Chapter 2

Mental health, work and leisure

John Haworth

This chapter notes briefly the importance of research into mental health, work and leisure.
Some concepts and measures of mental health are summarised, and two related models of
situational factors influencing mental health are outlined. Research using these models
undertaken at Manchester is reviewed, highlighting methodological considerations.
Directions and methods for future work are then discussed. The chapter illustrates the
value of linking theory, method and strategy to produce findings of both specific and
general relevance.
Psychologists from a range of specialisms are now involved in research into mental
health, work and leisure. Extensive research into the effects of unemployment indicates
that it impairs mental health, even though the effect is not universal, and a small minority
of people show gains in mental health after job loss (Warr 1987: 207). This impairment can
include deterioration in affective well-being, and diminished perceived competence and
aspiration, with reduced motivation and interest in one’s wider surroundings. The
conditions associated with positive subjective well-being in daily life, including
happiness, are also increasingly a topic of research (Argyle 1987; Csikszentmihalyi and
Csikszentmihalyi 1988; Strack, Argyle and Schwarz 1991; Tennen, Suls and Affleck 1991;
Haworth 1993). And the psychological and social benefits of work (Jahoda 1982) and
leisure (Driver, Brown and Peterson, 1991; Zuzanek and Larson 1993) are receiving
increasing attention. These developments have considerable relevance for governments
and other policy makers faced with populations increasing in life expectancy, and
technology influencing patterns of working life, so that individuals may have to spend as
much as half their adult life non-employed. The developments in research are also of
considerable theoretical and methodological significance for psychologists and other
social scientists, as this chapter will show.

MENTAL HEALTH

Warr (1987) notes that the term mental health is difficult to specify and that no universally
accepted definition is available. He proposes five principal components of mental health
22 John Haworth

which he considers would be accepted as important by most western theorists. These are
affective well-being, competence, autonomy, aspiration and integrated functioning.
Integrated functioning is concerned with the multiple relationships between the other four
components and, as yet, does not have questionnaire measures. The most comprehensively
investigated measure of Warr’s components is affective well-being. This can be measured on
three principal axes: the pleasure axis (measuring displeasure to pleasure in context free
situations), the anxiety–contentment axis, and the depressed–enthusiasm axis which have
been used in the context specific situations of work and leisure (Warr 1989, 1990, 1993). The
context specific measures have been more widely used, and have been subject to
development (Sevastos, Smith and Cordery 1992; Warr 1992). Warr’s emphasis on mental
health is on variations in degrees of health and not whether individuals would be identified
as ill or not in a medical sense. He views mental health as on a continuum ranging from very
good mental health, through conditions considered moderately healthy, to those widely
taken to be indicative of moderate and severe illness (Warr 1987: 25). He also rejects a
‘passive, contentment’ view of mental health, recognising that healthy people often
experience strain or anxiety (Warr 1993: 15).
Another related way of conceptualising mental health is to distinguish between the degree
of freedom from negative mental health, such as anxiety and depression and negative self-
esteem evaluations, and the degree of presence of aspects of positive mental health, such as
positive self-esteem, competence, etc. This view, arising from the work of Herzberg (1966),
proposes that negative and positive mental health are not on the same continuum, and that
different factors may influence each aspect. These two views on mental health have in
common the proposition that freedom from negative mental health does not necessarily
result in positive mental health, with the implication that mental health should be measured
on a range of dimensions. This position is also advocated by Brief, Butcher, George and Link
(1993) from their studies of subjective well-being. They state that no longer can it be assumed
that if a factor influences one aspect of subjective well-being it will also influence other
aspects. The specification of a range of both ‘input’ and ‘output’ variables is therefore
required in the study of well-being and mental health.
Several questionnaire measures have become established in the study of well-being and
mental health, and as such continue to be used regularly. This facilitates comparisons and
allows researchers to produce a descriptive profile for their sample to check against others.
The general health questionnaire (Goldberg 1972) has several versions, including the twelve
item GHQ12. Items cover strain and depression, loss of concentration, sleep, etc. A self-
esteem scale (Warr and Jackson 1983) is used to assess respondents’ feelings of personal
worth. Four items are concerned with negative self-esteem evaluations, and four with
positive self-evaluations. Total life satisfaction can be measured by the sum of eleven items
of a life satisfaction scale based on Warr, Cook and Wall (1979) where items refer to different
 Mental health, work and leisure 23

