Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp.

29±44, 1998
# 1998 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved
Printed in Great Britain
PII: S0743-9547(97)00041-X 1367-9120/98 $19.00 + 0.00

Early Pliocene closing of the Indonesian Seaway: evidence

from north-east Indian Ocean and Tropical Paci®c deep sea
cores
M. S. Srinivasan* and D. K. Sinha
Department of Geology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, India

(Received 8 December 1996; Accepted 30 June 1997)

AbstractÐDeep sea cores from sites 214 and 758 A (Ninetyeast Ridge, north-east Indian
Ocean), 761 B (Wombat Plateau, north-east Indian Ocean) and 586 B (Ontong Java Plateau,
Tropical Paci®c) are ideally located for comparison of late Neogene planktic foraminiferal bio-
geography and paleoceanographic records of tropical Indian and Paci®c oceans to infer the tim-
ing of closing of the Indonesian Seaway. A consistent stratigraphy was developed between sites
214 and 586 B using graphic correlation and was integrated with the paleomagnetic time scale
of Berggren et al. (1985) to provide an accurate chronology to compare interocean stratigraphic
ranges of late Neogene planktic foraminifera. Tropical planktic foraminifera occur throughout
each sequence at all sites. At each site the Miocene±Pliocene boundary is de®ned by the ®rst
appearance of Globorotalia tumida (5.2 Ma), the early/late Pliocene boundary by the ®rst
appearance of Globigerinoides ®stulosus (3.2 Ma) and the Pliocene±Pleistocene boundary by the
last appearance of G. ®stulosus (1.6 Ma). Neogene planktic foraminiferal assemblages at sites
214, 758A, 761 B and 586B are generally similar until the beginning of the Pliocene (5.2 Ma)
when the faunal record indicates divergence. A notable di€erence is complete absence of early
Pliocene taxon Pulleniatina spectabilis from all the Indian Ocean sites. This di€erence suggests
that the Indonesian Seaway became an e€ective biogeographic barrier to planktic foraminifera
at the beginning of the Pliocene. However, there is still exchange of surface waters through this
Seaway. Earlier studies suggested a Middle to Late Miocene occurrence for this biogeographic
barrier. P. spectabilis evolved from P. primalis in the equatorial Paci®c at about 5.2 Ma. It is a
short-ranging early Pliocene species spanning about 1.3 my and occurred only in Paci®c, unlike
earlier suggestions of a broader distribution into the Indian Ocean. # 1998 Published by
Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved

Introduction of the Indonesian Seaway (Fig. 1, Table 1). Such a

comparison reveals certain noteworthy features
The growing realization of the signi®cance of the open- which provide evidence for exchange of surface
ing and closing of ocean gateways on global paleobio- waters between the tropical Paci®c and Indian
geographic, paleoceanographic and paleoclimatic Ocean (Srinivasan and Chaturvedi 1990; Srinivasan
changes during the Neogene has led to the develop- and Sinha 1992). In the present study an attempt
ment of several interdisciplinary investigations of this has been made to compare the late Neogene plank-
question in recent years. One such study on the gate- tic foraminiferal assemblages from the north-east
ways to the Paci®c with a special emphasis on Paci®c± Indian Ocean, Indo-Paci®c and tropical Paci®c deep
Indian Seaway commenced in 1992 which is related to sea cores to determine biogeographic similarities and
the main theme of the IGCP 355 on ``Neogene evol- di€erences as evidence for the isolation due to clo-
ution of Paci®c gateways''. sure of the Indonesian Seaway.
Deep sea sections from sites 214 and 758 A Although several studies have compared the strati-
(Ninetyeast Ridge, north-east Indian Ocean), site graphic distribution of Neogene planktic foraminifera
586 B (Ontong Java Plateau, Tropical Paci®c) and between the Paci®c and Atlantic, very few studies
site 761B (Wombat Plateau, north-east Indian have compared the tropical Paci®c with the tropical
Ocean) are ideally located for comparison of late Indian Ocean. Amongst the earliest attempts to cor-
relate the Paci®c and Indian Ocean planktic forami-
Neogene planktic foraminiferal biogeography and
niferal events were those of Srinivasan and Azmi
paleoceanography of the tropical Indian and Paci®c
(1979) followed by Berggren (1984), who provided a
oceans and its implications for the timing of closing
comparative account of the Neogene planktic forami-
niferal events of the Atlantic, Paci®c and Indian
* Author for correspondence. oceans. Heath and McGowran (1984) brie¯y dis-
29
30 M. S. Srinivasan and D. K. Sinha

