Module 8

Formulation of Aims, Goals and Objectives

Introduction

In Module 7, you encountered several curriculum development models. You may have observed that
the character of each model influences how curriculum development activities are carried out. You may
also have observed similarities in some models and quite distinct differences.

Module 8 opens the unit on curriculum development where the four closely interconnected tasks of
formulating intent, selecting content and corresponding learning experiences and deciding on
appropriate assessment strategies are discussed.

Module 8 elaborates on the task of setting curriculum intent.

Objectives

At the end of this module, you should be able to:

Explain the importance of stating educational purposes in developing a curriculum
Distinguish between aims, goals and objectives
Discuss the considerations that bear on formulating curriculum intent
Construct a set of related aims, goals and objectives

8.1 What are Aims, Goals and Objectives?

There is usually some confusion when the terms aims, goals and objectives are discussed. One reason
for this is that they have similar definitions. Another is that one or other of the terms are interpreted
differently in other contexts, e.g. Vision, Mission and Goals. In education literature however, there is
general agreement as to how the above terms are used. It should also be clear that all three are
components of curriculum intent.

Aims

Curriculum aims are broad statements that tell why the programme of education is being offered. They
are meant to be achieved in the long-term with the support of intervening goals and objectives.
Curriculum aims could be framed in reference to a learning area or could be a general vision of the
kind of learners a school hopes to produce. Aims are expressed from the perspective of the education
system, the school or even society.

Goals

Goals are more exactly phrased statements of intent to support curriculum aims. They give a clearer
idea of the general learning to be expected but do not go to specific behavior or outcomes. Goals like
aims are also expressed from the perspective of the system providing the educational program.
Objectives

Objectives are specific statements of student behavior or learning outcomes expected at the end of a
short-term period of learning e.g. a lesson, unit or semester. Objectives are stated by teachers,
indicating what should be observed from students as a result of their learning experiences.

The diagram below illustrates the distinguishing characteristics of the three terms:

Aims Goals Objectives

General, Derived from Specific,
overarching, aims, more indicates
long-term in scope precise, overview student behavior
of general learning expected
expected

8.2 Importance of Stating Educational Objectives

Educational intent or objectives provide the reason for teaching. Why do we teach a particular concept,
skill or attitude? We do so because we believe they are necessary to our students' program of learning;
That the competencies we want them to acquire are essential to their growth as human beings in this
contemporary world.

Educational intent also provides the direction of our teaching. To what extent do we teach this
particular concept, skill or task? Do we merely introduce Grade 2 students to the mathematical concept
and skill of division or do we expect them to be able to divide three-digit numbers after a week of
lessons? Do we plan to merely talk to our students about the value of cooperation or do we plan to
deliberately provide activities that allow them to practice their cooperation skills with each other?

Expressing educational intent through stated objectives is necessary if we want teaching and learning to
have meaning and direction. If we don't have an idea of our intent, the resulting learning experience
would be just a hodgepodge of activities with no sense or coherence.

In the Philippines, partly because of the education system's adherence to the subject-centred curriculum
design, many schools are heavily dependent on textbooks as basis for instruction. Public school
textbooks officially assigned by the Department of Education have now given way to K to 12
instructional modules. Many private schools still adhere to textbooks which they independently review
and select for official use in their classrooms. In many cases, textbooks still drive what children will be
taught. This practice severely limits curriculum intent formulation. As a result, teachers and school
administrators are deprived the opportunity to envision and direct student learning. Unless teachers are
required to frame their lesson objectives independently and use alternative resources other than the
textbook, they are more likely to follow the set of objectives stated in the latter.

