TRANSIMISSION MEDIA

The term transmission medium refers to the means by which data are transmitted over the
network

Different media have different bandwidth, which in turn determines the maximum bit
rates achievable when data is transmitted over a particular type of medium

Transmission media may be broadly categorized into

• guided media and

• unguided media

Guided media – electromagnetic waves are transmitted along a physical path such as
twisted copper pair, coaxial cable and optic fiber

Unguided media – provides a means of transmitting electromagnetic waves but does not
guide the waves to their destination e.g., satellite, microwave, infra red, etc

Guided media types

. Two wire open lines

– Simple, consist of untwisted copper wires

– Used to connect two data terminal equipment up to 50m apart

– Moderate bit rates

– Mostly used to connect two modems

Disadvantages:

– Crosstalk; Susceptible to electromagnetic interference (EMI)

Twisted copper pair

– cable consists of a pair of twisted wires

 – twisting helps to cancel out EMI

– has better immunity to random noise signals than untwisted copper

– maximum cable length of 100M

– Two types of twisted copper pair are:

Types of Twisted Pair

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

– a protective metal mesh shield is used to further reduce the effect of interfering
radiation in addition to twisting

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) – no protective shield is used, and it is the most
common type of LAN cabling in use today.

- 4-wire UTP cable is commones

-Pair UTP Cord with RJ45 Connector

Characteristics of UTP

• A length of UTP cable is called a cord, each cord is made up of eight wires organized as
four pairs
• Each wire is covered with dielectric (non-conducting) insulation to prevent short circuits
between the electrical signals traveling on different wires

• Each pair's two wires are twisted around each other several times per inch

• An outer plastic jacket encloses the four pairs

• Maximum allowable distance is 100M

• Bit rates of 1Mbps and above

• Easy to terminate

• Governed by the EIA/TIA-568 standard

• Uses 8-pin RJ-45 connector and RJ-45 jack (port)

• Used in Token Ring and Ethernet networks

Advantages of UTP

• it is cheap

• UTP often already installed in buildings

• relatively easy to install and add connectors to

• can withstand rough treatment

 Types of UTP

. Solid-wire UTP

– each of the eight wires is a solid wire

– it has low attenuation over long distances

– easy to add connectors to

– inflexible and stiff – not good for runs/access lines to the desktop

Stranded-wire UTP

– each of the eight 'wires' is itself several thin strands of wires within an insulation

– it is flexible and durable

– bought as patch cables (come in two varieties: straight through and reversed, the
later mostly used for voice systems)

– higher attenuation than solid-wire UTP

– only good for short access lines to the PC

Disadvantages of UTP

• Main limitation of UTP is a phenomenon called “skin effect”

• As the bit rate of the transmitted signals increases (increase in frequency) the current in
the wire tends to flow only in the outer surface of the wire, thus reducing the available
cross sectional area of the wire

• This increases the electrical resistance of the wires leading to higher attenuation

• Can run a maximum distance of only 100m

• Susceptible to EMI and attenuation

Optic Fiber
• Has a core made of glass or plastic strand through which light signals are propagated

• Signals propagated as light waves (bit streams)

• The glass core is surrounded by a glass cladding, and the outermost surrounded by a
plastic jacket

• Single-mode fiber has glass core of 8-10 microns diameter, multi-mode fiber 50 or higher

• Light waves have higher bandwidth than electrical signals hence optic fiber achieves
transmission rates of over 1000 Mbps

• Used for backbone networks and FDDI rings

• Maximum cable length of 2 km for LANs, but special optic fiber can run for several tens
of kilometers

• Optic fiber is often used to overcome distance limitations other cables suffer from

• For example, may be used to connect two hubs together, in which case a UTP to fiber
optic converter is needed

• Use ST and SC connectors.