Fig. 1. Location map of the sites discussed in this study.

cussed the foraminiferal succession in Australia with Material and methods

reference to sections from the Ninetyeast Ridge and
the Ontong±Java Plateau.The most recent study Detailed late Neogene planktic foraminiferal bio-
comparing the late Neogene planktic foraminiferal chronology and quantitative comparison of planktic
events between the tropical Paci®c and Indian foraminiferal assemblages including coiling changes
Ocean, is by Srinivasan and Sinha (1992) who, on (in Pulleniatina spp., Globorotalia tumida and G.
applying graphic correlation, identi®ed a number of menardii) between site 214 (north-east Indian Ocean)
synchronous and diachronous planktic foraminiferal and site 586B (tropical Paci®c) was carried out. A
events between the two oceans. graphic correlation method was employed to provide

Table 1. Site positions, water depths and physiographic features discussed in this study
Site Latitude Longitude Water depth (m) Physiographic Feature

DSDP 214 11820.218S 88843.088E 1665 Ninetyeast ridge, north-east Indian Ocean
ODP 758A 05823.498N 90821.678E 2923.6 Ninetyeast ridge, north-east Indian Ocean
ODP 761B 16844.228S 155832.108E 2167.9 Wombat Plateau, Indo-Paci®c
DSDP 586B 00829.848S 158829.898E 2208 Ontong Java Plateau, south-west Paci®c
RC 12-66 02836.068N 148812.088W 4755 Central equatorial Paci®c

V24-59 028348N 1458328W 4662 
DSDP 77 00828.908N 133813.708W 4290.68 Eastern equatorial Paci®c
DSDP 83 04802.088N 95844.258W 3645.72
DSDP 84 05844.928N 82853.298W 3096.47
DSDP 62 01852.028N 1418568E 2591 Caroline±ontong±Java region
DSDP 63 00850.028N 147853.038E 4472
DSDP 64 01844.058S 158836.058E 2052 Equatorial south-west Paci®c
CAP 38 BP 148168S 1198118W 3400 Eastern tropical Paci®c
CHUB 30 07817.078N 127824.068W 3640 Eastern equatorial Paci®c
LSDH 78P 048318S 1688028E 3208 Western equatorial Paci®c
DSDP 503 048048S 1688028E 3672 Panama basin

DSDP 158 06837.368N 85814.168W 1953 Eastern equatorial Paci®c
 Early Pliocene closing of the Indonesian Seaway 31

Fig. 2. Percentage frequency and coiling of Pulleniatina spp. shown on a Shaw plot between DSDP site 214 (Indian
Ocean) and 586B (Tropical Paci®c). (See Table 2 for explanation of numbers); + , ®rst appearance datum; 0, last appear-
ance datum.

an accurate chronology to compare interocean diver- 761B (Zachariasse 1992), DSDP site 62 (Bronnimann
gence (Figs 2±4) Table 2. In addition, published data and Resig 1971), DSDP sites 77, 83 and 84 (Orr and
on the late Neogene planktic foraminifera from ODP Jenkins 1980), DSDP sites 158 and 503 (Kaneps
site 758A (Jenkins and Gamson 1994), ODP site 1973; Keigwin 1976; Keigwin 1982), CoreV-24-59
(Hays et al. 1969), Core RC-12-66 (Saito et al. 1975),
Core CAP 38 BP and LSDH 78 P (Parker 1967)
Table 2. Explanation of numbers in the Shaw Plots were also utilized. A detailed study of the strati-
Number Planktic Foraminiferal Events
graphic ranges particularly of P. spectabilis from
these sites was carried out to ascertain its seat of
1. Gr. tosaensis LA evolution and paleobiogeographic limits.
2. Gs. ®stulosus LA
3. Gr truncatulinodes FA
4. Pu. primalis LA
5. Gr. multicamerata FA
6. Gg. decoraperta LA
7. Gs. obliquus LA Comparison of faunal changes between sites
8. D. altispira LA 214 (north-east Indian Ocean) and 586B
9. Gr. tosaensis FA
10. Gs. ®stulosus FA
(Tropical Paci®c)
11. Ss. seminulina LA
12. Gr. crassaformis FA
Sites 214 and 586B contain almost complete succes-
13. Pu. obliquiloculata FA sions of late Neogene tropical planktic foraminifera
14. Gr. margaritae LA (Figs 5 and 6). However, faunal abundance and diver-
15. Gr. plesiotumida LA sity at site 586B are higher than at site 214 since the
16. Sa. dehiscens FA late Miocene.
17. Gg. nepenthes LA Pliocene and Pleistocene assemblages are very simi-
18. N. acostaensis LA lar between the two sites including the coiling change
19. Gr. margaritae FA patterns exhibited by Pulleniatina spp. during this
20. Gr. tumida FA interval (Fig. 2). A notable di€erence, however, is the
21. Gq. dehiscens LA absence of P. spectabilis from Indian Ocean site 214.
22. Pu. primalis FA
The Graphic correlation between sites 214 and 586B
32 M. S. Srinivasan and D. K. Sinha

