Major Environmental Concerns : State causes expansion of deser t, dust storms,

of our environment whirlwinds and destruction of crops; while moving

sand covers the land and make it sterile. In the
8. A country’s environmental problems vary plains, riverine erosion due to floods and
with its stage of development, structure of its eutrophication due to agricultural run off are
economy, production technologies in use and its noticed. Increased dependence on intensive
environmental policies. While some problems agriculture and irrigation also results in salination,
may be associated with the lack of economic alkalization and water logging in irrigated areas
development (e.g. inadequate sanitation and of the country.
clean drinking water), others are exacerbated
by the growth of economic activity (e.g. air and 11. Controlling such land/soil degradation is a
water pollution). Poverty presents special sine qua non to achieving and maintaining food
problems for a densely populated country with security, sustainable forestry, agricultural and
limited resources. rural developments. The Government strategy
towards preventing land degradation include
Land/Soil Degradation treatment of catchment areas, comprehensive
watershed development, emphasis on low cost
9. Most of the land area in the country show
vegetative measures, survey and investigation
evidence of degradation, thus affecting the
of problem areas through remote sensing
productive resource base of the economy. Out
techniques, bio-mass production in reclaimed
of the total geographical areas of 329 million
land, micro level planning and transfer of
hectares, 175 million hectares are considered
technology.
degraded (Table 11.1).
10. Erosion by water and wind is the most Deforestation
significant contributor to soil erosion with other
factors like water logging, salination etc. adding 12. Forests are a renewable resource and
to the in situ degradation. While soil erosion by contribute substantially to the economic
rain and river in hill areas causes landslides and development by providing goods and services
floods, deforestation, overgrazing, traditional to forest dwellers, people at large and forest
agricultural practices, mining and incorrect siting based industries, besides generating substantial
of development projects in forest areas have volume of employment. Forests also play a vital
resulted in opening up of these areas to heavy role in enhancing the quality of environment by
soil erosion. In the arid west, wind erosion influencing the ecological balance and life support
system (checking soil erosion, maintaining soil
fertility, conserving water, regulating water cycle
TABLE 11.1 and floods, balancing carbon dioxide and oxygen
Soil Erosion and Land Degradation content in atmosphere etc.).
(Million Hectares) 13. The country has a very diverse forest
1. Total Geographical Area 328.7
vegetation ranging from the moist evergreen
2. Area Subject to Water and forests in the North-East, along the West Coast
Wind Erosion 141.3 and the Andaman & Nicobar Islands to the
temperate and alpine vegetation in the
Area Degraded through Special Problems Himalayas. However, this forest wealth is
3. Water Logged Area 8.5 dwindling due to overgrazing, over exploitation,
4. Alkali Soil 3.6 encroachments, unsustainable practices, forest
5. Acid Soil 4.5 fire and indiscriminate siting of development
projects in the forest areas. Withdrawal of forest
6. Saline Soil including
Coastal Sandy areas 5.5 products, including fuel wood, timber etc. are
7. Ravines & Gullies 4.0
much beyond the carrying capacity of our forests.
The current annual withdrawal of fuel wood is
8. Area subject to Shifting Cultivation 4.9
estimated at 235 million cubic meters against a
9. Riverine & Torrents 2.7
sustainable capacity of about 48 million cubic
Total 3 to 9 33.7
meters. The annual demand for industrial wood
is about 28 million cubic meters against the
Source : State of Environment, 1995 MOEF production capacity of 12 million cubic meters.
The area affected by forest fire range from 33 only 2.4 per cent of the total land area of the
percent in West Bengal to 99 percent in Manipur. world, the known bio-diversity of India contributes
8 per cent of the known global biological diversity.
