herculean task performed by the missionaries,

Respondent D.9 maintains that he wanted to thank them for what they did

because they brought the pen and the book, allowing people to record all they

thought could not be recorded. He states that, even in this developing world,

even in this oral-historical-telling world, our storytellers can now sit down and

write. This view is echoed by Respondent D.30. Respondent D.13 and D.20

are of the opinion that the missionaries contributed positively because they

brought education which allowed people to become literate.

Respondent D.10 notes that, interestingly enough, the Anglican church has

lately started using storytelling here in South Africa. She relates that a couple

of years ago she worked at an Anglican church where they spent all day

158
telling personal stories of how they had experienced apartheid. She claims

that such an exercise was conducted in order to try to bring about

reconciliation between black and white Anglicans. To her, it was as if the

church was changing and beginning to recognise the value of storytelling in

reconciliation.

4.5.1.2. The first African scholars

4.5.1.2 (a) Open Coding

Various respondents reacted differently to the question as to why early

scholars did not cite professionalisation of storytelling as one of its functional

values in their writing. Some argue that the first scholars were oblivious to any

incentive which could be gained from storytelling. On the other hand, some

argue that advantages to be gained from storytelling were deliberately

ignored.

Responding to this question, Respondent D.20 argues that early scholars did

not have the means to earn their living through storytelling. She mentions that

for a person to start a business, he/she needs the platform and the resources

to allow him/her to do that. She claims that what is problematic with Africans

is that they do not have enough resources to start a business, and she

believes that it becomes too risky to take on such a venture without sufficient

resources. Baker and Green (1977:1) propose that the purposes and

conditions of storytelling change as we move from century to century.

Respondent D.20 concludes that if early scholars had recognised storytelling

159
as a means of earning a living, they might not have had the resources to see

it as a business venture.

4.5.1.2 (b) Axial Coding

Respondent D.9 states that the first scholars helped in opening peoples’ eyes.

Respondent D.24 supports this: in the past early scholars might have been

oblivious to the fact that one could earn one’s living through storytelling, while

today everybody realises this. He further points out that the early scholars

who did not acknowledge the value of storytelling as a source of livelihood

were not emphasising Africanisation. He reiterates that once a person

acknowledges Africanisation, one will realise that one can make a living

through storytelling.

On the other hand, Respondent D.16 argues that early scholars were aware

of the incentives that could come from storytelling. He substantiates this with

mention of the fact that early scholars sold some folklore materials at the

expense of the community and made a lot of money. He further argues that

these scholars knew the importance of publishing and that is why most of

them eventually published their dissertations for commercial purposes. By

doing so, they were fulfilling what Zipes (1977:13) asserts when he comments

that to some the fairy tale is not about happiness, but rather a means to

obtaining a modicum of happiness themselves.

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4.5.1.3. Ignorance, denigration and oversimplification of the
storytelling art form

4.5.1.3 (a) Open Coding

One important factor acting against the professionalisation of storytelling in

this country is the ignorance, denigration and oversimplification of the

storytelling art form. Storytelling is still regarded as an art form which is meant

to while away time among economically inactive people (i.e. children and

grandparents) and something which should be put on the back burner during

working hours.

Respondent D.3 asserts that ignorance is one of the factors which contributes

to the non-professionalisation of storytelling. She blames publishers and

authors in their endeavours to destroy everything that is African. She claims

that everything that was regarded as traditional was ignored.

Expanding on the ignorance about storytelling, Respondent D.2, a Zanendaba

storyteller, maintains that when he tells people that he does “ditshomo”

(storytelling), they think he is joking. He is often asked questions such as:

“When you say you do ”ditshomo”, what is that, what kind of profession is

that? Why don’t you choose travel and tourism, a pilot or a medical doctor?”

He attributes this to a lack of self-esteem among blacks.

He states further that there are many people who are good storytellers, but

because of ignorance they change to something else, or simply remain

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jobless. He further cites his friend who has been mocked and jeered by

people after receiving a scholarship to study games overseas.

In further condemning the negative attitude of Africans towards storytelling,

Respondent D.20 states frankly that people should admit that African

language storytelling has been ignored and she believes that storytelling does

not receive the recognition it should.

4.5.1.3 (b) Axial Coding

Respondent D.26, an amateur storyteller, claims that storytelling is dying out

these days because people denigrate and despise it. According to her, people

belittle storytelling, believing that it is relevant only to people who live in the

past. Singano and Roscoe (1974: vii) identified the same myopic view among

African students who did not appear to value their past at all. Respondent

D.26 argues that the adherents of such an ideology are shortsighted, since

storytelling assists children in understanding their roots and knowing where

they come from. Such a view is reiterated by Respondent D.9 who says that

in order for cultural groups, ethnic groups or nations at large to trace and find

their roots, identity and origin and to plan their future they must use

storytelling as their trail. Respondent D.6 believes that the broader public is

oblivious of the value of storytelling and thinks of storytelling as something

from the past or for very small children. Respondent D.28 discourages the

idea of regarding storytelling as meant only for children. She maintains that

storytelling is enjoyed by everybody, both young and old: all are yearning to

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hear a story. De Vos (1991:ii) quotes L’Engle who claims that, around the

eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in Europe, the intelligentsia regarded

listening to folk literature as a childish and plebeian pastime. Today, many

people still consider oral folk literature and storytelling as something meant for

young children only, and for that reason they are disdainful of it. The

repercussions of such an ideology, according to De Vos, are that storytelling

continues to be regarded as an activity for young children, whilst young adults

regard listening to stories as beneath them.

Be that as it may, Respondent D.6 is delighted by the resurgence of interest in

storytelling. She reveals that for the past twenty years there has been a

spread and growth in interest in storytelling and she is optimistic that this

interest will keep growing. Hence, Canonici (1993:267) admits that there was

a tendency in the past to overlook what is typically African or to consider it of

little value, but he notes that there is now a renaissance in the feeling that

African culture, as embedded in the oral traditions, has a great deal to

contribute to the proper development of a national culture. De Vos (1991: ii)

commends the fact that at present there is a resurgence of interest in

storytelling for all ages.

Respondent D.8 notes that ignorance and oversimplification of storytelling

leads to a belief among the general public that storytelling does not require

any preparation or effort. Such a belief does a disservice to the audience. In

affirming this view, Fenwick (1990:6) contends that teachers in training often

163
make the mistake of assuming that because storytelling is extremely popular

with children, careful planning is not really necessary.

According to Fenwick, the missionaries were not the only ones who had a

negative impact on the growth of storytelling, Africans as well should carry the

blame. She argues that Africans themselves should have taken the initiative.

She claims that one side issue with Africans is that they generally have a

negative attitude towards their own languages. She notes scathingly that

Africans just want to learn English, and learn everything that is about English.

She states categorically that they like to move out of where they are to what

they perceive as better. In the praxis of stressing this ideology, Cluver

(1993:261) elucidates:

Before independence on 21 March 1990, Namibia had two

official languages, Afrikaans and English, with English playing
an insignificant role in the administrative and educational
systems of the country; German functioned as a partial official
language and medium of instruction and was used in the
domains of commerce and agriculture. Namibia also has 21
indigenous languages of which nine were codified and
developed educational languages up to primary school level.
This means that speakers of indigenous languages could not
be used in all domains and particularly not in court where
untrained interpreters had to be used.

The Republic of Namibia has a new language policy which is

enshrined in the constitution. Article 3(1) of the constitution of
the Republic of Namibia states: The official language of
Namibia shall be English.

With the acceptance of the new constitution in Namibia a

language that is known by less than 10 percent of the
population became Namibia’s only official language.

164
In acknowledging this notion, Respondent D.13 affirms that Africans leave a

lot to be desired when supporting storytellers; they are more inclined to

support the modern Western type of activities which eventually push

storytellers into the quagmire of poverty.

Respondent D.29 is unsettled by the fact that most people exploit storytellers.

She claims that when the market for storytelling is approached, unlike other

commodities for which people pay the price with a smile, clients always show

reluctance when it comes to payment. She complains that some people think

that because storytelling is an ancient art, it has always been there and

anybody can tell stories; they see no reason why they should pay for it. She

goes on to say that people still regard storytelling as a hobby. She argues that

people are paid for swimming and running which are all hobbies. She finds it

interesting that people pay to watch musicians and willingly buy their DVDs

and CDs whereas the very same people are very reluctant to pay for

storytelling.

The denigration of storytelling is also experienced in various companies

where storytelling is told. Respondent D.17 remarks that the main problem is

experienced just before the storyteller actually begins. He asserts that there

may be some people in the company who think that storytelling is a waste of

time. He notes with some pride that once they start, people immediately see

that storytelling really works. According to him, the crux of the matter is

overcoming the scepticism people might have that stories are for children and

that storytelling should take place in the library, and so on. Respondent D.28

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repudiates this view and regards storytelling as an activity enjoyed by

everybody, young and old. In supporting Respondent D.28’s view, Lipke

(1996:8) argues that people are never too old to listen to stories or to tell

stories. She contends that she knows of people in their sixties and seventies

who are as hungry and thirsty, as enthusiastic and bright eyed as the five-

year-old in the library or the kindergarten classroom. Respondent D.14 affirms

that a lack of finance and some incentives in the storytelling industry is

causing some very good storytellers to abandon storytelling and to seek

steady jobs elsewhere. Respondent D.26, an amateur storyteller, claims that

she has abandoned storytelling because of the lack of any monetary

incentive. She argues that she found it unwise to continue with storytelling on

an empty stomach. Zipes (1997:13) says:

The professionalization of storytelling has led to a situation that

is very different from preliterate days, when the sharing of
rituals, news, and wisdom was at the heart of storytelling,
generally without a fee and without concern about copyright of
one’s material.

In reference to the statement that most African and European scholars regard

storytelling as an art form meant primarily for entertainment only, Respondent

D.1 retorts that entertainment is just one of the facets of storytelling. She is

adamant that storytelling is not for entertainment only: it is for diverse

purposes and conveys diverse ideas.

Respondent D.3 acknowledges her indebtedness to the people in rural areas

as she claims that they perpetuated those traditions, so that people can still

go back to them and enquire more from them. People in rural areas can still

166
demonstrate how it is done, and because there are better opportunities in the

cities, people can complement and develop those activities as they develop

storytelling into professionalisation.

4.5.1.4. Storytelling seen primarily as a source of entertainment

4.5.1.4 (a) Open Coding

Respondent D.15 argues that in rural villages there are skilled and talented

storytellers who view storytelling only as a source of entertainment. According

to Respondent D.25 and D.1, blame should be laid at the feet of early

scholars who were oblivious to the benefits of storytelling and who should

have conscientised people about this.

4.5.1.4 (b) Axial Coding

Respondent D.25 puts it thus: early scholars were not aware that storytelling

could be harnessed into a job opportunity for people. Respondent D.1 states

scathingly that early scholars did not regard storytelling with a progressive

eye, but saw it for its entertainment value only. She argues that entertainment

is just one of the facets of storytelling. According to her, entertainment is

regarded as something that ends and yet storytelling and its aim remains with

a person for the rest of his/her life. In acknowledging this view, Dégh

(1972:60) admits that like novels and short stories, folktales are told primarily

for entertainment although they may have secondary purposes. Alluding to

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Bascom’s definition of folktales, Fortune (1974:ii) agrees that they are told

only for entertainment. In challenging this view, Fenwick (1990:2) contends

that storytelling was often much more than a pastime: she claims that for

some it was a profession. Respondent D.24 hazards the belief that at present

every scholar is aware of the fact that storytelling can be harnessed into

making one’s living. He suggests that scholars should emphasise

Africanisation to sensitise people about the benefits to be gained from

traditional art forms like storytelling.

4.5.1.5. The lack of incentives for storytellers

4.5.1.5 (a) Open Coding

The lack of some form of incentive from storytelling is doing a great disservice

and irreparable damage to storytellers in particular and storytelling in general.

There is no storyteller whatsoever in the current economic circumstances who

can continue to practise storytelling on an empty stomach and without thinking

of venturing into something where he or she can make ends meet.

Respondent D.28, a freelance storyteller and part-time storytelling teacher at

Sibikwa remarked that she was involved in teacher training at Sibikwa, but

had to stop because of lack of funding. She is more than willing to go to

schools and work with teachers and learners, but she claims that as a

freelance storyteller, she needs to be paid for this service.

168
Respondent D.14 mentions that due to a lack of finance and other incentives

in the storytelling industry, some very good storytellers had to look elsewhere

for steady jobs.

Respondent D.26, an amateur storyteller, acknowledges that she has

forsaken storytelling because of the lack of any monetary incentive. She

argues that she thought it wiser to do “piece jobs” for which she is paid

instead of wasting her time entertaining people for nothing.

4.5.1.5. (b) Axial Coding

Respondent D.1 proposes that storytelling should be made more marketable.

Given the fact that storytelling can be profitable, Zipes (1997:13) argues that

professional storytellers must be more concerned about how to market

themselves and their tales.

Respondent D.30, the manager of language services in the Limpopo

Department of Arts and Culture, outlines the work which her department is

doing in promoting and perpetuating storytelling in this part of the country.

She notes that their desire is to unearth storytellers in all African languages

found in Limpopo Province, who may eventually be as talented and prominent

as the famous Gcina Mhlophe. When the department identifies such

storytellers, it encourages them to submit funding proposals so that they can

eventually earn their living through storytelling, and by so doing gain

prominence.

169
She recommends that whoever calls these developing storytellers into service

should provide incentives for them because they cannot continue to perform

on empty stomachs, as it were.

Respondent D.25 condemns the attitude of undermining storytelling and of

treating the primary purpose of storytelling as entertainment and nothing

more. She acknowledges that if storytelling is professionalised, many parents

could send their children to study a storytelling course. But they cannot study

for a qualification which will leave them jobless at the end of their studies.

They must venture into something else which will provide them with

employment opportunities.

In order to reinstate the value and status quo of storytelling, Respondent D.25

recommends that storytelling should be professionalised. Respondent D.14 is

quite sure that if it was not for economics there would be more professional

storytellers by now.

170
4.5.1.6. The Absence of Institutions for Training Storytellers

4.5.1.6. (a) Open Coding

One of the factors which is perceived to be robbing storytelling of its identity in

this country is the absence of institutions for training storytellers.

Since it is the responsibility of government to see to it that there are adequate

institutions to cater for people’s holistic needs in the country, Respondents

D.2 and D.21 lay the blame for the absence of storytelling institutions at

government’s door. Respondent D.8 acknowledges that there is no institution

to date in South Africa for training storytellers on a full-time basis. Respondent

D.28, a freelance storyteller from Johannesburg, points out that she was

involved in part-time teacher training at Sibikwa Community Theatre, but

because of the lack of funding, she discontinued this training.

4.5.1.6 (b) Axial Coding

Respondent D.2 suggests that the government should open many more

technical schools and also get involved in the community and support

everything that is already there, especially the youth centres. According to

Respondent D.2, such support of various youth activities will inevitably

engage more young people in such activities and at the same time help to

reduce the crime rate in the country. He proposes that the best solution would

be for the government to open storytelling institutions in each and every

171
province in South Africa. In supporting this view, Okpewho (1992:25)

proposes that the state should recognise both the cultural value and

popularity of a category of oral traditions and so set up schools where young

men can be taught the skills of that art. Such an initiative could draw many

youth into such schools while at the same time creating many job

opportunities, alleviating poverty and ultimately reducing the crime rate in the

country. In line with this view, Respondent D.21 agrees that the government

should establish teacher training colleges where teachers could be developed

to teach storytelling. Pellowski (1977:92) admits that there have been and are

some schools of education that offer courses in storytelling for teachers as an

elective. She cites an example of Bank Street College of Education where

there has been a storytelling course for many years. She acknowledges that a

small percentage of those teachers who have taken such courses have

managed to include the story hour on a regular basis in their classrooms.

When alluding to the renaissance of storytelling in some parts of the country,

Lipke (1996:14) points out that storytellers were able to give courses on

storytelling independently or as part of college offerings. She suggests that

one could take courses or workshops in storytelling.

Respondent D.8 suggests that if educational institutions were to encourage

storytelling, they (storytellers) could teach people there. She further suggests

that institutions such as art centres, community centres, churches and

educational institutions could open a place for training storytellers. In

supporting Respondent D.8’s view, Respondent D.26 proposes that special

schools for storytelling be established. Such a move would encourage many

172
youngsters to choose storytelling as a career in which they could earn a

livelihood. Echoing Respondent D.8’s view, Kaschula (2001:187)

recommends that each association of traditional entertainers should maintain

training schools where interested members of the public can be trained.

According to Kaschula (2001:187), the funding and supervision of such

schools should lie in the hands of the government.

According to Respondent D.28, for any South African institution to issue a

valid and valuable certificate, such certificates should satisfy the SAQA

requirements. In order to establish such an institution, she says that it would

be helpful and interesting to look at the units that are laid down by SAQA and

then develop the programme according to those guidelines. In order for an

individual to receive an accredited certificate, formal training should be

followed. Greene (1996:63) notes that storytelling, like other arts, requires

training and experience. To be an accomplished oral artist, Okpewho

(1992:21) maintains that some form of apprenticeship or training is necessary,

and he categorises such training as informal or formal. On the other hand,

Pellowski (1977:159) asserts that storytellers in the past as well as in the

present received their training in one of the following ways:

1. Through inherited office.

2. Through apprenticeship arranged by a guild or other
professional group.
3. Through apprenticeship on an individually arranged basis.
4. At a school, university, or other formal institution.
5. By means of informal initiative, learning from other narrators at
home, in the community, or through books.

In responding to the question of why storytelling is being ignored in South

African colleges and universities, Respondent D.24 blames the management

173
of such institutions. He claims that South African universities have been and

still are under the control of Whites who are more inclined to their Western

culture. On the other hand, he argues that in South Africa, storytelling is

practised more by Blacks. He acknowledges that Whites know journalism,

which is why journalism features at some universities. He proposes that if

Africanisation is included, storytelling would form part of journalism.

The professional storytellers, Respondents D.7 and D.19, run storytelling

institutions. Respondent D.19 was born in Surinam-Brazil on the North-East

coast of South America and trained as an electronic engineer. He runs a

storytelling academy in Holland called Tory Academia which was established

10 years ago (i.e. in 1994). Respondent D.7, who has run a storytelling

school in England for ten years (i.e. since 1994), shares his experiences.

Respondent D.19 states proudly that he has pioneered storytelling in Holland.

His storytelling academy, Tory Academia, trains storytellers, teachers,

librarians and many others in the storytelling art form. The training course

lasts three months. As a result, he claims that people are now starting to

regard storytelling as a real art form, and he is very optimistic that within five

years the academy will have tripled its present number of storytellers.

As for himself, he claims he did not receive any formal training; he was trained

by his grandmother, his mother, and his father. But he did have voice training,

and he claims to have sung in one black opera, Oxcort Chaplain. Apart from

training people to become storytellers, Tory Academia also trains people to

174
use the techniques of storytelling in their professions. Respondent D.19

argues that whether a person is a journalist, a media worker or somebody

who works in a PR company or a guide in a museum, one can implement the

techniques of storytelling to further one’s own work.

At Respondent D.7’s institution, anyone with a passion for storytelling can

learn how to become one. The training is said to be open to everyone from

the age of 18 to 80, irrespective of grade or standard passed, since he claims

the course is in oral form. After completion, students are accredited with a

diploma certificate which acknowledges the period which candidates spent

studying the course, and the subjects covered.

The duration of the course is three months, but the institution is looking

forward to expanding it. There are six-week courses, two-week courses,

weekend courses and evening classes.

With respect to supporting staff, Respondent D.7 estimated the number

teaching the three-month course at ten. Amongst these are those who teach

the skills of the storyteller, those who work with colour and painting, someone

who works with songs, and one who teaches storytelling and the environment.

Moreover, others teach spontaneous storytelling, impromptu storytelling,

storytelling and healing, storytelling and education as well as storytelling and

edutainment.

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When explaining what they take into consideration when employing these

teachers, Respondent D.7 notes that they should have life experience, as well

as experience in telling stories before various audiences. They should also be

therapists and should be in possession of a teaching diploma. Apart from

satisfying all these requirements, he states that the most important point

focuses on what sort of people they are: what are they like, can they work with

others, and can they listen well?

As to whether storytelling is offered at English universities, he noted that it is,

but not at very many. He estimated that it is offered at one or two, mostly

universities north of London: a friend of his, a storyteller, teaches storytelling

at Middlesex University, for instance. He also mentioned an independent

storytelling institution in the South West of England which is not connected to

a college and which is run by his friend. He believes that there are more

storytelling courses offered in colleges in America.

4.5.1.7. The Absence of story hours at libraries

4.5.1.7 (a) Introduction

The questionnaire was distributed to various libraries (See Annexure H). This

included questions about storytelling programmes held in libraries. Although

the questionnaire was designed for libraries, a copy was also handed to a

museum because it runs a storytelling programme.

176
The researcher wanted to establish whether storytelling is part of regular

activities at these libraries and the museum. The researcher also enquired

whether the institution had a storytelling specialist. Those which did not have

storytelling programmes were requested to furnish the reasons for the

absence of such programmes, in order to get a better idea of the public’s

perception of and attitudes towards storytelling. Furthermore, libraries were

asked whether they would accept any assistance in establishing such

programmes at their institutions.

These questionnaires were all distributed by hand, and as a result were

successfully completed and returned. Some were completed on the presence

of the researcher.

4.5.1.7 (b) Open Coding

Of the two university libraries where individuals were interviewed, neither had

a storytelling programme nor were they ready to accept any help in instituting

such a programme. One interviewee cited the reason there was no such

programme as the fact that their users were not children since they were a

distance education university. The interviewee from the second university said

that the institution felt that storytelling is meant for children and not for

university students.

Although they promised to accept any help whatsoever in instituting a

storytelling programme, two school libraries and one public library cited

177
interesting reasons for the absence of such programmes. One combined

school librarian indicated that African languages were not catered for by the

school, and the other asserted that storytelling programmes were not part of

the school programme. On the other hand, a public library staff member in

Mpumalanga maintained that such a programme had not yet been considered

by that institution. Another public library did not answer the question of

whether they would accept any help on how to institute a storytelling

programme, arguing that the library does not see any importance in such a

programme. To justify the lack of such a programme, one district librarian

explained that there was no space to accommodate such a programme.

The rest of the libraries which do not run storytelling programmes were very

positive about these programmes. The reasons they gave for not having

storytelling programmes ranged from the absence of a storytelling specialist to

the lack of funds to institute such a programme.

4.5.1.7 (c) Axial Coding

Only three institutions (two libraries and one museum) of the 31 questioned

featured a storytelling programme – a representation of 9,7 percent, which is

just a drop in the ocean. The results of the survey indicate that generally the

concept of a library story hour is not known in this country. This is contrary to

the view given by Respondent D.6, who states that libraries are the places

where storytelling really started in Canada. These results are typically

contrary to those of the study conducted by Hardendorff (1963:53) in

178
Baltimore, Maryland, where only one of 43 libraries investigated was without a

storytelling programme, and that library was in the midst of completing a new

building which included a story hour room. The two public libraries

investigated in the present study use librarians to run the programme since

they do not have a storytelling specialist. Only the museum claimed to employ

a storytelling specialist. Of the two libraries with a storytelling programme, one

is in Limpopo and the other in Gauteng, while the museum is situated in

Limpopo. It became evident through the survey that although the majority of

South African librarians and teachers are keenly interested in storytelling

programmes, the dearth of storytelling specialists and the lack of funds

hampers their establishment.

A very similar situation is acknowledged by Hill (1940:288) when she states:

A number of libraries have expressed regret at the

necessity of discontinuing the regular planned cycles of
hero stories for the older children, due to curtailment of
budgets and inadequate staff.

Such interest was highlighted when the Zanendaba Storytelling Organization

and Sibikwa Community Theatre conducted storytelling workshops: scores of

librarians and teachers attended such workshops. Bauer (1983:36) stresses

that stories introduce children to literature and the delights of reading as well

as the heritage of folk stories, while De Vos (1991:7) argues that the rationale

that storytelling leads to books has kept storytelling alive in public libraries.

The notion cited by the two universities, that storytelling is only for children

and not for university students, reveals naivety, ignorance and a lack of

179
creativity. The very same view has been decried by Torrence (1983), who

acknowledges that although great strides have been made in the art of

storytelling, universities and colleges still give little attention to the subject,

teacher education deals with it hastily in children’s literature classes, while

library science students work with it briefly in courses in library programming.

Contrary to this view, Hill (1940:289) maintains that at the University of

Washington in Seattle, the course on storytelling is given in the autumn,

winter, and spring sessions and is credited toward the degree. At Columbia

University in New York there are accredited courses in the spring and summer

sessions and, according to him, a few other university library schools have a

one-semester accredited course in storytelling and a number of those which

do not offer a special course include lectures on storytelling in their general

course on children’s work. In a similar vein, Pellowski (1977:168) notes that

quite a number of universities or institutions of higher learning have placed

storytelling courses in the department of education or in the speech and

drama department. She acknowledges that by 1960 there were about 211

institutions of higher learning in the United States offering some instruction in

storytelling.

In this study, one school librarian cited that her school does not have a

storytelling programme because African languages are not catered for. Such

a reason sounds strange and naive. It suggests that the school librarian is

unaware that storytelling does not have a language or cultural barrier, but that

it is cross-cultural. Johnson and Sickels (1977:284) provide evidence for this

by acknowledging that folktales have circumnavigated the world and are

180
regarded as the most gifted travellers, adapting themselves to culture after

culture.

The respondent who argues that there is no storytelling programme because

it is not part of the school programme implies that this particular school is not

as yet well versed in the Revised National Curriculum Statement. According to

this curriculum statement, the GET band has three learning programmes in

the foundation phase, namely literacy, numeracy and life skills. In other

words, storytelling is accommodated in literacy. In the intermediate and senior

phases storytelling is catered for in the language programmes. Storytelling is

also clustered under drama and performing arts in the learning area Arts and

Culture. According to the policy document on the foundation phase (1997:20)

(Grade R to 3), the specific outcome of language, literary and communication

states:

Learners respond to the aesthetic, affective, cultural and social values

in texts.

Whereas the levels of complexity of the grade R to 3 policy document

(1997:21, 22) outline;

• Listen to and understand stories, rhymes and songs.

• Learners are exposed to plays and stories with a greater degree of
complexity.
• Compare simple, well known stories, pictures.
• Evaluate stories, poems, plays.

The specific outcome of language, literacy and communication for the

intermediate phase (Grade 4 to 6) and the senior phase (Grade 7 to 9) is the

same as that of the foundation phase. There is therefore evidence that

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storytelling is part of each and every school programme in South African

schools. Hence Fenwick (1990:5) argues that although storytelling tends to

have been neglected, it occupies an important place in the National

Curriculum.

The reasons given by the two public libraries to justify the unavailability of

storytelling programmes at their institutions are more or less the same. One

states that the library has not as yet considered a programme of storytelling,

whereas the other admits that they do not attach any importance to

storytelling in their institution. These public libraries appear to be myopic and

ignorant about storytelling. They seem to be aligned with those people who

despise and denigrate storytelling. As indicated above, storytelling forms an

important part of the Revised National Curriculum Statement. The primary

purpose of story hours, according to Hardendorff (1963:56), is that of

interpreting literature with children and inspiring them to read for themselves.

Supporting Hardendorff, Jennings (1991:1) notes that there is an increasing

awareness in education that if people want children to find reading, writing

and learning as fascinating and exciting as some people believe they can be,

then they should listen to as wide a range of stories as possible. The shortage

of accommodation to run such a programme noted by one district librarian

does not really hold water. Story hours can be run even in the smallest library.

In substantiating this view, Moore (1966:10) makes the following point:

No library is too small and none too large to include a

pre-school story hour. No special room is needed.
Even the smallest library usually has a few shelves of
books for children in a location which lends itself to
becoming the story hour “nook” or “corner”.

182
Filstrup (1976:605) acknowledges the museum which sponsored an unusual

programme which exposed three thousand children each summer to stories

and to the atmosphere of the arts. Likewise, a museum in Limpopo is

reportedly running a programme of storytelling conducted by a storytelling

specialist. However, the museum respondents have expressed disquiet about

the treatment which the programme receives from officialdom. When they

returned their completed questionnaires they attached a letter expressing their

disillusionment and dissatisfaction with the government. The curator argued

that they are the ones who have initiated traditional storytelling in South Africa

in general and the first to initiate a collection of folklore and stories among the

Tsonga people in particular. He states proudly that they have been performing

and narrating stories in other provinces as well, and they take pride in the fact

that they have been televised twenty-one times, mainly in countries abroad.

He is delighted to add that because of their good reputation some other

institutions have been imitating them and cited a central American country

that has picked up on their idea. He therefore argues that they are

internationally known, but unfortunately they do not enjoy the same reputation

in their own country.

His main concern is the lack of funds and unsuitable exhibition cabinets which

do not do justice to the fine collection of artefacts displayed in the museum.

He argues that whatever they have achieved thus far has been financed by

him, without any support from the government. In the past there were

professional storytellers who wandered from place to place in their area,

telling stories. He mentions this because of the lack of financial support on the

183
part of the government: the pride in the past is destroyed and has been

replaced by party political illusions. He fears that they will find it impossible to

run the museum any longer unless assistance is provided soon.

To his dismay, when he alerted the government to the need for research and

the preservation of our national heritage, he claims to have been reprimanded

and scolded for interfering in the wisdom of political leaders. He points out

that, because he is opposed to their views, he has been threatened with the

withholding of any future support for the museum. For that reason, he claims

to be preparing a total withdrawal from his present activities, since his work is

presently disregarded.

4.5.1.8. Urbanisation and Industrialisation

4.5.1.8 (a) Open Coding

Like mass media and technology, urbanisation and industrialisation are also

regarded as obstacles in the way of storytelling in the country. According to

Dorson (1972:41), during the twentieth century, there was a controversy

between the urban, technological, mass-production and mass-consumption

culture and the rural, peasant, and folk culture. The problem was that the

values of tradition were being relentlessly crushed by the streamroller of

industrial civilisation. The danger as that, within a few years there would be no

signal of any folklore and therefore no need for any folklorists (ibid, 1972:41).

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Respondents D.1, D.9, D.28 and D.29 believe that in the past storytelling was

more feasible because life was not as hectic as it is today. Traditional people

were not exposed to industrialisation or modernisation. People woke up in the

morning, men went to the fields, women would stay home looking after the

children, or perhaps join the men in the fields, while boys would herd the

cattle. However, nowadays people go out to work. When they get home they

are too tired to find time for telling stories. Children must go to school and

when they get home their timetable is full and they do not have time for

storytelling either. In acknowledging this, Canonici (1993:26) remarks that

nowadays the school cuts deep into children’s free time, traditionally devoted

to relaxing activities. That is why even in the olden days it was a taboo to

narrate stories during the summer months. This was when adults were busy in

the fields and children were herding livestock. When both parties came back

in the early evening they were all tired, and there would be no time for leisure.

The same view is taken by Raṅanga (1997:4) when he says:

In Venḓa culture these folktales were strictly narrated during

the winter season when there was plenty of leisure time for
both young and old as the livestock would be roaming freely
in the fields and the sheaves would have been brought into
the store houses. The reason why tales are not told during
the day was that this pastime is so appreciated that they are
afraid to devote too much time to it. People would lose all
inclination for work, should they start it during the day, when
adults are typically occupied with handcraft and children with
their clay work.

According to Respondent D.13 and D.29, another difficulty besetting

storytelling is the fact that these days people are more inclined to live far away

from their grandparents; they no longer live in large communities where there

are aunts and grandparents to tell them stories. There is no longer an

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extended family; rather, there is a nuclear family since the grandchildren have

immigrated to the townships with their parents. Respondent D.29 claims that

the mother and father are busy, their house helper has many things to do and

children must go to school where they are kept very busy. She further asserts

that there is no one left to tell stories. Respondent D.10 adds that the up-turn

in economic development and education after the Industrial Revolution in the

19th century has had a detrimental effect on skills such as storytelling in many

countries. Supporting this view, Lipke (1996:3) claims that the dispersion of

families has disturbed the custom of storytelling since storytelling used to be a

family custom. The same view has been echoed by Raṅanga (1997:5) who

remarks that these days many people live in towns or townships, in small-

sized families and they have no live-in grandmothers to tell stories. The only

time family members come together is during holidays and sometimes at

weekends.