Fig. 3. Percentage frequency and coiling of G. menardella and Globorotalia spp. shown on a Shaw plot between DSDP
site 214 (Indian Ocean) and 586B (Tropical Paci®c) (see Table 2 for explanation of numbers). +, ®rst appearance
datum; 0, last appearance datum.

revealed the following synchronous and diachronous Pulleniatina spp., Menardella spp. and D. altispira at
planktic foraminiferal events (Fig. 7, Table 3) site 586 B than at site 214. In addition, Menardella
spp., G. tumida and D. altispira display a higher ampli-
Synchronous Events
tude of ¯uctuations at site 586 B than at site 214
G. ®stulosus LA
(Figs 2±4) suggesting temperature di€erence between
G. truncatulinoides FA the two oceans.
G. multicamerata LA Thus, the main planktic foraminiferal evidence for
Dentoglobigerina altispira LA biogeographic provinciality in the early Pliocene (5.2±
G. tosaensis FA 3.9 Ma) can be observed with the appearance of
G. ®stulosus FA Pulleniatina spectabilis (5.2 Ma) in the tropical Paci®c
G. margaritae LA and its exclusion from the Indian Ocean.
Sphaeroidinellopsis spp. LA
G. margaritae FA
G. tumida FA
G. dehiscens LA Evolution and paleobiogeographic distribution
Diachronous Events of P. spectabilis
G. tosaensis LA
G. obliquus LA P. spectabilis was originally described by (Parker
G. crassaformis FA 1965) from the early Pliocene deep sea sediments cored
G. plesiotumida LA from the Paci®c Ocean. Subsequently, Parker (1967)
P. obliquiloculata FA recorded P. spectabilis from three early Pliocene
G. nepenthes LA Paci®c deep sea cores CHUB30, CAP 38 BP and
LSDH 78 P and considered the species to have evolved
Neogloboquadrina acostaensis LA
from P. primalis at about 5.2 Ma. Banner and Blow
Sphaeroidinella dehiscens FA
(1967) regarded P. spectabilis representing a separate
In addition, the quantitative analyses of planktic evolutionary lineage from P. primalis, restricted to the
foraminiferal assemblages reveal higher abundances of Indo-Paci®c province. Hays et al. (1969) recorded the
 Early Pliocene closing of the Indonesian Seaway 33

Fig. 4. Percentage frequency and coiling of Neogloboquadrina spp., G. venezuelana, G. truncorotalia, G. ®stulosus and D.
altispira shown on a Shaw plot between DSDP site 214 (Indian Ocean) and 586 B (Tropical Paci®c) (see Table 2 for ex-
planation of numbers). +, ®rst appearance datum; 0, last appearance datum.