• Other small form factor connectors also exist

Two-Strand Full-Duplex Optical Fiber Cord with SC and ST Connectors

 Pen and Full-Duplex Optical Fiber Cord
with SC and ST Connectors

Multi-mode fiber optic

• Used for general fiber applications, e.g. for bringing fiber to the desktop, adding
segments to existing network i.e. LANs, or in smaller applications such as alarm systems

• Multimode cable comes with two different core sizes: 50 micron or 62.5 micron

• Provides multiple pathways of light - several wavelengths of light are used in the fiber
core

• Uses LED as source of light

• Can cover distances of up to 2000 meters

Single-mode fiber optic

• Has a small core (9 micron diameter) and only one pathway of light
 • With only a single wavelength of light passing through its core, single mode realigns the
light toward the center of the core instead of simply bouncing it off the edge of the core
as with multimode

• Uses LED laser (more intense than ordinary LED) as source of light resulting in higher
data rates and longer distances

• Single mode used in long-haul network connections (up to 3000m), e.g connections
between switching offices, campus backbones, etc

• More expensive than multimode

Types of cables:

Duplex

• Consists of two fibers, usually in a zipcord (side-by-side) style

• Use duplex multimode or single mode fiber optic cable for applications that require
simultaneous, bi-directional data transfer

• Workstations, fiber switches, servers, and fiber modems require duplex cable

• Available in single-mode and multi-mode

Simplex

• Consists of single fiber, and used in applications that require one-way data transfer

– E.g. interstate trucking scale that sends the weight of the truck to a monitoring
station or an oil line monitor that sends data about oil flow to a central location

• Available in single-mode and multi-mode

Advantages of optic fiber over copper wires

• Higher bandwidth, used in high end networks. Repeaters needed every 30 km and not 5
km as in copper
 • Not affected by power surges/failures (uses light), EMI, & corrosive chemicals

• Thin and lightweight than copper

• Lower installation costs than copper

• Does not leak light and difficult to tap

• Disadvantages of Optic Fiber

• Optical transmission is unidirectional, 2 way transmission requires either two fibers or 2

frequency bands on one fiber

• Expensive, both acquisition & installation

• Difficult to join

• Problem of modal dispersion for inexpensive, multi-mode optic fiber (found in LANs)

• Light rays entering the fiber are called modes. The single mode going in through the axis
will travel straight through the core without reflection

• However, other modes entering at high angles will be reflected many times as they travel
down the fiber, consequently traveling further.

Coaxial cable

• Consists of copper or aluminum wire as core, an insulating material (dielectric),

cylindrical conductor (aluminum or foil) woven as braided mesh for shielding against
EMI and a protective sheathe (jacket) made of plastic or steel

• Maximum cable length of several 100 meters: 200m, 500m

 • 100 Mbps or more, of data rates

• Used in cable TV, satellite TV, conventional antennas, & Ethernet LANs

• Uses BNC connectors, T connectors, or F-series connectors and terminators

• Less subject to EMI than UTP

• More difficult to install and terminate

• More expensive than UTP

(b) UNGUIDED/ WIRELESS TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Requires no physical media. The waves radiate by inducing a current in a transmitting antenna
and then travel through air or free space. Wireless media includes infrared, radio, microwave and
satellite transmission
RADIO TRANSIMISSION
Wireless link between fixed terminal point (base station) and terminal.

Transmission characteristics
1. 30 MHz to 1 GHz (UHF band) used for broadcast communications
2. Transmission limited to line of sight
3. Maximum distance between transmitter and receiver is given by same equation as
microwave; same for attenuation
4. Reflection from land, water, natural, man-made objects

(iii) MICROWAVE transmission

Microwave links are widely used to provide communication links when it is impractical or too
expensive to install physical transmission media.

Physical description

1. Parabolic dish antenna

2. Fixed rigidly with a focused beam along line of sight to receiving antenna
3. With no obstacles, maximum distance (d , in km) between antennae can be
d = 7. 14√(Kh)
where h is antenna height and K is an adjustment factor to account for the bend in microwave
due to earth's curvature, enabling it to travel further than the line of sight; typically K = 4/3

Transmission characteristics
1. high frequency (1GHtz – 40GHtz) radio communication beam that is transmitted over a
direct-line-of-sight path between two devices
2. Higher frequency implies higher bandwidth leading to higher data rates
3. Loss L due to attenuation over distance d at wavelength λ is expressed as L=10
log(4πd/λ)2dB

• Antennas (omni-directional and dish) used to transmit/receive signals

 Advantages of Microwave

• Free from land acquisition rights – only acquire the transmitter/receiver stations