aspects of a respondent’s everyday life and environment. A twelfth item on the scale asks
respondents to rate their life as a whole at the present moment. Scores on this item on a seven
point scale ranging from extremely dissatisfied to extremely satisfied provide a measure of
an individual’s overall life satisfaction. Happiness has often been measured by a single
question developed by Bradburn (1969). This asks ‘Taking all things together, how would
you say things are these days – would you say that you are very happy, pretty happy or not
too happy?’, respondents having to choose one of these categories. These measures, along
with measures of Warr’s components of mental health, excluding integrated functioning,
have been used in our research at Manchester.
Another approach to the measurement of well-being, used at Manchester, is experience
sampling methodology (ESM) which allows the random collection in situ of self-reports
about a respondent’s subjective well-being and daily experience. First used by
Csikszentmihalyi, Larson and Prescott (1977) and Brandstätter (1991), the ESM is regarded
as a complementary approach to more traditional rating methods. Brandstätter (1991)
considers that traditional questionnaire measures of subjective well-being have several
short-comings. They can require complicated conceptual and judgemental processes to
answer some questions. Many people may be tempted to follow social norms rather than
reveal sincerely their intimate feelings. They tell us little about the hidden regularities and
the interplay between life circumstances and events on the one hand and personality
characteristics on the other. Brandstätter considers that time sampling diaries can be
designed to overcome some of the flaws and restrictions inherent in traditional rating
methods used to measure subjective experience. The advantages of the ESM have also been
noted by Hormuth (1986) who states that it is less prone to problems of recall, distortions,
and anticipation of report completion than more conventional diary methods.
Csikszentmihalyi and Larson (1987) argue that to understand the dynamics of mental health,
it is essential to develop measures of the frequency and patterning of mental processes in
everyday life situations. They review evidence for the reliability and validity of the ESM, and
present studies with both normal and clinical populations to demonstrate the range of issues
to which the technique can be applied.
In our studies at Manchester using the ESM, respondents have typically answered a series
of short, simple questions in a diary eight times a day for seven consecutive days, in response
to signals delivered by either a watch or radio pager programmed to deliver signals randomly
within one and a half hour blocks of time. Questions have included the following: ‘what was
the main thing you were doing?’; ‘why were you doing this activity?’. Responses were
chosen from a) I had to, b) I wanted to and c) I had nothing else to do. For ‘do you wish you
had been doing something else?’, the answer was given as a rating on a scale ranging from 1,
not at all, to 7, very much. The answers from these two questions have been combined to
24 John Haworth

specify which type of motivation is present. For example, if a respondent ticks either 1 or 2
on the question asking ‘do you wish you had been doing something else?’, and also ticked
that they had wanted to do the activity, this can be coded as intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic
motivation is indicated by a response ‘I had to do the activity’ coupled with 6 or 7 on the
question ‘do you wish you had been doing something else?’. Affective states are measured
by questions asking ‘how much were you enjoying this activity?’, to be answered on a seven
point scale ranging from ‘not at all’ (1) to ‘very much’ (7), and ‘how were you feeling at the
time?’, answers being rated on two seven point scales, from ‘very sad’ (1) to ‘very happy’
(7), and from ‘very tense’ (1) to ‘very relaxed’ (7). Questions have also asked ‘were you in
control of the situation?’, and ‘how interesting did you find this activity?’, answers being
required on a seven point scale ranging from 1, ‘not at all’, to 7, ‘very much’; and ‘how
challenging do you find the situation?’, answered on a seven point scale; and whether skills
were ‘equal to’, ‘greater than’ or ‘less than’ the challenge, respondents selecting one answer.
While the questions only take about two minutes in total to answer at each response signal,
considerable commitment is required to complete the diary over seven days. A nominal fee
of about £1 a day may partially compensate respondents for their efforts, while not
encouraging non-valid completion. In any event, as no research method is without problems,
it can be valuable to see if there is some congruence of findings between methods such as
standard questionnaire measures of well-being and ESM measures of subjective states, to
give added faith in results.