14. Presently, the recorded forest area is 76.52 It is one of the twelve mega bio-diversity centers
million hectare which works out to 23.3 per cent in the world. Currently available data place India
of the total geographical area and actual forest in the tenth position in the world and fourth in
cover is 63.3 million hectare, which constitutes the Asia in plant diversity. In terms of number
only 19.3 per cent of the total land area, as of mammalian species, the country ranks tenth
against the National Forest Policy 1988 in the world and in terms of the endemic species
stipulation of a target of 33 per cent. Even within of higher vertebrates, it ranks eleventh. It stands
this recorded area, only 36.7 million hectare, or seventh in the world for the number of species
only 11.2 per cent of country’s total land area, contributed to agriculture and animal husbandry.
comprises dense forest with a crown density of
more than 40 per cent, thus reflecting a 17. From about 70 percent of the geographical
qualitative decline of forests in the country (Table area surveyed so far, 46,000 plant species and
11.2). 81,000 animal species have been recorded by
the Botanical Survey of India (BSI) and the
15. The total forest area diverted for non- Zoological Survey of India (ZSI), respectively.
forestry purposes between 1950 and 1980 was These life forms, besides their ecological and
4.5 million hectare i.e. at an annual rate of 0.15 intrinsic value, represent a considerable socio-
million hectare. To regulate unabated diversion economic and monetary asset value as these
of forest land for non forestry purposes, Forest are actually and potentially important for
(Conservation) Act, 1980 was enacted. It has developments in the fields of food, medicine,
resulted in reduction of diversion of forest area textiles, energy, recreation and tourism. The
for non forestry purposes considerably and the areas yet to be surveyed include the inaccessible
present rate of diversion is 16,000 hectare Himalayan areas, Andaman & Nicobar Islands
annually. The forest area in the recent past has and Exclusive Economic Zone, which are
not changed much because its diversion for non expected to be rich repositories of endemic and
forestry purposes has been more or less other species.
compensated by afforestation and natural
regeneration programmes of the Government. 18. The biodiversity in forests, grasslands,
wetlands and mountains, deserts and marine
TABLE 11.2
ecosystems is subject to many pressures. One
of the major causes of the loss of biological
Forest Cover Estimates 1981-95 diversity has been the depletion of vegetative
cover in order to expand agriculture. Since most
% of area under
of the biodiversity rich forests also contain the
maximum mineral wealth, and also the best sites
Period Total Forest % of Dense Open
Cover geographic Forest Forest
for water impoundment, mining and development
(Million hectare) area projects in such areas have often led to
1981-83 64.08 19.5 - -
destruction of habitats. Poaching and illegal trade
1985-87 63.88 19.4 59.1 40.2
of wildlife products too, have adversely affected
1987-89 63.94 19.5 60.2 39.1
biodiversity.
1989-91 63.94 19.5 60.2 39.1 19. Such over-exploitation and loss of habitat
1991-93 63.89 19.4 60.2 39.0 is leading to the extinction of various plants,
1993-95 63.34 19.3 58.0 41.3 animals and microbial species. According to
Forest cover is the sum of dense forest plus open estimates, over 1500 plant species are
forest, plus mangroves forest (not shown) endangered and about 79 mammals, 44 birds,
Source : State of Forest Reports, FSI, MOEF. 15 reptiles, 3 amphibians and several insects
are listed as endangered. Such a biological
impoverishment of the country is a serious threat
Bio-diversity
to sustainable advances in biological productivity
16. The Country’s unique phytogeographical as gene erosion also erodes the prospects for
and agro-ecological diversity endows it with a deriving full economic and ecological benefits
wide variety of agro climatic zones that harbor from recent advances in molecular biology and
a rich repository of biological resources. With genetic engineering.