®rst evolutionary appearance of P. spectabilis from its specimens are comparable with P. praespectabilis
ancestor P. primalis near the top of the Gilbert ``C'' described from DSDP site 62 (Eauripick Rise, Western
Event in the equatorial Paci®c and considered this Equatorial Paci®c; Bronnimann and Resig 1971) and
datum may only be useful in the Indo-Paci®c province are considered here to represent intermediate forms
as this taxon is geographically restricted to that region linking P. primalis to P. spectabilis. Thus, the reported
(Fig. 8). The study by Orr and Jenkins (1980) on the ®rst appearance of P. spectabilis from sites 77, 83, 84,
eastern equatorial Paci®c deep sea cores corroborated 158 and V-24-59 after G. tumida FAD (top of Gilbert
the work of Hays et al. (1969) (Figs 9±11). Saito et al. ``C'' event) is probably not a true FAD. Keigwin's
(1975) observed P. spectabilis to range from the early (1982) record of this species at DSDP site 503 at about
Gilbert Epoch to the end of Cochiti Event in the equa- 4 Ma con®rms the above observation.
torial Paci®c piston core RC-12-66 (Fig. 12).
Likewise, diachroneity is also observed with regard
According to Kennett and Srinivasan (1983), P.
to the P. spectabilis LAD between various deep sea
spectabilis, which evolved from P. primalis in Zone N
cores in the Paci®c. In carbonate-rich cores such as at
18, is a relatively a short-lived species con®ned to the
Paci®c. Jenkins (1992) also observed P. spectabilis to sites 586B and 77, the last appearance of P. spectabilis
be an early Pliocene species restricted to the equatorial takes place below Globorotalia margaritae LAD and
Paci®c. Saito et al. (1975) documented the ®rst appear- above Globigerina nepenthes LAD i.e. before Gilbert±
ance of P. spectabilis at the same level as that of the Gauss boundary and just after top of Gilbert ``A''
G. tumida ®rst appearance datum from core RC-12-66 event. (Figs 6 and 9)
(central equatorial Paci®c, Fig. 12). The ®rst coiling change in Pulleniatina spp. from
At site 586B, specimens referable to P. spectabilis, sinistral to dextral (corresponding to L-9 of Saito
although rare, appear at the same level as the G. 1976) occurs immediately after the P. spectabilis LAD
tumida ®rst appearance datum, however, specimens (top of Cochiti subchron ``A''). Hays et al. (1969),
referable to P. cf. spectabilis are common. These later Berggren et al. (1985) and Srinivasan and Sinha
34 M. S. Srinivasan and D. K. Sinha

Fig. 5. Late Neogene planktic foraminiferal zones and important planktic foraminiferal events at DSDP site 214,
Ninetyeast Ridge, north-east Indian Ocean. (After Srinivasan and Chaturvedi 1990).

(1992) estimated an age of 3.9 Ma for P. spectabilis its last appearance near the end of Cochiti Event at
LAD. 3.9 Ma. Like P. primalis this taxon also is sinistrally
Since P. spectabilis is prone to dissolution, it is coiled throughout its stratigraphic range spanning an
absent or rare in carbonate-poor cores. Therefore, the interval of 1.3 my.
range of P. spectabilis, in general, is much restricted at The record of P. spectabilis from western, central
sites 62, 83, 84, 503 and 158 (Bronnimann and Resig and eastern equatorial Paci®c deep sea cores suggests
1971; Kaneps 1973; Keigwin 1976; Orr and Jenkins early Pliocene assemblages were similar across the
1980). A consistent occurrence of P. spectabilis at site entire equatorial Paci®c. Studies by Hays et al. (1969)
586 B and in core RC-12-66 (Saito et al. 1975) and Keigwin (1976, 1982) have indicated that P. spect-
throughout its range appears to indicate its total strati- abilis, which occurs in the early Pliocene of the tropical
graphic range (Figs 6 and 12). Thus, it is evident that Paci®c, is totally absent from the Atlantic. Likewise
P. spectabilis evolved from P. primalis in the equatorial Kennett and Srinivasan (1983), Berggren (1984) and
Paci®c at 5.2 Ma (lower Reversed Gilbert) and made Srinivasan and Sinha (1991, 1992) observed P. spect-
 Early Pliocene closing of the Indonesian Seaway 35

Fig. 6. Late Neogene planktic foraminiferal zones and important planktic foraminiferal events at DSDP site 586B,
Ontong±Java Plateau, Tropical Paci®c (modi®ed after Srinivasan and Sinha 1991).