On the other hand, Respondent D.7 argues that, historically, there are many

issues which have affected storytelling, the first of which was the invention of

the printing press. When people moved from the oral tradition to the literary

tradition, he claims, change was so drastic that it impacted negatively on

storytelling. Such a view is also held by Greene (1996:4) who indicates that

with the invention of the printing press in 1450 scholars began to write down

the stories and by so doing the oral tradition began to wane. She further

maintains that the storyteller’s role as historian, genealogist and news bearer

was usurped by the print media and storytelling gradually lost its spiritual force

and became mere entertainment. In condemning the advent of print, Livo

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(1994: xiv) states that stories are now frozen in books in such a way that

people no longer spend the long, dark winter nights telling one another

stories.

According to Respondent D.7, the invention of electricity also affected

storytelling since people can now stay up for many hours at night.

Respondent D.7 believes that people are now able to read much later into the

night. He sums it up thus: the printing press began to detract from storytelling

and the electric light played its part later in the sense that it allowed people to

read late into the night. In condemning electricity, Canonici (1993:266) asserts

that it has destroyed the atmosphere of mystery necessary for a folktale

performance, where fantasy and reality merge. He argues that electricity

penetrates every corner of the modern home without leaving any room for the

vivid imagination of the child. This view has been supported by Livo (1994:

xiv) who claims that the light bulb has destroyed storytelling.

Respondent D.10 asserts that because of the advent of urbanisation and

industrialisation, there is less time, less space and less connectedness

between people, which leaves little opportunity for storytelling to take place.

Today, in terms of time, space, creativity and connectiveness between

people, a situation of every man for himself has been created and people no

longer share or care together in many ways. This is echoed by Canonici

(1993:265, 266) who says:

The fragmentation of community life, from the patriarchal clan

to a cosmopolitan township, has caused people to lose their

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 cultural ties and identity. The individual’s function is seen
within the nuclear family, to the exclusion of even the closest
neighbours who may be regarded with suspicion, as strangers
or possible enemies. The politicization of school-going youth
and the random and barbarous killings of the last few years
have caused suspicion and division even within the family.
Mothers are scared to allow their children to play in the street
and to meet their peers, thus bringing to an end the kind of
community life which is essential for the creation and
performance of folktale.

Respondent D.31 is concerned that when people become more urbanised,

they believe they should not do certain things any more. He laments that

when people have a talent which simply requires tapping, urbanisation and

industrialisation have unfortunately blurred their focus. Canonici (1993:267)

notes that there has been a tendency in the past to overlook what is typically

African or to consider it of little value.

Respondent D.21 argues that with the advent of urbanisation and

industrialisation where television, radio and the internet are in the

groundswell, the old way of telling stories does not work anymore. In

supporting this view, Respondent D.10 claims that urbanisation and

industrialisation have had a negative impact on storytelling because they

breed stress.

Respondent D.10 is of the opinion that present day life has also had a

negative effect on storytelling because she claims it breeds stress and further

robs people of time because everybody is moving around at the same time.

According to her, storytelling requires time and a sense of creativity, but at

present there is less time, less space and less connectedness between

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people. She posits that the hectic schedule of present-day life creates a

situation of every man for himself, and people no longer share or care

together.

Confirming Respondent D.10’s viewpoint, Respondent D.28 affirms that at

present, life is so hectic that people do not have time for story enactment. She

claims that their mindset is focused on day-to-day activities to such an extent

that they think there is too much to be done and too many places to visit such

as cinemas and shopping malls. In supporting this view, Respondent D.29

confirms that since people live in nuclear families these days, and father and

mother are so busy, there is no one to tell stories. The only time family

members come together and are at leisure is during holidays. But even

holidays can be hectic as they are often spent in hotels, or in touring or hiking.

4.5.1.8 (b) Axial Coding

Respondent D.21 proposes that a new format be found for storytelling to be

performed in a different way, in line with new technological developments. In

affirming Respondent D.21’s idea, Respondent D.9 suggests that in terms of

industrialisation, people should move with the times in order to incorporate

Western machinery in storytelling. Whatever urbanisation and industrialisation

have brought should be used to the advancement of storytelling. In supporting

this view, Phafoli (2002:2) indicates that in order to achieve economic

development in our country, we must utilise the available resources to meet

current socio-economic challenges.

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Respondent D.1 rejects the idea that urbanisation and industrialisation have

had a negative effect on storytelling. According to her, urbanisation and

industrialisation have only changed the mindset of human beings. She

concedes that in urban areas people hold festivals of storytelling in market

theatres and at schools. She claims that it is the format, the setting, the time

and the methodology which have changed as we are a dynamic society but

she stresses that storytelling still goes on. The question is, how do people

shape what they have to use in the recent environment. Hence Bausinger in

Dorson (1972:43) renounces such a notion and asserts that:

We no longer believe that industrialization necessarily

implies the end of a specific folk culture, but rather we
attempt to trace the modifications and mutations undergone
by folk culture in the industrialised and urbanised world.

In a similar vein, Respondent D.9 affirms that in terms of industrialisation

people need to move with the times as they need to incorporate the Western

machinery in storytelling. She claims that people should use it to their

advantage. She cites as an example China, which has advanced so

successfully because of its own culture. She points out that the Chinese have

incorporated the industry in terms of mining into their culture. She mentions

too that Indians are where they are today because of their communal unity. In

contrast, she claims that black people, because of Western influences and

values that they claim to own, have lost their communal bond. She therefore

advises them to go back to their original way of living together and believes

that this is where they will find the viability of storytelling in terms of

developing it and taking it to the great heights of industrial development.

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Canonici (1993:267) claims that while there has been a tendency in the past

to overlook what is typically African, or to consider it of little value, there is

now a renaissance of the feeling that African culture, as enshrined in the oral

traditions, has a great deal to contribute to the proper development of a

national culture. In supporting this view, Peterson and Fenton (2000:217)

emphasise that storytelling is an ancient oral tradition, currently enjoying a

remarkable renaissance.

Fitz-Gerald and Gunter (1971: ix) point out that a storyteller is vital to the child

who may have missed stories because of too much television or parents who

are too busy.

Respondent D.1 is against the view that the hectic schedule of present-day

life has had a negative impact on storytelling. According to this respondent,

people are dynamic in that the original format, times, setting and methodology

of storytelling has changed drastically. She notes that storytelling sessions still

occur at places like market theatres and schools. She emphasises that

modernisation has simply changed the mindset of human beings.

Emphasising this, Chesaina (1997:ix) maintains that if culture is a dynamic

process, it is inevitable that oral literature should be equally dynamic. He adds

that besides modification in the course of performance, oral literature’s

vibrancy is maintained by cultural development. He believes that no culture is

static. A culture is given dynamism by its openness and willingness to

respond to and adapt to changing social and historical circumstances.

Chesaina goes on to say that the interaction between people and external

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cultures introduces new elements. One of the challenges facing the

researcher, according to Chesaina, is the need to maintain the dynamism of

the art. In an attempt to elucidate this notion, he poses a question: “How does

a researcher record oral material for posterity without condemning it to freeze

on cold, inert pages?” (ibid., 1997:ix).

In substantiating this view, Phafoli (2002:6, 7) explains that people are at

present living in a world of modern technology, which affects their lives

directly or indirectly. Taking into consideration the fact that African folklore is

not a static literature but remains ever changing and dynamic, people have to

harness modern technology, especially the media, to promote it in order to

fulfill their goals.

4.5.1.9. The Mass Media and Technology

4.5.1.9 (a) Open Coding

Mass media and technology are regarded as one of the biggest stumbling

blocks facing the enhancement of storytelling in this country. Respondents

D.4, D.15, D.20, D.26, D27, D.28 and D.30 all argue that people are so

inclined to and obsessed with media entertainment at night that there is no

time left for storytelling.

In a similar vein, Fortune (1974: ii) avers that the radio, films, books and

television have replaced for many the recreational aspect of ngano. Such a

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view has been echoed by Wolfram (1972:41) who acknowledges that

storytelling dies out because people prefer to read the printed texts or to see

the story as a film or television show. In supporting this view, Dorson notes

that the omnivorous mass media of television, films, recordings and radio

absorb and engulf all kinds of folk themes and formulas.

Respondents D.44, D.30 and D.31 argue that, currently, the media is not

doing enough to promote storytelling. In his criticism of modern technological

devices, Respondent D.7 claims that the invention of these devices has cut

people off from nature. He further claims that they have prevented people

from living with each other as they no longer need the company of others

since these entertainments are all-consuming. Respondent D.15 believes that

an environment that is conducive to storytelling is that of the village where

there is no screen, no radio, or anything like that. She further states that

technology is killing the spirit of storytelling in this country. This view is shared

by Marivate (1973:19) who intimates that before the advent of radio,

storytelling was the main pastime of African people. Johnson, Sickles and

Sayers (1977:719) emphasise this view by confirming that before the advent

of printing, storytelling was the chief means of recording and preserving

history as well as ideas and remembered emotion.

Respondent D.20 argues that one of the problems facing storytelling is that

people are competing with what is happening generally in globalisation and

technology, such as computers, television and the internet, especially in urban

193
areas. All these factors combine with the result that people do not realise that

there is something missing.

Respondent D.21 is not against the use of technology to help storytellers to

tell their stories, but she is very concerned about the misuse of technology

when telling stories. She believes that at present storytelling is in a phase

where it is difficult for story writers and developers to move to a new level at

which stories would work within the context of our world today. When we were

growing up, we did not have technology: all we had was older people, who

had creative ways of teaching us values and principles through storytelling

since there was no technology to help them to tell stories. Now, she argues,

black people have not really managed to find a creative way of integrating

stories with technology. She stresses that there is a dire need to use

technology to tell stories. She concludes that instead of learning and

understanding technology to tell stories, people simply hijack technology and

misuse it, allowing the visuals to misrepresent our stories.

Respondent D.21 points out that all local radio and television stations need

stories because ICASA requires us to use our own languages. We need to tell

our own black stories to define our identity. A problem that besets storytelling,

she believes, is that this industry is not being developed at all.

Respondents D.22, D23 and D31, the programme managers of Munghana

Lonene, Phalaphala and Thobela F.M radio stations, all pointed out that at

present they do not have a slot specifically dedicated to storytelling on their

194
radio stations. According to Respondent D.22, the storytelling programme has

been scrapped owing to a lack of support from business people and non-

governmental organisations. The absence of a storytelling programme on

Munghana Lonene FM radio station can be ascribed to a lack of interest in

such a programme among management. This is underlined by the fact that

they have scrapped the programme. A lack of sponsorship to support such a

programme is not the real reason for its scrapping. Where there is a will there

is a way: if they were really interested in the programme they would have

done something to maintain it. Their negative attitude towards a storytelling

programme is manifested by the fact that they claim to have scrapped the

programme because of a lack of sponsorship, but when they sent their wish

list to the sponsor, they did not prioritise storytelling. Instead, they promoted

drama. The programme manager of Munghana Lonene FM’s statement, “It

depends on the priority, some people might feel it might not be necessary to

have storytelling”, implies that Munghana Lonene F.M radio station does not

regard storytelling as something worthy of any dedicated slot or priority in their

annual programme list.

Respondent D.9, an assistant commissioning editor at SABC-TV and

Respondent D.21, the project manager of SABC-TV1 and 2 both

acknowledge that they do not have an autonomous storytelling programme on

their stations.

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4.5.1.9 (b) Axial Coding

Respondent D.6 does not fully agree with the rest of the respondents. She

claims that the mass media can be a useful tool if it is used properly. She

regards it as simply another form of storytelling. According to her, more

storytellers are gaining exposure through the media. Respondent D.15 notes

that technology can be used to the advancement of storytelling. Respondent

D.4 recommends the use of technology since he claims that it is doing its best

to preserve storytelling.

Since children these days are so fascinated, even obsessed, with the mass

media, Respondents D.13, D.25, D.26 and D.30 recommend the introduction

of storytelling programmes in these media. Furthermore, they mention that if

children see that people are earning their living through storytelling, they may

develop a passion for it too. In his plan to redress the problem of the non-

professionalisation of storytelling, Respondent D.31 claims that his radio

station plans to embark on various road shows to ensure that storytelling

becomes professionalised, and he adds that they plan to do this in partnership

with the print media and with storytellers themselves, which may be a way of

assisting them.

In acknowledging the significance of television to storytellers, Respondent

D.21 states that television makes storytellers famous. Respondent D.17, D.19

and D.29 say that the media reach many people, unlike one single storyteller

who can only reach a few. They argue that a storyteller is but one person with

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two feet, but when using a television or a newspaper one is able to touch

millions of people. Respondent D.21 believes that if storytellers are featured

on television, they will receive greater exposure and will gain respect. She

claims that with the advent of television, radio and the internet, the old way of

telling stories no longer works. People should find a new format and adapt it.

They need to practise storytelling in a different way now, through technology.

In affirming this view, Respondent D.9 points out that in terms of

professionalising storytelling, people should incorporate all the tools that they

have today in the process of telling stories: the computer, the telephone,

recordings, radio, television, videos and so forth. Respondent D.14 mentions

that sometimes he uses film and video to tell his stories, whereas Respondent

D.21 states that Gcina Mhlophe tells her stories through animation.

Respondent D.19 notes that, as a professional storyteller, he will never regard

mass media as a competitor. He argues that he is not a donkey shed, he the

cannot fight against the windmill. He further argues that this is the new media

and they are storytellers, they are the old art form and they will use whatever

new media it takes to convey their message to the world. And if they are

lucky, they will be called to perform on stage because of the mass media.

With this in mind, Respondent D.19 claims that as a professional storyteller

and an electronic engineer he does not have any difficulties with the technical

aspect of the media. Affirming this, Canonici (1993:3) maintains that oral

tradition is not a static store house, but a dynamic force. He suggests that oral

records are changeable: they could be described as present day reflections

on past events. In a similar vein, Phafoli (2002:6) contends that we are

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presently living in a world of modern technology, which affects our lives

directly or indirectly. Taking into consideration the fact that African folklore is

not a static literature but is ever-changing and dynamic, Phafoli (2002:6,7)

suggests that we harness modern technology, particularly the media, to

promote it and fulfill our goals.

Respondent D.29 remarks that what is commendable about storytelling on

television is that it becomes a programme enjoyed by the whole family. She

emphasises that it becomes family entertainment, and not unsuitable for

children. She believes that television and radio are modes that provide huge

opportunities, but admits that there is no money in them, especially in this

country where copyright exists. Instead, she recommends that television and

radio be used as a base or a stepping stone to publicity. In the long run,

storytellers will be invited to perform at international functions. Respondent

D.10 is of the opinion that children these days are generally much more

involved in technology than in any other form of entertainment. Nevertheless,

she believes that a way should be found for storytelling to co-exist with it. In

supporting this view, Dennehy (1999:40) acknowledges that even in the age

of technology, the well-told story maintains its power to inform and inspire.

Phafoli (20002:6) maintains that the media is but one important channel

through which African folklore could be marketed, advertised and promoted.

He adds that this is one way of advertising our skills and talents to the public,

and making them aware of some of our existing oral literature. People across

the world can develop some form of interest in our productions. He points out

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that as they do so they may visit such countries as tourists to view and

purchase some of the traditional material (ibid., 2002:9).

Respondent D.17 points out that the disadvantage of the mass media is the

fact that stories that come out of Hollywood and places like that are not

always good for people. Echoing this view, Respondent D.19 claims that the

problems of the technical media are caused by those who run the

programmes: since they are commercialised, neither the public nor the

government can control them.

On an angry note, Respondent D.21 claims that television personnel are

commandeering technology and misusing it and misrepresenting the visual

aspects of our stories. She recommends that these personnel learn to use

technology in such a way as to encourage people to watch these

programmes.

Now that television is so influential, Respondent D.1 maintains that people

should examine how they mould their lives in order to accommodate

storytelling. She suggests that people allow storytelling to develop. They must

recognise that they are in competition with the television: the pressure is on

them to make their stories so engaging that their children will eventually ask

them to switch off the television so that they can listen to their stories.

Unlike the other respondents, Respondent D.28 is convinced that technology

is an advantage in terms of storytelling on television. She acknowledges that

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there are many successful storytellers on television, such as Gcina Mhlophe,

Nandi Nyembe and others. In this way, technology is actually helping to keep

the tradition of storytelling alive. She does concede, however, that watching

someone telling a story on television is not the same as listening to them in

the flesh. She recommends that people use the medium of television to

encourage others to move to live storytelling. In her endeavour to compare

the two sides of the coin, Sanborn (1949:274) concludes that no one can

surpass the expert teller of tales. The storyteller can give to children what

radios, records, moving pictures and television can never give: the personal

enjoyment of a story told. The same view is held by Canonici (1993:266), who

remarks that the mass media is superficial and fragmentary, and cannot

replace the holistic traditional culture which was known and sanctioned by the

whole society.

In line with Respondent D.28’s view above, Respondent D.19 comments that

when people discover a new medium they are often enamoured with it, but

sooner or later they discover its limitations. He argues that television itself is a

one-dimensional medium whereas a storyteller is not. Elaborating,

Respondent D.19 adds that the storyteller relates a story, creating images

with words. These images penetrate the minds of his audience, and they

create their own images and colour them in their own way. He argues that, in

contrast, television does not do this: television provides, for example, a story

that is coloured and clear. People’s imaginations go no further, and the image

is complete. In stressing his point, he reiterates that television is one

dimensional, people cannot touch the storyteller, they cannot talk to him/her,

200
and they receive no feedback. He argues that people long for the return of the

human resource element. When people perform in the flesh there is more

interaction than when one simply views television. In support of this view,

Respondent D.18, a storyteller from Augustine, Georgia in the US, who is also

a journalist, claims that he ventured into storytelling because it has something

journalism lacks, that the mass media lacks – that person-to-person

connection. He emphasises that storytelling provides such a connection and

this is why he wanted to be part of the storytelling community. Chambers

(1977:10) argues that technology has an effect on the art of storytelling since

these productions are just that – productions – and could never be taken as a

substitute for a storyteller. In affirming this, De Vos (1991:5) mentions that

television is a one-way means of communication, but in storytelling there is

interaction between the teller and the audience. Listeners are active, working

with the teller to conjure up images. The storyteller transmits not only the

content of the story, but something of himself/herself and individual members

of the audience often reciprocate by sharing something of themselves with the

teller. To make it clearer, Chambers (1977:10) elucidates:

Story time is a mutual creation, with the storyteller and the

listener creating together a world built on words and
imagination. Storytelling cannot be mass-produced and still
retain its flavour and magic. Teachers need not fear the
competition of the electronic storyteller, which is a poor
substitute for the personal experience that even a novice “real”
storyteller can provide.

The ancient art of the storyteller has a valid place in today’s

modern world. It has a special place that cannot be filled by
any reasonable facsimile, no matter how polished or how fine.
The personal communication that comprises the storyteller’s
art, the mutual creation of the storyteller and the listener, can

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 exist only when the storyteller and a group meet together and
share.

Chambers (1977:12) notes that the special spark that exists between a

storyteller and her audience is missing when the story is mass-produced by

an electronic storyteller. He concludes that, fortunately, people are still held in

higher esteem than mechanical devices, and that the ancient art of storytelling

still has the power to charm (ibid., 1977:13). In line with this view, Sanborn

(1949:274) believes that no one can surpass the expert teller of tales. She is

convinced that a storyteller can give to children what radios, records, moving

pictures and television can never do: the personal interpretation and the

mutual enjoyment of a story told. However, Groff (1977:277) argues that it is

wishful thinking that the ancient art of storytelling can compete with television.

Two programme managers and a broadcasting manager of three SABC radio

stations in Limpopo Province, Munghana Lonene FM, Phalaphala FM and

Thobela FM, Respondents D.22, D.23 and D.31 respectively, confirm that

their radio stations do not have specific, dedicated storytelling programmes.

According to these managers, such programmes came as an afterthought.

Some storytelling occurs in educational programmes. When asked whether

they are doing anything to secure sponsorship, Respondent D.22 states that

there are quite a number of programmes which they would like to have on air

and that they have submitted a number of features to the airtime sales

department as they must work through them. But he adds which programmes

are sponsored first will depend on priorities, since he claims that some people

may feel that storytelling is unnecessary. Since their priority in the previous

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year had been drama, the lobbying and motivation that year was to secure

money to produce drama. Unfortunately, this was not supported. The

implication in his statement is that even if they are successful in acquiring

sponsorship for such programmes, this will not necessarily mean that

storytelling will be given preference since they have to work according to

priorities. Respondent D.22 adds, “It depends on the priority, some people

might feel it might not be necessary to have storytelling.” Respondent D.22

points out that they have had to prioritise programmes since they work

according to a set budget on a yearly basis. He claims that since there was a

cut in budget for the previous year, drama was not supported either although

it was their priority.

Respondent D.23 indicates that the programme which caters for storytelling

on their station, “Ri guda Tshivenḓa”, is aired on Mondays at 21h30.

According to this respondent, the absence of an authentic storytelling

programme on Phalaphala FM radio station is due to the unavailability of a

storytelling specialist to run such a programme. The programme manager at

Phalaphala FM, Respondent D.23, expresses some enthusiasm for

storytelling. This is evident in the fact that although there is no fully-fledged

storytelling programme on the station, one has been running on an ad hoc
basis.

Respondent D.31 mentions that Thobela FM, as a public broadcaster with a

mandate to teach, educate and inform, faces the daunting task of

resuscitating storytelling as the majority of the youth are ignorant of their

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Africanness. Storytelling happens on an ad hoc basis on Sundays in the

programme “Ma-Africa Tumelong”. He notes that they have submitted their

wish-list to the content hub or content enterprises which is the wing of the

SABC which has prioritised storytelling. He says further that if everything goes

as planned, by April next year (i.e. 2007) they will start a new programme

schedule which will include storytelling in its line-up. The broadcasting

manager of Thobela FM, Respondent D.31, reveals a passion for and a

commitment to the art form of storytelling. Although there is no autonomous

storytelling programme on the station, it is aired occasionally. Unlike

Respondent D.22, Respondent D.31 says that as a station they will solicit

funds for a storytelling programme from Content Enterprises. There is no

doubt of the advocacy for storytelling programme and its viability in such a

scenario.

Respondents D.9 and D.21 confirm that, like the Limpopo Province SABC

radio stations, the only slot available for storytellers at their television complex

is in educational programmes.

When asked whether such storytelling programmes are well enough

developed as they are, Respondent D.9 argues that much is needed to

augment them. He argues that they are allotted too little time and too few

slots. In order to cater for different language groups and cultural diversity,

Respondent D.9 proposes that more programmes be made available to allow

storytellers to fill a particular slot regularly.

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On the other hand, Respondent D.21 affirms that they have a programme

“Fundani Nathi” which is filled by the storyteller Nandi. She praises her and

rates her highly since she tells her stories in various languages.

4.5.1.10. Non-intervention by government and non-governmental

organisations (NGOs)

4.5.1.10 (a) Open Coding

In response to the problem of the non-professionalisation of storytelling in

South Africa, many respondents point fingers at the government.

Respondent D.11 claims that a person who is hungry cannot achieve

anything, as he/she loses focus easily.

Respondent D.2 claims that during the apartheid era some storytellers even

went to the extent of going into exile as they were unhappy with the apartheid

regime.

According to Respondents D.21, D.22, D.27 and D.31, the Department of Arts

and Culture should be responsible for the storytelling art form. Respondent

D.22 believes that the government should have used this department to

promote storytelling, but this has not been one of its priorities. But he is

adamant that he is optimistic that in the near future the government will

concentrate on things such as indigenous games. When asked why they had

not presented their plans to the government or local municipality so as to

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solicit funds, Respondent D.27, the Artistic Director of Sibikwa Community

Theatre (during their 6th Annual Storytelling Festival) retorted angrily that the

process was so complicated that she could not face it. She blamed the

government and the Metro for saying one thing and doing absolutely nothing.

When asked why they had not approached the higher office of the

Department of Arts and Culture or PANSALB as the local municipality has not

responded to their plea, Respondent D.27 went on and say:

Can I assure you: files of correspondence with Arts and

Culture, the Heritage Department, files and files of
correspondence, and trying to set up meetings and nobody
answering phone calls or e-mails. They can talk, you see;
instead they want to put the blame on everybody else, they
don’t do their jobs. It’s not that we are anti, really it’s not that
we are anti. We are just tired.

Conversely, Respondent D.24 and D.28 disagree vehemently with the above

respondents who shift all the blame onto the government. Respondent D.28

contends that people should not wait for the government to do it for them or

for Sibikwa to organise it for them. Respondent D.29 cites a lack of

sponsorship as an issue which exacerbates the problem. However,

Respondent D.23 puts it thus: sponsorship does not come easily, but people

should draw up a plan of action before seeking it.

The respondents suggest that there has been an uproar from the public as the

Department of Arts and Culture is seen to be doing absolutely nothing to

address the problem of revitalising and professionalising storytelling in this

country.

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4.5.1.10(b) Axial Coding

Respondent D.1 and D.11 are confident that since storytelling is not only for

individuals, but also for the nation, storytellers should get support from the

government. She reiterates that storytelling is for everybody, and the

government should support it because it is part of people’s cultural heritage.

Respondent D.2 feels daunted by the art form since he claims that in South

Africa the situation differs from that in England or the USA where storytellers

can earn a living through storytelling. He argues that in those countries there

are different kinds of sponsors, but here in South Africa things are extremely

difficult for storytellers because the government does not care about artists.

He believes that the government should sponsor storytellers just as it does

any other group. Respondent D.2 argues that the government must take care

of storytellers since they had a hand in saving the country from the quagmire

of apartheid. He points out that storytellers have played a role in bringing the

apartheid regime to its knees through their political stories and by telling

stories about what was happening here in other countries. On the issue of

support of an art form such as storytelling, Kaschula (2001:186) recommends

that the government will have to do more than it is seen to be doing currently.

For instance, in the US, as early as 1910, Gudrum Thorne-Thomson’s

storytelling programme was sponsored cooperatively by the Chicago Public

Library and the Public Recreation Department, as acknowledged by Baker

and Greene (1977:13).

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In his scathing attack on the government for its reluctance to promote oral

literature, Kaschula (2001:186) eventually recommends that the government

at local and state level should plan and properly supervise and fund the

traditional institutional festivals in each council. He further states that in

addition to direct government involvement, private organisations, companies

and philanthropists should be encouraged to fund such competitions.

Although they acknowledge and appreciate the support given by

sponsorships, Respondents D.24, D.28 and D.29 propose that storytellers

should not wait for sponsorship but should forge their way forward on their

own. Respondent D.28 claims that people who want to professionalise

storytelling should be more proactive, and should go out and make it happen.

Hence the Venḓa adage: “Hu vuswa i ḓivusaho”, figuratively translated as

“People offer help to a person who is trying to achieve his/her objective by

whatever means”. As the adage implies, storytellers should take the initiative

and forge ahead with storytelling plans, without waiting for the government or

sponsorship. Respondent D.24 encourages people to take the initiative

themselves. He argues that people should research areas and approach the

Department and partners with their ideas. He believes that people should not

wait for the Department to do everything for them because it has its own

priorities, and storytelling might not be one of them. Respondents D.24, D.28

and D.29 are sure that if they are successful in securing sponsorship, this will

augment whatever resources they have; but if not, they recommend that

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storytellers should work on a plan. In most cases the government and non-

governmental organisations will assist projects which show remarkable

progress.

Respondent D.9, an assistant commissioning editor at SABC-TV, is optimistic

that the culture of storytelling is growing by leaps and bounds because the

South African government intends incorporating storytelling in celebrations on

Heritage Day. Through this move the South African government is making

great strides and should be highly commended. Although storytelling was not

accommodated at the inauguration of the first black president in South Africa

in 1994, poets and praise singers were given a chance to grace the

celebration. During the unveiling in Germany of South Africa’s logo as host of

the 2010 Soccer World Cup, Gcina Mhlophe, the renowned South African

storyteller, was among the South African delegates.

In answer to what the national Department of Arts and Culture is planning to

do to revitalise and professionalise storytelling, Respondent D.20 explained

her department’s detailed plan. Her department has established Language

Research and Development Centres in institutions of higher learning around

the country. Relevant focus areas within these centres will focus on promoting

literature and storytelling. A language museum is also planned where all work

on language development and the history of our languages will be preserved.

Also to be established is a Language Council to acknowledge the professional

status of the language professions.

209
According to the researcher’s observations, the provincial Department of Arts

and Culture in Limpopo runs written storytelling competitions in all the African

languages of the area, and the top three entrants receive large prizes.

Moreover, in conjunction with Polokwane Municipal Libraries, Limpopo

PANSALB branch and some companies publishing in indigenous languages,

they often run Limpopo Indigenous Language Exhibitions where live

storytelling performances form part of the programme.

4.5.2. THEME 2: Storytelling as part of the school curriculum and as an

autonomous discipline in institutions of higher learning

4.5.2 (a) Open Coding

The three African language lecturers from three South African universities,

Respondents D.13, D.16 and D.32, acknowledged that they do not offer

storytelling as an autonomous discipline at their respective universities,

neither at undergraduate nor postgraduate level. Respondent D.16 does not

think there is any university in South Africa thus far which caters for

storytelling as an autonomous discipline.

In confirming Respondent D.16’s view, Respondent D.8 and D.28 note that

there is no formal programme that caters for storytelling on a full-time basis at

any of South Africa’s institutions. Respondent D.16 claims that there is a

tendency to think that African languages should teach folklore and nothing

else. A major problem, according to Respondent D.16, is that folklore is not

nurtured as a subject. Although he affirms that storytelling forms part of the

210
broader concept (i.e. folklore) at his institution, Respondent D.16 asserts that

they are not as yet at the point where they are able to train professional

folklorists to become storytellers.

One organisation which is the rightful custodian of folklore and has all the

potential to advocate the viability of storytelling, the South African Folklore

Society (SAFOS), leaves much to be desired in its liaison with relevant

institutions and stakeholders to revitalise and enhance storytelling in the

country.

The Pan-South African Language Board, as reported by Respondent D.24,

does not have a specific programme directed at storytelling.

Respondent D.16 concedes that the proposition of introducing storytelling as

a fully-fledged discipline at university level is complex. He does contend,

however, that specialising is one area which depends on students and money.

He argues that at his institution there are limitations of control in terms of

finances and instructions. In concurring with this view, Respondent D.9 states

that another factor which hinders the professionalisation of storytelling is that

of limited resources. This includes resources in terms of finance and

organisation.

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4.5.3. (b) Axial Coding

Most respondents maintain that storytelling should be encouraged by being

incorporated as part of the school curriculum. Respondent D.28, a freelance

storyteller who also works part-time at Sibikwa Arts Centre in Benoni, asserts

that she is involved in teacher training. She believes that there should be a

master, a teacher of storytelling, throughout the school from primary to high

school level. The very same opinion is expressed by Respondent D.13, who

affirms that storytelling should start as early as kindergarten. Respondent D.1

argues that storytelling should culminate in the syllabus just as arts, which is

the eighth learning area. She proposes that storytelling should be one of the

tenets of the arts. In concurring with the above respondents, Respondent

D.17 notes that storytelling has enormous potential power at institutions like

schools and he therefore suggests that it should be professionalised.

In supporting the early introduction of practical oral performances in schools,

Kaschula (2001:1987) recommends:

At the level of scholarship we wish to propose a two-way

approach. First there is need for a general review of oral literature
content, scope and practice. The teaching of culture and
traditional values must begin from nursery education. School
curricula right from the nursery school must be designed to reflect
the significance of the nation’s cultural values and oral tradition,
and as a matter of national policy. Similarly, a re-orientation of oral
literary scholarship must be considered in the universities for the
purpose of accommodating practical learning of oral performances
in poetry, storytelling, drumming, songs, chants, etc.