20. The loss of biodiversity is being addressed, outdated automotive technologies and traffic
besides their appropriate mapping and surveys, management system. It is estimated that two/
through a network of protected areas consisting three wheelers constitute about 75 percent of
of 85 National Parks, 448 wildlife sanctuaries, the total vehicles and cause more than 50 percent
10 Biosphere reserves and specific programmes of the total vehicular pollution load.
for management and conservation of fragile
24. Studies by Central Pollution Control Board
ecosystems. Approximately, 4.2 percent of the
(CPCB), on the ambient noise levels show that
total geographical area of the country has been
noise levels in most of the big cities exceed the
so earmarked for extensive in situ conservation
prescribed standards (Table 11.4). The major
of habitats and ecosystems. Besides, ex situ
sources of noise are vehicles, diesel generator
conservation is also being undertaken through
sets, loud speakers, construction activities and
a network of 70 botanic gardens and 275 centres
bursting of fire crackers. An attempt is being
of wildlife preservation in the form of zoos, deer
made to control the noise pollution by notifying
parks, safari parks, aquaria etc.
the standards and monitor their compliance
Atmospheric Pollution through local authorities.
21. Air pollution is widespread in the country 25. The toxic nature of air pollutants and their
and regular monitoring is being carried out under high concentrations in many industrialized
the National Ambient Air Quality monitoring regions are posing serious concerns both in
System. A high level of Suspended Particulate terms of human health and damage to man
Matter (SPM) is the most prevalent form of air
pollution (Table 11.3). High concentration of TABLE 11.3
Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) and SPM occur in about Level of Air Pollution in the Metro Cities
20 percent of the cities so monitored. High
domestic use of coal or bio-mass fuel is still a Name of the Levels of Air Pollution
serious problem in high human exposure to SO2, (micrograms/m3)
SPM and carcinogenic agents.
Metro city SO2 No x SPM
22. The main factors contributing to urban air
1. Ahmedabad 5.4-110.9 3.6-70.0 72.4-575.4
quality deterioration are growing industrialization
and increasing vehicular pollution. It has been 2. Bhopal 8.1-22.0 12.2-32.4 85.0-393.3
aggravated by developments that typically occur 3. Calcutta 6.0-122.0 6.0-73.1 77.3-833.3
as countries industrialize: growing cities, 4. Chennai 2.4-161.6 1.8-55.5 26.6-351.4
increasing traffic, rapid economic development
5. Coimbatore 0-8.9 0.3-19.1 2.5-133.0
and industrial growth, all of which are closely
6. Delhi 10.1-85.1 20.1-104.5 145.3-929.8
associated with higher energy consumption.
Industrial pollution is concentrated in industries 7. Hyderabad 5.1-70.7 7.5-124.13 59.3-458.0
like petroleum refineries, textiles, pulp and paper, 8. Indore 2.6-10.2 4.4-17.4 77.0-812.0
industrial chemicals, iron and steel and non 9. Jaipur 6.1-53.7 4.0-64.3 81.6-570.1
metallic mineral products. Small scale industries
10. Kanpur 8.2-22.4 7.7-63.0 233.7-809.2
especially foundries, chemical manufacturing and
11. Kochi 3.2-54.3 1.7-137.0 10.5-271.1
brick making are also significant polluters. In
the power sector, ther mal power which 12. Lucknow 23.2-37.4 23.0-34.4 382.6-672.7
constitutes bulk of the installed capacity for 13. Mumbai 6.1-111.7 5.4-115.8 60.6-473.2
electricity generation, is an important source of 14. Nagpur 4.3-18.8 3.2-43.2 38.2-403.2
air pollution. Various environmental pollution
15. Patna 12.7-46.4 8.5-55.7 132.0-1307.0
control measures adopted by the Government
16. Pune 17.1-29.0 10.1-34.0 112.0-166.5
are listed in Box 11.1.
17. Surat 22.4-304.0 10.0-135.7 81.7-1215.3
23. Vehicular traffic is the most important
18. Varanasi 18.3-27.1 10.6-28.8 155.0-349.0
source of pollution in all the mega cities. The
number of vehicles in these cities has increased 19. Visakhapatnam 5.5-80.8 5.1-92.0 46.7-482.7
manifold . This increase has been characterized NAAQ/Standards 15.0-80.0 15.0-80.0 70.0-360.0
by a boom in private transport. Other reasons
NAAQ : National Ambient Air Quality standards.
for high vehicular pollution are two stroke engines,
Source : Central Pollution Control Board
aged vehicles, congested traffic, poor roads and
 BOX 11.1
Major Environmental Pollution Control Activities

l Policy initiatives to improve environment like the National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement
for Environment & Development, 1992, Policy Statement for Abatement of Pollution, 1992 and
National Forest Policy, 1988.
l Notification and implementation of emission and effluent standards for air, water and noise levels.