abilis to be completely excluded from the Indian Closing of Indonesian Seaway

Ocean. Zachariasse (1992) and Jenkins and Gamson
(1994) who examined Neogene planktic foraminifera During the last two decades, several workers,
from ODP sites 761B (Wombat Plateau, north-west through their studies on Atlantic and Paci®c deep sea
Australia) and 758A (Ninetyeast Ridge), respectively, cores, inferred the timing of closing of the Central
American Seaway based on the evidence of paleobio-
also did not record any specimens referable to P. geographic study of the planktic foraminifera (Kaneps
spectabilis. Thus, the complete exclusion of this taxon 1970; Lamb and Beard 1972; Parker 1973; Saito 1976;
from both the Atlantic and Indian Oceans clearly indi- Keigwin, 1978 1982). Studies pertaining to the Indo-
cates that P. spectabilis is restricted to the Paci®c Paci®c ocean gateways employing a biogeographic
Ocean. approach were examined by the CENOP Group with
36 M. S. Srinivasan and D. K. Sinha

Fig. 7. Diachrony of selected Late Neogene planktic foraminiferal events between DSDP sites 214 (Indian Ocean) and
586B (tropical Paci®c).

the results appearing in a compendium edited by graphic province during the late Neogene. Keller
Kennett (1985). (1985), based on studies related to the depth strati®ca-
Edwards (1975) proposed one of the earliest models tion of Miocene Planktic foraminifera from the equa-
for the Cenozoic paleocirculation for the Indo-Paci®c. torial Paci®c (sites 77B and 289=586B), observed that
According to Edwards, the Indo-Paci®c Gateways a distinct east±west faunal provincialism which existed
probably closed by the early Middle Miocene. in the Paci®c during early and middle Miocene disap-
Berggren (1984) observed a close similarity between peared in the late Miocene. The faunal change was
the tropical Paci®c and Indian Ocean late Neogene interpreted by Keller (1985) as linked to the major
planktic foraminiferal assemblages with one notable Antarctic glaciation and the closing of the Indonesian
exception, the absence of early Pliocene P. spectabilis Seaway during the late Miocene. Romine and Lombari
from the latter. However, based on identical coiling (1985), based on radiolarian events from the tropical
direction changes between the two oceans during the Paci®c site 289=586B), suggested the blocking of the
Pliocene and Pleistocene, Berggren (1984) suggested an Indo-Paci®c surface circulation during the late±middle
uninterrupted continuity of the Indo-Paci®c biogeo- Miocene (11±12 Ma) as a plausible cause for the inten-
 Early Pliocene closing of the Indonesian Seaway 37

Table 3. Estimated age and age di€erence of diachronous planktic foraminiferal events between Site 214 (north-east Indian Ocean) and Site
586B (tropical Paci®c)

Planktic foraminiferal events Age in Ma at Site 214 Age in Ma at Site 586 B Age di€erence in Ma

Globorotalia tosaensis LA 0.9 1.3 0.40

Globigerinoides obliquus LA 2.2 2.55 0.35
Globorotalia crassaformis FA 3.85 3.2 0.65
Globorotalia plesiotumida LA 3.75 3.3 0.45
Pulleniatina obliquiloculata FA 4.1 3.7 0.40
Globigerina nepenthes LA 3.9 4.3 0.40
Neogloboquadrina acostaensis LA 4.55 4.3 0.25
Sphaeroidinella dehiscens FA 4.7 4.3 0.40

si®cation of the north Paci®c gyral circulation and preted to re¯ect the development of the equatorial
decrease in silica accumulation rate both in the central undercurrent system during the middle Miocene due to
and western equatorial Paci®c. the e€ective closing of the Indonesian Seaway. The
Kennett et al. (1985) quantitatively mapped the closure also resulted in the general strengthening of the
changing biogeographic patterns of the Paci®c planktic gyral circulation and the equatorial counter current
foraminifera during three time slices in the Miocene that resulted from increased Antarctic glaciation.
(22, 16 and 8 Ma). They observed that during the early Srinivasan and Singh (1991) considered the largest
Miocene the tropical Paci®c planktic foraminifera change in the assemblages of the planktic foraminifera,
re¯ected a distinct east±west provincialism, but by the occurring in the tropical Indian Ocean at about 11±
late Miocene the assemblages were similar across the 12 Ma, may be closely linked with the closure of the
entire tropical Paci®c. These faunal changes were inter- Indonesian Seaway as a consequence of the northward

Fig. 8. Magnetic and faunal stratigraphy of core V-24-59 (after Hays et al. 1969).
38 M. S. Srinivasan and D. K. Sinha

Fig. 9. Coiling and stratigraphic ranges of planktic foraminifera from leg 9 site 77. Magnetic data from Hays et al.
(1969) by direct correlation of phylogenetic events of the Planktic foraminifera (after Orr and Jenkins 1980).
 Early Pliocene closing of the Indonesian Seaway 39

Fig. 10. Coiling and stratigraphic ranges of leg 9 site 83 planktic foraminifera. Magnetic data from Hays et al. (1969) by
direct correlation of phylogenetic events of the planktic foraminifera (after Orr and Jenkins 1980).
40 M. S. Srinivasan and D. K. Sinha

edge of the southern part of the Philippine Sea due to

subduction of the Mollucca Sea Plate.