Situation-centred models of mental health

In his categorical, situation-centred model of mental health, Warr (1987) proposes nine
principal environmental influences (PEIs), or environmental categories of experience, as
having a significant non-linear influence on mental health. These PEIs are: opportunity for
control; opportunity for skill use; externally generated goals; variety; environmental clarity;
availability of money; physical security; opportunity for interpersonal contact; and valued
social position. Warr suggests that, like vitamins, these features have non-linear effects,
some improving mental health up to a certain point and then having no further effects, others
producing benefits up to a certain level but beyond which increases would be detrimental.
These features are proposed as determinants of mental health in all kinds of environments,
including work and leisure. They are considered to be properties that an environment has
relative to the capabilities and requirements of human beings (Warr 1987: 281). Warr also
recognises that individuals can have different enduring characteristics which may moderate
the relationship between the principal environmental influences and mental health. The
 Mental health, work and leisure 25

model is thus concerned with processes and person–situation interactions, as well as

categorical features.
Warr’s model incorporates the environmental categorical model proposed by Jahoda
(1982) which indicates that the five categories of experience (time structure, activity, social
contact, collective purpose, and social identity or status) are imposed by work and are
important for well-being. This model ‘emphasises the habitual use people make of social
institutions in meeting some psychological need’ (Jahoda 1982: 356). Leisure activities from
television to sports to self-improvement are considered to be fine in themselves as a
complement to employment, but are not considered to be functional alternatives since leisure
lacks the compelling manifest function of earning a living. Where deprivation of these
categories occurs in unemployment it is considered to give rise to negative psychological
symptoms.
Warr indicates that the division of the environment into nine principal categories, which
facilitate or constrain personally important processes and activities important for mental
health, appears to be appropriately precise for most purposes, but that it is a matter of
judgement, partly relating to applications, whether fewer or more categories would be
preferable. He considers that ‘the evidence proposed for the nine factors is as convincing as
that of other models’ (p. 283). The strength of his categorical model, he considers, is that it
applies to any kind of environment and that it has considerable heuristic value, lending itself
to application and development.

Research at Manchester

A study by Evans (1986) used a questionnaire to measure access to the categories of

experience (ACE) described by Jahoda, in samples of employed and unemployed young
people. The study (also reported in Evans and Haworth 1991) showed that the categories of
experience can be obtained by the unemployed and that those with better access had better
psychological well-being. However, ACE and psychological well-being was limited when
compared to that obtained by the people in the structured situation of employment. This
could be because employment provides more money which enables individuals to gain ACE
outside of employment. Financial resources are obviously important. Nevertheless, just over
half the unemployed sample had a main activity, either work based, leisure based or general
social interaction, which gave them a chance to use their abilities and be creative. These
individuals had levels of self-esteem similar to the employed sample. However, they had
worse affective well-being, life satisfaction and happiness, and less access to the categories
of experience of status, social contact and time structure than the employed group. The main
activities of the unemployed did not seem to be embedded in informal institutional support
26 John Haworth