Ralph Tyler elaborates on the need for formulating educational purposes and the sources from which
they may be derived.
Activity 8-1
1. Read Tyler's “Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction.” Access a copy of this selection from
the course site or from URL: http://blogs.ubc.ca/ewayne/files/2009/02/tyler_001.pdf

8.3 A recommended prerequisite to formulating aims, goals and objectives

As mentioned in Module 7, several authors recommended the acquisition of significant information

prior to actual curriculum planning. Taba (1962) called for a 'diagnosis of needs,’ while Nicholls &
Nicholls (1978) and Print (1993) recommended situation analysis. Print defined situation analysis as
the “process of examining the context for which the curriculum is to be developed and the application
of that analysis to curriculum planning.” Although Skillbeck's model (1976) also advocated for
situation analysis, he did not see it as necessarily preceding other stages in the curriculum process
(Print, 1993:78).

Conducting situation analysis ensures that curriculum developers are well- informed about realities and
developments in the school's internal and/or external environments. With this crucial information, they
would be better able to plan for a current, responsive and engaging curriculum.

8.4 Framing Educational Objectives

There are important things to keep in mind when framing educational objectives. These are learning
domains, taxonomy of objectives and specificity.

Learning Domains and their Taxonomies

There are three learning domains: the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains. These domains
were identified by a committee of colleges led by Benjamin Bloom in the 1950s.

Cognitive

The cognitive domain refers to one's intellectual development and the corresponding skills that go with
it. These skills are also known as the 'knowledge' competencies.

In 1956, Benjamin Bloom devised taxonomy of educational objectives that would guide teachers in
planning instruction. It has since been used by teachers as a tool for planning classroom instruction.
Bloom's Taxonomy was later modified by a former student, Lorin Anderson. The table below shows
the 6 categories, their respective definitions and key words. They are organized from lower to higher
order thinking skills.
 Category Definition and Key Words
Knowledge Recalls from previous experience
ability to recall specific information, describe known ways of dealing with
the information, or to enunciate previously learned general principles or
theories

Identifies, names, defines, describes, lists, matches, outlines, recognises

Comprehension Understand-without necessarily relating to other aspects
ability to demonstrate one's understanding by translating or paraphrasing,
interpreting information or extrapolating from given data in order to
determine likely implications or effects

Classifies, explains, summarises, converts, predicts, distinguishes

between, extends, generalises, paraphrases, translates, transforms
Application Uses concepts and abstractions in novel situations
ability to apply abstract principles to particular and concrete situations

Demonstrates, computes, solves, modifies, arranges, operates, relates,

employs, classifies, predicts, transfers, uses, extrapolates
Analysis Breaking down into components to discover meaning
clarification of a complex situation by breaking it down into constituent
parts, identifying any relationships between the parts and identifying any
organisational structure inherent in the original situation or set of data

Differentiates, diagrams, estimates, separates, infers, orders, subdivides,

discriminates, distinguishes, identifies, deduces
Synthesis Combining elements and aspects into a whole
bringing together a number of facts or ideas to create a new pattern or
structure such as a unique communication, a proposed set of operations or a
set of abstract principles which are derived from the original data

Combines, creates, formulates, designs, composes, constructs,

rearranges, revises, compiles, summarises, generates, relates,
hypotheses
Evaluation Judging value and fitness for purpose
judgments about the value of material or methods for a given purpose

Judges, criticises, compares, justifies, concludes, discriminates,

supports, appraises, assesses, contrasts, relates
Adopted from http://www.leeds.ac.uk/tlmt/dream/webshops/mainpage.htm
Affective

The affective domain refers to one's emotional growth. The skills in this domain are known as the
'Attitude' competencies. These competencies were developed by David Krathwohl, Benjamin Bloom
and Bertram Masia. The domain has 5 categories of affective behavior from simple to complex. See the
table below.

Category Examples and Key Words

Examples: Listen to others with respect. Listen for and remember
the name of newly introduced people.
Receiving Phenomena:
Awareness, willingness to hear,
selected attention. Key Words: asks, chooses, describes, follows, gives, holds,
identifies, locates, names, points to, selects, sits, erects, replies,
uses.

Examples: Participates in class discussions. Gives a presentation.