In substantiating the view that storytelling should have a place at university,

Respondent D.17 mentions that he is running an elective course on

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storytelling with MBA students at Wits Business School. Pellowski (1977:92)

confirms the value of this as she mentions that there have been some schools

of education that include courses in storytelling for teachers as an elective.

Most of the respondents, like Respondents D.17 and D.6, are of the opinion

that storytelling can be used in the classroom in various learning areas to

enrich most of what teachers or lecturers teach at schools, universities,

colleges, technikons and technical colleges. In supporting such a view, Collins

(1997:2, 4) regards storytelling as a powerful teaching and learning tool.

According to him, storytelling can be used across the curriculum and he

believes it is a powerful teaching tool for several reasons. The same view is

espoused by Lipke (1996:4) who propounds a dire need to reclaim storytelling

as both an art and a teaching method. She claims a further need to use

storytelling to teach everything, including Science and Maths in particular.

Respondent D.4, the Language Coordinator at the National Department of

Education, Respondent D.5, the Chief Education Specialist at the National

Department of Education and Respnt D.24, the Manager for Research and

Development at PANSALB, all support the incorpora higher learning.

Respondent level. They propose that such a possibility will only be feasible in

institutions of D.4 tion of storytelling as an autonomous learning area at the

school notes that there are three learning programmes in the foundation

phase of the GET band, literacy, numeracy and life skills. He acknowledges

that storytelling is accommodated in the literacy programme. In the

intermediate and senior phases of the GET and FET bands, languages

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replace literacy, and this is where, according to him, storytelling is catered for.

He firmly believes that it will be very difficult for storytelling to become an

autonomous learning area, since the learning area “language”, which

incorporates storytelling, includes other units such as drama and short stories,

to name but a few. In the GET and FET bands, learning areas are too

general. According to him, the only feasible place for storytelling to stand as

an autonomous discipline is at university level where there are specialisations

of some kind. He doubts the feasibility of such a discipline at undergraduate

level as well, but proposes it at postgraduate level.

Respondent D.5 argues that according to the Revised National Curriculum

Statement on all learning areas, in terms of policy, the learning area of arts

and culture includes music, visual arts and performing arts. He asserts that at

the moment storytelling is not a separate entity, but is still clustered under

drama and performing art. In terms of policy, there are provisions for the

performing arts under arts and culture which include music, dance and

storytelling. He goes on to say that the policy does not elevate storytelling as

an autonomous entity compared to drama, dance and visual arts. He

emphasises that the principle is that when we refer to the performing arts we

include storytelling and that storytelling is a component of drama as well.

According to Respondent D.5, the merits for bringing all the learning areas

and their respective components into the GET and FET bands without

specialisation are that of building a holistic person who is culturally and

psychologically aware of the world around him or her. He claims that these

bands provide all the necessary skills, but when learners reach the exit point

214
they should have the opportunity to focus on specific aspects. He cites the

institutions of higher learning as the exit point at which learners can then

specialise in certain aspects. He points out that when someone goes to a

university to specialise in oral literature, for instance, it is because the interest

was generated in the GET and FET bands. He emphasises that these bands

develop the whole being so that the whole being can then select the specific.

Respondent D.5 concludes by saying that those learners who wish to

specialise in storytelling per se should attend schools of the performing arts

such as Zanendaba Storytellers and the performing art school in Tambo. He

argues that learners cannot be streamed in the foundation phase.

Respondent D.24 holds the same view as Respondents D.4 and D.5, claiming

that storytelling can never be regarded as an independent learning area in the

GET or FET bands. He argues that as far as the new curriculum is concerned,

storytelling is part of languages, unless people are misinterpreting it. He also

agrees with the above respondents (Respondents D.4 and D.5) on the point

that storytelling could be an independent area at institutions of higher

learning. However, like Respondent D.4, Respondent D.24 argues that at the

undergraduate level storytelling will still form part of other learning areas.

According to him, it is only when one climbs the ladder of education that

specialisation in storytelling becomes feasible.

The Artistic Director of Sibikwa Arts Centre, Respondent D.10, believes that it

is important that storytelling should feature at university level. Respondents

D.2 and D.6 agree, proposing that storytelling should form part of the

215
curriculum of schools, universities, colleges, technikons and technical

colleges. Respondent D.6 adds that teachers should be trained to incorporate

storytelling culturally in the classroom: she claims that people will regain a

valuable tool that has almost been lost.

Respondent D.13 states that a particular structure called the Tshivenḓa

Language Research and Development Centre, sponsored by the National

Department of Arts and Culture, is envisaged. This will definitely incorporate

storytelling. Respondent D.16 says that unlike those institutions represented

by Respondents D.13 and D.32, storytelling forms part of the broader concept

of folklore at his institution.

Respondent D.16 attributes the absence of an autonomous discipline at his

institution to a lack of resources such as money, students and people who are

capable of presenting such a course. He adds that one thing which devalues

the essence of storytelling is the people who claim to be folklorists by virtue of

being black, while they are not trained in the art of folklore. The lack of

capable human resources to run a storytelling programme at institutions has

been mentioned by Pellowski (1977:92) as a disquieting one. She says:

Another reason for the paucity of storytelling in the classroom

may well be the extensive course requirements demanded by
various public authorities. Teachers in training must take many
courses that cover subject areas as well as teaching methods
and do not always have time for specialised courses such as
storytelling. Nor are those courses always available in
teachers’ colleges.

Respondent D.16 points out that at his institution they have liberated folklore

from languages, making it a separate and distinct discipline.

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A renowned professional storyteller from Botswana, Respondent D.14,

acknowledges that he attended the University of Cambridge in the United

States in 1995 to study video and film production. Such a programme was a

combination of storytelling and video and film production. He believes that

there are different ways of telling stories, and he wanted to use cinema to tell

some of his stories. He went to the United States because there were no

institutions for film makers in Botswana at the time. Respondent D.7, a

professional storyteller from England, acknowledges that the strongest

storytelling medium at the moment is cinemised film.

Respondent D.16 notes that by giving focus to culture and traditional values,

folklore has been strengthened in languages. Nevertheless, storytelling and

some other oral performances have never been given any special attention or

consideration at his institution since they are not in a position to train any

professionals or folklorists to become storytellers. Respondent D.16 ascribes

the unavailability of such a training course (in storytelling) to a lack of

pertinent human resources to run such a course appropriately. Adding to this,

Zipes (1997:11) contends that oral storytelling plays a significant role in our

lives. He argues that the unfortunate part of it is that most university courses

and studies of literature seem to imply that oral storytelling ended with the rise

of the printing press, or that if it did not end, it has become insignificant in

people’s lives. He pronounces that most university literature courses, except

for courses on folklore, rarely take the connection between oral storytelling

and literature into consideration.

217
He suggests connections that should lead to training in anthropology,

ethnology, and communication. In supporting this view, Baker and Greene

(1977:97) reason:

Administrators of public libraries, schools, and recreation

centres recognize the need for the in-service education of
their staff, both professional and non-professional.
Librarians, teachers, and recreational workers should
insist that storytelling be one of the subjects covered in
these sessions. Even graduates of library schools and
colleges of education need this extra instruction, because
it is not fully covered in most universities.

Respondent D.24 proposes the identification of people who are specialists or

professionals in storytelling and who could help to train people in storytelling.

4.5.3. THEME 3: The establishment of storytelling organisations and

storytelling circles

4.5.3 (a) Open Coding

Most respondents are of the opinion that storytelling in the country has

suffered major setbacks because of the unavailability of storytelling

organisations. Respondent D.29, a renowned professional storyteller from

Kenya, claims that the absence of a storytelling organisation in Kenya is doing

more harm than good to the storytelling industry. Respondent D.9 agrees that

some South African storytellers, songwriters and performers have been badly

exploited by the commercial industries. He further states that if storytellers are

divided and operate on an individual basis, in lieu of working as a united, well-

218
organised group, it will be difficult to get support from the government and

non-governmental organisations, as he sees it, resources are limited.

4.5.3 (b) Axial Coding

Respondent D.1 proposes the establishment of an organisation of storytellers.

She suggests that an imbizo (a call to a general meeting) be called for all

storytellers at which a business plan should be developed. She further

suggests that a sponsor be secured in order to finance the whole venture.

She points out that interested storytellers would then be registered as

legitimate members. She proposes that support should be solicited from the

government in order to sustain such an organisation.

Respondent D.9 proposes that storytellers organise themselves into legitimate

organisations of storytellers. He posits that such organisations will help them

to fend for their rights. Respondent D.9 states:

What I would say is that I would love to see the storytellers

organize themselves, and then they can actually lobby for a
slot to be added and so forth and so forth.

Respondent D.9 goes on to say that the SABC has no right to prescribe what

they should do. He emphasises that it is the responsibility of storytellers to

organise themselves in such a way that if there is a gap that they can fill, they

will be able to come up with relevant proposals. Zipes (1997:11) attributes the

renaissance of storytelling in the Western world to storytelling organisations.

He asserts that over the past fifteen to twenty years, storytelling and fairytale

associations such as the National Storytelling Association in the United

219
States, the Society for Storytelling in the United Kingdom, and the

Europäische Märchengesellschaft in Germany have proliferated and helped to

develop an interest in storytelling in schools, theatres, libraries, hospitals and

old-age homes, as well as in therapy situations, with a focus on recapturing

the live person-to-person storytelling relationship. Affirming this, Torrence

(1983) maintains that the ancient way of the storyteller has survived, and in

the United States there has been a great revival of storytelling from coast to

coast due to the existence of storytelling organisations such as the National

Story League, the National Association for the Preservation and Perpetuation

of Storytelling, and the American Storytellers League, all of which have large

memberships of storytellers and storytelling enthusiasts. Respondents D.1,

D.9 and D.14 suggest that there is finance available within the Arts and

Culture Department and the government. They advise that if storytellers are

united the government will support them, but if they are divided and operating

on an individual basis this will be difficult because resources are limited. Such

a view has been echoed by Kaschula (2001:187) who recommends that

traditional entertainers like poets, drummers, dancers, singers, storytellers,

acrobats, wrestlers and so on, must be encouraged to form associations at

the local government level, and according to each field of specialisation. He

further recommends that each association maintains training schools where

interested members of the public can be trained. The funding and supervision

of such schools, according to his recommendation, should be met by the

government.

220
On the issue of South African artists who are invariably exploited by

commercial industries, Respondent D.9 suggests that storytellers become

legally wise, and have a legal wing within their midst once they have

organised themselves in order to protect their material, resources and every

inch of the event or of any writings or recordings they have done. Monama

(2007:4) in the Sowetan newspaper, April 4, reports that the Metro police

together with artists led by Mzwakhe Mbuli and Ringo Madlingozi raided

house No.26 in Lionel Street, Cyrildene – known as China town – in

Johannesburg East. He further reports that police were able to make arrests

after they found fake DVDs and CDs in a storeroom in Johannesburg the

previous year. According to him, the raid uncovered printing material and

machinery valued at R7 million. Fake CDs were also reported to have been

found.

Respondent D.6, a legitimate member of the National Storytelling

Organisation in America and also a member of the Storytellers’ School of

Toronto and the Canadian Association of Storytellers for Children claims that

not all these organisations are active agents in the promotion of individual

storytellers, but have had networking facilities for professional groups for

some years. This is supported by Greene (1996:6) who acknowledges that

the National Storytelling Association, for instance, sponsors annual

storytelling festivals and summer storytelling conferences. She mentions the

programme published by the National Storytelling Association which includes

storytelling magazines, the National Directory of Storytelling, books and

audiocassettes. Geisler (1997:49) points out the benefits to be had from being

221
a member of a storytelling organisation. Such benefits include meeting with

good people, hearing wonderful stories, practising one’s own telling, being

taken more seriously by others because of membership identity, and forming

networks with people which facilitate finding employment as a storyteller. In

line with this, Respondent D.19, a professional storyteller originally from

Surinam in South America, who runs a storytelling academy in Holland,

postulates that the purpose of an organisation is to promote storytelling by

every means and in every sense.

Respondent D.28 recommends the use of storytelling circles in the revival of

storytelling. She claims that her storytelling circle used to meet once a month.

During their meetings they shared stories and after each narration they would

critically analyse each presentation and help each other wherever necessary.

Respondent D.27 values storytelling circles since she regards them as a

means of grooming amateur storytellers. Dégh (1989:101) regards storytelling

circles as rosary circles. She states:

Mrs Palko belonged to a rosary circle which gathered

each week in different member’s house. When the
service took place at her house, a tale was told after the
prayer, it was a prayer service and everybody who
belongs had come, all twenty-nine of them were at my
place. The house was full and I then told them a story
which they liked. We sat there until midnight.

Likewise, Geisler (1997:5) recommends that developing storytellers should try

to join storytelling clubs and associations where they can share and receive

professional advice as well as emotional support. To emphasise her view,

Geisler (1997:5) remarks:

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 Storytellers just beginning professionally also need a
strong support network. While financial support is helpful,
try to find people who will support you emotionally and
artistically. These can be storytellers and other
performers or appreciative yet critical listeners on whom
you can try out new stories or project ideas.

4.5.4. THEME 4 : Feasibility of Professional Storytelling

4.5.4 (a) Open Coding

The unavailability of some form of incentive in storytelling is doing a great

disservice and irreparable damage to storytellers in particular and storytelling

in general. There is no storyteller whatsoever in the present economic climate

who can just keep on telling stories for the sake of interest, without thinking of

venturing into some other avenue where he or she can make ends meet.

Respondent D.3 believes that in South Africa, and Africa in general, people

still feel that storytelling is something for the family and nothing else. She

notes that there are many storytellers in South Africa, but they are not as yet

professional since they do not earn their living this way.

Respondent D.28, a freelance storyteller and part-time storytelling teacher

from Sibikwa, states that she was involved in teacher training at Sibikwa, but

had to stop because of lack of funding. She is more than willing to go to

schools and work with teachers and learners, but she claims that as a

freelance storyteller, she does need to be paid.

223
Respondent D.25 believes that the reason people have forsaken storytelling is

that they cannot earn their livelihood through the art form. Storytellers do not

profit from their art. According to her, every individual has basic needs such

as food and clothing, which require an income.

Respondent D.25 goes on to say that storytelling is becoming extinct because

people cannot earn their living through it. The reason elderly people are

forsaking storytelling and no longer preserving it is that they believe that

stories are valueless.

Respondent D.14 remarks that due to a lack of finance and other incentives in

the storytelling industry, some good storytellers have had to find steady jobs.

He is sure that if it was not for the lack of financial gain to be had from the

storytelling industry, there would have been more professional storytellers by

now. This is supported by the fact that Respondent D.26, an amateur

storyteller, acknowledges that she has forsaken storytelling because of the

lack of any financial incentive. She argues that she found it wiser to take

certain piece jobs instead of just wasting her time entertaining people for

nothing. As a young person, she does not have the time to practise

storytelling for nothing. She puts it thus: perhaps the only people who do have

the time (to tell stories free of charge) are old women.

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4.5.4 (b) Axial Coding

Both local and foreign respondents share a common view that storytelling

could enable people to earn their living. This became evident when the

interviewees were asked to answer a central question:”Can people earn their

living through storytelling?”

Respondent D.10, a professional storyteller who once lived in England, claims

that way back in history in Ireland the Shanachies literally walked the streets

with what they owned and earned their living by telling stories from village to

village. She also cites the minstrels and the jesters who once lived in England.

She acknowledges that minstrels used to perform storytelling in the market

place and were often part of circuses. It is said that very often, minstrels used

to attach themselves to a royal household or an aristocratic household or

lodge. The jesters, according to Respondent D.10, used to tell stories to kings

and queens. She goes on to say that through their stories and songs they

used to moralise or teach values to the kings and the queens or foretell the

future or guide them in some way. By so doing, it is said such groups were

earning their living through storytelling. Respondent D.10 further points out

that a group which still exists in England today are the gypsies who have a

long history all over Europe and who come originally from an area of Spain

called Romany. The gypsies, according to her, are people who do not have a

fixed abode. They live in caravans, but before that they used to move around

with horse and donkey carts. Essentially they are said to be travelling people

and they do not hold jobs in one place. Gypsies appear in market places or

225
they stop somewhere in the open and they start their storytelling

performances and people give money and that is how they earn their living. In

supporting this view, Baker and Greene (1977:12) explain that gleemen and

minstrels travelled all over England and the continent learning new tales and

passing them on in song, dance and story. These minstrels were found in

many countries such as Germany, where there were minnesingers who were

members of music and poetry guilds, and in Ireland, where allams were

known as master storytellers and Shanachies told their stories by the great

peat fires. As time went by these people began to be exploited since scholars

began to write down their stories and with the invention of printing in 1450, the

minstrel tradition of storytelling began to wane. Sawyer (1962:47) notes that,

going back over a thousand years, storytellers were so valued by the king that

they were highly favoured.

Respondent D.1 claims that in order for a person to earn his/her living through

storytelling such a person should be well advertised. Such a view has been

echoed by Respondent D.31 who says that his radio station is empowering

storytellers by exposing them so that they can earn their living through

storytelling.

Respondent D.1 holds the view that storytelling goes hand in hand with a

number of things such as writing and performing. In his introduction, Maumela

(1987) is perturbed at the thought that folktale carriers might die before their

folktales are entirely documented. On the other hand, Thompson (1946:450)

maintains that many folktale collectors have been primarily interested in

226
making the stories they publish attractive to the persons who might buy their

books. What has been uttered by Respondent D.1 is attested to by

Respondents D.17, D.3 and D.8, who acknowledge that they combine

storytelling with writing storybooks.

Something that could add great impetus to the storytelling industry if prudently

nurtured is the way that storytellers are forming storytelling consultancies, as

noted by Respondents D.17 and D.7. These respondents mention that they

run storytelling consultancies and they are often called by various companies

to help with improving sales, creating a new identity, building their brands, and

relating the history of companies through their storytelling. Wolfram (1970:2)

cites three storytellers who were employed and paid by the Temple

Organisation. Storytellers serve to entertain men who may not have the

means to go to a theatre or who lack access to radio and television, or who,

being surrounded by women and noisy children in crowded living conditions,

have no quiet place in their houses or no other men to talk to. Wolfram further

cites storytelling places in town such as a tea-house where the operator may

ask a storyteller to entertain his guests and reward him (ibid., 1970:2). In

further supporting this view, Ellen (1979:196) acknowledges that a storyteller

was employed to work in a coffee house run by the Iranian National Tourist

Organisation. The said coffee house was frequented mostly by middle to

upper-class Iranians and foreign tourists because the storyteller was

superlative. Chances are that the more clientele patronise the coffee house

business because of such a storyteller, the faster the business will thrive. In

northern Ghana, Agalic (1978:263) avers that quite often women who are

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particularly enterprising when selling pito (the local beer brewed from guinea-

corn), invite a clown or comedian who, in a way, is a professional storyteller.

Such a fellow is witty and resourceful and has a profound knowledge of all the

clans in the area in such a way that he will entertain those who have come to

buy pito and who are prepared to spend a little money on pito for him. It is

said he will tell stories to praise the customers or to tease their rivals and their

clans. For this reason, Agalic says, many people will patronise a pito bar

where such a man entertains his audience and at the end of the day, the

owner of the bar will give him a meal or a little money. He goes on to say that

the following day the storyteller may go to some other person’s shed to spend

the whole day there in telling stories and, of course, in drinking (ibid.,

1978:263).

Respondent D.7 claims that when there is a tense situation amongst

managers and workers in a firm, once he brings a story into such a situation, it

inevitably improves communication. Respondent D.7’s view dovetails nicely

with that of Dennehy (1999:43) when he states:

Storytelling is unquestionably a way to greatly improve

communication in an organisation.

Respondent D.17 further acknowledges that storytelling helps him to earn his

living through various means such as running storytelling workshops, making

storytelling presentations at conferences and teaching the elective on

storytelling at Wits Business School.

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Respondent D.3 holds the view that even though she is a professional

journalist with a degree in communication, nevertheless she tells stories and

is pleased to earn her living this way.

Like Respondent D.19, who runs a storytelling academy in Holland,

Respondent D.7 runs a storytelling school in England which started in 1994.

The first renowned South African professional storyteller, Respondent D.8,

attributes her success in storytelling to her industriousness, originality,

innovation and creativity and in turn encourages amateur storytellers to do

likewise. She acknowledges that in any art form, earning a living means great

dedication and drive and the willingness to learn more about the dynamics of

that art form. She dispels the idea of denigrating storytelling and encourages

people to work hard to ensure that audiences do not get bored.

The two professional storytellers, one from Malawi and the other from

Botswana, Respondent D.15 and Respondent D.14 respectively, claim that

they earn their living by combining storytelling with theatrical performances.

This view has been supported by Pellowski (1977:76) who intimates that there

are some parts of the world in which storytelling has developed as a form of

theatrical entertainment. She maintains that what distinguishes this kind of

storytelling is the fact that it was or is performed in actual theatre-like

buildings. According to her, the audience who goes to see and hear it pays an

entrance fee in much the same fashion as it would for entering a legitimate

229
theatre. Respondent D.14 further notes that he sometimes uses film and

video to tell his stories.

The honour given to the legendary storyteller Gcina Mhlophe by allowing her

to represent her country in Germany during the unveiling of the South African

logo for the 2010 Soccer World Cup is a clear indication that there is a new

respect for storytelling worldwide. Lipke (1996:4) maintains that about twenty-

five years ago there was a groundswell in the storytelling revival, and

acknowledges that there are at present storytelling events and professional

storytellers all across the country.

4.5.5. THEME 5: Ways and means of revitalising and professionalising

storytelling

Since professionalising storytelling in South Africa is still a hard nut to crack,

so various interviewees have provided different views on how to revamp and
professionalise the art form. This section will discuss and analyse such views
to determine whether they are appropriate to developing storytelling.

4.5.5.1. Rendering of voluntary service by amateur storytellers to

community functional gatherings and schools

4.5.5.1 (a) Open Coding

A professional storyteller, Respondent D.8, contends that young people are

no longer interested in volunteering, which works to their own detriment. She

further says they want to become professionals overnight and earn a great

deal of money immediately. She admonishes them, saying it does not work

230
like that, nor has it ever been done like that lest it leads to human crime. In a

similar vein, Respondent D.9 cautions that storytellers themselves should not

court commercialisation: he suggests it will come in time.

Respondent D.8 does not think anyone will come and spot storytellers and tell

them that they are great. According to her, storytellers should develop

themselves. She emphasises that they must keep practising, adding that they

should not practise alone, but with an audience. She feels that this audience

is all around them.

4.5.5.1 (b) Axial Coding

Respondents D.1, D.6, D.8, D.9, D.11 and D.28 all share the common view

that amateur storytellers should start with voluntary work. These respondents

suggest that in order to develop themselves, amateur storytellers should offer

their services to people who have gathered for various reasons. They must

ask to be slotted into their programmes. Respondent D.11 proposes that

amateur storytellers should start by performing at community gatherings or

schools in order to get enough practice. Baker and Greene (1977:15) note

that in the United States, young people travel across the country, telling

stories wherever they happen to be, in places such as campuses, folk

gatherings, libraries, parks and schools. One of the tips given to storytellers

by the administrators of planning and publicity of storytelling is that they

should seek invitations to tell stories to community groups of adults and that

they should also be alert to the possibility of inclusion in community

231
programmes (Barker and Greene, 1977:97). Respondent D.28 recommends

that the best way to learn and ultimately master storytelling is by practising it.

She further recommends that one practises it amongst people whom one

knows. Such a view is supported by Geisler (1997:6) who asserts that it is

usually easiest to begin telling stories to familiar audiences. Respondent D.28

further propounds that storytellers could go to schools to offer their services to

teachers, saying that they will tell stories, and concedes it that if they are still

learning they should not ask to be paid. The same modus operandi has been

encouraged by Geisler, when she states:

Yes, but first you need to gain some experience and see
what it is like to tell before different age groups. You can’t
expect people to pay you when you don’t know what you’re
doing (ibid., 1997:5).

One of the well established professional storytellers, Respondent D.1, shared

her initial experiences in storytelling. She states that when she started as a

storyteller she used to do a lot of voluntary work just like Gcina Mhlophe. In

order to peform voluntary work, she asserts, amateur storytellers should go

somewhere where there is a function and volunteer to entertain learners or be

slotted into the programme without expecting any honorarium in return.

Hrdličkova (1965:238-239) echoes the same view on the end of the term of

apprenticeship. He notes:

The end of the term of apprenticeship was sometimes

marked by a public performance which in the case of
singers t’an-tz’e, took the form of a public contest. Singers
from all over the province gathered at it on about May 19th.
On this day performances were free of charge.

Respondent D.1 mentions a journey which she undertook to Akanani in

Makhado in the Limpopo Province to help people there with the development

232
of storytelling. Since it was voluntary work, she had to find her own transport

by approaching the train company (Spoornet), who gave her a return ticket.

On arrival, she helped the people of Akanani with the development of their

own storytelling manual. At the end of the session they gave her a donation of

R200.00, since they were just beginning, and this she handed to Zanendaba

Storytelling Organisation. Respondent D.1 notes further that once amateur

storytellers have established themselves by rendering voluntary work they can

start requesting a fee. She strongly recommends that amateur storytellers

should start with voluntary work. She believes that once they have advertised

themselves with some voluntary work they will be on the move. Once amateur

storytellers have established themselves in this way, they can approach

people like councillors and sell their storytelling services. In supporting this

view, Respondent D.9 states that storytellers should perfect themselves first.

They should keep on training and practising until they really think that they

have reached the peak. According to him, this is the stage at which

commercialisation can begin.

Respondent D.6 suggests that in order for an amateur storyteller to hone

his/her performing skills, he/she needs to find people who are passionate

about stories and narrate to them. She asserts that the more stories a person

tells to diverse groups of people, the more the storyteller will learn. She

believes that then more people will ask the storyteller to tell them more

stories, and in this way the opportunities for work will increase. She advises

that, as with any art form, people should not expect to earn a great deal of

money immediately.

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Respondent D.8 advises that she used to travel to all kinds of places and

theatres to give free workshops. She acknowledges that all the attendees did

was to bring something to eat at lunchtime and they would work for hours.

She suggests that a good start would be for amateur storytellers to arrange

with schools to go and tell stories at least once a month. Eventually somebody

will appreciate and value what they are doing and Respondent D.8 further

recommends that they receive some incentive. She believes that people start

by giving, and then they will be appreciated, depending on how good they are.

In this way, they are training themselves.

In responding to how the art form of storytelling could be revived, Respondent

D.11 notes that amateur storytellers should practise their narrations in

communities or schools without requesting any payment. She anticipates that

such amateur storytellers will get a wonderful response.

4.5.5.2. Storytelling festivals, workshops and conferences

4.5.5.2 (a) Open Coding

In answer to the question of how people professionalise storytelling in this

country, Respondent D.8 spells the following out in detail. She points out that

there is limited money available for the training of storytellers and there is no

institution for training people on a full-time basis.

Respondent D.27 acknowledges that although the open microphone session

(during storytelling festivals and workshops) has up to now discovered some

234
brilliant storytellers, it is still difficult to develop and advance their potential as

there are not sufficient funds for this.

4.5.5.2 (b) Axial Coding

Respondent D.8 believes that through storytelling festivals and workshops,

proficient storytellers can show amateur storytellers how it is done. She cites

some storytellers who have been discovered during the Zanendaba

Storytelling Festivals at open microphone sessions. Storytelling festivals have

proved to be lucrative since Respondent D.8 notes that during these festivals

a day called “History telling day” is set aside on which historical stories are

told and workshops are held to help people to create new stories. Respondent

D.8 states proudly that one such workshop was most empowering since

people were taught essential skills and given the ingredients for creating a

new story right from scratch. In a similar vein, Baker and Greene (1977:14)

mention that in 1953 Gudrun Thorn-Thomsen was training librarians in formal

workshops and at informal gatherings in the art of storytelling. Respondents

D.2, D.11 and D.15 claim that if communities were to be invited to storytelling

festivals and workshops, they would witness that they could earn their

livelihood through storytelling. This in turn would encourage and revive people

and deter some prospective storytellers from denigrating storytelling. In

supporting this view, Baker and Greene acknowledge that storytelling festivals

have contributed immensely to the revival of storytelling in Canada (ibid.,

1977:15). Respondent D.15 argues that in rural villages there are many

people who are skilled in storytelling. He believes that the best thing would be

235
to bring these people into the limelight so that they can begin to enjoy the

fruits of storytelling. Respondent D.15 proposes that since storytelling festivals

and workshops hold many benefits for the country, the government should

fund storytelling organisations and encourage them to run festivals.

According to Respondents D.2 and D.15, storytelling festivals, workshops and

conferences help to revive storytelling and to inspire young storytellers. In

their confirmation of this, Baker and Greene (1977:15) attest that storytelling

festivals in Canada and the festival sponsored by the CW Post Center, Long

Island University, for the past 15 years, have contributed greatly to a

storytelling revival. Torrence (1983:280) also points out that professional

storytellers are a source of great inspiration to amateurs. Thompson

(1946:454) notes that in Europe, kings used to reward and honour their

storytellers. If given an honorarium or some token of appreciation after their

performance, storytellers can earn their livelihoods through this art form.

When asked what he, as a seasoned storyteller, is presently doing to groom

developing storytellers in Botswana where there are only a handful of

professional storytellers, Respondent D.14 states that in 1994 before he left

for the USA he established a storytelling festival. He used his mother and

some other elderly people to teach storytellers more stories so that they could

grow. He points out that his intention as of now, since he was approached by

different schools to help them with storytelling workshops, is to continue

reviving the concept which he developed in 1994. He is proud to note that at

present he has joined forces with a friend and they have formed a storytelling

236
company called Mokgolokwane. He asserts that Mokgolokwane is there to

cultivate not only the art of storytelling, but other traditional arts such as

dancing, since he claims that one can tell stories through dancing as well. For

him, storytelling is both a means and an end.

Asking why there are not more festivals like the one staged by Sibikwa

Community Theatre, Respondent D.27 argues that such storytelling festivals

would allow people the opportunity to get together privately in their own

circles. She claims that she used to receive storytelling newsletters from

America, detailing weekly storytelling festivals. While she was in Holland, she

attended a storytelling festival in Utrecht which failed to get started because

the theatre was too small to accommodate the attendees. More and more

chairs had to be brought in and ultimately the theatre room was very crowded.

Storytellers had come from as far away as Egypt.

Storytelling festivals and workshops, like storytelling organisations, facilitate

the coming together of storytellers from various storytelling circles, as noted

by Respondent D.27. During such events, storytellers can mix with fellow

storytellers and share things of common interest. Respondent D.2 maintains

that such functions offer the opportunity to exchange ideas with fellow

storytellers. She claims that it is a give and take situation since each will add

what he/she knows. Respondent D.29, a professional storyteller from Kenya,

acknowledges that their fascinating programme encouraged her to accept the

invitation from Sibikwa Storytelling Arts Festival. When she read that great

237
names like Gcina Mhlophe would be featured, she was very keen to attend

the festival and to rub shoulders with such esteemed artists.

There is now a resurgence of interest in storytelling from people from all walks

of life. The Sibikwa Community Theatre in Benoni often stages storytelling

festivals. The audience pays an entry fee. In order to fight escalating inflation,

the Sibikwa Community Theatre has to increase this entry fee every year.

Geisler (1997:80) reminds storytellers to raise their fees every year to keep up

with the cost of living and any increase in the demand for the services. For

that reason, Geisler advises storytellers not to put their prices on their

brochures, unless they clearly list the expiration date of the price (ibid.,

1997:80). Those attending festivals include school children, pre-school

children, prisoners, senior citizens from old-age homes and other interested

community members. Performance is always divided according to three

different phases or groups, pre-primary and grade 1, foundation phase and

intermediate phase and mixed ages. During storytelling festivals, storytelling

workshops are conducted by renowned storytellers where participants are

trained in creating stories, telling stories using puppets, animation and various

other storytelling techniques. Participants include teachers and pre-school

teachers, librarians, actors and storytellers among others. There are open

microphone sessions each day for both young and old where people are

given the opportunity to tell a story. It is wonderful to see senior citizens

participating in these sessions. The open microphone session affords people

the chance to test the waters. Many talented storytellers have been

discovered by this programme. On the last day of the storytelling festival the

238
organisers invariably run a storytelling competition where three contestants

from the audience who tell the best stories are awarded prizes. Like the open

microphone sessions, storytelling competitions during festivals encourage

people to participate in storytelling and in this way some brilliant and skillful

storytellers have been discovered.