systems, and it is an open question as to whether or not this group of people would have had
access to all the categories of experience and better psychological well-being if their main
activity had been located in a valued social structure. Perhaps if they had been engaged in
activities embedded in a social world which was given high status by the community, this
would have enhanced psychological well-being and supported the effort necessary to sustain
commitment to pursuits.
Another study (Haworth and Ducker 1991) on unemployed young people used
questionnaires and experience sampling methodology (ESM). Respondents answered a
series of questions in a diary eight times a day for one week in response to signals from an
electronic pager. Results showed that a sub-group with higher ACE scores engaged in more
work-like and active leisure activities than a sub-group with lower ACE scores who engaged
in more passive leisure; and that the higher ACE group had statistically significant better
scores on measures of self-esteem, life satisfaction and enjoyment. The results also showed
that hope for future (questionnaire measure) and enjoyment (ESM measure) were
significantly correlated with scores on the ACE scales.
The results from this study are interesting in that they suggest that respondents with better
access to the five categories of experience participate in more positive and engaging
activities, or in the terminology of White (1959) more ‘competence’ serving activities, than
the low ACE group. It could thus be expected that the high ACE group would have better self-
esteem and general levels of psychological well-being, as was borne out by the results. The
finding showing that both enjoyment and hope for the future are significantly associated with
Jahoda’s categories of experience indicates, perhaps, in line with Fryer and McKenna
(1989), that personal agency is an important route into gaining access to these categories of
experience. At the same time it may be that the relationship of enjoyment with access to
categories of experience represents a dynamic intertwining between the person and the
situation. For some situations engagement in activities and other categories of experience
could provide enjoyment, whilst at the same time enjoyment could provide the stimulus to
continue with engagement in pursuits. Csikszentmihalyi (1982) and Csikszentmihalyi and
Csikszentmihalyi (1988) emphasise the pivotal role of enjoyment in psychological well-
being. The result from this study of unemployed people may indicate one route by which this
pivotal role is achieved.
Further research comparing employed and unemployed samples could be done using the
ACE questionnaire as a starting point and undertaking indepth interviews and obtaining
accounts provided by participants of their personal history, daily life and social networks.
Csikszentmihalyi and Beattie (1979) and Csikszentmihalyi and Larson (1984) argue that the
possession of a life theme is an important organising force in the behaviour of an individual,
and that both unconscious and conscious factors operate in the adoption of life goals. The
 Mental health, work and leisure 27

seminal writings of Merleau-Ponty (1962) on the phenomenology of perception stress the

importance of lived experience and pre-reflexive thought in how we depict the world. A
combination of quantitative and qualitative research should give a clearer picture of the
differences between those who cope better and worse with unemployment, particularly if
such research could be conducted in relation to enterprises and projects considered valuable
by the unemployed and the community. Similar research is also needed on retired people,
especially the increasing number of people taking early retirement. Besides having
important practical value, such research could be of considerable theoretical importance in
elucidating the interplay between personal and situational factors in mental health (Haworth
1986).
Access to categories of experience and enjoyment were also investigated as part of a study
of work and leisure in a sample of young employed adults by Haworth and Hill (1992). This
study used questionnaires and the experience sampling method over a one week period. ACE
was measured separately for work and leisure, and showed interesting results. While there
were some correlations between ACE at work and psychological well-being, there was a
range of correlations with ACE in leisure. Social contact, collective purpose, status, and a
composite measure of the five categories of experience termed ‘total access’, all correlated
significantly with a measure of life satisfaction. Social contact and collective purpose also
correlated significantly with happiness in daily life measured by ESM. Status, time structure,
and total access all correlated significantly with a measure of self-esteem. Variations in
access to categories of experience in the leisure time of employed people thus appear to be
important in relation to well-being, contrary to Jahoda’s predictions. It may well be that for
some people there is not a strict division between the important categories of experience
obtained in work and those obtained in leisure.
However, it may be that the mechanisms vary for obtaining ACE in work and leisure.
When the seven individuals with the highest and lowest total ACE scores in both work and
leisure were compared, the individuals with high ACE in leisure had significantly higher
mean enjoyment scores than the individuals with low ACE in leisure, though this was not the
case in work. Perhaps ACE at work can be provided to some extent irrespective of
enjoyment, as Jahoda (1982) appears to indicate. Whereas perhaps ACE in leisure requires
more individual effort, reflected in higher enjoyment scores in leisure.
This line of research exploring the interplay between ACE and enjoyment in different
situations is one which unites different traditions of research into well-being. European
research has tended to concentrate on questionnaire measures of well-being, but has
recognised the importance of social factors in behaviour, even if these are not always
investigated adequately. American research using ESM has tended to focus on the
importance of person-centred factors in relation to quality of life, including intrinsic
28 John Haworth