Standards are formulated by a multidisciplinary group keeping in view the international standards,
existing technologies and impact on health and environment.
l Identification and Action Plans for 17 categories of major polluting industries.
l Identification of 24 critically polluted areas for pollution abatement and improving environment.
l Use of beneficiated coal with an ash content not exceeding 34% irrespective of their distance from
pit head.
l Action Plans for 141 polluted river stretches to improve quality of river water.
l For controlling vehicular pollution, progressive emission norms at the manufacturing stage have
been notified , cleaner fuels like unleaded petrol, low sulphur diesel and compressed natural gas
(CNG) introduced.
l Identification of clean technologies for large industries and clean technologies/processes for small
scale industries.
l Setting up of Common Effluent Treatment Plants (CETPs) for clusters of SSI units.
l Implementation of an Eco-mark scheme to encourage production/consumption of environment -
friendly products.
l Preparation of a Zoning Atlas, indicating status of the environment at district levels to guide
environmentally sound location/siting of industries.
l Mandatory submission of annual Environmental Statement which could be extended into environmental
audit.
l Initiation of environmental epidemiological studies in seven critically polluted areas to study the
impact of environment on health.
l Setting up of authorities like the Environment Pollution (Prevention & Control) Authority for the
National Capital Region for protecting and improving the quality of environment and preventing,
controlling and abating environmental pollution.
l Provision of fiscal incentives for installation of Pollution control equipment and also for shifting of
industries from congested areas.
 TABLE 11.4
Ambient Noise levels in Cities
(All values expressed in decibels)

Cities Residential Commercial Sensitive Industrial

Day Night Day Night Day Night Day Night

1. Bhopal 60 44 75 57 73 42 68 47
2. Bangalore 59-79 37-59 68-81 46-64 58-74 - 63-86 42-65
3. Calcutta 76-86 58-76 70-90 57-78 69-89 65-70 75-82 53-70
4. Chennai 57-84 45-50 74-80 69-71 46-70 47-50 69-76 63-69
5. Delhi 53-71 - 63-75 - 62-68 - 65-81 -
6. Dehradun 50 38 70 50 58 42 50 45
7. Hyderabad 56-73 40-50 67-84 58-73 62-78 51-67 44-77 42-70
8. Jaipur 46-82 43-78 64-88 51-80 60-75 55-66 59-81 48-78
9. Kanpur 49-69 39-59 68-82 57-76 47-61 35-57 63-78 57-63
10. Kochi 70 51 85 56 72 51 70 61
11.Lucknow 55 50 70 58 50 40 60 58
12. Mumbai 45-81 45-68 63-81 60-75 58-77 46-66 73-79 56-72
13. Varansi 50 40 70 50 55 40 50 50
14. Vizag 74 59 85 70 75 57 75 51
Prescribed Standards * 55 45 65 55 50 40 75 70
* Ambient noise standards prescribed by CPCB.
Source : Central Pollution Control Board

made structures and to country’s ecology in

general. Health effects associated with different TABLE 11.5
types of air pollution are given in Table 11.5. Health effects associated with different
types of air pollution.