• Ease of communication over difficult terrain

• Ease of extending to include additional users – simply add more receivers to the
broadcast signals

Disadvantages of Microwave

• Bandwidth allocation is extremely limited - due to competition among users RF

bandwidth allocation is finite and limited

• Suffers from rain drop attenuation

• Subject to EMI

• Requires clear line of sight

• Cost of design, implementation and maintenance is high

INFRA RED TRANSMISSION

Uses light waves in the frequency ranges 300GHtz-1000GHtz to carry data through the
air on a direct-line-of-sight path between two points: point to point, or point to multi-
point using beaming

Beaming is the communication of data between wireless devices using a beam of infra
red light

Transmission characteristics

• Limited to short distances and highly directional

• Cannot penetrate walls
• No licensing; no frequency allocation issues
Some uses include:

• WLANs, links between notebook computers (laptops, PDAs) and desktop

computers, link between digital camera, mobile phone and PC, PC to printer links,
cordless modem, intrusion detection systems (IDSs), and remote control boxes

Advantages & Disadvantages of IR

• Good for short range communication e.g WLAN

• More secure than radio waves as they are harder to tap

• Easy and cheap to build, no licensing required

• Doesn't pass through solid objects

SATELLITE

Physical description
Microwave transmission between a communication satellite orbiting the earth, and earth
stations.

• The satellite is a microwave relay station between two or more ground stations (also
called earth stations).
• A microwave beam is transmitted to the satellite from the ground.
• This beam is received and retransmitted (relayed) to the
predetermined destination. Receiver and transmitter in satellites is known as transponder.

• The optimum frequency range for satellite transmission is in the range 1 to 10 GHz.
Below 1 GHz, there is significant noise from natural sources. Satellite bands

Transmission characteristics
 1. Optimum frequency range in 1- 10 GHz
2. Below 1 GHz, significant noise from galactic, solar, and atmospheric noise, and
terrestrial
electronic devices

3. Most satellites use 5.925- 6.425 GHz band for uplink and 4.2- 4.7 GHz band for
downlink (4/6 band)
4. Propagation delay of about a quarter second due to long distance

Geostationary Satellite

• To always provide communications, modern telecommunication satellites are positioned

approximately 22,300 miles(35,784 km) above the equator and arrange satellite’s velocity
synchronous with the earth’s rotation. This is called geostationary orbit. Only three
satellites are needed to provide coverage

MULITIPLEXING
This is the process of combining multiple signals for transmission through a single channel.

Multiplexer - (Mux) is a device to combine multiple signals to go over one media link
Demultiplexer - (Demux) is a device to separate the multiple signals from a multiplexer
Types of multiplexing
1. Space division multiplexing (SDM)
2. Time division multiplexing (TDM)
3. Frequency division multiplexing (FDM)

Frequency division multiplexing

• Multiple signals are carried by using different carrier frequencies
• Must make sure that the carriers do not overlap
• Guard Band - unused bandwidth between signals that provides protection against overlap
• TV and Radio are most common examples

Frequency Division Multiplex

Introduction.

With FDM the available channel bandwidth is divided into a number of nonoverlapping
frequency slots. Each frequency slot or bandwidth segment carries a single information-bearing
signal such as a voice channel. We can consider an FDM multiplexer as a frequency translator.
At the opposite end of the circuit, a demultiplexer filters and translates the frequency slots back
into the original information bearing channels. In the case of a telephone channel, a frequency
slot is conveniently 4 kHz wide, sufficient to accommodate the standard 300- to 3400-kHz voice
channel.

Figure 4.17 illustrates the basic concept of frequency division multiplex.

 Figure 4.17The frequency division multiplex concept illustrated.

In practice, the frequency translator (multiplexer) uses single sideband modulation of

radio-frequency (RF) carriers. A different RF carrier is used for each channel to be
multiplexed. This technique is based on mixing or heterodyning the signal to be
multiplexed, typically a voice channel, with an RF carrier.