motivation, perceived freedom and enjoyment, which perhaps resonate more readily with
American values. A marriage of these ‘two traditions’ could be particularly valuable in
future research.
Another study of the importance of ACE in work and leisure for mental health was
undertaken on a sample of managers by Haworth and Paterson (1995). The results from
multiple regression analysis showed that ‘collective purpose’ and ‘status’ in both work and
leisure had moderate to large β coefficients, indicative of their potential influence, for a
considerable range of measures of mental health covering freedom from negative mental
health and positive mental health. ‘Activity’ and ‘social contact’ in leisure were also
important for aspects of positive mental health. Although the β coefficient (weight) indicates
the average standard deviation change in y (mental health measure) with a standard deviation
change in x (category of experience measure), the generality of the size of the β weight is
restricted to samples with similar variance in the ‘predictor’ variable (x). The validity of the
findings also depends on there being no specification error, such as no relevant independent
variables being excluded (Lewis-Beck 1980).
In this study of managers, analysis of a broader range of variables, the principal
environmental influences (PEIs), potentially reduced specification error. It also permitted a
finer grain analysis. The PEI ‘valued social position’ incorporates the ACE measures of
‘collective purpose’ and ‘status’. Analysis showed that ‘valued social position’ remained a
significant statistical predictor of a wide range of measures of mental health. Other
interesting results from this finer grain analysis showed that ‘use of existing skills’ in leisure
had large β weights associated with total life satisfaction and highly enjoyable flow
experiences. ‘Social contact’ in leisure did not remain significant. Inspection of the
regression analysis suggested that the influence of ‘social contact’ in leisure on mental health
in this sample may be through a range of other variables including ‘variety’, ‘control’,
‘valued social position’ and ‘skill use’. The use of path analysis (Asher 1976; Chapter 5)
would be valuable in investigating these possible indirect influences.
While the statistical association between two variables may reflect bidirectional causal
influence, the study has important practical implications. For a company to try and maintain
the mental health of managers, it would seem important to reinforce valued social position
at work. Equally, time for leisure pursuits in the everyday life of busy managers is not, it
would seem, a peripheral consideration, one which can be forfeited without cost.
The final study to be summarised is one focusing on person–situation interactions in a
sample of working women, who were primarily office workers (Haworth, Jarman and Lee).
The study measured locus of control (Rotter 1966), as a person centred variable, PEIs and
mental health, and, using the experience sampling method for one week, activities,
enjoyment, interest, motivation and feelings of control. The β weights from multiple
 Mental health, work and leisure 29

regression analysis highlighted the potential importance of ‘money’ for total life satisfaction
and pleasure. ‘Valued social position’ at work had a large β weight associated with
contentment at work, while ‘valued social position’ in leisure had large β weights associated
with affective well-being and enthusiasm in leisure. However, in this group of working
women, in contrast to the group of managers discussed earlier, it was ‘clarity’ at work which
had the greatest number of large β weights associated with a wide range of measures of
mental health, namely: total life satisfaction, work affective well-being and enthusiasm at
work, leisure affective well-being and enthusiasm in leisure. This indicates that different
patterns of PEIs seem to be important for different groups of people in different life
situations, with the measures used to measure the PEIs having some discriminant validity.
The study found that locus of control was significantly associated with a wide range of
measures of well-being, with ‘internals’ having more favourable scores. Respondents were
divided into two groups on the basis of the locus of control scores. Analysis showed the more
‘internal’ locus of control group to have significantly better scores on several PEIs including
‘clarity’ in both work and leisure. Conceivably, while locus of control could have a direct
influence on well-being, through feelings of control, internals, who have a greater learned
expectancy for reinforcements to be contingent upon their own behaviour than externals,
could have better well-being through the indirect path of greater access to principal
environmental influences. While path analysis gave some indication of this being the case,
it did not hold for each measure of well-being. However, further research is needed using
larger samples.
Analysis of the ESM data showed that ‘internals’ had greater levels of enjoyment, interest
and control for the week of the study, which is congruent with results from the questionnaire
measures of well-being. ‘Internals’ also reported more of their activities as intrinsically
motivated than the ‘external’ locus of control group. Leisure, in comparison to work,
provided significantly greater levels of enjoyment and feelings of control, but not interest. In
leisure, social interaction, spectating, reading, hobbies, shopping and self-maintenance had
above average levels of enjoyment, with many of these activities also showing above average
levels of interest and control. Chores and domestic activities, including washing, cooking
and general housework, were also high on the positive experience of control, even though
below average on enjoyment and interest. Work also provided several areas where control
was high, and also some of the most enjoyable activities.
Rotter (1966, 1990) emphasises that locus of control is a learned expectancy. Spector
(1982) points to an interactive relationship between locus of control and experience, in that
locus of control may affect behaviour and the consequences of behaviour may in turn affect
locus of control. Parkes (1984) notes that internal locus of control is reciprocally related to
skill use at work. The results from the present study of working women suggest the
30 John Haworth