Responding to Phenomena: Questions new ideals, concepts, models, etc. in order to fully
Active participation on the part of understand them. Know the safety rules and practices them.
the learners. Attends and reacts to
a particular phenomenon.
Learning outcomes may
emphasize compliance in Key Words: answers, assists, aids, complies, conforms, discusses,
responding, willingness to greets, helps, labels, performs, practices, presents, reads, recites,
respond, or satisfaction in reports, selects, tells, writes
responding (motivation).
Examples: Demonstrates belief in the democratic process. Is
Valuing: The worth or value a sensitive towards individual and cultural differences (value
person attaches to a particular diversity). Shows the ability to solve problems. Proposes a plan to
object, phenomenon, or behavior. social improvement and follows through with commitment.
This ranges from simple Informs management on matters that one feels strongly about.
acceptance to the more complex
state of commitment. Valuing is
based on the internalization of a
set of specified values, while
clues to these values are
expressed in the learner's overt Key Words: completes, demonstrates, differentiates, explains,
behavior and are often follows, forms, initiates, invites, joins, justifies, proposes, reads,
identifiable. reports, selects, shares, studies, works.

Organization: Organizes values Examples: Recognizes the need for balance between freedom and
into priorities by contrasting responsible behavior. Accepts responsibility for one's behavior.
different values, resolving Explains the role of systematic planning in solving problems.
conflicts between them, and Accepts professional ethical standards. Creates a life plan in
creating an unique value system. harmony with abilities, interests, and beliefs. Prioritizes time
The emphasis is on comparing, effectively to meet the needs of the organization, family, and self.
relating, and synthesizing values.
 Key Words: adheres, alters, arranges, combines, compares,
completes, defends, explains, formulates, generalizes, identifies,
integrates, modifies, orders, organizes, prepares, relates,
synthesizes.

Internalizing values Examples: Shows self-reliance when working independently.

(characterization): Has a value Cooperates in group activities (displays teamwork). Uses an
system that controls their objective approach in problem solving. Displays a professional
behavior. The behavior is commitment to ethical practice on a daily basis. Revises judgments
pervasive, consistent, predictable, and changes behavior in light of new evidence. Values people for
and most importantly, what they are, not how they look.
characteristic of the learner.
Instructional objectives are
concerned with the student's Key Words: acts, discriminates, displays, influences, listens,
general patterns of adjustment modifies, performs, practices, proposes, qualifies, questions,
(personal, social, emotional). revises, serves, solves, verifies.
Adopted from http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/bloom.html

Psychomotor

The psychomotor domain refers to one's physical or manual abilities. These abilities are also known as
the “Skills” competencies. This domain was developed by Elizabeth Simpson in 1972 and has 7 major
categories, beginning from simple to complex. It should be noted that later modifications to Simpson's
taxonomy has been proposed by other scholars.

Category Example and Key Words

Perception: The ability to use Examples: Detects non-verbal communication cues. Estimate
sensory cues to guide motor activity. where a ball will land after it is thrown and then moving to the
This ranges from sensory correct location to catch the ball. Adjusts heat of stove to correct
stimulation, through cue selection, temperature by smell and taste of food. Adjusts the height of the
to translation. forks on a forklift by comparing where the forks are in relation
to the pallet.

Key Words: chooses, describes, detects, differentiates,

distinguishes, identifies, isolates, relates, selects.

Set: Readiness to act. It includes Examples: Knows and acts upon a sequence of steps in a
mental, physical, and emotional manufacturing process. Recognize one's abilities and limitations.
sets. These three sets are Shows desire to learn a new process (motivation).
dispositions that predetermine a NOTE: This subdivision of Psychomotor is closely related with
person's response to different the “Responding to phenomena” subdivision of the Affective
situations (sometimes called domain.
mindsets).
 Key Words: begins, displays, explains, moves, proceeds, reacts,
shows, states, volunteers.