An RF carrier is an unmodulated RF signal of some specified frequency. In theory,

because it is not modulated, it has an indefinitely small bandwidth. In practice, of course,
it does have some measurable bandwidth, although very narrow. Such a carrier derives
from a simple frequency source such as an oscillator or a more complex source such as a
synthesizer, which can generate a stable output in a range of frequencies. A simplified
block diagram of an FDM link is shown in Figure 4.18.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing - Use of multiple wavelengths of light over a fiber optic
(optical form of FDM)
Time Division Multiplexing
• Multiple signals are carried by interleaving portions of each signal in time - time slots.
• Each input signal has exactly the same time slot that occurs repeatedly
• A group of time slots are grouped into a frame
• May be done in analog systems as well as digital, but typically seen in digital system

In order to transfer much more than a single channel between two sites, installing
aseparate line for every channel is clearly not a good solution

Multiplexing is a way of sending many channels over a single line

This is done by using Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

There are 32 channels, each with a rate of 64Kbs, that will be transferred to the other
end

The multiplexer takes from each of the 32 lines a single byte and sends them one after
the other

Then the multiplexer takes the next byte from every channel, and so on

In order for the bytes not to be lost, the multiplexer must be able to send all the 32 x 8
bits from the 32 channels without the second byte of the first channel getting lost

This implies that the output rate of the multiplexer should be at least 32 x 64Kbs or 2048
Kbs.This method is called Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

In TDM, the multiplexer needs 1/8000 sec (i.e. 1/ (8K samples/sec))for transferring
single byte of a single channel

Then the multiplexer divides this between the 32 channels by increasing the rate so that
each byte of a channel will take 1/(8000 * 32) sec to send

Example
 To multiplex 3 channels of 64Kbs each:

This method could be further used for increasing the number of channels from 32
Channels to 4 x 32 channels and so on each increase in the number of channels, bit rate of
the line is increased accordingly

After sending the 32 channels over a single line, then the question is how will the
Receiving end (the demultiplexer) know which bit belongs to which channel?

LOADING AND COILS

Normally the local loop between your house and the Telco central office switch is fairly short.
Generally the length is 3 miles or less. At these distances the twisted pair local loop wires are
basically just wires. There's nothing special about them--they're just conducting the voice and
DC signals between the CO switch and the customer premises POTS equipment.

On local loops over 3 miles long nasty things happen to the voice signal. At these longer
distances the effect of the mutual capacitance of the two twisted wires themselves becomes
significant. Remember that a capacitor consists of two conductors separated by an insulator (the
dielectric). The two insulated twisted wires in the local loop meet this definition of a capacitor.

the capacitance gets bigger as the line gets longer. the spacing between the two gets smaller.
Unfortunately these factors cause distortion of the transmission signals it moves down. to be
more precise the frequency at the upper end of the voice range may suffer more attenuation than
frequencies at the lower end of the range.

The capacitance of the wires is about .083 microfarad per mile which isn't significant for short
local loops. However, the capacitance of the wires does affect the frequency response of the local
loop over long distances. Here's why. Remember that the bandwidth of the PSTN is between
about 300 Hz. and 3,300 Hz. This is the band in which most human speech occurs. Below are
two graphs, one showing the normal, expected frequency of the local loop and the other showing
the effects of a long, unloaded local loop. (BTW, these graphs are intended to be only
approximations.)

 
So you can see the problem. The higher end of the voice band is tailing off and the high
frequency response of the local loop is adversely affected. This makes speech sound unnatural.

The Solution

By using a lot of fancy mathematic. it can be shown that the partial solution to this problem is to
add on the inductance of the line.This is called LOADING. this is achived by useof a loading
coil which is was discovered by two different inventors in 1899, one of whom worked for the
Bell System. Loading coils are placed in series with both the tip and ring lines of the local loop.
These coils are just a coil of wire. A device which compensates for wire capacitance and boosts
the frequencies carrying the voice information. The loading coil is a passive device and does not
receive any external power. It is neither an amplifier nor a repeater. they are not used in shorter
loops because they cause distortion at higer frequencies. It's just a coil. Here is a photograph of a
loading coil:
Results

The inclusion of the coils makes speech sound natural by "jacking up" the upper end of the
frequency response curve. Now it would be nice to say that the loading coils fix everything and
that we're back to the ideal frequency response curve for a POTS line that we saw above.
However, the coils don't fix everything and in fact introduce a side effect..