possibility of positive subjective states in leisure being reciprocally related to internal locus
of control. Enjoyment and feelings of control in leisure may enhance internal locus of
control, which in turn may lead to enhanced mental health either directly, or indirectly
through greater access to principal environmental influences, in work or leisure. Further
studies using questionnaires and the ESM on larger samples of working women are required.

Future research

Warr (1987) notes that the strength of his model is that it applies to any kind of environment
and that it has considerable heuristic value, lending itself to application and development. In
order to tease out the relative importance of different principal environmental influences for
people with different enduring characteristics, Warr stresses the necessity for large-scale
survey research including longitudinal studies and multivariate analysis. The model
emphasises the importance of studying the processes involved in person–situation
interactions important for mental health, for which questionnaire research using causal
modelling will be important.
Warr also notes that ‘more descriptive and interpretive research is now required, which
can elucidate the processes whereby particular sets of environmental features work together
to have their environmental effects’ (p. 290), and also that it is ‘essential that we study the
interaction defined in a processual sense, seeking to deepen our understanding of the models
of person–situation interactions across time’ (p. 291).
The research summarised in this chapter shows that the categorical models of Warr and
Jahoda are useful in studying focused samples where the aim is to get information of practical
value for a particular type of group in a particular situation. Such information could help
managers and policy makers concerned with work and leisure in their understanding of
factors associated with well-being and health. Although the specific findings from focused
samples are only relevant in a ‘predictive’ sense to samples with similar characteristics, the
utility of such research can be greater if ‘findings’ are used as ‘insights’ which policy makers
and managers use as a guide. The strategy of using focused samples can be further enhanced
by studying the processes and dynamics underpinning person–situation interactions, which
may help in the construction of general theory concerning mental health, work and leisure.
Warr’s model provides one overall perspective from which to develop this research.
Equally, other variables, methods and perspectives could be used in conjunction with
questionnaire studies of Warr’s model. The importance of enjoyment has been highlighted
in the present research. Enjoyment may play a pivotal role in gaining access to categories of
experience, either through the direct effects of rewards, or through enhancing internal locus
of control. Rotter (1982) has pointed to the importance of studying ‘enhancement
 Mental health, work and leisure 31

behaviours’. These are ‘specific cognitive activities that are used to enhance and maintain
good feelings’ which may help to explain why ‘there are people who are happy, content and
in a good mood much of the time, and that the objective circumstances of such people may
not differ markedly from those of others who are mildly unhappy, discontented, or worried
about bad things that might happen’ (p. 339). In what Warr (1987: 138) has termed the
complex interweaving of simultaneous interactions between the person and the
environment, the role of enjoyable activity in well-being may involve both conscious and
subconscious processes. Uleman and Bargh (1989) have reviewed research into the
importance of ‘unintended thought’ in the experience of stress. Future research could
investigate the role of ‘unintended thought’, and similar constructs such as ‘pre-reflexive
thought’ (Haworth 1986), in positive mental health. In investigating these complex areas, the
long-term success of research which attempts to have both practical and theoretical value
will depend on the innovative marriage of theory, method and strategy.

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