Guided Response: The early stages Examples: Performs a mathematical equation as demonstrated.
in learning a complex skill that Follows instructions to build a model. Responds hand-signals of
includes imitation and trial and instructor while learning to operate a forklift.
error. Adequacy of performance is Key Words: copies, traces, follows, react, reproduce, responds
achieved by practicing.
Mechanism: This is the Examples: Use a personal computer. Repair a leaking faucet.
intermediate stage in learning a Drive a car.
complex skill. Learned responses Key Words: assembles, calibrates, constructs, dismantles,
have become habitual and the displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures,
movements can be performed with mends, mixes, organizes, sketches.
some confidence and proficiency.
Complex Overt Response: The Examples: Maneuvers a car into a tight parallel parking spot.
skillful performance of motor acts Operates a computer quickly and accurately. Displays
that involve complex movement competence while playing the piano.
patterns. Proficiency is indicated by Key Words: assembles, builds, calibrates, constructs,
a quick, accurate, and highly dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates,
coordinated performance, requiring
measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches.
a minimum of energy. This category
includes performing without
hesitation, and automatic NOTE: The Key Words are the same as Mechanism, but will
performance. For example, players have adverbs or adjectives that indicate that the performance is
are often utter sounds of satisfaction quicker, better, more accurate, etc.
or expletives as soon as they hit a
tennis ball or throw a football,
because they can tell by the feel of
the act what the result will produce.
Adaptation: Skills are well Examples: Responds effectively to unexpected experiences.
developed and the individual can Modifies instruction to meet the needs of the learners. Perform a
modify movement patterns to fit task with a machine that it was not originally intended to do
special requirements. (machine is not damaged and there is no danger in performing
the new task).
Key Words: adapts, alters, changes, rearranges, reorganizes,
revises, varies.

Origination: Creating new Examples: Constructs a new theory. Develops a new and
movement patterns to fit a particular comprehensive training programming. Creates a new gymnastic
situation or specific problem. routine.
Learning outcomes emphasize Key Words: arranges, builds, combines, composes, constructs,
creativity based upon highly creates, designs, initiate, makes, originates.
developed skills.
Adopted from http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/bloom.html
Important to note: As a rule, teachers are not encouraged to frame objectives from within the lower-
order or simple skill set only. It is good to include learning behaviors that are found in the higher-order
or more complex skills in the spectrum. This is to challenge students to aim high in their learning and
perform according to superior benchmarks. It is also important to balance the development of cognitive
skills with psychomotor and affective skills. After all, learners don't just need to learn to think. They
should learn how to act on their thoughts, put them into positive, purposeful action. More importantly,
they need guidance and opportunities for character-building.

Other Considerations in Setting Educational Objectives

Specificity

The issue about specificity of objectives has been debated by scholars and educators alike. There are
those who believe that educational objectives have to be clearly stated to enable teachers to measure
learning outcomes realistically. Other educators aver that by making learning outcomes clear, students
are better able to understand what is expected of them and perform accordingly.

Other educators however dispute this, stating that too specific objectives constrain the learning process.
They argue that with overly detailed learning outcomes, there is little room left to expand on the
subject, explore related concepts or make way for spontaneous experiences.

In actuality, the generality or specificity of objectives would depend on the philosophical orientation of
the school and teacher. For those who prefer their objectives to be specific and easily measurable, their
objectives should use the performance, conditions and criterion formula.

Performance- tells what the student should be able to do (in either of the cognitive, affective and
psychomotor domains) e.g. perform an indigenous dance

Condition – tells the circumstances under which the performance occurs e.g. after a series of 20 dance
workshops

Criterion – the acceptable degree of performance e.g. with correct timing and moderate fluency of
movements

Specific objective: After a series of 20 dance workshops, the student should be able to perform an
indigenous dance with correct timing and moderate fluency of movements

Activity 8-2
1. Referring to the above taxonomies and their examples, practice writing 1 educational objective
from each domain.