Water Pollution
Cause Effects due to prolonged exposure
26. According to an analysis of water quality
over 12 years (1986-97) by CPCB, the Lead Affects circulatory, reproductive, nervous
and renal systems; suspected of
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) values, in lowering learning ability in children;
a sample of 4500 observations, below 3mg/l hazardous even after exposure ends.
were above 60 percent during 1986 to 1991, Particulate Matter Fine particles may cause lung cancer; a
the values gradually declined down to 54 percent strong correlation exists between
suspended particulate and infant mortality
in 1994-95 but rose to 58 percent in 1997. This in urban areas.
indicates that the water quality which had gone
Carbon Monoxide Affects foetal growth in pregnant women
down during 1986-91, improved during 1991- and tissue development of young
95. Similarly, there was a gradual increase in children; impairs perception and thinking,
number of observations having BOD more than slows reflexes and causes drowsiness,
can cause unconsciousness and death.
6mg/l from 7 percent in 1989 to 16 percent in
Sulphur Dioxide Exacerbates asthma, bronchitis and
1997. However, there is no significant change in emphysema; causes coughing and
the number of observations belonging to BOD impairs lung function.
range between 3 and 6 mg/l. The water quality Toxic Substances Suspected of causing cancer,
monitoring results indicate that organic and reproductive problems and birth defects;
bacterial pollution continue to be pre-dominant benzene is a known carcinogen
source of pollution in our aquatic resources. A Source : Asia-Pacific Environmental Outlook, UNEP,
large part of municipal sewage is allowed to 1997
flow in untreated form to nearby receiving water
bodies, thereby reducing dissolved oxygen
required for supporting aquatic life, increasing
the pollution load in terms of BOD and
exponential increase in number of coliform TABLE 11.6
bacteria, an indicator of presence of disease
causing organism in water. Population Covered with Drinking Water
and Sanitation Facilities
27. The ranges of water quality parameters with Percentage Coverage
respect to organic and bacterial pollution as
Drinking Water Sanitation Facilities
observed in 1997 indicate that out of 4531
observations taken on BOD, about 65 percent Urban Rural Total Urban Rural Total
were having BOD less than 3mg/l, 21 percent 3- India 85 79 81 70 14 29
6 mg/l and 14 percent more than 6 mg/l. Among Bangladesh 99 96 97 79 44 48
most of the observations taken on BOD having China 97 56 67 74 7 24
values less than 3mg/l, Kerala stands first and Pakistan 82 69 74 77 22 47
Maharashtra tops in BOD values exceeding 6mg/ Philippines 92 80 86 88 66 77
l. The maximum number of fecal coliform bacteria Indonesia 79 54 62 73 40 51
values were found in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Sri Lanka 88 52 57 68 62 63
Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Assam. Gujarat tops in Nepal 88 60 63 58 12 18
chemical pollution followed by Maharashtra,
Source : World Resources 1998-99, p. 251, UNDP, UNEP
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and and World Bank.
Punjab.
28. The major sources of water pollution are data show that about 21 per cent of all
discharge of domestic sewage and industrial communicable diseases in India (11.5 percent
effluents which contain organic pollutants, of all diseases) are water borne diseases.
chemicals and heavy metals and run-off from Solid Wastes
land based activities such as agriculture and
mining. The major water polluting industries 31. Unregulated growth of urban areas without
include fertilizers, refineries, pulp & paper, necessary infra-structural services and proper
leather, metal plating and other chemical collection, transportation, treatment and disposal
industries. Besides, non-point sources such as of solid wastes have resulted in increased
fertilizers and pesticides run-offs in rural areas pollution and health hazard from these wastes.
are emerging as major cause of concern. Urban Municipal Wastes (MSW) is a
heterogeneous mixture of paper, plastic, cloth,
29. The rising industrial and domestic wastes metal, glass, organic matter etc. generated from
have resulted in heavy stress of pollution of households, commercial establishments and
water bodies such as lakes, rivers, coastal areas markets. Based on surveys carried out, the urban
and underground sources. A 1994 survey of MSW generated in 1997 is estimated at 48 million
groundwater quality at 138 sampling locations tonnes.
in 22 industrialized zones indicated that water
was unfit for drinking due to high bacteriological 32. Although our current per capita waste
and heavy metal contamination. As per data generation is very low as compared to advanced
generated by CPCB, mean B.O.D values have countries, the actual quantum of waste is large
shown a marginal increase in all the 28 major owing to the enormous size of our population.