Performances and workshops feature renowned South African storytellers

and some prominent storytellers from other African countries. The storytellers

are given an honorarium for their participation. The Sibikwa Storytelling

Festival in October 2004 was graced with the presence of forty-nine American

storytellers who initiated the festivities on the first day. Amongst the group

were professional storytellers, storytellers who worked in storytelling

institutions as teachers and some as directors and others who were

professionals in other fields (telling stories in their leisure time because of

their interest in the art form). Greene (1996:28) provides evidence of two

cousins, Connie Regan and Barbara Freeman, who, after attending the

National Storytelling Association’s first storytelling festival in 1973, decided to

leave their positions as librarians in Chattanooga to become travelling

storytellers. These folk tellers’ success inspired others to leave their first

profession and to join the ranks of professional storytellers. In the present

study, Respondents D.3 and D.19, a journalist and electronic engineer

respectively, decided to forsake their first professions to become professional

storytellers.

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Zanendaba Storytellers went to Limpopo, Vhembe District, in February 2003

where they ran a workshop for teachers and librarians on storytelling

techniques. The participants were not expected to pay any entry fee.

Zanendaba Storytelling Organisation hosted their first International storytelling

conference in Johannesburg in April 2004. All attendants paid a registration

fee for the conference. The conference featured renowned South African

storytellers, famous storytellers from other African countries and some

prominent storytellers from overseas. On each afternoon there were different

workshops conducted by various storytellers. The workshops covered themes

such as storytelling in healing, education, edutainment and

business/organisations. Those attending included teachers, university

lecturers, librarians, people from the Department of Arts and Culture, and staff

from museums. The storytellers were accommodated by the host organisation

in nearby hotels and they were said to have been given an honorarium for

their contribution. The conference was sponsored by Pro Helvetia, the

National Lottery Board and the Gauteng Tourism Authority.

The Limpopo Provincial Language Council, the Limpopo Department of Arts

and Culture, the Polokwane City Library and some companies publishing in

indigenous languages in Limpopo hosted the Limpopo Indigenous Languages

Exhibition in April 2007 in the Polokwane City Library gardens. Storytellers in

Northern Sotho, Tshivenḓa and Xitsonga formed part of the programme.

Those attending the exhibition included school children, university students,

teachers and some academics. They were not expected to pay an entry fee.

240
Teachers and learners were given an opportunity to perform their stories after

the performance by seasoned storytellers. The storytellers were given a little

token of appreciations such as T-shirts, but no monetary incentive

whatsoever.

4.5.5.3. Establishment of information database for storytellers

4.5.5.3 (a) Open Coding

Respondent D.1 remarks that in the past Africans were not exposed to

industrialisation or modernisation where inventions took the place of certain

activities. Respondent D.1 argues that the absence of a database has led

people to presume that there might not be storytellers in the country. She

further believes that people cannot rely on the presumption “I know a granny

around this corner, I know a granny…”. She points out that the uncertainty of

the whereabouts of storytellers in the country results in our treating

storytellers differently.

On the other hand, Respondent D.4 quotes the Venḓa adage “U naka a hu

fani na u ḓihwa” (loosely translated as “People give the best treatment to the

person whom they know, irrespective of his/her beauty”). In attempting to

provide a connotative meaning for this proverb, Respondent D.4 explains that

a person may be very beautiful, but if he/she does not have any network with

others, such a person remains jobless. She goes on to say that there may be

241
many organisations which are in dire need of such storytellers, but because

they are not known, their opportunities are limited.

4.5.5.3 (b) Axial Coding

If a storyteller is to develop into a renowned professional storyteller, he or she

needs a networking system. This is emphasised by Respondent D.4 who

proposes coordinating the system of storytellers by storing their profiles in a

database in order to simplify their accessibility. Respondent D.4 claims that

this will assist in cases where there are agents who are in need of storytellers,

among others.

Respondent D.1 advises that since it is difficult to attend to one single

storyteller, one should find older people who can tell stories and who might be

interested in telling stories to others. She proposes that one should compile a

list of such people, with their addresses and the kind of stories they tell. She

adds that these people should be engaged in a storytelling session and be

given an honorarium. She emphasises that it is essential to develop a

database in which their full information is stored.

In order to empower developing storytellers economically, Respondent D.13

recommends that they be used as tour guides. He suggests that, in order to

take care of tourists, a storyteller should be provided along with the tour

guide, preferably someone skilled in cooking Venḓa traditional food as well.

He proposes that the full particulars of such people should be stored on

computer. He recommends that these people advertise their services on the

242
internet. Phafoli (2002:9) supports the use of the internet in advertising

people’s skills and talents to the public, making the public aware of the

existence of oral literature. He believes that people from other parts of the

world could develop an interest in our productions since they will be able to

access them via the internet. They might even visit the country as tourists to

view and buy some of the traditional material and this could boost the

economy of the country.

4.5.5.4. Marketing, publicity and exposure

4.5.5.4 (a) Open Coding

One setback which is retarding the progress of the professionalisation of

storytelling, according to Respondent D.6, is the fact that a good storyteller

may not necessarily be a good businessman. She claims that a storyteller has

to split herself into two: an artist and performer, as well as a salesperson. The

unfortunate part of it is that these do not always go together. The situation is

further complicated by the fact that there are not many agents for storytellers.

4.5.5.4 (b) Axial Coding

Respondent D.6 claims that she does all her own marketing and sales work.

She regards herself as fortunate as she is endowed with skills which many

people do not have.

243
If storytelling is ultimately to be professionalised, Respondent D.3 remarks

that a great deal of work as well as good publicity is needed. She compares

this to the situation of a doctor who must prove himself to be a good doctor

before people will consult him. She goes on to say:

So, as a storyteller you can be a grandmother and you go

to schools to tell stories. First of all if you phone them and
tell them you are a storyteller, who are you? But if you are
Gcina Mhlophe everyone knows you and will be likely to
listen to your stories. So, that needs publicity, exposure
and some skills.

In amplification of Respondent D.3’s sentiments above, Respondent D.29

comments that one should let the work stand for itself by presenting a

performance of high quality. According to her, quality comes with investment:

investment of time, research, workshops, conceptualisation and marketing.

She believes that marketing is the most important of these. She makes the

quip that storytellers should invest in marketing, shout it out to the people,

meet people and tell them what they are doing. Zipes (1997:13) asserts too

that professional storytellers must concern themselves with marketing

themselves and their tales. Geisler (1997:42) remarks:

When I am giving a performance in an area where I am not

known, I send a letter to other potential bookers in the area
inviting them to preview my show (with the permission of
my booker).

She claims that storytellers should send out proposals, and this depends on

good planning. She is proud to note that their channel has been marketing

itself as they realised that they had to go out and tell people of their existence.

In this regard, Geisler postulates that if storytellers want to target schools,

244
they must refer to a directory of schools in the area and send them their

brochures, together with a form letter explaining their services and prices and

letters of recommendation from other schools. She encourages potential

bookers to call the booker (where she is presently performing) after her show

for recommendations. She cites the words of her colleague Heather Forest,

who says, “Do your best, and word of mouth will do the rest” (ibid., 1997:42).

Respondent D.29 compares the marketing of storytelling to the selling of

commodities like milk or fuel. She illustrates that unless somebody announces

that he is selling milk, people cannot go and buy it.

On the other hand, Respondent D.17 shares his experience of advertising his

storytelling organisation. He sends out newsletters once a month to about 800

people who occupy senior positions in business. Likewise, Greene (1966:177)

suggests the publicising of storytelling workshops through direct mail,

professional journals, local organisations, library systems and radio. Geisler

(1997:39) recommends the inclusion of business cards when handing out or

mailing brochures or fliers. Respondent D.17 further acknowledges that he

used to send people stories which were relevant to business dynamics to

make them aware of their availability on a monthly basis. He notes that his

group publicises their work all the time. He reiterates that they are bound to

do that in business, for if a business gets no publicity or has no

advertisement, people will easily forget that they are there. In amplifying this

viewpoint, Respondent D.20 illustrates that because the Hector Peterson

Museum has been much publicised, every tourist who visits South Africa

245
wants to see it. Geisler (1997:58) advises that at every booking, storytellers

should hand out business cards and fliers advertising their products.

Respondent D.31 is adamant that the duty of the station (Thobela FM radio) is

to expose and tap the talent of storytelling and to make sure that storytellers

are known everywhere. He claims that his main intention is not only to allow

storytellers to earn their living through the station, but also to make sure that

storytelling leaves a legacy. Respondent D.31 is pleased to note that they are

empowering storytellers by exposing them to the world. They are committed

to interacting with them and to assisting them and to making sure that at the

end of the day they are known and that their stories are ultimately recorded

and sold so that they eventually earn their living from the art. This is in line

with Phafoli (2002:6) who proposes that African folklore should be marketed,

advertised and promoted through the media.

4.5.5.5. Storytelling as a tourist attraction

4.5.5.5 (a) Open Coding

Amongst others, Respondents D.11, D.13, D.24, D.25 and D.26 argue that

storytelling is on the brink of extinction. Respondent D.24 maintains that

storytelling is dying out at present because, unlike in the past when many

elderly people used to tell stories to children, today there are few storytellers

to sustain the art form. Echoing this view, Respondent D.11 notes that

storytelling is dying all over South Africa, since people expect grandmothers

to tell the stories. She concludes that if people are not trained in the art form,

it will die out for ever.

246
Respondent D.25 emphasises that storytelling is dying swiftly because

storytellers are no longer available. She also puts blame on listeners who do

not take heed and imbibe the stories to perpetuate them. She believes that

storytelling is no longer common in homes.

According to respondents D.25 and D.26, the problem is compounded by the

fact that storytellers are narrating these stories without getting any payment in

return. Respondent D.26 stresses that, as a young person, she cannot

engage in storytelling for nothing. Similarly, Respondent D.25 remarks that

storytellers and children have forsaken storytelling these days because it

offers no benefit for them. She does not think one can make ends meet

through storytelling. This discourages prospective young storytellers from

venturing into storytelling as a profession.

4.5.5.5 (b) Axial Coding

In order to empower amateur storytellers to eventually earn their living

through storytelling, Respondent D.9 suggests that storytellers should work

hand in hand with the Tourism Department. He proposes that the people who

take tourists around the country should also organise storytellers to entertain

them. In this way, Respondent D.9 maintains, these storytellers could receive

remuneration.

247
Respondent D.19 believes that the Ministry of Tourism should open its heart

and mind to storytelling. It could clear the way for storytellers to perform for

tourists. He further acknowledges that the government decides on the policy

of the tourism ministry. He believes that people should implement the

functions of storytelling more in their daily lives but in order to do so they need

people at the top to open their hearts and minds to storytelling. He claims that

storytelling as a mechanism of human needs should be negotiated with

people in high places, who decide how things should be done. Dorson

(1972:43) argues that the pure folk art of yesterday is not as old as it appears

and might itself have served as a tourist attraction. In supporting this view,

Okpewho (1992:25) proposes that oral traditions in a country can be diverted

into promoting the tourist economy.

In supporting this view, Respondent D.13 emphasises that storytellers should

be used when tourists visit the country. In cases where storytellers are not

fully conversant in the tourists’ language, Respondent D.13 suggests the use

of interpreters. He also upholds the view that storytellers should be used with

tour guides to take care of tourists. Respondent D.13 further says:

Kha ri vha shumise musi ho ḓa vhathu vha ngaho

vhaendelamashango vhane vha khou tou ḓa u dala. Kha ri
vha shumise. Havho vhathu na vhone kha vha wane vha
na mbuelo. Havho vhathu na vhone kha vha wane vha tshi
khou ṱhonifhiwa, havho vhathu na vhone kha vha wane vha
tshi khou dzhiiwa-vho sa vhathu vhane vha kona zwithu
nga u tou anetshela fhedzi. Arali ra nga ita hezwo zwithu, ri
ḓo vha ro ita mutheo muhulwane une zwi nga u konḓela uri
u dovhe u fe, sa hounoni une wa khou fa, une wa khou
ṱhoṱhela.

248
 [ENGLISH TRANSLATION]
Let’s use them when there are people like tourists. Let’s
use them. Let those people also get respect, let them earn
respect by their narrative skills. If we could do that, we
would have built a great foundation which will prevent it
from collapsing, unlike this one which is collapsing, which is
perishing.

In line with this view, Kaschula (2001:186) maintains that a properly

conducted festival is capable of attracting both local and foreign tourists and

thus generating substantial revenue for the government. Ellen (1979:196)

cites a storyteller who was employed in a coffee house run by the Iranian

National Tourist Organisation. This coffee house was frequented by middle to

upper-class Iranians and foreign tourists who wished to attend the storytelling

performance. The storyteller thus attracted clientele to the coffee house. For

this reason, Barnes (1969:43) proposes that Africans find outlets for African

products within and outside the African continent: in the long term, Africa must

prevent itself from being the world’s cheapest market. Phafoli (2002:6)

confirms that through international tours large sums of money could be raised

to benefit African nations. He goes on to say that through this, the

participants’ lives as individuals and those of their families could improve, both

socially and economically.

Apart from training people to become storytellers, Tory Academia, the

storytelling institution established by Respondent D.19 in Holland, also trains

people to use the techniques of storytelling in their professions. Respondent

D.19 argues that whether one is a journalist, a media worker, working in a PR

company or a guide in a museum, one can implement the techniques of

storytelling in one’s work.

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4.6. CONCLUSION

This chapter focuses on the analysis and interpretation of data. The presented

data was collected through in-depth interviews, questionnaires and systematic

observation.

The advent of the missionaries in South Africa, ignorance and the denigration

of storytelling have all had a negative impact on the art form. In order to bring

about a resurgence of interest in storytelling, some form of incentive for

storytellers should be devised. Storytelling programmes should be introduced

into libraries. This remains the most effective way of quickening the powers of

perception and of directing the interests of children towards books. In order to

achieve this, storytelling specialists should be introduced into libraries.

Immediate measures should be taken in order to make storytelling viable and

professional. Amateur storytellers should be encouraged to render their

services voluntarily. Storytelling festivals, conferences and workshops should

be conducted throughout the country, storytelling organisations and

institutions should be established, and government and non-governmental

organisations should support and sponsor the development of storytelling. In

order to save storytelling from obscurity, it should form part of the school

curriculum and should be made an autonomous discipline at institutions of

higher learning. Storytelling should be publicised and promoted through the

mass media, but this should not take the place of live storytelling. Instead, it

should be used to encourage people to attend live storytelling performances.

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Storytellers’ profiles should be stored on an information database to enable

their accessibility to many, world wide. This venture could attract tourists to

the country. Technology, urbanisation and industrialisation should also be

used to advance storytelling.

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 CHAPTER 5

5. FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1. INTRODUCTION

In the previous chapter the collected data were presented and subsequently

analysed. That was done in order to synthesise the constellations of views

from various respondents and to determine systematic and judicious ways of

harnessing storytelling into a meaningful resource for living.

In this chapter, the major themes uncovered in the qualitative and quantitative

investigations are now synthesised into significant findings. In order to

address the statement of the research problem, the findings will be followed

by recommendations.

5.2. SYNTHESIS OF FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS IN TERMS

OF DATA ANALYSIS

5.2.1. The missionaries colonised people’s minds in such a way that

they forgot their culture

The findings of this study revealed that the missionaries had effected a

herculean task by bringing education to Africa and making people literate.

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Although missionaries were the torchbearers of literacy in South Africa, the

damage they did is irreparable. They came to this continent with a “holier than

thou” attitude. The findings of this study reveal that people were made to

believe that their traditional culture was sinful and that they should renounce it

immediately. The findings also reveal that people believed strongly that oral

literature was old-fashioned and they became hostile to their culture and to

those who exhorted them to perpetuate their traditions.

The study noted that the missionaries strove to rob Africans of their identity

and ultimately to inculcate Western values, rather than simply proclaiming the

word of God. They promoted what was Western and suppressed what was

African.

It is believed that the impact of the missionaries is felt even today as some

black people have not as yet learnt to respect their culture. Traditional

activities such as storytelling are still regarded as activities to while away time,

devoid of any value or benefits.

Surprisingly enough, the Bible brought by these missionaries is full of stories

and parables. After King David committed adultery with Uriah’s wife, the

prophet Nathan went to him and deprecated his devious behaviour by telling

him a story of two men, one rich and the other poor (II Samuel 11-12:15).

When Jesus was teaching a large crowd of people beside Lake Galilee, he

used parables: the parable of the sower, the parable of the growing seed and

the parable of the mustard seed (Mark 4:1-34).

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It is known that in the west storytelling has always been more valued and

appreciated. When responding to the question of whether anybody earns a

living through storytelling, Respondent D.3 concedes that in Europe and the

US there are many professional storytellers.

It is further believed that, just as Jesus Christ in his teaching, these

missionaries used stories and parables to convey their messages to people.

Hence Respondent D.10 remarks that the Anglican Church in South Africa

has of late started to use storytelling: church members spent a day telling

personal stories of how they experienced apartheid in an attempt to bring

about reconciliation between Blacks and Whites in the Anglican Church.

Moreover, it is obvious that most churches have children’s story programmes.

It seems axiomatic that the missionaries’ ideology of discouraging traditional

activities was a deliberate attempt to belittle Africans and rob them of their

identity. However, some respondents revealed that the missionaries’ motive

was mainly to colonise people’s minds so that they would automatically forget

their culture. The study revealed that, because of the missionaries’ influence,

most Africans and storytellers in particular ended up using English, to the

detriment of their own languages, and they changed their lifestyles and

adopted that of the missionaries. Almost everything fundamentally African,

such as storytelling and other traditional African activities, was regarded as

backward and primitive and thus expendable.

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RECOMMENDATION

It is recommended that every culture and language should be respected and

safeguarded, irrespective of what has been said about them in the past.

African Christians in particular should discard the idea that in order to become

truly converted Christians they should shed all that is said to be heathen

embedded in their culture. Let it be known that God’s kingdom must be

communicated in terms of a given culture, and that God does not reject a

culture of any society as too evil or too imperfect. Moreover, God does not

require converts to abandon their culture in order to be accepted into

Christianity (Moila, 1987:173,179).

Africans should never succumb to the notion that African culture is inferior to

Western culture. Undermining or ignoring one’s culture is like wiping out one’s

identity, hence a cultural group without its own identifiable culture is like a tree

without roots. In trying to align this ideology, Moila (1987:180) claims that the

missionaries were wrong when they proclaimed that Western culture was the

only way through which Christianity could be expressed. He puts it thus: God

uses any given culture as a vehicle for interaction with human beings. Such a

view has also been clearly expressed by Jesus Christ in the Holy Writ when

he states that he did not come to destroy people’s customs (Matthew 5:17).

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5.2.2. The first African scholars were oblivious to any monetary benefit

to be gained from storytelling

The study revealed that the first African scholars did not cite

professionalisation of storytelling as one of its functional values. They were

oblivious to any benefit which could be gained from storytelling. Moreover,

Africans at that time did not have resources with which to start any storytelling

business.

Respondent D.16 is of the opinion that early scholars were aware of the

incentives that would come from storytelling, hence they sold some folklore

materials at the expense of the community.

RECOMMENDATION

It is recommended that scholars be proactive in their research analysis and

interpretation of data. Like prophets and priests during the Biblical era,

scholars are entrusted with a daunting task of predicting and foretelling the

future in order that people may make contingency plans. If scholars lose their

focus, people will be doomed, as stated in Hosea 4:6 “My people are doomed

because they do not acknowledge me. You priests have refused to

acknowledge me and have rejected my teaching, and so I reject you and will

not acknowledge your sons as my priests.”

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It is therefore recommended that recent scholars embark on a process of

sensitising people, including prospective storytellers, to the treasure on which

they are carelessly treading.

5.2.3. Storytelling is regarded as an ancient, non-progressive, lowly and

plebeian type of art form

This research illustrated that most people who are good storytellers have

deviated into something else or simply remained jobless because of their

ignorance and disdain for the storytelling art form. People in general regard

storytelling as something inconsequential, lowly and plebeian, an art form

through which one could never dream to earn one’s livelihood. Most people

think of storytelling as relevant only to old people or very young children. In

this sense storytelling is ignored, devalued and considered useless, worthy

only of relegation to the dustbin of archives.

The findings of the study further revealed that storytelling is regarded as

something very simple, presenting no meaningful challenge to people.

Furthermore, Africans seem to have a negative attitude towards their

language and cultural activities.

It was also found that people are very reluctant to pay for listening to

storytelling. They think of storytelling as an ancient art, and that everybody

can tell stories. When storytelling is narrated in a corporate setting, most

employees regard it as a waste of time.

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RECOMMENDATION

Storytelling festivals, workshops and conferences should be regularly

conducted throughout the country in order to sensitise people to the art form.

The media can also assist in marketing, advertising and promoting

storytelling. When addressing the significance of the media in promoting

African music, Phafoli (2002:7) asserts that it should indicate how one can

make a living from songs and dances. He further recommends that through

the use of the media, people can address the issue of economic development

through the use of African music. The same can be done with storytelling.

5.2.4. The entertainment facet as the only primary purpose of

storytelling

The findings of this study revealed that storytelling is not regarded with a

progressive eye. The primary purpose of storytelling is seen as entertainment

only.

RECOMMENDATION

Let people change their mindsets: they can earn their living through activities

such as soccer, swimming, music, traditional boxing (Musangwe in Venḓa),

and athletics which were formerly known primarily for their entertainment

value. Let it be so with storytelling as well. In supporting this view, Phafoli

(2002:7) affirms that through the print media, people should indicate how one

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can make a living out of songs and dance. That is, they must address the

issue of economic development through the use of African music.

5.2.5. Some proficient storytellers forsake storytelling because of a lack

of incentives in the storytelling industry

The study revealed that professional and freelance storytellers cannot

practise storytelling for nothing: they require incentives. The study further

revealed that due to a lack of finance and other forms of incentive in the

storytelling industry, some proficient storytellers are forsaking storytelling for

steady jobs elsewhere. The paucity of storytellers in South Africa can be

ascribed to the fact that storytelling has not yet been professionalised.

RECOMMENDATION

Storytellers need people’s undivided support to achieve empowerment. By

buttressing storytellers, people’s identity could be reclaimed and they might

return to their roots. Sutton, as quoted by De Vos (1991:7), regards the

primary reason for telling stories to young adults as that of helping them in

their search for identity, values, and vicarious experiences. Whenever

storytellers are called on for a performance, it is the responsibility of the hosts

to see to it that they provide them with reasonable incentives. In line with this

view, Hrdličková (1965:244) clearly indicates that if the recital pleases the

listeners so much, they should pay for it. Sawyer (1942:48) reminds

storytellers that they must think of having to live literally on their art.

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If storytelling is professionalised, many parents could encourage their children

to study it if it is offered at tertiary institutions. In order to reinstate the value of

storytelling, it should be professionalised.

5.2.6. There is no formal institution recognised by SAQA that trains

storytellers in South Africa

The research revealed that there is not a single institution in South Africa

which trains storytellers on a full-time basis. No formal programme in

storytelling thus far is recognised by the South African Qualifications Authority

(SAQA). For a technologically advanced country like South Africa, it sounds

ridiculous not to have institutions which cater for such a programme.

Storytelling is not adequately catered for in South African tertiary institutions

either. The unavailability of storytelling programmes in South African

institutions contributes to the escalation of crime among the youth around the

country. The study revealed that the handful of storytellers in the country are

people who were fortunate enough to have grown up in families where

storytelling was practised. The findings also revealed that storytelling, like any

art, requires training.

One professional storyteller from Brazil runs a storytelling academy in Holland

called Tory Academia which trains storytellers, teachers, librarians and all

interested people in the storytelling art form. Such a storytelling institution also

helps to train people to use storytelling techniques in diverse professions. The

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maximum duration of training in such a course is three months. Another

professional storyteller from England also runs a storytelling institution. The

training is open to anyone from the age of 18 to 80 years, irrespective of

grade or standard passed. The maximum duration of a course is three

months, but they are looking forward to extending this. On completion, a

student is awarded a certificate. A teaching diploma, ample life experience,

experience in telling stories in front of different audiences, or qualifications as

a therapist are the basic requirements for employing educators in such an

institution.

There are not many storytelling institutions in England. Comparatively,

America offers more college storytelling courses.

RECOMMENDATION

In order to get out of the woods, so to speak, it is recommended that the

government intervenes and opens storytelling institutions around the country.

The programme at such institutions should be developed according to the

requirements and the guidelines laid down by SAQA. Such a venture, it is

believed, could simultaneously reduce crime in the country. In order that the

South African government ultimately meets the needs of storytellers around

the country, the defunct colleges of education should be used together with

some community centres, churches and educational institutions. Phafoli

(2002:2) pronounces that the world is crying out for poverty reduction or

poverty alleviation strategies and Africa is struggling without much success in

a mire of starvation and hunger. He suggests that it is high time that Africa

261
revisits and readjusts to consider some of the basic skills and talents its

manpower possesses in order to combat poverty and unemployment.

It is further recommended that educational institutions promote storytelling by

bringing amateur storytellers in to help in cases where there is no storytelling

specialist.

For storytelling programmes to be included in South African university

curricula, it is recommended that Africanisation should be included. The

government should establish teacher training colleges where students can be

trained to teach storytelling. Such a suggestion is a novel idea considering the

current status of storytelling in the country. Regular storytelling hours could

also be introduced in schools and school libraries. Children would be inspired

by storytelling and there might be a resurgence of storytelling in the country in

general. However, Canonici(1995:22) argues that the simple presentation of

folktales in schools is far from enough, as long as there are badly informed

and un-enthusiastic teachers who cannot appreciate what is singularly theirs.

He claims that children will get bored and come to despise their traditions if

folktales are not presented as a living reality which informs their way of life,

and which is as relevant today as it was two hundred years ago.

Storytellers in South Africa should receive formal training, as happens in

Holland and England, as acknowledged by Respondents D.19 and D.7.

Dennehy (1999:41) posits that storytelling is a skill that can be learned. In

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trying to determine the amount of time required for a course in storytelling,

which varies greatly among different institutions, Hill (1940:289) notes:

In the Carnegie Library School of Pittsburgh the course

runs through the year and is credited towards a degree. In
the University of Washington in Seattle the course is given
in autumn, winter, and spring sessions and is credited
towards the degree. At Columbia University in New York
there are credited courses in the Spring and Summer
sessions. A few other university library schools have a one-
semester credited course in storytelling and a number of
those which do not give a special course include lectures
on storytelling in their general course and children’s work.
In other library schools such as Drexel, Pratt Institute,
Emory etc., lecturers on storytelling and practice work are
part of the training of children’s librarians.

As we do not have formally graduated teachers who offer lessons in

storytelling in a way which satisfies all the requirements of SAQA, the

government should persuade teachers from abroad to assist with the

establishment of the teaching of a storytelling programme at tertiary

institutions. Alternatively, the government should take the initiative and send

people who are interested in storytelling overseas to receive such training.

Such a move is alluded to by Ruth Sawyer when she acknowledges two

schools of storytelling among related people. The first is the Gaelic School of

Ollamhs in Ireland, and the second, the Cymric School of Bards in Wales.

According to Sawyer (1962:44), the Gaelic School in Ireland admits more

scholars from all over the world to be trained in the arts of composition and

recitation than the Cymric School in Wales.

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5.2.7. The unavailability of storytelling specialists in the South African

libraries as a hindrance to storytelling development

The findings of this study revealed that only two of 30 libraries and one

museum run storytelling programmes, a representation of 9, 7 percent. The

two libraries use librarians to run their storytelling programmes while the

museum employs a storytelling specialist. Of the institutions running

storytelling programmes, one library and a museum are in Limpopo and one

library is in Gauteng.

Those interviewed about storytelling programmes at the two university

libraries were not keen to introduce such a programme in future. Their reason

was that these were seen as suitable for small children only and therefore not

important.

Although there were some school libraries which were oblivious to the

significance of storytelling programmes, the study revealed that most of them

have a passionate interest in the programme. The chief stumbling block

experienced thus far is the absence of a storytelling specialist and the lack of

funds to institute such a programme.

The study revealed that the museum had made great strides in the promotion

of storytelling in its area. One further finding was that although the museum

enjoys the reputation of having a storytelling programme run by a storytelling

specialist, it does not receive any financial support from the government. The

264
curator of the museum is threatening to close the programme if no assistance

is forthcoming soon. The problem is exacerbated by the fact that when he

tried to alert officialdom to the need for research and the preservation of our

national heritage, he was reprimanded for interfering with the wisdom of

political leaders.

RECOMMENDATION

The abnormal situation of the absence of storytelling hours in South African

libraries can only be redressed by establishing storytelling institutions around

the country where storytellers can be trained in large numbers. South African

educational institutions should be encouraged to incorporate training for

storytellers. Once a reasonable number of storytellers have been trained, the

services of a storyteller should be secured to introduce a story hour

programme at libraries. Encouraging this view, Pellowski (1977:15) remarks

that librarian storytellers see storytelling as an introduction to books and a

means of encouraging children to read.

As far as the lack of funds to institute storytelling programmes is concerned,

the initiative of allocating funds for such a programme when drawing up

annual budgets would be of assistance. If the coffers run dry, funds should be

solicited from donors and sponsors.

It is, however, the responsibility of the government to support institutions such

as libraries, schools and museums. People like the curator of the

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abovementioned museum should get complete support from the government:

ignoring them will turn these institutions into white elephants. Kaschula

(2001:187) recommends the involvement of the government in the funding

and supervision of schools which offer traditional art forms.

5.2.8. Using urbanisation and industrialisation in the advancement of

storytelling

These days most people work long hours and come home tired in the

evening, which leaves no time for storytelling.

The invention of the printing press and electric light have had a negative effect

on storytelling since people can now spend many hours in the evening

reading. This study revealed that storytelling will never have the place in our

lives which it once enjoyed as evenings are crowded with entertainments such

as television and radio, as well as being the time when children do their

school homework. The problem is compounded by the fact that grandchildren

no longer live with their grandparents as they did in the olden days when the

extended family was the norm.

Another factor highlighted by the study which is killing the spirit of storytelling

these days is the negative attitude towards traditional activities held by many

urban dwellers. It seems that once people become more urbanised, they

change their traditional lifestyle in order to fit in. They no longer use

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indigenous languages when communicating with their children at home:

instead, they use English to sound better educated.

The study points out that when people moved from an oral tradition to a

literary tradition the change was so drastic that it had a negative impact on

storytelling. The electric light has added to this, allowing people to read for

pleasure at night.

At present storytelling is denied an opportunity to grow because of less time,

less space and less connectedness between people. The hectic schedule of

present day life leaves man in solitude, a condition hostile to storytelling.

During leisure time these days, people relieve their stress and tension by

going to places of entertainment such as cinemas, shopping centres and

hotels, or they tour or walk instead of telling stories. It is true that life is very

hectic and parents do not have time to tell their children stories. Sometimes

they may suffer emotional stress because of their busy schedules. Today,

people live in towns or townships in small families without live-in grandparents

to tell them stories, and this exacerbates the problem. On the other hand,

children do not have time for storytelling in the evening because they have

homework and evening entertainment like radio and televion.

RECOMMENDATION

Urbanisation and industrialisation blow like the winds of change and are

affecting almost every family adversely as far as storytelling as part of evening

267
entertainment is concerned. However, since urbanisation and industrialisation

have come to stay, an alternative method of resuscitating storytelling has to

be found. Storytelling should be emphasised at schools by being incorporated

into the school curriculum. Teachers could even go to the extent of asking

learners to bring newly told stories from home. In supporting this, Raṅanga

(1987) proposes that since children are no longer exposed to storytelling as

part of the evening ritual, this art form should be introduced in schools. The

introduction of storytelling in schools and institutions of higher learning

remains thus far the pivotal way to promote and perpetuate storytelling among

future generations.