The loading coils make the voice band flatter but the high frequency end of the band is sharply
attenuated after 3,300 Hz. While this doesn't affect voice reception it does affect modem
performance. Modems "cheat" by using frequencies above the normal voice band and the sharp
attenuation caused by the loading coil cuts off a range of frequencies used by modems. The net
result is that loaded local loops do not perform very well with modems. Here's what the loaded
frequency response curve looks like. Note the relatively sharp drop off on the right when
compared to the "normal" frequency response curve.

MODULATION
Modulation techniques are broadly grouped into analog techniques and digital/pulse techniques.

Analog modulation
Analog modulation can be divided into amplitude modulation (AM) and angle modulation.

Amplitude Modulation
This involves varying the peak amplitude of the sinusoidal carrier wave in proportion to the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.

Angle modulation

In angle modulation, the instantaneous angle of a sinusoidal carrier is varied as the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal. In this method of modulation, the amplit de of the carrier
wave is maintained constant.
Angle modulation may either be frequency modulation (FM) or phase modulation (PM).

They are all shown in the diagram below.

PERCENTAGE OF MODULATION

It indicates the degree to which the AF signal modulates the carrier wave (m)

maximum value of signal wave

m= x 100
maximum value of carrier wave

signal amp hitude

m= x 100
carrier amp h itude

A
m= x 100
B

signal amp hitude

T h e ratio of is known as carrier
carrier amp h itud e
Modulated index (MI)

Modulation can also be defined in terms of the values referred to the modulated carrier wave.

E c ( max )−Ec (min)

m= x 100
E c ( max )−Ec (min)

Where;

Ec (max) is the maximum value of the amplitude of the modulated carrier wave.

Ec (min) is the minimum value of the amplitude of the modulated carrier wave.

Example,

A modulate carrier wave has a maximum and minimum wave amplitudes of 780mm and 250mm
calculate the value of large modulation.

Here Ec(max) = 750mv, Ec(min) = 280mv.

E c ( max )−Ec (min)

m= x 100
E c ( max )−Ec (min)

780−250
m= x 100
750−280

UPPER AND LOWER SIDE FREQUENCY

An unmounted carrier wave consist of only on single frequency compound of frequency Fc when
combined with a modulating signal of frequency F(m) heterodyning action takes place.

As a result, two addition frequencies are produced. These are called side frequencies.

The AM wave is found to consist of three frequency components.

 The original carrier frequency components FC
 The higher frequency component (fc + fm/ Sum component)
 The lower frequency component (fc - fm) / difference component)

The two new frequencies are called the upper-side frequency (USF) and lower-side frequency
(LSF) and they are systematically located around the carrier frequency. These are shown in the
figure below.

LSF ICW USF

 (fc - fm) fc (fc + fm)

Upper and lower side bands

In a broadcasting station, the modulating signal is the human voice or music, which contains
waves with a frequency range of 20 – 4000Hz.

Each of these waves has its own LSF and USF. When combined together, they give rise to an
upper side band (USB) and a lower side band (LSB) as shown below.

The USB contains all sum components of the signal and carrier frequency whereas LSB contains
their difference components.

The channel width (or bandwidth) is given by the difference between extreme frequencies i.e.
between maximum frequency of USB and minimum frequency of LSB as seen

CW

Channel width

LSB USB

995 999.9 1000 1000.1 10005

POWER RELATION IN AN AM WAVE

As discussed above, a modulated carrier wave consists of the following three components

 Original carrier wave of amplitude A

 USF wave of amplitude (MA/2)
 LSF wave of amplitude (MA/2)

The power radiated out by the wave through an antenna is propotional to (amplitude)2 i.e.