rivers between 1979-91. Minimum and maximum Plastics wastes alone has increased
coliform values have shown many fold increase tremendously over the last few years. The mode
over the same period indicating severe pollution. of waste disposal predominantly remains through
land filling, which is a conventional but unhygienic
30. Facilities to treat waste water are woefully method. Alternative modes like composting and
inadequate. In class I cities, only 5 percent of other scientific approaches are sparsely used.
the total wastewater is collected of which only An inadequate collection/disposal of such wastes
25 percent is treated. More than half of the cities pollutes and degrades land and water resources,
have no sewage. Access to safe drinking water, besides being a health hazard.
thus remains an urgent need ; 85 per cent of
33. Flyash, phospho-gypsum and iron & steel
the population in the urban areas and 79 percent
slags are the main forms of industrial solid wastes
in rural areas have access to safe drinking water
generated in India. It is estimated that 35-40
(Table 11.6). The diseases commonly caused
million tonnes of flyash is generated annually by
due to contaminated water are diarrhoea,
the thermal power plants of which only 2-3
trachoma, intestinal worms, hepatitis etc. Recent
percent is currently being utilised. Besides, production of lime, recreational use and
around 5 million tonnes of hazardous wastes is ornamental trade. An area of 6700 sq. km. under
generated annually with very little infrastructure mangroves is under biotic pressure due to
for proper disposal of these wastes. fishing, land use changes in land-sea interface
and pollution of water. The country’s unique
Coastal and Marine Pollution wetlands covering an area of 1.45 million
34. The coastal areas of India, with a coast hectares are facing problems of weed infestation,
line of over 7500 km. harbour a variety of siltation, pressure of agriculture & encroachment,
specialized marine ecosystems like mangroves, chemical and organic pollution, conversion to
coral reefs, salt lakes and mud flats which mainly industrial sites, urbanisation and habitation. Out
form the habitat for endangered marine species of the 85 wetlands of international importance
and commercially important marine flora and in the country, 45 percent are subject to
fauna. These coastal areas are exposed to moderate or high threat.
environmental stress for several reasons which
36. An important impact of climate change and
include the following :
global warming may be the rise in sea level.
l Land based sources of pollution resulting The primary effect of sea level rise will be
from ship breaking, transport, tourism and increased coastal flooding, erosion, storm surges
industrial activities including oil spills, the and wave activity. Primary studies on the impact
discharge of sewage and industrial effluents of one meter sea level rise on the Indian
and a heavy load of sediments. coastline indicate that 0.41 per cent of India’s
l Prawn culture activities and aqua culture coastal area will be inundated (Table 11.7).
farms along the coastal land on the East
Coast.
l Unplanned and improper development TABLE 11.7
activities without appropriate coastal zone Land Area and Population Affected in
management plans. India by one Meter Sea Level Rise
l Shipping and sea based activities including
State % of State % of the State
oil spills, sludge disposal and mining in area inundated population affected
coastal areas.
Goa 4.84 7.25
l Offshore petroleum and gas exploration.
Tamil Nadu 0.52 2.91
35. A number of chemicals, petro chemical and Orissa 0.81 1.76
other industries in the coastal areas have West Bengal 1.88 2.35
resulted in significant discharge of industrial Andhra Pradesh 0.19 0.93
effluents into the coastal water bodies. Heavy Gujarat 0.92 1.07
Maharashtra 0.18 1.75
metal such as lead and cadmium were found in Andman & Nicobar
Thane creek of Mumbai coast. The Cochin region Islands 0.72 NA
of Kerala coast has been found affected by Karnataka 0.15 0.56
petroleum hydrocarbons. Coral reefs , which are Total 0.41 1.68
very productive marine eco-system are adversely
Source : State of Environment , 1995 , MOEF
affected by their indiscriminate exploitation for