Professional storytellers (if there are any) and any adults who are skilled in

storytelling should frequent schools to enact storytelling, but they should be

given a token of appreciation in return. Referring to songs and dance, Phafoli

(2002:4) suggests that local adults who are experts in such art forms be

approached to offer their expertise with incentives to encourage them to do a

good job. This could be applied to storytelling as well.

As recommended by Respondent D.1 and D.9, we must accept that we are

living in a dynamic world which is changing fast. Oral tradition, storytelling in

particular, is not static but in constant flux (Canonici, 1993:2). Nevertheless,

storytelling should take place in this ever changing world. Admittedly, the

format, the setting and the methodology can never be as it was in past

centuries. People should now make use of modern technological devices

brought by industrialisation to advance storytelling. When comparing present

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day African society with the description of the past, Canonici (1995:22)

maintains that one may feel irritated and angry. He states;

The changes brought about by the westernization, by the urban

life-style and the abandonment of the traditional rural culture are
blamed on colonialism and the apartheid system. The clock
cannot be turned back. There is no return to idyllic times of yore.

Rather than decry the losses which traditional culture and

values have suffered, it is time to think foreward with
foresight and enthusiasm, to discover the challenges
offered by the new South African dispensation.

However, in affirming this view, Pellowski believes that modern folklorists

should recognise the fact that it is inevitable in the modern world, just as it

was in the past, that storytellers should use any sources at their disposal to

find stories that please them and spark their talent. According to her, this

includes material from books, other printed matter, films and even television

(1977:173). That is the reason why Peterson and Fenton (2000:217) state that

storytelling is more alive today than ever before because of the modern

expansion of the technological world.

Printed matter can be channelled into advancing storytelling. Since storytelling

is no longer a daily practice, in order to prevent stories from fading into

obscurity, they should be collected and recorded in an anthology. When

referring to the print media, Phafoli (12002:7) recommends that this be the

channel through which information is passed from one generation to another,

without changes. Canonici (1993:5) admits that if oral literature is not

performed it dies out. Such storytelling collections could be used by

storytellers in preparing for their performances. An adroit storyteller is one

who tells children the name and author of the book from which the story has

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been taken. By so doing, storytelling will remain an indirect way of introducing

children to literature. Bauer (1983:36) maintains that stories introduce children

to literature and the delights of reading as well as the heritage of folk stories.

In elucidating this view, Greene (1996:34) elaborates:

By making the connection between storytelling and books

by telling a story and indicating the book from which it
comes and pointing out that hundreds of other wonderful
tales can be found in books, the storyteller is introducing
reading as a source of enjoyment throughout life. With so
many children’s books in print, it is possible for a child to
read a great number without reading even one worthwhile
book. Through storytelling and reading aloud we can
introduce books of quality that otherwise might be missed.

Phafoli (2002:8) recommends the use of print media in the promotion of

African music. He illustrates that newspapers and magazines can be used to

advertise either the weekend or daily concerts of various groups. Such

advertisements will help readers to develop their love of songs and dances

and may lead to fame for the performers. They will eventually attract others to

attend these shows in large numbers, and by so doing will help members of

that group financially.

Electricity can also be used to the storytellers’ advantage. Storytelling today is

performed in theatres and libraries. All those places need electricity for light.

During the performance, the storyteller can switch off the lights or dim them or

use multi-coloured bulbs in order to try and recreate the original setting of

storytelling. An orange bulb could, for example, be used to resemble firelight.

After a scathing attack on the mass media as devices which beset storytelling

in this country, Canonici (1993:206) concludes that fortunately the mass

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media often produce programmes based on traditional folktales. She states

that the tale may be completely acted out by puppets dressed as folktale

characters, or a narrator may tell the story in the background while the

puppets perform it. Television programmes often portray European folktales

originating in other parts of the world. All these technological devices need

electricity in order to function efficiently.

5.2.9. Using the mass media and technology to advance storytelling

Currently, the media is not seen to be doing enough to promote storytelling:

instead, it seems to be working against the growth of storytelling in the

country. However, some respondents pointed out that the mass media is

simply another form of storytelling which could be used to the advantage of

storytelling. According to these schools of thought, the media can be a useful

tool or not, depending on how one uses it. The advantage of the mass media

is that it brings stories to millions of people in the twinkling of an eye, hence

the media exposes storytellers to the world such that they may eventually be

called to perform on stage. Since technology is here to stay, people must find

a new format for storytelling through technology. The study revealed that

some respondents use film and video when telling their stories, while others

use animation. The study further reveals that there is nothing wrong with the

mass media since it is just a device transmitting information and people’s

interests. The problem lies with the people who plan and run the programmes,

because sometimes they may select stories which are not relevant to the

audience.

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In contrast, the live storyteller cannot be outwitted by an electronic storyteller

because television is one dimensional, people cannot touch the storyteller,

and they cannot get any feedback from him/her.

The SABC radio stations in Limpopo (i.e. Munghana Lonene FM, Phalaphala

FM, and Thobela FM) do not have autonomous storytelling programmes, and

feature it only as a component of other programmes. However, Thobela FM in

particular is trying its best to establish an autonomous storytelling programme.

Similarly, SABC-TV1 and 2 at Auckland Park do not have autonomous

storytelling programmes: storytelling is featured only in educational

programmes.

RECOMMENDATION

Since children nowadays are fascinated with the mass media, storytelling

should be introduced in newspapers, magazines, the internet, and on

television and radio, and on DVD and CDs. This will kindle their passion for

the art form. In order to foster a culture of storytelling, it should also be

introduced to schools. The same view has been advanced by Raṅanga (1987)

who believes that children no longer experience storytelling because of these

media.

It is an inarguable fact that storytelling thrives in an environment which is not

crowded with interference from modern technological devices. But it is high

time that people accept that we are living in a dynamic world in which we are

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faced with unavoidable changes every day. Technology is here to stay, as

mentioned by Respondent D.29. Any attempt to avoid such changes will be

like trying to dam up an overflowing river with sand. The best thing is to adapt

to changes and harness them to fulfill our goals, lest we suffer the

consequences. The world is said to be smaller and more manageable than

ever before because of the mass media and modern technology. Therefore,

these should be exploited to transmit and market storytelling judiciously. It is

recommended that modern devices such as films, videos, DVDs and CDs be

used by storytellers. Storytelling should also be done through animation.

Since we are living in a technological world, people should find new ways to

format and reshape storytelling so that it can survive in this new environment.

They must find ways in which the media, technology and storytelling can

complement each other. Through the mass media, storytellers can reach

more people than they would if they were only performing in theatres.

Although the mass media does not provide any lucrative incentive to

storytellers, it can still be used as a base or a stepping stone for storytellers to

gain exposure, publicity and ultimately, fame. Storytellers’ profiles should be

stored in a database for easy access by many around the globe. It is obvious

that if this is planned well, it could revive, resuscitate and promote storytelling

in the country. More children would be inspired to take up the art form and

eventually become storytellers.

It is further recommended that storytellers be proactive in order to avoid being

outsmarted by the mass media. It would be commendable if people could use

the media to give exposure and publicity to storytellers and to encourage

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people to attend live storytelling performances instead of regarding the media

as a substitute. In emphasising this view, Hillman in Butler and Rotert

(1984:7) highlights:

To have had a story of any sort in childhood – and

here I mean oral story, those told or read (for
reading has an oral aspect even if one reads to
oneself) rather than watching story on screen – puts
a person into a basic recognition of and familiarity
with the legitimate reality of story per se.

It is recommended, however, that each and every SABC-TV and radio station

has a Language Practitioner whose duty it is to promote and safeguard the

interests of the language(s). Problems similar to the one cited by Respondent

D.22 (radio station manager), of scrapping storytelling programmes due to a

lack of interest, will then not occur.

5.2.10. Storytellers to be financially supported by the government and

non-governmental organisations in order to make storytelling

viable

Most respondents are of the opinion that in order for storytellers to be

professionalised, the government and non-governmental organisations will

have to support them financially. The study revealed that storytellers should

not wait for the government to organise for them: instead they should go out

and explore every possible way of drawing people’s attention to storytelling as

an art. Storytellers should not always expect the government to do everything

for them as the government might have its own priorities which may not

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include storytelling. Storytellers should take the initiative themselves and liaise

with departments or companies, negotiating with them to make them realise

the importance of storytelling.

The findings of the study further revealed that the National Department of Arts

and Culture has established Language Research and Development Centres

in institutions of higher learning to cater for the needs of languages. Such

centres have focus areas, and one of these is the promotion of literature and

aspects such as storytelling. Researchers from these focus areas should visit

rural areas and record oral stories in order to preserve them. The Department

of Arts and Culture is further believed to be establishing a council which will

acknowledge the professional status of the language professions.

The inclusion by the South African government of storytelling in their major

celebrations such as Heritage Day reveals that a culture of storytelling is

emerging in the country. In Limpopo Province, for instance, Heritage Day is

often celebrated with the Mapungubwe Arts Festival. Storytelling is one of the

cultural art forms performed here.

RECOMMENDATION

It is recommended that an organisation of storytellers rather than individuals

should solicit sponsorships from government and non-governmental

organisations. In their requisition for sponsorship, this organisation should

draft a comprehensive funding proposal. In acknowledging this view,

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Respondent D.23 states that sponsorship does not come easily, as one must

first draw up a plan of action. It is recommended that the government and

non-governmental organisations sponsor storytellers in running storytelling

workshops, festivals, competitions and conferences around the country. Such

an endeavour might help to revive storytelling and eventually inspire some

prospective storytellers to take up the art. In order to revive the culture of

storytelling, the Department of Arts and Culture from provincial to national

level should run written and verbal storytelling competitions.

However, although the storytellers may already be in the process of soliciting

sponsorships, they should not wait until they have successfully secured this.

They should instead forge ahead in their attempts to professionalise

storytelling. If they secure sponsorship it will be a blessing and a way of

boosting the financial strength of their business.

The idea of the establishment of Language Research and Development

Centres and a Language Council in institutions of higher learning by the

Department of Arts and Culture is a novel initiative. The Department should,

however, exercise proper supervision and demand regular reports on projects

they undertake in order to achieve their desired objectives. The Department of

Arts and Culture in Limpopo Province’s initiative of running written storytelling

competitions in all African languages has proved to be a subtle way of

empowering and promoting storytellers. Admittedly, if other provincial

departments of Arts and Culture around the country and the national

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department adopted the same move there would be a groundswell of revival

in storytelling which could ultimately lead to its professionalisation.

Professional and amateur storytellers should perform frequently in theatres.

This will inevitably expose and publicise amateur storytellers, encouraging

their recommendation and eventual professionalisation. In acknowledging

this, Pellowski (1977:78) notes that there are some parts of the world in which

storytelling has developed as a form of theatrical entertainment, and

audiences who attend pay entrance fees. During their leisure time, parents

are encouraged to take their children to theatres to experience storytelling

performances. This will in turn help to relieve their stress after their hectic day.

Those urban dwellers who have a negative attitude towards their cultural

traditions must be encouraged to value their culture.

5.2.11. Storytelling to be incorporated as part of the school curriculum

and as an autonomous discipline in institutions of higher

learning

The study revealed that storytelling should be incorporated in the school

curriculum. However, some respondents do not recommend the inclusion of

storytelling as an autonomous learning area or subject but rather as a

component of some learning areas/subjects. They revealed that the National

Curriculum Statement provides for storytelling in the GET and FET bands,

although not as a separate entity but in the learning programme literacy in the

foundation phase and in languages and arts and culture in the intermediate

and senior phases respectively. According to the findings of the study, the

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exclusion of storytelling as an autonomous learning area and subject from the

GET and FET bands is based on the following premise:

ƒ The GET and FET band learning areas are still much too general.
ƒ Giving learners such broad and general learning matters helps them to
generate interest in a specific area in which they can ultimately
specialise at institutions of higher learning.
ƒ The main aim is to build a holistic person who is culturally and
psychologically aware of the world around him/her.
ƒ In essence, learners are able to get all the basic and necessary skills
which are essential in life.
ƒ It helps to develop the whole being.
ƒ Since storytelling is a specialisation on its own, so the introduction of
storytelling as an autonomous learning area/subject at the GET and
FET band may channel learners into a specific field at the expense of
others.

Furthermore, the study revealed that such a proposed learning area or subject

(storytelling) is only feasible at institutions of higher learning, moreover at

postgraduate level where there are opportunities for specialisation.

There is no institution of higher learning thus far in South Africa which offers

storytelling as an autonomous discipline. The findings of this study revealed

that the unavailability of storytelling at institutions of higher learning can be

attributed to a lack of resources such as students and money. However, the

unavailability of an autonomous storytelling discipline at universities cannot

genuinely be ascribed to the above findings. A lack of money and students to

follow such a discipline is merely an excuse. If money was really a problem,

some South African institutions which are financially viable would have offered

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such a discipline or programme. The major stumbling block in our South

African institutions which makes storytelling programmes a mere pipedream is

the denigration of this art form. Torrence (1983:284) states that universities

and colleges still give little attention to the subject of storytelling. Teacher

education deals with it only hastily in children’s literature classes while library

science students work with it briefly in courses on library programming.

Fenwick (1990:5) argues that storytelling has tended to be neglected, yet it

occupies an important place in the National Curriculum.

RECOMMENDATION

It is recommended that storytelling should start as early as kindergarten, and

should continue through to the GET and FET bands and into tertiary

institutions. The unavailability of autonomous and practical learning

programmes, learning areas and subjects on oral performance at the

foundation, intermediate and senior phases is a great disservice to learners.

The introduction of an autonomous discipline at institutions of higher learning

as propounded by some respondents will not, however, address the

exacerbating issues. According to the new curriculum (NCS), grade 9 and 12

are regarded as GET and FET exit points respectively. After completion,

learners receive certificates. However, not all learners will go on to the

institutions of higher learning. If cultural oral performances are not introduced

and specialised in as early as the lower levels, learners will be denied the

opportunity to harness these art forms to make a living, since some of them

will exit at the penultimate exit points. In confirming this view, Chuenyane

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(2008:5), in the City Press, expresses the view that a New General Education

Certificate (GEC) for grade 9 learners is expected to radically shift the focus

away from matric in 2009. He further asserts that the Department of

Education (DoE) has explained that from the year 2009 learners will be able

to choose whether to pursue their school careers at a Further Education and

Training (FET) college or to follow an academic path to matric. In response to

the question of whether the system can afford to certificate grade 9 learners

when there is already a problem with the quality of matriculants, Lunga

Ngqengelele, Department of Education spokesperson, responded that the

GEC is not an exit certificate but will facilitate movement in various directions.

She added that learners who obtain certificates could continue to grade 10 in

the same school, opt for specialist mathematics and science schools or attend

an FET college. The GEC would ensure learner retention as they would

access a number of skills-based courses offered at National Qualification

Framework level 2. She further pointed out that if for unforeseen reasons

learners dropped out of school they could produce their GEC to find jobs. It

has been said that the National Professional Teachers’ Organisation of South

Africa (Naptosa) concurred with the DoE on the importance of the GEC (2008,

City Press Newspaper, 17 August). In supporting this view, Kaschula

(2001:1987) recommends that the teaching of cultural and traditional values

should begin as early as in nursery education and should continue up to

university level for the purpose of accommodating practical oral performances

in art forms such as poetry, storytelling, drumming, singing and chanting. In

substantiating this view, Phafoli (1992:4) advises that school children should

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be sensitised to the idea that they can make a living out of folklore and that

they could be employed at different levels from pre-school up to tertiary level.

Since there is no storytelling institution in South Africa thus far, the inclusion

of storytelling as an independent learning area in the South African school

curriculum will be a boost to the South African economy. Such a move may

also help to minimise the compounding unemployment problem and

consequently alleviate poverty and curb crime.

It is strongly recommended that a storytelling programme be introduced in

institutions of higher learning as an independent and separate course and

also as a combination with other programme offerings. In supporting this view,

Pellowski (1977:168) illustrates:

In addition, quite a number of universities or institutions of

higher learning have placed such courses (in storytelling) in
the department of education or in the speech and drama
department. If the library school does not offer such a
course, the student can usually get credit for taking it in
another department. By 1960 there were at least 211
institutions of higher learning in the United States offering
some instruction in storytelling.

A modern variation on the storytelling course is one that

combines storytelling with other program techniques. Such
courses concentrate on the planning and directing of film,
picture-book and story-hour programmes, as well as
covering the techniques of managing the content through
selection and various forms of presentations.

In order to cater for the needs of such an introduction, the institutions of

higher learning should prioritise such learning programmes in their annual

budgets or solicit funds from the government or sponsors in order to introduce

them. Hence Kaschula (2001:188) recommends that oral literature must be

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properly funded and the necessary equipment and infrastructure be provided

at the universities where it is taught. In cases where the institutions do not

have storytelling specialists to offer such a discipline, they should outsource

specialists. Even if storytellers must be sought from abroad, this should be

done for the benefit of the country. It is further recommended that such a

learning programme should be widely publicised in the institutions’ brochures

to attract as many students as possible.

Organisations such as the Southern African Folklore Society (SAFOS), as a

custodian of folklore in the region, should spearhead the process of

professionalising storytelling in the country.

It is also recommended that universities do some sampling on nearby

communities in order to determine their (the communities’) relevant needs

which can then be addressed by the institution. Kaschula (2001:188) confirms

that the teaching of oral literature must be made relevant first to the

immediate community where a university is located, before other

considerations.

5.2.12. The unavailability of storytelling organisations and storytelling

circles as the main stumbling block to the enhancement of
storytelling

The findings of this study revealed that the unavailability of storytelling

organisations is hampering storytelling in this country. As has been referred to

by Respondent D.9, storytellers do not speak with one voice, and they are

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likely to be divided. The study revealed that it is the responsibility of

storytellers to take the initiative of instituting a storytelling organisation that will

fend for their rights and bring many other benefits. The establishment of a

storytelling organisation will make it simple for storytellers to secure

sponsorships from the government as they will be united.

The findings also revealed the success of storytelling circles in reviving

storytelling and in the grooming of amateur storytellers by seasoned

storytellers. Storytelling circles develop storytellers and enable them to share

and receive professional advice as well as emotional support.

RECOMMENDATION

Storytelling organisations should be established to address the myriad

problems facing storytelling in this country. Storytellers themselves should

take the initiative in the establishment of such organisations. In order to

support these organisations, sponsorship should be solicited from the

government, as recommended by Kaschula (2001:187).

In order to develop amateur storytellers professionally and to support them

emotionally, storytelling circles should also be established. Such circles will

help to revive storytelling in general. Storytelling circles, like storytelling

organisations, help storytellers to share common interests. Since they rub

shoulders with professional storytellers, amateur storytellers have the

opportunity to hone their narrative skills and pick up some useful guidelines.

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Storytellers are able to form distinctive networking systems without which

professionalising of storytelling will remain a pipedream. In supporting this,

Geisler (1997:5) recommends the development of storytellers in order to

achieve network support. She further proposes that developing storytellers

should join storytelling clubs and associations where they can share and

receive professional advice as well as emotional support.

5.2.13. Harnessing the storytelling art form as people’s livelihood

The findings of this study revealed that people (storytellers) could earn their

living through storytelling. The study makes it clear that way back in history

the Shanachies, minstrels, jesters, and gypsies survived through storytelling.

The study further revealed that at present some people earn their living

through storytelling. Such people are part of storytelling organisations and

consultancies. They help companies to improve their sales, build their brands,

recreate themselves, create their identity, learn, train and develop their

employees. By using stories they tell the history of the company and they also

help the business to be more effective. Stories are said to be a means of

improving communication in a company.

The study illustrated that there are a number of ways in which storytellers can

sustain themselves, such as running storytelling workshops, making

storytelling presentations at conferences, teaching the elective on storytelling

at schools, writing and selling storybooks.

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The findings of this study also revealed that some people run storytelling

academies overseas. Moreover, one storyteller combines storytelling with

theatrical performances. The same storyteller uses film and video to tell

stories.

RECOMMENDATION

It is recommended that storytelling, like any other art form in the country,

should be harnessed to earn people’s daily bread.

The way in which this handful of storytellers uses stories, for example to

improve a company’s sales, build a company’s brand, ease the tension

(where there are problems) and improve communication amongst employees

and managers, helping the business to be generally more effective, should be

highlighted in the media. This would sensitise many companies to the

significance of storytelling in marketing, while at the same time exposing

storytellers to the wider public. In a similar vein, Phafoli recommends the use

of electronic media (2002:8) in sensitising management and staff of

institutions to the promotion and marketing of African music.

It is recommended that the handful of storytellers in the country should run

storytelling workshops, stage storytelling festivals, conduct storytelling

conferences, help to introduce storytelling programmes and teach storytelling

in institutions ready to offer such a learning programme. In order not to

exhaust such storytellers financially, the government should back them. This

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will only be possible if the storytellers write a comprehensive funding proposal

when soliciting such funds. Storytelling could in this way become robust,

vibrant, and eventually professional and the public would be conscientised

about the significance of the art form.

5.2.14. Amateur storytellers to establish and develop themselves by

offering their services voluntarily

The findings of this study revealed that amateur storytellers should start by

doing voluntary work without expecting to receive any honorarium. By offering

such voluntary work, amateur storytellers are in a way developing,

establishing and advertising themselves to the public and in this way people

will begin to appreciate their services. Once amateur storytellers have

developed and established themselves, they can then start selling their

services.

RECOMMENDATION

In order for amateur storytellers to hone their narrating skills, develop and

expose themselves to the public at large, they must first offer voluntary

service to communal gatherings and schools. In affirming this, Canonici

(1995:22) states that the oral traditions must be revitalized in schools, in

family circles, at folkloristic festivals, in glorious and vibrant celebrations, and

in the mass media. He further maintains that only by a communal effort to

redefine people in terms of the real values of their culture can they become

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proud of themselves and acquire the place in the sun that is rightly theirs. In

concurring with this view, Geisler (1997:129) postulates that a person does

not have to be a paid performer to be a storyteller. Similarly, referring to the

adage ”practice makes perfect”, Ellen (1979:200) notes that in addition to

training, practice is crucial in creating a successful storyteller.

5.2.15. Storytelling festivals, workshops and conferences to sensitise

people to the importance of storytelling as a career

Storytelling festivals, workshops and conferences provide amateur storytellers

with the opportunity to learn from the best storytellers in the country. During

storytelling festivals, brilliant storytellers are discovered through an open

microphone session. The last day of storytelling festivals is often marked with

a storytelling competition in which the best contestants are awarded big

prizes. The study further revealed that storytellers usually have a “history

telling day” during storytelling festivals, on which they tell true stories that

belong to their history. Workshops are held on story creation and participants

are furnished with essential skills and ingredients on how to create new

stories on the spot. This dispels a belief, supported by most exponents, that

stories were created in the past and that no storyteller can claim to be an

author or creator of stories in the present. In his introduction to his folklore

anthology, Baloyi (1990) upholds the fact that it is impossible to know when a

particular story was created or the person who created it. More people are

being inspired by storytelling festivals, workshops and conferences to value

storytelling and ultimately to become storytellers.

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Storytelling festivals, workshops and conferences further provide the

opportunity of exchanging ideas to storytellers. By attending these festivals,

people are sensitised to the importance of storytelling as a career. The

findings of the study revealed that the attendees of the storytelling festival

paid an entry fee to the theatre. Such an entry fee is not fixed but increases

from time to time. Storytellers who take part in storytelling festivals,

workshops and conferences are given an honorarium. The arrival at the

Sibikwa Storytelling Festival of forty-nine storytellers from the USA indicates

that storytelling has been professionalised and is highly valued in the USA.

The fact that amongst the group were storytellers who were professionals in

other fields reveals that storytelling is very inspirational.

RECOMMENDATION

Storytelling festivals, workshops and conferences should be encouraged at

any cost. This is one of the most effective ways of resuscitating storytelling in

the country and through this storytelling can eventually be professionalised. In

stressing this view, Pellowski (1990:231) affirms that in recent times, the

storytelling festival has become the favourite event for promoting storytelling.

It is recommended that the government, through the Department of Arts and

Culture, the Ministry of Tourism and other non-governmental organisations,

should assist in sponsoring storytelling festivals, workshops and conferences

throughout the country. This became evident when the Zanendaba

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Storytelling Organisation successfully held its first South African International

Storytelling Conference in Johannesburg in 2004. The organisation

acknowledged its indebtedness to the funders, Gauteng Tourism Authority,

the National Lottery, and Pro Helvitia. Baker and Greene (1977:15) testified

about a certain storytelling festival which was sponsored by the CW Post

Center, Long Island University for 15 years and which has contributed to the

revival of storytelling. Hence Kaschula (2001:187) argues that this suggestion

of government’s involvement in the funding and in seeing to the proper

conduct of traditional festivals cannot be said to be out of place.

The entry fee for storytelling festivals and workshops should be regularly

revised in order to fight against rising inflation.

5.2.16. Storytellers’ profiles to be stored in information database to

expedite the accessibility of storytellers

The findings of this study revealed that the profiles of all storytellers in the

country should be stored in a database so that they can be accessed with

ease. Such a database would enable all storytellers to be treated equally. The

types of stories that storytellers tell should also be reflected. The capturing of

the profiles of storytellers in a database, according to the study, helps agents

who are in need of storytellers. The study also revealed that such a database

would assist in advertising storytellers world-wide through the internet.

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RECOMMENDATION

Since we are living in a technologically advanced country, technology should

be harnessed to enhance the art form of storytelling.

It is recommended that the National and Provincial Departments of Arts and

Culture should, as a matter of urgency, establish an information database to

store the profiles of storytellers. Such information should be linked to the

databases in the Information Centres which cater for the needs of tourists

around the country. The establishment of an information database would be a

breakthrough in the marketing of storytellers world-wide. Phafoli (2002:9)

acknowledges that with the existence of computers, communication is

currently very simple and much faster than it was in the past. This view has

been echoed by Kaschula (2001:xi) who states that the internet is fast

becoming a part of modern literature.

5.2.17. Storytelling to receive adequate and regular publicity as a

business enterprise

The findings of this study showed that storytellers should market themselves

by giving quality performances. This simply means that in giving an

outstanding performance, a person becomes a renowned storyteller: those

who have witnessed his/her performance once will be his/her mouthpiece.

Quality work, according to the study, is attributed to investment of time,

research, workshops, conceptual devising and marketing. The study further

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noted that storytellers should invest in marketing by announcing their services

to the public, sending out proposals and meeting people and telling them

about what they are doing. In order to empower storytellers economically the

study revealed that storytellers should be used as tour guides to entertain

tourists. The study suggests that the profiles of tour guides, storytellers and

people who are skilled in cooking traditional food should be stored and widely

advertised through the internet. By establishing an information database for

storytellers, many would receive invitations from all over the world. With

regard to advertising his storytelling business, one respondent maintains that

he sends out newsletters once a month with a story relevant to business

dynamics to about 800 people who occupy senior positions in business. The

study revealed that if storytelling does not receive adequate and regular

publicity, people will easily forget about its availability.

The Programme Director of a radio station indicated that the duty of his

station is to expose the talent of storytellers to the world and to tap the talent

and make sure that storytellers are known elsewhere. This initiative will

encourage the recording and sale of their stories, allowing them to earn their

living through the art form.

RECOMMENDATION

Marketing, publicity and exposure are factors without which the

professionalisation of storytelling in African languages will remain a

pipedream. For storytellers to be successful in their business, they need

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appropriate marketing strategies. If the business does not receive proper

publicity, prospects remain bleak no matter how good or attractive the

concepts may be.

Storytellers can advertise their products to their potential customers by using

tools such as business cards, brochures and fliers. The storyteller can obtain

mailing lists for schools or mailing list companies. Geisler (1997:42)

recommends that a storyteller can build up her mailing list by passing out

evaluation forms at workshops that include space for people to write their

names and addresses if they wish to receive a free copy of the newsletter.

What she found encouraging was that everyone would complete that section

because everyone loves a “freebie”. The same could hold true for public

libraries, churches, pre-schools and so on. A storyteller can send such

institutions her business card, brochure, flyer or a form letter containing full

information about her services, prices and letters of recommendations from

other institutions.

An excellent way of circulating news about oneself as a storyteller is to send

press releases to the media. If a storyteller has created a new show, begun

his own business or won an award, such occasions warrant good coverage

from newspapers, radio stations, the internet and television. Coverage of

storytelling in a newspaper, on television, the internet or radio stations

reaches a larger audience than any mailing and can influence more people.

When referring to songs and dancing, Phafoli (2002:8) asserts that

advertisements in the media help readers to develop their love for songs and

dances and can lead to fame and popularity for the artist.

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A storyteller can even visit post offices and request the postmaster to tuck

business cards, brochures and fliers into postal boxes. This will possibly help

to publicise her services.

5.2.18. Storytellers to be used interchangeably with tour guides

The study revealed that storytellers should be used interchangeably with tour

guides in places of interest. It is recommended that the Department of

Tourism should take the initiative in implementing this move. The findings of

the study indicated that storytellers should entertain tourists visiting the

country.

RECOMMENDATION

It is recommended that the Tourism Department establishes a database of

storytellers in the country. Such a database will expedite the accessibility of

storytellers when the Department requires their services. People all over the

world will also be able to access such information with ease. In order to

further market these storytellers, the Department of Tourism should take the

initiative and advertise them nationally and internationally through the media

and information centres. This move could serve as a great impetus to tourist

interest in the country and could provide an economic boost. If we take the

Hector Peterson Museum in Soweto as an example, it is clear that the fact

that it has been widely publicised across the world has encouraged every

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tourist who comes to South Africa to visit it. By so doing, they boost the South

African economy.

The study recommends the allocation of storytellers by the Tourism

Department to each and every tourist group. The recommendation made by

Respondent D.13, of providing a storyteller and a tour guide per each tourist

group, amounts to the same thing. The service rendered by tour guides vis-à-

vis storytellers is in most instances the same thing. In most cases, tour guides

provide the historical background of a place of interest such as Robbin Island

in Cape Town or Echo Caves in Mpumalanga, to allow tourists a clear

understanding of these places. The narrating skills used by tour guides in

outlining this background are the same skills practised by storytellers.

Respondent D.8 notes that during storytelling festivals they often set a

”History telling day” for the telling of historical stories. This is supported by

Respondent D.9 who believes that storytelling is all about telling the history of

one’s nation. In illustrating this view point, Respondent D.9 says:

Definitely the tourist industry needs storytellers, because

if we want to go back to the house of Prof. E’skia
Mphahlele, for instance, if I say this is the house where
Eskia lived, and I don’t know the history of that house, if
there is no storyteller who can tell me the history of that
house, I will actually be failing.

It is therefore vital that the course in Tourism Management includes

storytelling as one of its modules. The implementation of this initiative will

enable tour guides and storytellers to work hand in hand. It is further

recommended that storytellers should be used interchangeably with tour

guides in all places of interests. Hence Respondent D.19 argues that they

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train people to use storytelling in various professions such as journalism,

media work, public relations and the museum industry, since it is believed that

such storytelling techniques are vital to these professions.

It is further recommended that a tour guide and a storyteller be complemented

by a person who is an expert in the preparation of traditional African food.

Such ideas would be feasible if our tourist information centres were

empowered to cater for this. If properly planned, such centres could also

house tour guides and storytellers on stand-by. Such storytellers could

entertain tourists in transit. In supporting this view, Phafoli (2002:6) states:

This could on the other hand be structured as a tourist

centre where traditional equipment could be stored and
viewed for public consumption.
Phafoli further indicates that the expansion of such centres could mean a

reduction in unemployment, a lessening of the number of street kids and, of

course, the curtailment of criminal offences (ibid., 2002:6).

Furthermore, it is recommended that those people who have been vested with

authority in the Ministry of Tourism open their hearts and minds to initiate

drastic changes in the tourism industry through storytelling.

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5.3. CONCLUSION

All research is conducted for a specific purpose. The findings of this study

serve to illustrate how storytelling can be professionalised. However, the

success of any study lies in the implementation of its recommendations.