P. spectabilis: a paleoceanographic marker for

the closing of the Indonesian Seaway
It is now well established that modern planktic fora-
minifera are sensitive tracers of the surface and near
surface water masses and that the opening and closing
of the ocean gateways have profound in¯uence on
pathways for faunal migrations. Many planktic fora-
miniferal species thus serve as valuable paleoceano-
graphic markers. The importance of planktic
foraminifera to determine timing of closing of central
American Seaway has already been discussed by
Kaneps (1970), Lamb and Beard (1972), Parker (1973),
Saito (1976) and Keigwin (1978, 1982).
Srinivasan and Sinha (1992) pointed out that com-
plete absence of planktic foraminifera P. spectabilis
from the Indian Ocean sites, in contrast to its domi-
nant presence in the Paci®c, may suggest severing of
the surface water connection between the tropical
Paci®c and the Indian Ocean by the end of the
Miocene. The present study reveals that the late
Neogene planktic foraminiferal assemblages of the
Tropical Indian Ocean are very similar to those of the
Tropical Paci®c, including the coiling change patterns
in Pulleniatina spp. The only noteworthy exception is
the absence of the early Pliocene planktic foraminifera
P. spectabilis, including the individuals representing
the evolutionary transition form P. primalis to P.
spectabilis. This clearly suggests a blocking of west-
ward ¯ow of the tropical waters of the Paci®c to the
Indian Ocean.
The reason for the absence of P. spectabilis from the
Indian Ocean is that this species was exclusively a
deep-dwelling form (>200±300 m water depth) and
Fig. 11. Coiling and stratigraphic ranges of leg 9 site 84 planktic for- hence was prevented from migrating into the Indian
aminifera. Magnetic data from Hays et al. (1969) by direct corre- Ocean. The barrier at the Indian±Paci®c gateway may
lation of phylogenetic events of the planktic foraminifera (after Orr have disrupted an important link in the interconnect-
and Jenkins 1980).
ing gene pools which resulted in P. primalis and P.
spectabilis lineage being con®ned to the equatorial
Paci®c (Figs 13±14). Thus, the strongest biogeographic
evidence based on planktic foraminifera for the separ-
ation of the two tropical oceans by the emergence of
movement of Australia and tectonic evolution of the Indonesian Archipelago has been the development
Indonesian Archipelago in the onset of the Indian of endemic lineage of P. spectabilis in the Paci®c.
Monsoon system. Other species were at least seasonally shallow dwellers
Nishimura (1992), based on tectonic evidence, pro- or had juvenile forms that lived in the uppermost part
posed a paleoceanographic model for the e€ective clos- of the water column. These forms were readily trans-
ing of the Indonesian Seaway at about 17±16 Ma (late ferred between the Paci®c and Indian Oceans and
Early Miocene), which interrupted surface water circu- hence exhibit similar biostratigraphic ranges in both
lation between the tropical Paci®c and Indian Oceans. regions.
Tsuchi (1994), based on the molluscan faunas of the As a sequel to the blocking of the Indonesian
Paci®c coast of south-west Japan and marine climatic Seaway and the resultant interruption in the ¯ow of
events inferred from associated planktic foraminifera central equatorial current system of the Paci®c to the
suggested the closing of the Indonesian Seaway during west, modern surface as well as bottom water circula-
the early Middle Miocene. tion patterns developed in the Indian Ocean.
Ali et al. (1994), based on paleomagnetic evidence From the foregoing discussion, it is apparent that
from east Indonesia, suggested that after 22 Ma the based on biostratigraphic, paleomagnetic and tectonic
Indo-Paci®c gateway began to close, gradually block- evidence, the closing of the Indo-Paci®c gateway has
ing the westward ¯ow of equatorial waters. The been variously assigned between the early Miocene, the
Seaway was e€ectively closed at 011 Ma with the end of the middle Miocene and the end of the
development of the Halmahera Arc on the western Miocene to the early Pliocene. This discrepancy in the
 Early Pliocene closing of the Indonesian Seaway 41

Fig. 12. Magnetic and faunal stratigraphy of core RC-12-66 (after Saito et al. 1975).