Carrier power Pc α A2 = KA2

( )( )
n 2
1 B
USB power PUSB α = KB2/4
2 2
 ( )( )
n 2
1 B
LSB Power PLSB α = KB2/4
2 2

Total side band power PSB = 2x KB2/4

Total power radiated from the antena P

PT = PC + PPSB = KA2 + KB2 /2

Substituting B = mA : PT = KA2 + KB2/2 (MA)

= KA2 (1 + m2/2)

Now P = KA2

i) PT = Pc (1 + M2 /2)

ii) Pc = PT = PT (2/2+m2)

iii) PSB = PT – PC = Pc (1 + m2/2) - Pc = m2 /2 ) Pc

iv) PUSB = PSLB = ½ PSB = m2/4 Pc = ½ (m2/2+m2)PT

Now if we consider the case when m = 1 or 100%

i) PT = 1.5 PC = 1.5 x Carrier power

ii) Pc = 2/3 x PT = 2/
3 x total power radiated

iii) PUSB = PLSB = 1/4 Pc = 25% of carrier power

iv) ½ Pc = 50% of carrier power

v) PUSB / PT = 0.25 Pc/1.5 Pc = 1/6

Other forms of Amplitude Modulation

SSB
One way to improve the efficiency of amplitude modulation is to suppress the carrier and
eliminate one sideband. The result is a single-sideband (AM/SSB) signal.
DSB-SC
The carrier is suppressed, leaving the upper and lower sidebands. This type of signal is referred
to as a double-sideband suppressed carrier signal. The benefit, of course, is that no power is
wasted on the carrier.

DSB- VSB
A portion of the lower sideband of the modulated signal is suppressed, leaving only a small part,
or vestige, of the lower sideband. This arrangement, is known as a vestigial sideband (VSB)

FREQUENCY MODULATION

In this modulation, it’s only the frequency of the carrier which is charged and not its amplitude.
The amount of charge of the frequency is determined by the amplitude of the modulating signals
whereas rate of charge is determined the frequency of the modulating signal. As seen in the
diagram, in an FM carrier, the information is carried as vibrations in its frequency. As seen the
frequency of the modulated carrier increases as the signal amplitude increases but decreases as
the signal amplitude decreases. When the signal amplitude is zero, the carrier frequency is at
normal frequency and it’s called resting.

The rate at which frequency shift take place depends on the signal frequency as shown

So under this modulation:

The amount of frequency deviation or shift depends on the amplitude or loudness of an audio
signal i.e. the louder the sound, the greater the frequency deviation and vice versa. However, for
the purpose of FM broadcasting, the maximum deviation has been restricted to 75KHz on each
side of the centre frequency.
FREQUENCY DEVIATION AND CARRIER SWING

The frequency on FM transmitter without signal input is called the resting frequency or centre
frequency (fo) and this is the allocated frequency of the transmitter i.e. the carrier frequency on
the which a station is allowed to broadcast. When a signal is applied, the carrier frequency
deviates up and down from its resting fo. The charge or shift either above or to the resting
frequency is called frequency deviation (Df)

The total variation in frequency from the lowest to the highest is called carrier swing (CS)

Carrier swing = 2x frequency deviation

for example

A maximum frequency deviation of 75KHz is allowed for commercial FM broadcast stations in

the 88 to 168 MHz VHF Band, hence the channel width is 275 = 50KHz. Allowing a 25KHz
guard band on either side, the channel width becomes = 2(75+25) = 200KHz. The guard band is
meant to prevent interfaces between adjacent channels.

200KHz

Station Not assigned Station Not assigned Station

1 in here 2 in here 3

150KHz

25

Modulation index

It’s given by ration of

and this can be greater than unity

DEVIATION INDEX

it’s the worst modulation index in which maximum permitted frequency deviation and maximum
permitted audio frequency are used.
 Deviation ratio = ∆f / fm(max)

Now for Fm broadcast station the ∆ fm(max) = 75KHz and maximum permitted frequency of
modulating audio signal is 15kHz

Deviation ratio = 25KHz / 15KHz = 1.67

PERCENTAGE MODULATION

When applied to FM, this term has slightly different meaning than when applied to AM. In FM,
its given by the ratio of the actual frequency deviation to the maximum allowed frequency
deviation.

m = (∆f)actual / ( ∆f )max

FM SIDEBANDS

When a carrier is modulated a number of sidebands are formed. Though theoretically their
number is infinite, their strength becomes legible after anew sidebands. They lie on sides of the
center frequency spaced fm apart as show in figure below. Sidebands at equal distance from fo
have equal amplitudes. If fo is the centre frequency and fm the frequency of the modulating
signal, then Fm carrier contains the following frequencies

fo fo+ fm fo- fm fo+ 2fm fo-2 fm fo+ 3fm and so on