It is high time that people involve themselves in the economic development of

their country, and storytelling could be one possible solution if some of the

approaches mentioned above are implemented effectively. Unless the

government and the people concerned are proactive in the implementation of

these approaches to the professionalising of storytelling, these wonderful

ideas will remain just that – ideas. Kaschula (2001:189-190) in his concluding

remarks reminds us that unless the government is more responsive to

people’s cultural needs and considers favourably the approaches suggested

by scholars, oral literary performance and scholarship may slide even further

from its present state of dormancy to complete extinction by the next

millennium. In the concluding remarks of his article, Agalic (1978:278) sounds

a wake-up call to both Africans and Europeans to preserve the precious

specimens of African oral literature before it is too late. He notes that

conditions for the telling of stories, proverbs and other forms of oral tradition

are changing fast, and for the worse, even in remote parts of Africa. He

considers that we have a greater responsibility towards our own children and

grandchildren, however, and even towards future generations of the whole of

mankind, to gather and publish the testimonies of our cultural heritage,

although people must be aware of the fact that the great art of storytelling

itself can never be put down on paper as it is a living part of our lives.

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 CHAPTER 6

6. CONCLUSION

6.1. INTRODUCTION

The main findings of this study and the recommendations related to them

have been dealt with in depth in the previous chapter.

This chapter focuses on the conclusion of the entire study, the success of

professionalised storytelling and storytellers thus far, the implications of

professionalisation for teaching, the implications for further study and the

limitations of the study.

6.2. REVIEW OF THE RESEARCH

6.2.1. Background of the study and the research problem

Storytelling takes pride in being called both the oldest and the newest of the

arts. It serves as a way of keeping alive people’s cultural heritage. It is

believed that every human culture on earth has its fund of stories. Fenwick

(1990:2) remarks that there is no country in the world which does not possess

its own unique collection of folktales, myths and legends. However, the

question of authorship in storytelling may be said to be communal rather than

individual. In substantiating this view, Finnegan (1970:14) states that oral

297
literature is something that arises communally, that is from the people or the

folk as a whole so that there can be no question of individual authorship or

originality. She adds that the question of authorship is not even raised, for

once the word ”folktale” was used, a collective tradition could be assumed and

no question about individual creation could arise (Finnegan, 1970:318).

Different theories of the origin of stories as propounded by Grimm’s brothers

are evident and supported by various folklorists. The theories which were

dealt with in this study are: evolutionism (which is further subdivided into

euhemerism, solarism and naturalism), sun-myths, diffusionism or historical-

geographical and cosmology theory. The factors which are believed to be

responsible for the dissemination of stories are migration and wars, economic

reasons, trade, and communication between savage tribes.

At present, storytelling is regarded as an art form which is dormant and

gradually becoming extinct. There is no formal training of storytellers around

the country; storytelling is not part of school curricula, there are no story hours

in South African libraries, and the mass media, urbanisation and

industrialisation are said to be killing the spirit of storytelling since storytelling

is no longer part of evening entertainment. All these factors contribute to the

non-professionalisation of storytelling in South Africa and of course form the

base from which this study moves.

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6.2.2. Literature review

Literature relevant to the research problem has been reviewed. This has been

done in order to elucidate the research problem and place the researcher in a

better position to focus on the identified problem and investigate it with a

deeper insight and more complete knowledge (Leedy, 1993:87). Moreover,

the review served as bedrock upon which the entire study began to expand,

lending credence and support to the researcher’s hypotheses.

Amongst others, the areas of literature reviewed included work by scholars

who provide critical analysis of the advent of missionaries in Africa, literature

which deals with African folklore and economic development, work by

scholars on the African renaissance, literature which deals with the

professionalisation or commercialisation of storytelling and work by scholars

on Black Economic Empowerment.

According to Europeans and missionaries, Africans were both primitive and

savage, people without any cultural traditions of their own. They had no

religious, economic or political background worthy of serious attention and

certainly no history in their creative arts. Moreover, Africans’ literature was

regarded as crude, backward and drab, not worthy of any attention by

students of the Western world. As storytelling amongst the Africans did not

appear European or Christian, it was regarded as an activity practised by

heathens and people were discouraged from practising it. Of late there has

299
been an upswing of interest in African literature. Scholars have come to

realise that undermining the credibility of African oral literature has meant that

they have trodden on hidden treasure.

European and African scholars initially studied African folklore as the mere

knowledge of the past, handed down from generation to generation, the

primary purpose of which was entertainment. No economic role whatsoever

was attached to African folklore. Commercialisation was experienced only by

authors who had written folklore anthologies and who received royalties from

publishing companies. This only happened, however, if the anthology was

prescribed for schools.

In South African primary schools storytelling has long been introduced from

grades 1 to 7. However, the first prescription in the South African secondary

schools was made in 1987 but only in grade 10. The first folklore anthology in

Tshivenḓa to be prescribed was Dzingano na dzithai dza Tshivenḓa by TN

Maumela.

Very few South African institutions of higher learning offer storytelling as an

autonomous discipline. If it is studied it is under the aegis of other

departments. Scholars and folklorists concur that storytelling like any other art

form requires formal training.

If the media does not engage in promoting storytelling around the country,

there will be no revival of interest in this art form. Current magazines and

300
newspapers around South Africa do not promote storytelling in any way. No

permanent slot for storytelling exists on SABC-TV or radio stations. The few

amateur storytellers around the country are denied an opportunity to develop,

market or publicise themselves. The literature reveals that media and

technology are important devices through which African folklore in general

and storytelling in particular could be successfully marketed, advertised and

promoted.

The literature further reveals that urbanisation and industrialisation have

resulted in a gradual uprooting of Africans from the cradle of their prevalently

rural culture and their practise of cultural activities in particular. The

fragmentation of community life caused by the move from patriarchal clan to

cosmopolitan township is regarded as one of the main contributory factors to

people losing their cultural ties and identity, a condition hostile to the creation

and performance of stories.

It is revealed in the study, however, that there is a glimmer of hope in the

emergence of professional storytellers around the country. The only setback

thus far is the lack of economic back-up from the government and non-

governmental organisations. Sceales and Edom (1991) argue that Black

Economic Empowerment should not be limited to the informal and small

business sectors only, but should include storytelling as well.

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6.2.3. Research Methodology

Both quantitative and qualitative approaches were used to elicit data in this

study. However, a qualitative approach was used more extensively than the

quantitative approach. The methods used for collecting data were the

interview, questionnaire, documents and observation. Because of the scarcity

of professional storytellers, snowball and judgemental or purposeful sampling

techniques were used. The accessibility of the place and the willingness of the

respondents to use this particular site were two determining factors in

choosing the setting of the present study.

In the securing appointments with respondents, the researcher made sure

that they understood the nature and purpose of the research so that they

would give consent to take part without any coercion.

Most of the data gathered during interviews was recorded on tape. Such

recordings were made once permission had been granted by the

respondents. Moreover, during tape-recording, the researcher also took notes

of the main points.

The interviewees in this study included storytellers, SABC-TV and radio

personnel, university lecturers of African languages, Department of Arts and

Culture personnel, directors of storytelling institutions, directors of a

302
community theatre running storytelling festivals and Pan-South African

Language Board personnel.

Ethical issues such as seeking permission to conduct interviews with the

respondents, the signing of the informed consent form by the respondents

and the use of code numbers during data analysis to ensure anonymity and

confidentiality were considered.

The most significant difficulty encountered in this study was a lack of funds to

further the research in countries abroad where storytelling has long been

professionalised.

6.2.4. Data analysis

In this study, data was analysed according to Tesch’s eight steps.

Analysing data started immediately once all the transcriptions had been made

and verified. In order to get a sense of the whole and to familiarise himself

with the data in an intimate way the researcher engaged in a ”contemplative

dwelling” which is a careful and continuous reading of all the transcriptions.

The researcher selected one interview at a time and wrote down any thoughts

or topics which came to mind in the margin. Similar topics were clustered

together and arranged in columns that were then grouped into major topics,

unique topics and leftovers. The researcher then returned to the data and

303
topics were abbreviated as codes. These were written next to the appropriate

text to see whether new categories or codes emerged. When the most

suitable wording for the topics was found, topics became categories. The

number of categories was reduced by grouping together topics that related to

each other. The abbreviation for each name category was then finalised and

eventually alphabetised into codes. In cases where a segment of a category

was too rich in content to fit in one category, it was split into two or three

categories. Thereafter the researcher assembled the material for each

category in one place and started with a preliminary analysis. The researcher

concluded the analysis by writing a report.

6.2.5. Research Findings and Interpretation

Although the missionaries performed a Herculean task in bringing another

form education to Africa, the damage they did to Africans in general is

irreparable. Almost all African attire, cultural activities, cultural behaviour and

lifestyle, including storytelling, was regarded as primitive and unworthy of

preservation. The first African scholars did not realise that people could earn

their living through the art of storytelling. Storytelling was regarded primarily

as a source of entertainment. People ignored and denigrated storytelling and

ultimately forsook it to earn their living through something else. In addition,

there are no institutions for training storytellers in South Africa. Storytelling

hours are rarely found in South African libraries. Storytelling institutions exist

only in other countries.

304
The study revealed that a lack of storytelling organisations and storytelling

circles around the country demeans and robs storytelling of its identity as a

genre. Storytelling does not form an autonomous part of school curricula and

is not a discipline at institutions of higher learning. Storytellers can, however,

sustain themselves in a number of ways such as running storytelling

organisations or consultancies, holding storytelling workshops, giving

storytelling presentations at conferences, teaching the elective on storytelling

at schools, writing and selling storytelling books and establishing storytelling

academies.

The study further revealed that if amateur storytellers are to advertise

themselves and encourage people to appreciate their work, they should work

voluntarily without expecting any honorarium. Storytelling festivals help to

inspire prospective storytellers to take up the art form and storytellers are

discovered through open microphone sessions during festivals. In order for

storytellers to be advertised world-wide and accessed with ease, their profiles

should be stored in a database. The study illustrated that storytellers should

market themselves by giving quality performances and advertising their

products. Storytellers could also entertain tourists to the country. Storytellers

could be subsidised by the government, but they should also use their own

initiative and liaise with departments and companies, negotiating with them

and showing them the importance of storytelling in order to gain their financial

support. The National Department of Arts and Culture has established

Language Research and Development Centres in institutions of higher

learning and these cater for the needs of languages in their area. Such

305
centres have the provisional task of establishing a council which will

acknowledge the professional status of the language professions.

The mass media is a good or a bad tool depending on how one uses it.

However, the media takes pride in bringing stories to millions of people in an

instant. Moreover, the media makes storytellers famous and known to the

public. People must find new formats for storytelling through technology.

The radio stations in Limpopo Province and SABC-TV 1 and 2 at Auckland

Park do not have dedicated storytelling programmes, but do broadcast

storytelling now and then. Urbanisation and industrialisation have hindered

the development of storytelling in this country. These phenomena should be

harnessed to promote and enhance storytelling as the hectic schedule of life

today has an adverse effect on the growth of storytelling.

6.3. THE SUCCESS OF PROFESSIONALISED STORYTELLING AND

STORYTELLERS THUS FAR

Professionalised storytelling serves as a master-key in many instances:

storytelling can be used everywhere. However, at present storytelling is

developing in a snail’s pace in South Africa. The contribution made by the few

storytellers in the country is just a drop in the ocean.

Storytellers around the country are trying their best to revive the art form of

storytelling, however. Professional storytellers like the legendary Gcina

Mhlophe, Nomsa Mdlalose, Andrea Dondolo, Nana Mthimkhulu, Khosi

Mazibuko, Thokho Nkomo, Zenzele Mvelase, and Peter Christie sell their

306
services to various clients. They perform their storytelling at schools, churches

and theatres where clients pay an entry fee and they receive a lump sum

afterwards. Some of them are even invited to perform their stories overseas.

Amongst these storytellers, there are some who opt to earn their living by

working freelance. They do so by moving from one place to another with the

intention of providing the service to their clients. The only setback which they

suffer is that most of their clients are not keen to pay for their services. There

is therefore still a great need to conscientise South Africans to the significance

of storytelling to their lives. Although all these storytellers have vowed not to

forsake storytelling and venture into some other field, sometimes it becomes

literally impossible for them to earn their living through the art form. As a

result, most of them end up following storytelling as a part-time job, and some

even forsake the art to earn their living by other means.

Storytelling festivals and conferences such as the annual Sibikwa Storytelling

Festival in Benoni, the annual arts festival in Grahamstown, and the

International Storytelling Conference which was organised by Zanendaba

Storytelling Organisation in 2004 at New Museum Africa in Johannesburg

help to boost storytellers financially and to conscientise the public at large

about the significance of storytelling. The attendees of such festivals and

conferences pay an entry fee. A storytelling workshop is usually conducted

during storytelling festivals and conferences, and attendees pay an extra

entrance fee for such a workshop.

307
Apart from earning their living through performing on the stage, there are a

number of other ways in which these storytellers sustain themselves.

Storyteller Peter Christie maintains that he sustains himself by teaching the

elective on storytelling at Wits Business School. He takes pride in running a

storytelling organisation or consultancy. Businesses which want to increase

their sales, build their brands, recreate themselves, create their identity, or

train and develop their employees, consult his organisation or consultancy. He

helps to make these businesses and companies more effective. Once a

company has consulted him, they iron out their problems once and for all.

Some of these professional storytellers, including Peter Christie, Gcina

Mhlophe and Nana Mthimkhulu, also sustain themselves by writing storytelling

books. Some might also be invited to perform their stories on the television or

radio even though there is no specific slot for storytelling. Storytellers mention

that they get very little incentive from performing on television and radio,

however they do acknowledge that it is a stepping stone to publicising

themselves to the broader public.

The first professional storyteller in South Africa, Gcina Mhlophe, has

established the Zanendaba Storytelling Organisation. Although the founder of

this organisation is no longer associated with it, the organisation is proud to

have an office in Braamfontein, Johannesburg, professional storytellers and

office-based staff. These storytellers and the staff earn their living solely

through storytelling although they sometimes go without their monthly

salaries. The Zanendaba storytellers are helping to revive the art by running

308
storytelling workshops around the country. Some of these workshops are run

free of charge.

Commercialisation is also a factor when people write folklore anthologies.

Whenever such anthologies are prescribed for schools, the author receives

royalties from the publishing company. However, if an anthology is not

prescribed it is hard for the author to earn anything from it since South

Africans are not inclined to buying books for pleasure.

The Department of Arts and Culture in Limpopo Province promotes

storytelling by running storytelling competitions around the province. These

competitions range from storytellers narrating their stories to any interested

people writing stories. One such competition is staged in three different

languages in the province (i.e. Northern Sotho, Xitsonga and Tshivenḓa).

There is no limit to the number of participants and anybody who is interested

is at liberty to enter these competitions. The best three storytellers and stories

receive big prizes.

6.4. THE IMPLICATIONS OF PROFESSIONALISATION FOR TEACHING

It is highly recommended that storytelling be encouraged in schools by being

incorporated into the curriculum as early as kindergarten, and continued right

up to institutions of higher learning. This would help learners who exit at the

GET and FET exit points to acquire skills with which they could earn their

living.

309
As is currently the case in the new curriculum (the National Curriculum

Statement), educators should be exposed to regular workshops on storytelling

skills and techniques. Since the storytelling intelligentsia are so scarce, it is

recommended that the government contracts skilled people from abroad to

conduct workshops on the art form among educators and lecturers.

Alternatively, educators and lecturers could be sent abroad to learn the skills

and techniques of storytelling. Once there are enough educators around the

country, the government can embark on establishing storytelling institutions

which satisfy the SAQA requirements in each province to cater for the needs

of storytelling. Such a move could inspire prospective storytellers and could

revive storytelling in the country.

As is the case in other business enterprises, where business people are

recruited from abroad to work in our country, directors of storytelling

academies abroad should be recruited to establish storytelling institutions with

the same curriculum here in our country. Such a venture would undoubtedly

help to revive and professionalise storytelling.

Amateur storytellers should start by rendering voluntary service where people

have gathered for a special purpose. Once such storytellers have established

themselves and they are well-known and sought after by the public, they can

start requesting a fee for their performance.

310
Professionalisation of storytelling could start in villages, schools and in nearby

towns with amateur storytellers performing their stories in the community,

town and school halls. People should pay entry fees. Once such a storyteller

becomes prominent and renowned, she/he can enter her/his profile on a

database so that her/his services can be accessed by people around the

world. This is part of becoming a professional storyteller.

6.5. THE IMPLICATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY

After a thorough study of the professionalisation of storytelling in African

languages, the researcher suggests the following priority areas relating to

storytelling that beg further research:

• Adapting storytelling within the modern world.

• Music in its various forms as an agent of storytelling.
• A journey clouded with dark clouds of myth and legends: a great
migration of the Vhavenḓa people from the North to the South.

• From Mvumela to Makonde: the legends featuring Ṅwali the god of the

Vhavenḓa people and their implications for today’s life.

• Historical narratives of Venḓa rulers.

• Storytelling as an entertainment element in some governmental
departments, e.g. Safety and Security, Health, Correctional Service,
Water Affairs and Forestry etc.

6.6. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

The main focus of this study has been to tap the knowledge and expertise of

the respondents on how to professionalise storytelling in African languages.

311
The findings arrived at have been discussed in chapter 5. However, the most

obvious limitation of the study was a lack of proper funding which ultimately

prevented the researcher from furthering his research overseas in the USA

where storytelling is more professional. Another limitation of this study was

that some respondents, having given consent to take part in the study

(interviews), did not honour their appointments. Although appointments had

been made with these respondents, some claimed to be committed to

something else, others were not present at the appointed time, and still others

apologised but said something had cropped up which prevented them from

honouring the appointment. Some of them shifted the responsibility to their

subordinates. This was really a blow as the potential respondents had been

selected through judgemental and snowball sampling, where respondents

were suggested by somebody else because of their expertise in this field of

study.

The researcher also had to endure the problem of missing video cassettes

from proceedings of the storytelling conference organised by the Zanendaba

Storytelling Organisation in 2004.

The researcher heard about a storytelling festival which takes place annually

in Grahamstown. He was enthusiastic to attend the festival since it was said

to be invariably graced with many storytellers, even some from abroad.

However, there was no means of attending this festival because of a lack of

funding.

312
6.7. CONCLUSION

This chapter summarises the study by reviewing the entire research. Although

the study was conducted to address a certain problem area (i.e. dormancy of

storytelling which is gradually leading to its extinction), it has further provoked

several questions about storytelling which warrant immediate future research.

Such problem areas have been outlined in this chapter.

Nieuwenhuis (1997:141) is convinced that the success of any education policy

lies in its implementation process: the same view holds true for the synthesis

of findings and recommendations arrived at in this study. It will therefore

sound inconsequential and naive if what has been unearthed through this

research does not bring a change to the art form of storytelling in particular.

The very same notion has been alluded to by Dasylva in Kaschula

(2001:189,190), when he states that unless the government considers

whatever approaches are suggested by the scholars in a favourable light, oral

literary performance and scholarship in Nigeria may slide further from its

present state of dormancy to complete extinction by the next millennium. Ruth

Finnegan in Kaschula (2001:274) notes that any commentary on the

functionality of African oral literature in contemporary contexts is bound to

raise problematic issues. Such issues according to her beg an answer to the

following questions:

• Is this just an occasion for nostalgia among a few romantically inclined

researchers?

313
 • Are the authors and editors merely begging the question of the

relevance of these oral forms today?

• Is the study of serious worth in today’s and tomorrow’s world?

All these questions call for more research.

However, Canonici (1995:22) believes that a serious study joined to an

evaluation of what other cultures have to offer on the same level will produce

the realisation that South Africans are not inferior to anybody else, but that

they have a great deal to offer to the world, and to future generations. He

illustrates that the world is not an inexperienced young girl, but a wise old man

who knows everything about life. He concludes that it is up to the present

generation to draw from this inexhaustible storehouse of tradition to enrich

itself and others.

314
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329
ANNEXURE A

330
 ANNEXURE B

APPROACH LETTER FOR INFORMANTS

FROM: NTSHENGEDZENI COLLINS RAṄANGA

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA GRADUATE STUDENT

Dear Mr/Mrs/Dr/Prof./Rev…………………………………………………………

I am currently a registered student at the University of South Africa working on

my Doctoral Degree in the Department of African Languages. The topic of my
research project is “Professionalising storytelling in African Languages with
special reference to Venḓa.”

Since storytelling has not as yet been professsionalised in South Africa, this
study will serve as an eye opener to all South Africans, and to the Venḓa
people in particular. As scores of talented storytellers are forsaking storytelling
as they cannot earn their living through it, this study will help to revive this art
form.

The study will investigate the extent to which factors such as, the advent of
missionaries in South Africa, the role played by the first scholars, the role
played by the South African educational institutions, the role of the mass
media, urbanisation and industrialisation and many other factors on the
promotion of storytelling.

The collected data will be helpful to many South African institutions and
education and government departments, and could also help to alleviate
poverty by providing the strategic skills which will enable amateur and
prospective storytellers eventually to become professionalised.

The data will be collected through the semi-structured interview, since I will
have a set of predetermined questions on an interview schedule. I will use a
tape recorder to capture the interview. After collecting data for my study, I will
analyse the results.

Participation in this study is voluntary. All collected data will be used solely for
study purposes. All information that can be linked to you will remain
confidential and will be disclosed only with your permission. Furthermore,
confidentiality and anonymity will be ensured by the use of pseudonyms and
code numbers. If during the interview process you feel that there is something
which compels you not to continue, you are at liberty to ask me to stop tape-
recording. Such abrupt withdrawal from the study will certainly not culminate
in any penalty or recrimination. If you choose to do so, the data already
collected from you will be destroyed.

If you have any questions please feel free to contact me at 082 4253 573 or
my promoter at 012-429-8078.

331
Please read and sign both copies of the consent forms enclosed herein. Your
signature indicates that you have read and understood the information
provided for in the covering letter; and that you agree to participate, and that
you may withdraw your consent at any time and discontinue your participation
without any penalty.

Thank you for agreeing to participate in this study.

Yours sincerely

N.C. RAṄANGA

332
 ANNEXURE C

CONSENT FORM

Below is a consent form for participants in the qualitative study,

“Professionalising storytelling in African Languages with special reference to
Venḓa.”

Thank you for expressing your willingness to participate in this study. As a

participant, you have rights that will be observed. You will under no
circumstances be coerced into participating in this study. You are at liberty to
refuse to answer any question at any time during the interview, if it threatens
you. Under no circumstances will your privacy be invaded. Furthermore, you
are at liberty to withdraw your consent and discontinue participation at any
time and to have the tape recording destroyed without any charge. Although
all possible measures will be used to protect your anonymity, the methodology
of the study prevents absolute anonymity in all situations. All data collected for
this study becomes the property of the researcher.

I would be most grateful if you could sign this form to show that you are ready
to participate in this research project and that you have read and understood
the accompanying letter and the consent form detailing the research plan and
your rights as a prospective participant.

Retain one signed copy for your records and forward the signed copy to me
using the enclosed self-addressed envelope, or fax it to me at tel/fax 015-963
1438.

Yours sincerely

Ntshengedzeni Collins Raṅanga, Graduate Student

Date: ____________________________________
Name (Please print)_________________________

I agree to participate in the study “Professionalising storytelling in African

languages with special reference to Venḓa”. I read the letter explaining my
rights as a participant.

333
 ANNEXURE D

LETTER OF THANKS TO THE PARTICIPANTS

FROM: NTSHENGEDZENI COLLINS RAṄANGA

Dear
Mr/Ms/Dr/Prof./Rev.____________________________________________

I want to convey my sincere gratitude for your participation in my research

project which focuses on the professionalisation of storytelling in African
languages. The data obtained from you will be used as an operational unit
and will be complemented by data from other participants.

Once again, thank you for the time you have taken to honour my request.

Yours sincerely

N.C. Raṅanga

334
 ANNEXURE E

LETTER OF THANKS TO NON-PARTICIPANTS

FROM: NTSHENGEDZENI COLLINS RAṄANGA

Dear
Mr/Ms/Dr/Prof./Rev.____________________________________________

This letter serves as a follow-up to the one sent to you requesting your
participation in the research project entitled “Professionalising storytelling
in African Languages with Special Reference to Venḓa.” I am sorry that it
is not possible for you to participate in the study.

Once again, thank you for the time you took to respond to my request.

Yours sincerely

N.C. Raṅanga

335
 ANNEXURE F

QUESTIONNAIRE ON STORYTELLING

NAME OF THE STORYTELLER

…………………………………………………………………………………………

ADDRESS

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

TEL NO: ______________________________________________

CELL NO: ______________________________________________

POST BACK TO: RAṄANGA N.C.

P.O. BOX 130
MUTALE
0956
RSA

CONTACT NO: 082 425 3573

1. LIFE AND BACKGROUND

¾ When was the artist born? …………………………………………………

336
¾ Who were the parents? ……………………………………………………

¾ What position did they hold in society? …………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

¾ How many wives did the father have? ……………………………………

¾ How many children were there altogether?………………………………

¾ Who is the artist’s favourite relative and what is it that binds them

together? ………………………………………………………………………

¾ Any tragedies or trauma in the family?…………………………………….

¾ When and how did the parents die (if they did)?…………………………

¾ What is the artist’s major occupation? ……………………………………

¾ What has been the major preoccupation in the artist’s

life?…………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………..

¾ What religion or form of worship is followed? ……………………………

¾ How much travelling has the artist done, and to what places? .
…………………………………………………………………………………
¾ How long was the stay in each place? …………………………...……….

¾ What was done there?…………………………………………………

¾ How much Western education does the artist have?

…………………………

¾ Is the artist married?…………………………………………………………

¾ If not, why not? ………………………………………………………………

¾ If married, what is the size of the family?…………………………………

¾ How much education have the artist’s children had?……………………

¾ How far have the children gone in life?……………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

337
 …………………………………………………………………………………
¾ How much support does the artist get from them?………………………
…………………………………………………………………………… …..

¾ What is the artist’s present status in society – titled person, councillor,

etc? ……………………………………………………………………
¾ What cult or club does the artist belong to?……..…………………

………………………………………………………………………………..

¾ What are the qualifications for membership?………………..……..

¾ What is the artist’s role in this cult or

club?……………………………………....

¾ What are the artist’s goals in life?

……………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………

2. SOCIETY AND TIMES

¾ What foreign missionary influences were there and what were the
results of the arrival of the missionaries?
…………………………………………….…………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………… ………………………………
¾ What are the major occupations of the people, e.g. farming,
hunting, trading?……………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………..
¾ What are the major festivals of the community?
………………………………………………….………………………
………………………………………………………………………….
¾ What are the main forms of oral literature practised by the
people?

338
 ……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
¾ What have been the effects of urbanisation and industrialisation
on these cultural practices?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………

3. ART

¾ What forms of oral art is the artist proficient in?

…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
¾ How did the artist develop an interest in these forms?
…………………………………………………………………………………
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¾ How long has the artist been practising the art?

………………………………….………………………………………………
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¾ What kind of training or preparation was undergone for the purpose?

………..…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………

¾ What does the artist consider as sources of inspiration (e.g.

spiritual)?……………………………………………………………………

339
 ………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………..

¾ What are the origins of the art in the artist’s society – was it
borrowed or indigenous?
……………………………………………….…………………………………
………………………….………………………………………………………
……………..............................................................................................

¾ Where or before what audiences or patrons has the artist

performed? …............……………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………….

¾ Are there any organised artistic competitions in the local community

or at state and national levels in which the artist has
participated?……………….………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………

¾ Who else in the community performs the same kind of oral

literature?……….…………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………….……………………
………………………………………………………….……………………

¾ What does the artist think of these people?

…………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………
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¾ Does the artist have a group of accompanists and apprentices?

……………..…………………………………………………………………….
.................................…………………………………………………………

340
¾ How long have they been together? ………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
¾ What are their specific duties on and off the job? …………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………

¾ Does the artist play any musical instruments to accompany his or her
words? ……………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………

¾ How does the artist’s style differ (if at all) from the traditional modes
of performance, and why have changes been made?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………

¾ What does the artist think about audience participation?

……………………….………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………..………

¾ What kind of preparations does the artist make before a

performance?……..………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………

¾ Does the artist find it necessary to adjust the material of the

performance to suit particular audiences? …………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………

¾ Is there any specific diction or dialect employed for the specific forms
practised or for any parts of the text? ………………………

341
 ………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………

¾ Is the art seen as a solid source of sustenance?…………………

………………………………………………………………………………
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¾ Does the artist charge any specific rates or dues to patrons and
apprentices?
………………………………………………………………………………
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¾ If a more lucrative form of existence was offered, would the artist

abandon the art for it?………………. …………………………

………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………

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 ANNEXURE G

INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING,

DEPARTMENT OF ARTS AND CULTURE AND UNIVERSITIES

A. INTERVIEW SCHEDULE

1. Would you say the culture of storytelling in South Africa is

developing or dying out?
2. Folklore has recently been introduced in South African
secondary schools and universities. Was it because it was
being undermined before?
3. The prescription of the folklore anthology in South African
schools is only made from grade 10 to 12, and sometimes
from grade 11 and 12. Why not from grade 8 upwards?
4. In the years 2000 to 2002 there was no prescription of folklore
in the schools in Limpopo Province in any grades. Has this not
led to the phasing out of folklore?
5. Why do South African universities not offer storytelling as an
autonomous discipline?
6. What can we do to encourage such a discipline?
7. What can we do in order to introduce storytelling as one of the
learning areas at our South African schools?
8. In your own opinion what are the factors that contribute to the
non-professionalisation of storytelling in South Africa?
9. Is there anything that your department is doing or planning to
do in order to promote storytelling in the country?
10. What can your department do in order to enhance the
professionalisation of storytelling in South Africa?
11. Would you say the advent of missionaries in South Africa has
had any impact on the art form of storytelling?
12. Is the mass media making a negative or a positive impact on
the promotion of storytelling?
13. Urbanisation and industrialisation – is it enhancing or killing
the spirit of storytelling?

343
14. Unlike the case in some countries abroad, South African
libraries and institutions offer no storytelling programmes as
part of their activities. What could be the cause for this?
15. What can we do to institute such storytelling programmes in
our libraries and institutions?
16. Do you think that the European and first African scholars had
any vision as far as the professionalisation of storytelling is
concerned?
17. Apart from what your Department could do, what else could be
done to professionalise this art form in South Africa?

B. QUESTIONING PROCEDURE

• Since a semi-structured (unstructured or in-depth) type of

interview will be conducted, the above questions only serve
as guidelines for the interview.
• As such, questions will not have any fixed wording or
sequence. The entire interview will be guided by these
questions rather than dictated by them.
• In some instances, the respondent will be asked to give
clarification if necessary.

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 ANNEXURE H

Enq: Raṅanga N.C.

Tel: 082 425 3573

P.O. Box 130

MUTALE
0956

Dear Librarian

Could you please complete this short questionnaire. The enquirer is interested
in the number of South African universities/state/school/community libraries
which offer storytelling programmes as a regular activity. The enquirer is a
registered student at the University of South Africa in the Department of
African Languages.

The topic of the enquirer’s study is “PROFESSIONALISING STORYTELLING

IN AFRICAN LANGUAGES WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO VENḒA”. The
information is required for a Ph.D degree. However, recommendations
emanating from the findings of this project may be circulated by any
institution.

There is no need to write your name on the questionnaire. Please mail back
the completed questionnaire in the self-addressed envelope.

Thanking you in anticipation.

RAṄANGA N.C.

345
 QUESTIONNAIRE ON STORYTELLING

A.

1. The name of the library………………………………………………………..

2. The approximate number of people who support this library……………

3. Is storytelling part of the programming as a regular activity?......................

4. Does the library have a storytelling specialist?...........................................

IF YOUR ANSWER IN 3 & 4 ABOVE IS ‘NO’, PLEASE ANSWER SECTION (B)

BELOW.

B.

5. Give the reasons for the absence of storytelling programmes in your

library……….……………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………

6. Would you accept any help on how to institute storytelling programmes

at your library?............................................................................................

IF YOUR ANSWER IS ‘YES’ IN 6 ABOVE, DO NOT ANSWER

QUESTION NUMBER 7

7. Could you give a reason for your answer to 6?

................................................…………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………….