Fig. 13. Tropical surface circulation in the Paci®c during the late Miocene (5.8±5.2 Ma) based on biogeographic distri-
bution of P. pulleniatina primalis. Black arrow, warm ocean current; white arrow, cold ocean current.
42 M. S. Srinivasan and D. K. Sinha

Fig. 14. Tropical surface circulation in the Paci®c during the early Pliocene (5.2±3.9 Ma) based on biogeographic distri-
bution of P. spectabilis. Black arrow, warm ocean current; white arrow, cold ocean current.

timing of the closure of the Indonesian Seaway reveals Seaway became an e€ective biogeographic barrier to
that the past oceanic circulation system and their re- planktic foraminifera at the beginning of the Pliocene
lationship to tectonics in this region is still not fully (5.2 Ma). P. spectabilis was exclusively a deep-dwelling
understood. Therefore, it is crucial that more e€orts form and the biostratigraphic evidence suggests that
integrating geological, geophysical and faunal studies the shallow sills that mark the Seaway in the present
are carried out both on land and o€-shore to under- day were present as early as 5.2 Ma. This is a surpris-
stand better about the changing circulation patterns ing result, given the high degree of late Neogene tec-
between the Paci®c and Indian Oceans during the tonism of the Indonesian region.
Neogene. Thus, P. spectabilis serves as a valuable paleoceano-
graphic marker not only for inferring the closing of
Indonesian Seaway, but the resultant change in the
Conclusions equatorial circulation pattern in the two oceans during
the early Pliocene. The blocking of the Indonesian
Sites 214 and 758A (Ninetyeast Ridge, north-east Seaway disallowed the ¯ow of central equatorial cur-
Indian Ocean), 586B (Ontong±Java Plateau, Tropical rent system of the Paci®c to the west. As a result,
Paci®c) and 761B (Wombat Plateau, Indo-Paci®c) are modern surface water as well as bottom water circula-
ideally located to determine biogeographic similarities tion pattern in the Indian Ocean developed. The
and di€erences between tropical Paci®c and Indian record of P. spectabilis from the western, central and
oceans as evidence for the separation linked with the eastern equatorial Paci®c deep sea cores suggests,
closing of the Indonesian Seaway. unlike the Miocene, the early Pliocene planktic forami-
Late Neogene planktic foraminiferal assemblages niferal assemblages were similar across the entire equa-
from tropical Indian Ocean sites show remarkable torial Paci®c.
similarities with those found in the Tropical Paci®c, A synthesis of all available data on the paleobiogeo-
including the coiling change pattern in Pulleniatina graphic distribution of P. spectabilis reveal that this
spp. The notable di€erence, however, is the complete taxon is absent in both Indian and Atlantic oceans.
absence of P. spectabilis from the Indian Ocean sites. Thus, P. spectabilis is a characteristic tropical species
P. spectabilis evolved from P. primalis in the equatorial con®ned to the Paci®c only and is not an Indo-Paci®c
Paci®c at about 5.2 Ma and is a short ranging species species as considered previously. More e€orts integrat-
spanning about 1.3 my. It is noteworthy to record the ing tectonic, geophysical and faunal studies both on-
extinction of P. spectabilis just before ®rst major coil- shore and o€-shore in the Indonesian region are
ing change in Pulleniatina from sinistral to dextral. required to understand better the changing circulation
The complete absence of P. spectabilis from the patterns between the Paci®c and Indian oceans during
Indian Ocean sites suggests that the Indonesian the Neogene.
 Early Pliocene closing of the Indonesian Seaway 43
Acknowledgements ÐWe are thankful to Professor Susumu Keigwin L. D. Jr 1982. Neogene planktonic foraminifers from
Nishimura for inviting us to contribute to this Volume. Deep Sea Drilling Project Sites 502 and 503. In Initial
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provided many helpful comments. Partial ®nancial support pp. 269±288.
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