346
 ANNEXURE I

INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR STORYTELLERS

A. INTERVIEW SCHEDULE

1. Would you say storytelling these days is growing or dying out?

2. These days you no longer find people in the rural areas
gathering in the early evening to listen to grannies narrating
stories. What is the probable cause for this?
3. Can people earn their living through storytelling in South
Africa?
4. What can we do to encourage amateur storytellers to become
professional storytellers?
5. Are there institutions which run storytelling in South Africa in
such a way that after completion one could become a
professional storyteller?
6. How can we professionalise storytelling in South Africa?
7. What are the factors which are contributing to the non-
professionalisation of storytelling in South Africa?
8. What can we do to increase the number of young professional
storytellers in our country?
9. If I wanted to be a storyteller where would I start?
10. Where did you receive your training in storytelling?
11. If a more lucrative form of existence was offered somewhere,
would you abandon storytelling?
12. Do you receive enough coverage from the media?
13. Would you say the media and technology are enhancing or
killing the spirit of storytelling?
14. Do urbanisation and industrialisation enhance or kill the spirit
of storytelling?
15. Did the advent of missionaries have an impact on storytelling
in South Africa?
16. Do you think apartheid had any impact on the
professionalisation of storytelling among black storytellers?

347
17. Is the government doing its bit in developing and promoting
storytelling?
18. Where could we introduce storytelling as a business?
19. Apart from storytelling, how do you earn your living?
20. Do you belong to any storytelling organisation?
21. Do you have any tips for the poor African storyteller who does
not know how to become a professional storyteller?
22. Can a person live by storytelling alone?
23. What is your comment on the fact that the first South African
and some European scholars did not regard storytelling as an
activity through which one could earn a living, but saw the
primary purpose of this activity as entertainment?
24. Most emerging storytellers have forsaken storytelling because
they cannot earn their living through it. What could be done to
win these storytellers back to the activity?
25. What can we do to revive storytelling?
26. Does the economic status of African storytellers have any
impact on them?

348
 ANNEXURE J

INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR SABC-TV AND RADIO PERSONNEL

1. Is the culture of storytelling developing or dying out in South Africa?

2. How can we professionalise storytelling in South Africa?
3. Do you have a storytelling programme on your channel?
4. If you don’t, why not?
5. If you do have a storytelling programme, do you call any storyteller
or do you have specific storytellers for that particular programme?
6. What problems do you encounter with these storytellers?
7. Are there some companies which record these storytellers or do
you record them yourself at the studio?
8. If you happen to record them yourself, how often do they perform?
9. What payment do they receive for each performance?
10. Are there workshops or courses offered to these storytellers to
develop them?
11. What is your comment on the notion expressed by some scholars
that storytelling is decreasing with the spread of modern devices
such as television and radio?
12. Do you have room for amateur storytellers in your programme?
13. In your own view, what factors contribute to the non-
professionalisation of storytelling?
14. Can you cite any institutions around South Africa which train
storytellers?
15. Is there any storytelling organisation which you know of in South
Africa?
16. Who are the prominent individual storytellers in South Africa?
17. Does the mass media and technology enhance or kill the spirit of
storytelling in South Africa?
18. What can be done to reinstate the early status quo of storytelling in
South Africa?

349
 ANNEXURE K

EXCERPTS FROM INTERVIEWS:

RESPONDENT D.1

Question: Would you say storytelling is developing or dying out?

Answer: As long as there are storytellers and as long as the teachers in the

classrooms use storytelling, storytelling will never die.

Question: But would you say that storytelling is still being practised these days

as it was before?

Answer: It might not be practised as it used to be in the past because we

change in times and change in methods. Storytelling these days is taking

different directions. Storytelling happens through TV at times, it happens

through radio, it happens in the homes when the mother will be telling kids in

her house about things that happen, about things that they should know, that

is storytelling with a purpose, perhaps in giving instructions.

In schools, storytelling is becoming a prominent practice: storytellers do visit

schools and tell stories, trying to inculcate the manner of storytelling into the

classroom with teachers. For instance, if you do theatre in the classroom,

that’s storytelling, but in a theatrical way.

Question: These days in rural areas we no longer find people gathering in the

early evening to listen to the mother or grandmother narrating stories. What is

your view on that?

350
Answer: It’s just that the format has changed and the times have changed and

because we are a dynamic society we are also changing, but storytelling does

take place. It is just the format and the setting and the methodology that has

changed, but storytelling still goes on.

If a person is well advertised then she/he can live on that. Because at times

storytelling goes with a number of things within storytelling and you end up

making place from a story.

Question: I am perturbed by the fact that the first South African scholars do

not regard storytelling as something through which one can earn a living.

They agree with most people that storytelling is only meant for entertainment.

What is your comment on that?

Answer: Storytelling is not only for entertainment: entertainment is only one of

its facets. Storytelling cannot only be for entertainment, it is for diverse things

and diverse ideas. Early scholars never looked at storytelling with the

progressive eye. They looked at storytelling for its entertainment.

Entertainment is something that ends and is over and yet storytelling and the

aim of storytelling remains with you for life.

Question: Folklore has been phased out for some time from grades 10 to 12

in the Limpopo Province, and storytelling has never been part of the school

curriculum. Your comment?

Answer: Storytelling should be included in the syllabus just as we have art as

the eighth learning area. Storytelling is one of the tenets of the arts.

351
Question: Coming to the issue of economic status of African storytellers, I

find it restrictive that they are economically disadvantaged. What is your view?

Answer: When we started as storytellers we used to do a lot of voluntary

work. Gcina started like that as well. In voluntary work you go somewhere

where there is a function, you tell them that you could tell a story to entertain

the learners and they should put you on the programme. They don’t give you

any honorarium. I remember once I went to Akanani in Makhado where I was

going to help people to develop storytelling. That was voluntary work and I

had to find my own transport. I had to approach the train company (Spoornet)

and ask for a ticket. They gave me a return ticket to Akanani. When I went to

Akanani I helped them develop their own manual on storytelling, and I came

back to Zanendaba with a donation of R200.

Question: What is your suggestion for somebody who is a good storyteller, but

not a learned person, but wants to develop and publicise himself/herself as a

storyteller?

Answer: In order to develop and publicise themselves people must go to their

councillors and indicate that these are the services they can render. What will

they give me as a kick-back, what honorarium will you give me? I want to

render this because I want to keep the culture of storytelling alive, but at the

same time I want to earn a living.

Question: Urbanisation and industrialisation: would you say these have had a

negative or positive impact on storytelling?

352
Answer: Urbanisation and industrialisation have had no negative impact on

storytelling. It is the human beings. The thing is, urbanisation and

industrialisation just change the mindset of human beings. Otherwise

everything is still in their minds; the thing is, how do you shape what you have

to use in the environment where you are?

Question: Long before the invasion of television and radio people used to

gather and share stories. But these days school children are busy doing their

schoolwork and watching television and the like. Obviously storytellers do not

have the influence they used to. Your comment?

Answer: In light of the fact that TV has come to the fore we must look into how

we mould our lives so that we accommodate it, as well as storytelling. Do you

know that storytelling is also involved in Science, in Maths, in Life Orientation?

Question: Do you have any hints or suggestions which could help storytellers

to avoid forsaking the storytelling art form?

Answer: We must get support from the government because storytelling is not

for people only, it is for the nation. It is for everybody, we must get support

from the government because this is cultural heritage.

353
RESPONDENT D.2

Question: In your view, how can we professionalise storytelling in our

country?

Answer: I mean if you see we are artists here in South Africa, it is not like in

Europe, England or USA because there they can earn a living by being artists.

They have got people who sponsor them, they have different kinds of

sponsors, but here in S.A. is very difficult because the government doesn’t

care about artists. Is just that we are getting paid if maybe we get some

funders somewhere, you know.

Question: What could be done to prevent people from forsaking the

storytelling art form?

Answer: Storytelling should be put in the school curriculum and also in the

institutions of higher learning.

Question: What can we do here in S.A. to encourage storytellers to come to

the fore?

Answer: You see, in Zanendaba we are trying our best to publicise storytelling

in the media, especially television and newspaper and also visiting schools to

give workshops on storytelling, putting this culture of storytelling to teachers

so that teachers can pass it to children.

Question: What could be done to remedy the situation?

Answer: Storytelling can be revived if the government opens lots and lots of

technical schools, and also comes into the community and supports

354
everything that is there, especially the youth centres. Furthermore, more

workshops should be promoted, going to the media and also exchanging

ideas. I give you what I know and you give me what you know in return, it’s a

give and take situation.

Question: What is your comment on the missionaries and traditional

literature?

Answer: The missionaries colonised our minds and we automatically forgot

about the things God gave us. When you are colonised in mind for a long

time, it is very, very difficult to change. It is like a chained dog which is living

there in its enclosure. For that dog to change is very difficult. What I am

saying is that it is going to take years and years for people to change because

they have been colonised for such a long time.

Question: Some other ideas on how to commercialise storytelling?

Answer: Storytelling can be commercialised by opening schools of storytelling

in each and every province. And also inviting the professionals or the leaders

in the community and also people who are well-known to tell stories, we share

the ideas, the skills that we have.

RESPONDENT D.3

Question: What can we do here in South Africa to increase the number of

storytellers?
Answer: First of all we need to establish a market for storytelling, we start with
the people in the community. They should accept that storytelling is
something you can live by, so there is a need to support storytelling.

355
Question: What are the factors which contribute to the non-professionalisation

of storytelling?

Answer: Storytelling needs a lot of work, it needs good publicity to be

accepted. Any field, I mean to be a good doctor you need to practise, you

need to be a good doctor so that people will come to you. So as a storyteller

you can be a grandmother and you go to schools to tell stories. First of all if

you tell them that you are a storyteller, who are you? But then if you are Gcina

Mhlophe everyone knows they will be likely to listen to your stories. So, that

needs publicity, exposure and some skills.

Question: What can we do to increase the number of younger storytellers so

that they can eventually see storytelling as an art form from which they can

earn their living?

Answer: In order to increase the number of younger storytellers we should

invite them. Maybe if we have money, do as many festivals as we can on

storytelling as much as people do many festivals in jazz.

Even if you feel that there were two people at the storytelling festival, still go

on next year there will be three or five.

Question: Are there some incentives in storytelling which would allow people

to survive through the art form?

Answer: Gcina Mhlophe has been living through storytelling for many years.

It’s only now she’s got into music, writing and …. I live by storytelling, it’s only

now that I have started writing. OK, I am a professional journalist, but I don’t

356
do journalism anymore. I have a degree in communication, but I don’t use it, I

am telling stories, I live by storytelling. I am here to run storytelling workshops,

I am going to be paid for it, that’s how I am going to pay my rent and buy my

food at the end of the month. So, I live by storytelling.

Question: If I wanted to be a professional storyteller where would I start?

Answer: For amateur storytellers to start commercialising storytelling, let them

start by reading stories. You start by rehearsing thoroughly and interacting

with professional storytellers, and then from there you start publicising your

stories maybe at nursery schools, you go there and perform about ten to

fifteen minutes. Maybe they pay you gate takings. Then you move on to high

schools. When you get used to the job, you’ll get better each time you do it.

RESPONDENT D.4

Question: What are you working as here?

Answer: I am working in the language section. I am a National Language

Coordinator, but specifically for the curriculum.

The new curriculum is different from the old one as the old one was too

prescriptive. According to the old curriculum, a person was expected to follow

the curriculum as prescribed without deviating from it. But according to the

new curriculum, the only prescriptions given are the learning outcomes. In the

GET band there are six and in the FET, four.

357
Question: Sir, is storytelling growing or gradually dying out in the home?

Answer: Stories used to be narrated when people sat down at night. These

days, people entertain themselves at night by watching Muvhango and

Generations, soapies on the T.V. which have taken the place of storytelling.

Question: Is there any special provision in the National Department for

storytelling or oral literature as a subject or learning area on its own?

Answer: I will try to explain how the learning areas stand in the GET and FET

band. From the foundation phase they were regarded as learning

programmes. There are three, literacy, numeracy and life skills. Then

storytelling falls under literacy. In the intermediate and senior phases they are

called languages. In FET, they are still included in languages. It is

complicated to have storytelling as an autonomous learning area or subject at

the GET or FET band: perhaps it can be autonomous at institutions of higher

learning. It won’t be easy for oral literature to be autonomous because it also

falls under literature, whilst literature in its entirety includes drama and short

stories as well. Moreover, it is within the domain of languages.

Question: I like the idea that if storytelling was introducd at institutions of

higher learning it would be of greater significance.

Answer: I said so because the way it started from the lower levels it was too

general. We proceed until we come to the end were we have specialisation. It

would not be possible to have storytelling as an autonomous subject at the

undergraduate level either. That would only become possible when doing

specialisation.

358
Question: Here is a consummate storyteller: what can we do to motivate him

to become a professional storyteller?

Answer: When motivating storytellers to become professionals there is a

Venḓa adage which goes, ‘u naka a hu fani na u ḓihwa’ (people take care to

the people they know). A person can be very beautiful, but without having a

network system he/she ends up nowhere. You can find out that there could be

some agents who want such people, but then they could end up without

getting them. If that person was known it would be easy for him/her to be

found. One thing which remains a challenge to us is coordination of this in

such a way that we create a database of storytellers which will make it easy to

access them.

Question: Is technology killing or enhancing storytelling?

Answer: We cannot say technology is killing storytelling because it is

preserving it because there are so many storytellers on the internet.

Question: Was the intention of the missionaries to kill or promote storytelling?

Answer: The sin committed by the missionaries was that of making people

disregard their culture.

RESPONDENT D.5

Question: Is there any provision for storytelling in the South African

curriculum?

359
Answer: You will be aware that we have the Revised Curriculum Statement on

all the learning areas. If you look at the learning area Arts and Culture for

instance, it mentions music, visual arts, performing art and all of that. So,

storytelling, drama, you will see that at the moment storytelling is not a

separate entity. You know, it is still clustered under performing art. If you go

deeper into the curriculum itself, it begins to make those kinds of

provisions but it does not talk specifically about storytelling. So, it can be

an activity on its own that needs to be assessed for various reasons.

But in terms of policy and under arts and culture there are those

provisions for performing arts. Now if you want to zoom into the teaching

of storytelling as an activity, I believe that music, dance and all of that

fall under the performing arts and surely as much as the policy is not to

elevate storytelling compared to drama, dance and visual arts. Surely, the

principle is that when we talk about the performing arts, we are including

storytelling. In many cases under drama we will find that storytelling is part of

it.

Question: Getting back to the GET band, is there no other provision which you

can think of? Because I think there is a need that people should start learning

storytelling from primary school right through to secondary school.

Answer: Through storytelling we affirm many things, our cultural beliefs, our

cultural identity: it tells us where we come from.

So, we as a Department of Education are building a holistic person who

is culturally and psychologically aware of the world around him or her.

360
For me there is a component because in our band we are giving

people all the skills. When they move out at the exit point we provided

them with the opportunity to focus on a, b or c . Similarly, when they

go to a higher institution they understand that we develop the whole

person.

When someone goes to a university and wants to specialise in oral

literature the interest was generated in the GET band and the FET band.

We develop the whole being so that the whole being can then select

the specific. In a simple sense we cannot channel them at the foundation

phase.

RESPONDENT D.6

Question: Is storytelling in Canada developing or dying out?

Answer: Storytelling is going through a renaissance. In the last twenty

years there has been an increase in interest in storytelling. Twenty years

ago in Toronto a small group of storytellers got together to help one

another with the out call.

Question: Are there many storytellers there who earn their living through

storytelling?

Answer: In Canada there are not many storytellers who live completely by

storytelling. Most of the people who are interested in storytelling have a

full-time job and are involved in storytelling as well or they have retired

361
and do storytelling in their retirement. But there is a smaller number of

people who are professionals and I am one of those.

Question: What is the probable course of the limited number of professional

storytellers?

Answer: The small number of storytellers around the country can be

attributed to the fact that the broader public doesn’t yet know how

important storytelling is or what it is. They think of storytelling as either

something from the past or something for very small children.

Question: In your view, what can be done to encourage people to value

storytelling?

Answer: For storytelling to grow, it has to be in schools, so that people realise

its significance. And I don’t just mean schools for little children, I mean all

educational establishments right through to universities and technical

colleges. Teachers should be trained to culturally incorporate storytelling in

the classroom and in that way we will regain a valuable tool that has

almost been lost.

Question: As far as libraries are concerned, are there any storytelling

programmes at libraries?

Answer: Libraries are where storytelling really started in Canada. It came

across from England as something that British-trained librarians passed on to

their communities in Canada.

362
Questionl Although you have already mentioned some, can you cite other

concrete factors which stand in the way of professionalising storytelling?

Answer: One problem in the professionalising of storytelling is that

someone who is a good storyteller is not necessarily a business person.

And you have to split yourself into two, you are the artist and the

performer but you also have to be a sales person. And those two don’t

go together, and there are not many agents to work for storytellers. I do

all my own marketing and sales. And I am lucky that I have those skills

but not very many people do.

Question: Presently, are you attached to a certain institution where you are

teaching storytelling?

Answer: No, no, I belong to a number of organisations. One is a storyteller

organisation in America, the National Storytelling Organisation, the one in

Canada, the Storyteller’s School of Toronto and the Canadian Association of

Storytellers for Children.

Question: Has the mass media enhanced or destroyed the spirit of

storytelling?

Answer: I think the mass media is just another form of storytelling. It can be

a good tool or a bad tool, depending on how you use it.

Question: What about urbanisation and industrialisation, are these enhancing

or discouraging storytelling?

363
Answer: Storytelling nearly died. Whenever a society goes through a genetic

change like the issue of industrialisation and urbanisation, it takes a while for

people to find their feet. And I think that’s why storytelling is being revived in

big cities like Toronto because families are torn apart, miles and miles

between them. Divorce is a big problem, so children might be living with two

or even three different families. And people instinctively feel the need to

make connections and that’s what storytelling does, it makes connections

between people.

RESPONDENT D.7

Question: Do you have a storytelling organisation?

Answer: Yes, I run a school for storytelling in England. It started in 1994 and

has been going for ten years.

After graduation people get a diploma certificate. We give them a certificate

that says that they studied with us for a period of time and they have covered

various subjects.

Question: What sort of subjects do you offer?

Answer: As far as the curriculum is concerned, we have to work with

the voice. We train them how to use their voice as a storyteller.

You have to learn how to move. You have to learn about the basic skills of the

storyteller. You learn about different types of stories. There is also work on the

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meaning of the stories. Some of the symbols in the stories are very deep and

they have hidden meanings. You have to learn to read those meanings to

see what part of the soul the story is talking about.

Question: What are some factors which are killing the spirit of storytelling?

Answer: Historically there have been different things that have affected

storyteller. The first was the invention of the printing press. Moving from the

oral tradition to the literary tradition was one of the things that destroyed

storytelling. We changed it in a big way. Then there was the invention of the

electric light. That meant that people could stay up many hours of the night

and they were no longer bound to go to bed when the sun set and living with

the seasons. So, first the printing press begins to abstract what was living

and then the electric light played its part in terms of the fact that people

could start to read their books for so many hours. And after that there

were different things that came, such as the invention of radio, of

television, computers, the internet and all these different things. I am not

saying I am against those. They are so important to the country, they are

doing a good service. But they have taken us away from nature, living with

nature. They have taken us from living with each other because now I

don’t need you and I could just entertain myself by looking at the

television, reading my e-mail.

Question: Is urbanisation and industrialisation enhancing or killing the spirit of

storytelling?

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Answer: Well, it’s creating a new kind of story. The strongest storyteller

medium at the moment is cinemised film. And there are many stories that

have been told through that medium which were set in the urban environment.

And some of the films that have been set in the environment in the future,

such as the Matrix films.

RESPONDENT D.8

Question: How can we professionalise storytelling in such a way that

storytellers earn their living through this art form?

Answer: I think different festivals should have spaces for storytellers. Because

there is very little money to focus only on training storytellers, we don’t

have an institution that trains people on a full-time basis. At different

festivals they are backing other people, they see how it’s done from their

masters, and then they learn. At Zanendaba we used to have an

annual storytelling festival and at a given time we would have an open

microphone session. Anybody could tell a story and every year we found

the most amazing people. And that was such a wonderful part of the

festival, and then we had a day called “History telling day”. We told true

stories that belong to our history, old history and not so old. The whole

day was dedicated to history telling, we held workshops for story

creation where people could make up new stories.

Question: What else can we do to professionalise storytelling?

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Answer: Many young people don’t want to volunteer anymore. They want to

be professionals today, to earn a lot of money. It doesn’t work like that. It

leads to human crime. I used to travel to all kinds of places and theatres

and do free workshops with them. All they did was to bring some fruits

and some things to eat at lunch time and everybody brought something

and we worked for hours. No matter how rural the area you live in,

there is a school there, I am sure of it . You can go to the school and

be a regular at that school. You won’t be paid a cent but one day

somebody will think, this person needs to be paid, she is bringing

something valuable to the school. But you start by giving, then you will

be appreciated and, depending on how good you are, you are training

yourself. Nobody will spot you somewhere: you need to develop yourself.

One needs to practise, and one can’t practise alone, one practises with

an audience, and the audience is all around us.

Question: Is the lack of institutions for training storytelling in South Africa a

hindrance to storytelling in general?

Answer: Educational institutions can incorporate wings where they encourage

storytelling and we can come in and teach people. Art centres, community

centres, churches, educational institutions, you name them, can open places.

Question: There is only one scholar I have met who has acknowledged that

one can earn a living through storytelling.

Answer: Earning a living in any art form means a lot of dedication, and

being driven and being prepared to learn and learn. Every African

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language says: “Umuntu u funda a ze a fe” or “a person learns until she

dies”. So, in any art form, some of the best dancers are still trying to

learn new skills, some of the best singers are trying to learn new

things. So even with storytelling, we have to explore all the time; we

keep on exploring and finding ways to grow. Other people tend to

oversimplify it. They think that it’s so easy they don’t need to work too

hard and as a result we will bore the audience.

RESPONDENT D.9

Question: Is the culture of storytelling developing or dying out in South Africa?

Answer: The culture of storytelling is growing and emerging and will grow

with a force: look at what our government is doing in terms of

celebrating the heritage of South Africa. You can see from there that

they are including and incorporating the element of storytelling within their

celebrations.

Question: When looking at the SABC-TV programmes, are they developed in

such a way that they do not need any adjustment as far as storytelling is

concerned?

Answer: The element of storytelling in terms of educational programmes

on SABC-TV is diverse but it needs to be developed. The time that they

have and the slots they have are minimal. They need to extend these so

that people can see different storytellers with different languages from

different cultural backgrounds.

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Question: Are there some areas in which, if developed, storytelling could be

marketable?

Answer: I would love to see the storytellers themselves when they are

organised, when they can lobby for a slot to be added. Because it is not

for us to tell them what to do, but it is for them to organise

themselves if they see a gap that they can fill. They must come up with

these proposals themselves.

Question: Are there any factors which hinder the professionalising of

storytelling?

Answer: There are lot of factors which serve as stumbling blocks in the

professionalisation of storytelling. The first one is that of professional jealousy.

It might be one of the factors among storytellers themselves. Secondly, you

might find that we have limited resources. It might be resources in terms of

finance, in terms of organising them at the venues where we can meet the

storyteller. Thirdly, legally speaking.you definitely need to copyright your

material, you definitely need legal representation.

Question: How can we solve the above-mentioned problems?

Answer: If we are well-organised as storytellers I think it would be

advisable for this group of storytellers to come together. There is finance

available from the Arts and Culture Department, and the government . If

we are united the government will support that but if we are divided and

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operating on an individual basis it will be difficult because the resources

are limited.

So, I am saying that if the administrators should organise storytellers to make

it easier for the administrators to actually engage with the legal people

because as a storyteller I need to protect my materials. We have seen that

some South African storytellers, songwriters and performers have been

exploited by commercial industries. But if we are legally wise, we can

protect our material, our resources, we will protect every inch of the

event or any writings that we have done or recordings that we have

made.

Question: How can storytellers commercialise their stories?

Answer: Storytellers should not themselves pursue commercialisation, it will

come. They should perfect themselves and keep on training, keep on

practising, until they really think that they have reached the peak. That is

when I think commercialisation can come in.

Question: When the missionaries came to South Africa, they looked on

storytelling as something sinful which should be discouraged. Your comment?

Answer: The missionaries come here with a mission to rob us of our

identity, and to dress us with their Western values. And that is when we

actually lost our humanity, our respect and our unity as people because

when the missionaries came here we started to think individually rather

than as a community. And yes, we can say we want to thank them for

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what they brought because they brought the pen, the book and then

we started to record all what we thought could not be recorded.

RESPONDENT D.10

Question: Since many people have forsaken storytelling, what can be done in

order to retain those who still tell stories?

Answer: If we professionalise or institutionalise storytelling and build

economic development I think that would be a a very good thing. Using

the ancient tradition of storytelling to educate children in the home should

never be scoffed at because I personally believe that education is primarily

the responsibility of parents not the state.

Question: Some people say that the media and technology are sustaining

storytelling while others argue that these seem to be discouraging the art

form. What is your comment?

Answer: The media and technology should complement each other in making

storytelling a reality.

Question: Tell me, are there many storytellers in England?

Answer: When I was in England, or the United Kingdom, there was a great

emphasis on the history of the people of the British Isles. In Ireland, there

were the Shanachies way back in history. The Shanachies were storytellers

who walked around, they literally walked the streets with what they

owned and they earned their living by telling stories from village to

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village. People used to gather around and they would tell stories on the

street and people would listen and then throw them coins. In England the

two things that I can think of are the minstrels who used to roam

around playing music, singing and telling stories through songs. And often

these minstrels used to appear in the royal court. They don’t exist now, they

are historical. The minstrels used to appear in the market, in the

circuses, they used to be part of circuses and they would perform in

the market place. Jesters were people who wore pointed hats and who

used to tell stories to the kings and queens. In those stories they would

moralise or foretell the future through stories and songs. Those people

died out long ago, but still in England we get the gypsies . Essentially

the gypsies are traveling people. They don’t have jobs. They appear in

market places or they stop somewhere in open spaces and they start

their performance and people throw the money and that’s how they earn

their living.

Question: What was the missionaries’ influence on traditional art forms?

Answer: I think there would be differences between the different religions

that brought the missionaries, that is the Anglicans, Roman Catholics and

so on. My impression is that the Roman Catholic missionaries were more

open to what they found here and responsive to it. Whereas the

Presbyterian, Methodist and Anglican missionaries believed that what they

were bringing was right and what they found here was wrong, criticising

everything that was African and eradicating it, and introducing everything

that was European. But interestingly enough the Anglican Church has again

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started using storytelling here in South Africa. I had an experience a couple of

years ago where I worked in an Anglican church. The whole day we

were asked to tell our stories, our personal stories of how we had

experienced apartheid. And it was done in order to bring about

reconciliation between black and white people in the congregation.

Question: Would you say that urbanisation and industrialisation have had a

negative impact on traditional art forms?

Answer: Urbanisation and industrialisation have a negative impact on the art

form of storytelling because industrialisation breeds stress, it steals people’s

time. Urbanisation does the same thing, it takes a long time to move around

because everybody is moving around the same time. There is less time, less

space and less connectedness between people. And I think storytelling needs

time and a sense of creativity. And I think industrialisation and urbanisation

knock creativity out of people. So, the two are almost up against each other in

some way in terms of things like time, space, creativity, connectiveness

between people. It’s every man for himself and no more sharing or caring

together in many ways.

RESPONDENT D.11

Question: What could be done to revive storytelling?

Answer: More storytelling workshops should be run in order to revive

storytelling. If storytelling festivals are organised, perhaps people will come

back because there are lots of stories in our communities. But because

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people do not know how to relate to them they think storytelling is old

fashioned or is no longer working in any way.

In order for storytelling to be revived we have to form groups. After that, you

practise those stories again and again. And then you ask the community even

if you are not going to be paid and you ask a few communities or you go to a

school and tell them those stories. The response will be wonderful.

Question: Can we say the first scholars made a mistake by not highlighting

that people can earn a living through storytelling?

Answer: The first scholars did not make a mess to storytelling, but in a way

they didn’t have the information of accessing the right channels. Storytelling is

not professionalised in South Africa because of ignorance.

Question: Why is storytelling professionalised overseas but not in South

Africa?

Answer: At one storytelling meeting I attended in East London, we had

storytellers from as far afield as India. These storytellers were professionals

and they were registered. They have their own schools of storytelling. So I am

very surprised that we do not have these in South Africa.

Question: How can we motivate people to become commercial storytellers?

Answer: Let us not lose hope. Our destination in the professionalisation of

storytelling is very close. Let us not allow our culture to die. Let’s keep on

moving, because at the end of the day we will achieve our goal.

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RESPONDENT D.12

Question: Are you a full-time storyteller?

Answer: I travel as well as telling stories on the street and in places where

people need help. I want to speak to those souls.

I am a full-time storyteller. That’s what I do, I live for it. Telling stories requires

committing your life to helping people. I get up just before the sun rises, I

kneel facing the sun and commit my life, everything I eat, it could be my

drinks to serving the world. I preach that for an hour, then I take any

food and bring my breath, my hope to help those who are hungry and

thirsty in the body, the mind. You must live a story, otherwise you can’t

tell a story.

Question: We have a problem here in South Africa. There are some good

storytellers but they are forsaking storytelling because they are not earning

anything from it. What could we do to solve this problem?

Answer: What I do is that I have affiliates who help me when I give

workshops. For a long time I did workshops at home and schools.

I have given workshops all over the world. You have to love it.

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RESPONDENT D.13

Question: Do you offer a storytelling programme at your University?

Answer: We don’t have storytelling programme at this University. But we have

a programme which we call the Tshivenḓa Language Research and

Development Centre which comprises folklore in detail and comes with the

National Department of Arts and Culture.

Question: If I come to your university as a student and request you to develop

me as a professional storyteller what will you tell me?

Answer: At our university storytelling is offered in full at honours level in such

a way that after completion, a person can opt to be a professional storyteller if

he/she so wishes.

Question: When considering the culture of storytelling, is it dying out?

Answer: The culture of storytelling is dying out. There are no longer

grandmothers in our homes. We have moved to the townships. Grandmothers

were left in the rural areas. To whom are they going to narrate these tales

because they used to narrate them to their grandchildren? Another thing is

that even those old women and old men have televisions and radios. Not to

say it is not right, but storytelling is dying out. Another contributing factor is

that we also denigrate storytelling.

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Question: How did the missionaries contribute to developing or killing the

culture of storytelling?

Answer: The missionaries helped a lot by bringing education which helps in

the preservation of storytelling today.

Question: In your concluding remarks, what could we do to professionalise

storytelling?

Answer: Let’s use storytellers when there are tourists. Let us get an

interpreter to interpret for them while they are narrating. Let us use them the

same way as we use the tour guides. As we have tour guides, so let us have

a storyteller, let us also have a person who is consummate in cooking

traditional food. Let’s put them into our computers. Let us advertise them on

the internet. Moreover, the world today is very small. Let these people get the

benefit, let them get respect. If we could do this we would build a solid

foundation.

RESPONDENT D.14

Question: Are there many professional storytellers in Botswana?

Answer: We don’t have many professional storytellers in Botswana. I started

at a storytelling festival in 1994. From there I went to the United States

because I felt the tradition is rich but within the household it was dying out.

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Other professionals I know, some were very good I guess, but due to a lack of

finance and other things they had to look for steady jobs.

Question: Do you have another part-time job?

Answer: I think I am a full-time storyteller: I don’t mean that I am on stage all

the time. I use different forms of telling stories. Sometimes I use films and

videos to tell stories, and sometimes I am on stage with an audience which is

always the best way to gauge how one is doing. So, I don’t have any other

job other than that and I don’t want any other job. I think what I am doing

is fulfilling. We just need more financial support but it’s fulfilling.

Question: Since you know that there are no professional storytellers around

your area, what are you doing as a seasoned storyteller to groom other

storytellers in order to develop them?

Answer: In 1994 before I left for the USA, I started a storytelling festival. I

used my mother and other people who are elders to teach us more stories so

that we could grow from them. Now I have been approached by schools to run

workshops there. So, I want to continue reviving the concept that I came with

in 1994. And I joined forces with another friend of mine and we formed a

company called “Mokgolokwane”. Mokglolokwane is there to cultivate not only

the art of storytelling but all the traditional arts like dancing because even with

dance you tell stories.

Question: Is technology enhancing or killing the spirit of storytelling?

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Answer: I think film is just one way of telling stories live. It needs to be done,

but of course as technology and other things come, we use that to develop

what is already there. We cannot exactly stick to one thing: if my father

showed me how to make an axe, or how to use an axe and in 10 years time I

still use it the same way as my father did, I think you would be disappointed. I

have to find ways to develop my personality.

RESPONDENT D.15

Question: Can you tell me, are you a professional storyteller?

Answer: I am a professional storyteller. I tell stories in my country as well as

abroad.

Question: You have no other part-time job?

Answer: I combine storytelling with theatrical performances. I am an artist as

well, so I have my own theatrical group.

Question: Is storytelling developing or dying out in Malawi?

Answer: Back home we really don’t have any storytelling organisations. I want

to pioneer that. I have formed a group or rather an organisation called a

“stoma”, a “storytelling organisation of Malawi”. It is still in the pipeline though

and is not really established because we want to ask funds from the

Ministry of Culture. If they fund us, we will be able to conduct workshops for

people who are interested into going into storytelling full time.

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Question: In your own view, is technology enhancing storytelling or killing its

spirit?

Answer: Technology is killing storytelling in a way: the same technology can

be used to the advancement of storytelling. But I am afraid it is being used in

a whole different way where it is replacing storytelling. So, I wouldn’t look at

that as a very positive move to say that things like television, DVDs and all

those movies are replacing storytelling. Because if you look at the

environment like a village scene where there was no screen, no radio, no

anything like that, that was an environment conducive to storytelling because

that was the only source of entertainment that children had.

But now with the coming of all this modern television and all that, I am

beginning to see that a lot of people are opting for that. Storytelling will be

nonexistent by the end of the day.

Question: Let’s take a deep rural area such as the one I come from as an

example. Here are some storytellers who we want to develop into

professionals. How can we do this?

Answer: The best thing to revive storytelling would be to give them incentives,

to invite them to festivals and to give them something. And then they know

that they can earn a living through storytelling. But what I would say further is,

the government also has to do a lot. The government should actually create

an environment that is good for organisations to go ahead and do a lot of

workshops in storytelling because it helps, it grooms future storytellers. I

like the idea of inviting children to Sibikwa to listen to stories by international

storytellers. That’s very beautiful, because we encourage the young to look at

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storytelling not as an old fashioned thing, but as something that can still be

used today. Although technology has reached its peak, we still have to do a

lot of storytelling.

RESPONDENT D.16

Question: My main concern is to find out whether there is a discipline called

storytelling at your institution?

Answer: You see what we have done here is to liberate folklore from

languages. There was a tendency to think that African languages should carry

folklore to the exclusion of other languages. We have made it a separate,

distinct discipline by itself.

As of now we do not have storytelling as a specialised field. But it is part of

the broader concept. Therefore I wouldn’t say we train professionals or

folklorists who will become storytellers. In the country so far I don’t think we

have any.

Question: Do you intend introducing such a discipline in the near future?

Answer: Specialising is an area which depends largely on students. You see,

folklore as a broad concept for instance, if you go deeper into specialisation,

it requires a lot of money. Then you would have an avenue to explore the

dynamics of storytelling. But as of now to have classical teaching of it, there

are limitations of control in terms of finances, in terms of instructions.

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Question: As the chairperson of the Southern African Folklore Society do you

think that the exclusion of storytelling as a discipline at South African

universities can be ascribed to this?

Answer: People have other preoccupations. I am a member of Safos, I am

a folklorist , then we go back home after the conference. What does he

teach? He teaches grammar, he teaches literary prose. Very few folklorists

teach folklore. Therefore to speak of specialising is premature. We still want to

nurture the subject; we still have problems with people who think that just

because I am Black, I am naturally a folklorist. They don’t understand that

folklore as a subject is like philosophy, you don’t become a philosopher by

virtue of being Black, you don’t automatically become an African

philosopher. You must be trained in the art. Once you are trained in the art

of folklore you become a folklorist. Then you can start off with special

areas of folklore and we need to nurture the subject.

Question: Were the early scholars aware of the incentives that come out of

storytelling?

Answer: The early scholars were aware of these incentives. That’s what they

have done at the expense of the community. They know how important

publishing is. And that’s why most of them publish their dissertations.

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RESPONDENT D.17

Question: Is storytelling developing or dying out in South Africa?

Answer: Storytelling is growing, every day it gets bigger and bigger. I work in

business and if I was to talk about storytelling ten years ago, most people

would just shake their heads and say,”Oh, no it’s not for us”. Now I can go to

most companies and they will say please come, bring your storytelling let’s do

some storytelling. So, I know I am only speaking for storytelling in

organisations, but there are conferences, there are performances. It is

definitely growing. Whether in South Africa or internationally it’s a very big

thing.

Question: You told me that you are a self-employed person in an organisation.

What is the name of the organisation and what is it all about?

Answer: I have a storytelling organisation. The name is “Not the Boredroom”.

Boardroom is usually spelt “board” but I spelt it “bored”, that’s to say if you

want to find a new company, if you want laughter, if you want to liven things

up, come to me, I will help you to do any number of different things. Improve

your sales, build your brands, learn, train and develop, tell the history of the

company and so on and so forth, using stories to help business to be more

effective.

Question: How do you sustain yourselves?

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Answer: The way that I operate is that I send out newsletters once a month to

about 800 people I know in business who occupy senior positions and

every month I send them a story that I think is relevant to business

dynamics, so that every month they are aware of me, then they will say

we must get Peter Christie to come and help us to do this. I go in, I

see what the kind of problem it is, I then design or make up or create or

find a story or stories that applies to the problem or issue they are

dealing with . We then sometimes run workshops, I am writing a book for a

big bank at the moment. They will give it to all their customers, to all the

employees at the bank. There are many different ways that I sustain myself.

I do presentations at conferences, I teach the elective on storytelling at

Wits Business School, and I have been doing it for ten years. It’s getting

better and better all the time.

Question: Although it seems as if you are operating smoothly, any challenges

to your business?

Answer: The main problem is before you actually start. There may be some

people in the companies who think that storytelling is a waste of time. But

once you do the work you have no problems because they see that is

powerful and that it works. But initially overcoming some form of skepticism

that people have, that stories are for children, that it belongs in a library.

Question: Do you plan to publicise your organisation through the media?

Answer: I have published three books on storytelling. I have a fourth which is

coming out soon, I hope by October or November. I have a fifth one which is

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nearly completed. So, I use that to publicise my work all the time, and

you have to do that in business. If you don’t get publicity or do some kind

of advertising then you know people forget that you are there.

Question: On the question of the mass media, would you say it is enhancing

storytelling or not?

Answer: The mass media reaches many people, if you are a single

storyteller and you are going into the world and you want to tell stories to

people you’ll not get far. You are one person with two feet. When you use a

television or a newspaper or whatever you can reach billions of people.

RESPONDENT D.18

Question: You happen to be a journalist, what made you follow storytelling?

Answer: I am a journalist by profession, but I witnessed the power of the art of

storytelling. It’s something that journalism doesn’t have, that the mass

media don’t have, that same person to person connection. That’s why I

want to be a part of the storytelling community and support it.

Question: What can we do in order to professionalise storytelling?

Answer: In order to professionalise storytelling, you have to get people

with the talent and the desire. Find those people. Find a way of giving

them the opportunity to put their culture to work.

Question: Getting back to you, do you earn anything from storytelling?

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Answer: I have never earned anything from storytelling. I just do it for the love

of it.

Question: We experience problems as we don’t have courses in storytelling at

our South African universities and our libraries do not have storytelling

programme. What can you suggest to these institutions in South Africa so that

they can start with this programme?

Answer: In America I don’t believe there are many universities which

have instituted storytelling either, I think they are starting too, and some

do. I think there has to be movement within literature departments.

RESPONDENT D.19

Question: Where do you come from, and what is your experience as far as

storytelling is concerned?

Answer: I was born in Surinam, Brazil on the north-east coast of South

America. I have been in Holland for the last three months because I have a

storytelling academy called Tory Academia there.

Question: Are there many professional storytellers in Surinam?

Answer : In Surinam I am the only professional storyteller because it takes

a lot of guts to do that and a lot of experience. You have to be able to suffer

for a little because there is no real place where you were trained as a

storyteller. I started because my father and my grandmother were

storytellers. In Holland there are few professional storytellers. But since we

are doing the training , storytellers are going into schools and libraries

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and I think within five years the number is going to triple. I have been

travelling the world for 25 years doing storytelling.

Question: Do you have any training in storytelling?

Answer: I trained as an electronic engineer. That’s my business, but I have

never done electronics, I don’t practise electronics. I was trained by my

grandmother, by my mother, my father and then after that I also had training

for my voice.

I am not only training people to become storytellers, I also train people to use

the techniques of storytelling in their professions. Whether you are a

journalist, or a media-worker or somebody who is working in a PR Company

or a guide in a museum, you can implement the technique of storytelling in

your work.

Question: A moment ago you said storytelling was dormant worldwide but

now it is developing again. Why do you think storytelling has been dormant for

some time?

Answer: Storytelling had competition from the new media. The video, the

television, the radio, anything. Because when people find out about new

media they thought this was haven and now it seems that it is not.

Television itself is a one-dimensional medium. Storytelling is a complete

dimension. We have all the dimensions, even the ones you do not see

because we trigger your senses. The storyteller tells us a story, creates

images with words and these images penetrate the minds of his

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audience and his audience makes up its own images and colours them in

the way they want. This is not what televisions do. Television will give you,

for example, a story that is coloured and clear, your mind can go

further, but the image is complete. And it’s one-dimensional, you cannot

touch the storyteller, you cannot talk to him, you do not have feedback .

So, what happens now is that people are fed up now with all these

things. They are tired and want the human side back. I will never regard the

mass media as a competitor, I will use it to bring my stories to millions

of people. You have to use it. You are not a donkey shed, you cannot fight

against the windmill. We as storytellers should use any kind of medium to

transfer what we have to the big world. Television can reach six million people

at one time. You can never do that as human being. The technical media

have no problems. A problem is caused by those people who make television,

who make the programmes. Since it is also commercialised, you cannot

control it, governments cannot control it.

Question: Are there other factors which contribute to the difficulties of

professionalising storytelling?

Answer: One very important factor is that people in places such as the

Ministry of Arts and Culture, the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of

Transport and Tourism should open their hearts and minds to storytelling.

Question: Here in South Africa, there were missionaries who undermined

storytelling. I wonder if you experienced the same problem in your country?

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Answer: Undermining storytelling was one way the missionaries conquered

nations, by conquering the traditional nation. One of the first things which

they did was to make you a child of God and then a slave. Apart from

turning things upside down, the missionaries tried to twist our minds, and it

happened.

RESPONDENT D.20

Question: Would you say storytelling is dying out or growing these days?

Answer: At present storytelling is dying out because of all these night

entertainment media with the result that there is really no time left for

storytelling.

People like Gcina Mhlophe tell their stories in English. Her storytelling

sessions take place at the State Theatre and the Market Theatre. But

those places are not accessible to ordinary South Africans.

Question: What plans do you have as the National Department of Arts and

Culture to revitalise storytelling?

Answer: For us as the Department of Arts and Culture to try and address

the problem of storytelling, we have what we call Language Research and

Development Centres. Within these centres we have certain focus areas,

and one of these will be looking at writing and reading. This is intended to

promote literature and things like storytelling. We have placed these centres

at institutions of higher learning. People from these centres will go out to

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rural areas, record stories so that they are preserved. Basically those

people at the Language Research and Development Centres look at the

development of the indigenous languages . Another thing we are looking at

is language museums. There is also another challenge with language

professions in general regarding their professional status. If you look at all

these other professions like nurses, doctor, lawyers, they have professional

bodies. But in the field of language, we don’t have a body like that. So, we as

a Department are looking into that, trying to establish a council which will

begin by acknowledging the professional status of language professions.

Question: I wonder if you have a comment on the missionaries: did they have

a negative impact on storytelling?

Answer: With the advent of the missionaries, all they were doing was to

make people literate, and perhaps to a certain extent one can say they

impacted negatively. Everything that is fundamentally African was taken as

negative. The African should have taken the initiative. The problem with

Africans is that they generally have a negative attitude towards their

languages. So, it’s like they just want to learn English and learn

everything about English. It’s as if they just wanted to move out of where

they were to what they perceived to be better.

Question: The early scholars and the European scholars saw the primary

purpose of storytelling as entertainment. Do you think they did that

deliberately?

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Answer: The early scholars generally regarded the main function of

storytelling as that of entertainment only and did not see it as a means of

earning one’s living because for a person to start a business, you need

the platform and the resources to allow you to do that. What is

problematic is that Africans do not necessarily have the resources to

start a business. I think they might have recognised it, but did not have

the platforms to see it as a business venture.

RESPONDENT D.21

Question: As far as storytelling is concerned, is it developing or dying out?

Answer: Storytelling is not developing nor dying out. It is in a phase where it

is difficult for story writers and story developers to shift it to a new level

at which it would work within the context of our world today. When we

were growing up, we didn’t have technology, the only thing that we had

was older people who had creative ways of teaching us values and

principles through storytelling because there was no technology to help

them to tell stories.

Now I think as black people we haven’t really managed to find a creative

way of integrating our stories into technology because now children use

technology today. We need to find a way in which we use technology to

tell our stories. But instead of learning and understanding technology we

just hijack it and misuse it and let the visuals misrepresent our stories.

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When I said it is not dying, I mean that there are people out there who are

passionate in terms of wanting to tell stories and they are trying hard. On

the other hand, the reason why it is not developing is that we want to

tell our stories in English and then they lose what they are in terms of

the cultural values that are embedded in the language.

Question: Coming back home, do you call storytellers here at the SABC-TV,

and go out and record them or do you work through certain companies.?

Answer: At the SABC we don’t present storytelling in a classical sense. We

have something like FUNDANI NATHI, there is a storyteller who is

working there, Nandi. She is quite a good storyteller. She does it in different

languages.

Question: Did the advent of missionaries in Africa have any impact on art

forms like storytelling?

Answer: With regard to the influx of the missionaries to Africa, you were

not going to get a mercenary who came to South Africa to empower

Africans, because that was not the script of the constitution of the

country. What our stories did was empowering us and we had to be

weakened according to the script of apartheid. That is why after

apartheid churches could not reposition themselves, they could not give

us any value. We had a Roman Catholic church for white people and a

Roman Catholic church for black people, preaching different things. One of

the powers of the black person was our stories. So, they did what they were

meant to do, to destroy black people.

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RESPONDENT D.22

Question: Tell me, on Munghana Lonene FM, do you have a slot for

storytelling?

Answer: We don’t have a slot for storytelling on our radio station. We used to

have it in the past, but because of lack of support from business and

public we decided to scrap it.

We don’t have a specific, dedicated slot for storytelling. But we do cover

storytelling somehow. This year because of the 10th year of democracy

we had quite a number of documentaries, and that’s one way of

actually doing storytelling. So, what we do is that there are quite a

number of programmes and ideas that we like to have on air. So, what

we do, we work with airtime sales, we have submitted a number of

features. It depends on priorities, some people might feel it might not be

necessary to have storytelling. But the traditional approach of “mitsheketo”

has been taken off because of the lack of support from business. If we get

sponsorship, I don’t think we will have a problem.

Question: Your problem thus far is sponsorship. What are you doing at

present to overcome this stumbling block?

Answer: What happened is that we draw up the budget on a yearly basis, and

we had to prioritise. Last year our drama was not supported. There was a cut

in terms of the budget. So, the lobbying and motivation we did this year

was to secure at least some money to enable us to produce drama.

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Question: As we are about to wrap up our discussion, do you think that one

can earn one’s living through storytelling?

Answer: Storytelling is one method of educating the public. All it needs is

marketing. Storytelling is African culture, it worked in the past, so it just needs

promotion. One should table the figures of how storytelling can work, then

people will support it. And groups that should promote storytelling are the

government and the Department of Arts and Culture. But in their priorities

they are not looking at that. I think in the near future they will consider

storytelling as much as they are concentrating in other things such as

the indigenous games.

RESPONDENT D.23

Question: Do you have a storytelling slot on Phalaphala FM?

Answer: We don’t have a storytelling slot, but matters which concern

storytelling have been included in the children programmes, such as

“Mbonyolosi”. But it is now called “Fundani Nathi”, although it does not entirely

include storytelling.

Another programme which comprises storytelling is the programme which airs

every Monday at 21h30 called “Ri guda Tshivenḓa”. This programme focuses

not only on storytelling, it includes all aspects of Tshivenḓa.

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Question: What do you cite as the probable cause of your radio station not

having a storytelling programme?

Answer: As we can really see that this part supports our culture, if there are

experts in storytelling, then we can have a storytelling programme so that

storytelling can be unpacked in a similar manner.

Question: Somebody attributed the unavailability of a storytelling programme

at their radio station to a lack of sponsorship. What is your comment on that?

Answer: You can’t just get sponsorship, you need a plan of action. It means

that a person should first make enough preparations. Thereafter, you indicate

what you want to do, and take it to the people who might sponsor such a

venture. Under no circumstances would they not sponsor you then.

RESPONDENT D.24

Question: In your own opinion, is storytelling in South Africa dying out or

growing?

Answer: Storytelling, compared to the past, is dying out because in the

past we used to have elderly people who used to tell stories to young

ones. Nowadays such people are rare.

Question: What can we do to resuscitate this art form?

Answer: To resuscitate this art form we need to look for people who can still

tell stories and document them.

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Question: The problem with the Sibikwa Community Theatre is that when they

solicited funds from the government to boost them and enhance storytelling,

their request fell on deaf ears. What can they do in order to see their dreams

fulfilled?

Answer: People should take the initiative and not always expect the

government to do everything for them. We need people to research areas

and go to the department to partner with them. But if we wait for the

department, it has its own priorities. It might not have this as one of its

priorities. So, we have to liaise with the department, talk to them, make

them realise the importance of this.

Question: How can storytelling be made an autonomous subject or learning

area at schools?

Answer: I don’t think storytelling can be an independent learning area. As

far as I am concerned, it’s part of the languages. I think the new

curriculum makes provision for that. Unless people cannot interpret it

correctly. At the undergraduate level storytelling will still form part of other

areas. But as you go up the ladder of education that’s where

specialisation starts.

Question: Doctor, my main concern is that storytelling is being ignored at

South African institutions of higher learning, unlike overseas. What is your

comment?

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Answer: In South Africa if you look at storytelling, it’s more among

Blacks. Whites know journalism. That is why journalism features at our South

African universities, although not all universities. If Africanisation is

introduced, this would come in as well.

Question: Coming back home, what is PANSALB doing to revitalise this art

form around South Africa?

Answer: At the Pan-South African Language Board we don’t have a specific

programme directed at storytelling. But we have it as part of literature.

Question: What impact did the missionaries have on storytelling when they

came to our continent?

Answer: The missionaries promoted what was Western and suppressed

what was African.

RESPONDENT D.25

Question: Is storytelling developing or dying out?

Answer: Yes, according to my own view storytelling is dying out. It is as if

storytellers are no longer available. Even if you ask old women, you will hear

them saying that they have forgotten the stories.

Question: What could be the cause of this?

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Answer: Sometimes it comes perhaps by religion, regarding performing

storytelling as a sin before God. Being oblivious to the fact that such a view is

destroying our nationality, in such a way that we will no longer know our roots

and our children would no longer know their identity.

It is not that if you narrate folktales you will get mealiemeal, if you spend a day

without anything to eat, you’ll still spend it without anything whatsoever.

Question: What could we do at present to encourage storytellers to earn their

living through storytelling?

Answer: If storytelling becomes a programme or a course which young people

can study and earn their livelihood through, people will start to value it. Let

storytelling become a business wherein people can work, but not only for

entertainment.

Question: Does this mean that there are some people who are denigrating

storytelling?

Answer: Yes, seeing that storytelling is useless and valueless, people are

forsaking it. If it is still valuable, even the older people today would have

known the stories. But because of it being valueless people have discard it.

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RESPONDENT D.26

Question: According to you, is storytelling these days dying out or growing?

Answer: According to my view, storytelling these days is dying out because

people are no longer taking it into consideration. They take it that storytelling

belongs to the people of yore. Whereas storytelling is worthwhile, as it

encourages people not to forget their roots and even their place of origin.

Question: In your view, what can be done in order to prevent storytelling from

becoming obsolete?

Answer: For storytelling not to become obsolete, let seasoned storytellers be

found. Let them be documented or recorded.

One other thing which can be done is to gather storytellers, perhaps to

establish a centre for them. That means that they would be incentivised.

Question: What else do you view as contributing to the killing of the spirit of

storytelling?

Answer: In the early evening we happen to be busy watching television or

listening to radios. We are oblivious to storytelling as we are busy watching

stories on television and DVD. Let storytelling be included on the TV and

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radio programmes. Let there be a time when children know that there is

storytelling on SABC-TV 1 or 2.

Question: What could be done to revive the art form of storytelling?

Answer: Let there be some institutions for storytelling. In other words, some

special storytelling institutions where there would be some courses or

programmes for storytelling, a storytelling institution sponsored by the

government so that it could really develop.

Question: What made you forsake storytelling?

Answer: The thing which compelled me to forsake storytelling was wasting my

time by narrating folktales for nothing. As a youth, I did not have time to just

narrate stories for nothing. Maybe old women have time for narrating stories

for nothing.

RESPONDENT D.27

Question: Would you say storytelling in South Africa is growing or dying out?

Answer: As far as I am concerned, storytelling is dying out. Our youth is more

inclined towards TV which is a question of seeing.

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Question: I believe if you contact the government or the local municipality they

could fund you to develop a storytelling programme in your community

theatre.

Answer: With regard to the back up from government, the government

says one thing and does absolutely nothing. They talk a lot and do nothing

and the same with Metro. Every day we went to Metro, but not one

member of the Metro , not even our councillor arrived, our local ward

councillor whom I phoned today and said please come. And then he

said to me “I am very busy, I am doing a cultural programme”. And I

thought what do you know about culture: if you are doing a cultural

programme why didn’t you come to Sibikwa and ask for someone from

our organisation to give some kind of input? But they don’t want that: for

them culture is having a debate on June 16 or Heritage Day or

whenever.

Question: Why don’t you go to the higher offices like the National Department

of Arts and Culture or PANSALB if you do not get help from the local

municipality?

Answer: I can assure you, files of correspondence with Arts and Culture,

the Heritage Department. Files and files of correspondence and trying to

set up meetings and nobody answering phone calls. And nobody

responding to e-mails and nobody responding to anything. They can

talk, you see, they always want to blame. It’s not that we are anti-, really

it’s not that we are anti-, we are just tired.

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Question: What can we do to develop and professionalise amateur

storytellers?

Answer: In connection with the revitalisation of storytelling around the

country, why can’t people tour the schools, professional tellers of stories?

Why can’t there be more festivals like this? We used to get a newsletter

from America every week and there were festivals there, people were

meeting. We were in Holland, we went to a storytelling festival in

Ultricht, they couldn’t get started, it was a small theatre. They brought in

more and more chairs. It was so crowded. And they brought in storytellers

from Egypt and all over.

RESPONDENT D.28

Question: Would you say storytelling in South Africa is dying out or growing?

Answer: Nowadays people do not have time for storytelling as they are

watching television.

Question: What can be done to resuscitate storytelling?

Answer: A storytelling festival is wonderful for encouraging, making people

aware. Also people have the idea that storytelling is only for children, in

fact we all enjoy stories whether we are young or old. We want to hear

“Once upon a time”. I think it should be encouraged in schools.

Question: Tell me, around South Africa are there any institutions which cater

for storytelling?

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Answer: I belong to a storytelling circle, we meet once a month in

Johannesburg. We share stories and depending on the storyteller, we

then discuss how the story was told and how it could be improved. We

further make suggestions and say what we like about the presentations

and what else we can think of to make it even better.

Question: You said you are a storytelling educator. Can you please tell me the

courses to be followed when taking a storytelling programme?

Answer: As I said I was involved in teacher training at Sibikwa, I am no

longer doing that because of funding. I am willing to go to schools and

work with teachers and learners. But I am a freelance person, I will

need to be paid for it.

Question: What factors contribute to the non-professionalisation of

storytelling?

Answer: A factor which contributes to the non- professionalisation of

storytelling today is that life is so hectic. People are sitting in towns, they

think that they don’t have time for storytelling. And they think there is

too much to be done, many places to go to, movies to see and

shopping malls to be visited and this is a mindset.

Question: With regard to industrialisation and mordenisation, is this killing or

enhancing the spirit of storytelling?

Answer: Well, the one way that technology is helping in terms of

storytelling is storytelling on television. There are many names like Gcina

Mhlophe, Nandi Nyembe and many others. I think in that way technology is

403
helping to keep the tradition alive. But watching someone tell a story on

television is not the same as listening to them in flesh. It would be

wonderful if perhaps people could use television to encourage people to

go to live storytelling. Storytelling institutions should be able to issue a

valuable certificate in storytelling, one which certifies the SAQA

requirements . So, as far as I know there isn’t a programme that does that in

this country. It would be very interesting to look at the units that are laid

down by SAQA. It will need to follow some form of formal training as

well.

Question: Are there any tips we could give the amateur storytellers to help

them to develop into fully professional storytellers?

Answer: I think the best way to learn storytelling is to practise it. You

practise it amongst people whom you know and then find suitable

venues, suitable circumstances where there are people gathered together

perhaps for different reasons and offer to tell stories. Or one could go

into schools and offer one’s service to teachers to tell stories and if one

is still learning one wouldn’t ask to be paid .

Question: Professionalising storytelling in African Languages. What are your

last words?

Answer: The people who want to professionalise storytelling should be

more proactive, they should go out and make it happen. I don’t believe

that we must sit and wait for the government to do it or wait for Sibikwa

to organise it for us. So, it’s up to us who are passionate about it to go

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out there and explore every possible way of drawing people’s attention to

storytelling as an art.

Question: You mentioned something else. The issue of government: what can

the government do in order to help amateur storytellers?

Answer: Amateur storytellers should try to approach people in the

Department of Arts and Culture in their own municipal area.

RESPONDENT D.29

Question: Tell me, in Kenya is storytelling growing of dying out?

Answer: My group has realised that the old way that people used to tell

stories in the house is no longer working. Because people live away from

their grandparents, people no longer live in bigger communities where

we had aunties who would tell stories because the mother is away. Now

we see that it’s just the mother, father and children maybe the

househelper who could tell us stories and during holidays is the only

time with our parents. But the time is busy also, and we do other things

like going to a hotel or going for a walk somewhere.

Question: When you perform in public, do you charge any fee?

Answer: If we perform in public we have to ask for money, because the

majority of us are doing storytelling as a profession. And if we are at a

public performance we are renting out a hall or auditorium . So, basically

we are depending on the gate collection to cater for the whole

production.

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Question: Do you have other work apart from being a storyteller?

Answer: I am doing storytelling, it is paying better than any other theatre

in Kenya. I also have a multi-market business part-time where we move

products like home care products, health care products and skin care

products.

Question: Tell me, what can we do to professionalise storytelling?

Answer: Let the work stand for itself by giving a quality performance. Quality

comes with investment, investment of time, research, workshops,

conceptual devising and marketing. You have to invest in people to

meet people and tell them what you are doing. You must send out

proposals and that goes back to planning. You know like milk, before

somebody say he sells milk, you cannot go and buy milk. Before

somebody advertises Caltex petrol, you cannot go and fill the car there.

Question: Are there some factors which serve as stumbling blocks to the

professionalising of storytelling?

Answer: Some people think that because storytelling is an ancient art, it’s

always been there, everybody can tell stories. So, why should they pay you

for that? They still think it is a hobby, but people are paid for swimming

which is a hobby, people are paid for running. Why don’t people want to

pay me when I tell them stories?

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You know, I get annoyed when people tell me that we have to do

something only after sponsorship. When the sponsorship is not there do we

die? It’s good when you get sponsorship to start off. If you don’t get any,

please do something. And even if you get a sponsorship, plan, if this

sponsorship ends how will you be able to sustain yourself? Let’s invest in

training because the product is very versatile, my main audience is

students. Schools are everywhere, and they are going to create the

base for us.

Question: Are devices like TV and radio enhancing or killing the spirit of

storytelling?

Answer: TV and radio are modes that going to give us a big mileage. When

people see me on TV, they are going to invite me to their functions.

There is no money in TV, especially in this country where there is

copyright and everything. Instead, let’s use it as a stepping stone, we need

it.

Question: Do you have any idea about the missionaries? When the

missionairies came to South Africa, did they have any impact on our

traditional art form?

Answer: Missionaries had a motive. They came to colonise. And they were

not coming to shoot you immediately, they had to be your friends. And

as you welcomed them they learned your ways, they learned the bonding

things that bond them together, and after that they started breaking them.

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RESPONDENT D.30

Question: In your own view, is storytelling disappearing or progressing?

Answer: Storytelling, moreover in the black languages, is dying out because

the youth are being attracted by many things like TV.

Question: What made you to run the storytelling competition?

Answer: The storytelling competition is a competition which we usually have

every year. We started with such competitions way back in 1997. We have

realised that if we don’t do something in order to revive storytelling it

(storytelling) will vanish forever. The African Renaissance states that we

should revive our culture. We have that desire that we should unearth talented

storytellers like the famous Gcina Mhlophe.

Question: What else could be done to professionalise storytelling?

Answer: There should be money to support these people (storytellers)

because they cannot do storytelling on empty stomachs.

Question: What impact did the missionaries have on storytelling?

Answer: The missionaries helped different languages to be literate.

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Question: Your last words. What can we do in order to harness storytelling as

a way to earn a livelihood.

Answer: In order for storytelling to be publicised, let us get enough platform

from the media, especially TV. Let the old women or storytellers perform on

the TV.

RESPONDENT D.31

Question: Would you say storytelling is dying out or growing?

Answer: I think currently storytelling is dying out. That is why Thobela F.M

as a public broadcaster whose mandate is to teach, educate and inform

is trying to resuscitate storytelling because the majority of young ones do not

know their Africanness. That is why on Thobela FM there are educational

programmes which resuscitate storytelling hence making sure that children

understand their roots.

Question: You say you are earmarking something of great magnitude next

year in April. What is this?

Answer: SABC has a department called the content hub or content

enterprises. Content enterprises was specifically created to fulfil the

needs of different stations. So, we have submitted our wish list for next

year starting in April. If it goes as planned, by April when we unleash

the new programme schedule, we should have storytelling as well.

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Question: Some storytellers like Gcina Mhlophe and others are able to live

through this art form, so… .

Answer: The duty of the station is to expose the talent to tap this talent

and make sure that they are known elsewhere . Not only because they

should earn a living through the station, but other bodies should be

able to scrape together what they have and this legacy is left to exist.

Question: I like the idea that you are getting to the community and unearthing

the talented.

Answer: That is why as Thobela FM we are committed to empowering

these citizens, we are committed to interacting with them, to assisting

them and to making sure that at the end of the day they are known.

Their stories are recorded, they are sold and they earn their living that way.

Question: Do you think urbanisation and industrialisation have had any impact

on the professionalisation of storytelling?

Answer: I think as people become more urbanised they believe certain

things are not meant to be done by them. People already have the

talent which simply needs to be tapped and urbanisation and

industrialisation have derailed people’s focus. That’s why we want to

embark on various road shows to make sure that storytelling becomes

professional, and we will do that in partnership with the print media and

with the very same storytellers, thus assisting them.

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Question: Lastly, what are your last words on how we could professionalise

storytelling?

Answer: Thobela FM wants to expose it on air and off air through various
road shows. Storytelling is an art and I think we should also engage
the Department of Arts and Culture in the province. And we should also
engage possible funders to make sure that this art lives long.

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