8.5 Evaluating Behavioral Objectives

How do we know whether the educational objectives we have framed are correct and relevant? The
rubric below may be used as a guide.
Rubric for evaluating behavioral objectives

What counts? Competent work Common mistake Needs to be Missed the point
revised
Objectives are Objectives are Objectives are too Objectives are not Objectives list the
measurable measurable and general and don't measurable topics that will be
include specific include specific covered rather than
information about information on Objectives don't what the learning
what the student what the student describe what the outcomes are
will be able to do, will be able to do, student will be able
e.g. how well, how e.g. how well, how to do
many, to what many, to what
degree degree
Objectives Objectives reflect All the objectives Objectives should Objectives don't
require high high levels of require low levels include at least one use verbs to
levels of cognition cognition of cognition, such of the verbs in describe what the
according to as “demonstrates levels 3-6 of student will be able
Bloom's Taxonomy understanding,” or Bloom's taxonomy to do
“identifies.”
The learning The objectives There are too many Objectives are too Objectives don't
objectives should listed are realistic objectives difficult use verbs to
be achievable given the time and describe what the
level of the target student will be able
audience to do
Are the goals of The learning The learning The learner can't The learner doesn't
interest to the objectives are of objectives don't understand the want to complete
learner? interest to the make the intrinsic learning objectives the task in the
learner and external learning objectives
motivation clear to
the learner
Adapted from http://pixel.fhda.edu/id/Goals/goals_rubric.html

Activity 8-3

1. Analyze the rubric above. Think about this: “What other relevant points about framing
educational objectives does the rubric tell?”
8.5 Putting Theory into Action

If you are a teacher, chances are you would be facing either of these tasks before the beginning of the
academic year: to conceptualize and develop an assigned outline of themes or topics for a subject/s; or,
to prepare lesson plans for a subject/s based on a school textbook.

What is your system for developing an instructional plan? Look at the process detailed below.

1. Determine the important/key ideas of the theme/topic.

2. Decide which of the key ideas are relevant to your students.
3. Consider how little or how much your students are supposed to learn about the topic. This will
be their scope of study. As you do this, think of your students’ developmental level, background,
previous experiences, etc.
4. With the scope of study determined, think of the skills and attitudes your students should
develop as they go through this lesson.
5. Referring to the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains above, set your educational
objectives. Make sure that you include higher-order skills in your objectives.
6. Think of learning experiences that would allow your students to achieve the educational
objectives you have set. Go for experiences that would engage students of different interests,
learning styles and development levels.
7. Determine how you could best measure the achievement of the educational objectives.

The above process calls to mind the Tyler model where teachers plan for instruction using a linear
progression scheme (See Module 7).

Your school may have its own system for instructional plan development. Or in the case of Philippine
public schools, you may only be expected to come up with Lesson Logs based on set instructional
modules.

Certain textbooks set only lower-order skills in the cognitive domain as learning outcomes. Learning
activities are not designed for sufficiently engaged learning because lessons should adhere to the scope
of study and schedule of these textbooks. Otherwise, lessons would not be completely taken up by the
end of the academic year.

Are you familiar with this scenario? If you are, do you think that textbook-based lessons may be
enhanced by the above process? How so?

Recall the instructional plan development process using the backward design logic of Wiggins and
McTighe in Module 7. In the Tyler model, educational objective framing is followed by content
selection. Meanwhile in the backward design model, the identification of learning outcomes is followed
by selection of evidence that demonstrate attainment of learning outcomes, after which the appropriate
assessment methods are set.

In either of the models, you will see that teachers need to make informed and sound decisions about the
learning outcomes they would expect of their students.
Sample Educational Objectives for a Given Unit

Unit: Plants and their Uses

Level: Grade 6

For Grade 6 students, the following key ideas would be relevant:

1. Plants are of different kinds and have different properties.

2. The properties of plants will tell how they could be of use to humans and animals.
3. Plants serve as food, clean the air and balance the ecosystem.
4. Other plants have more specific purposes: provide beauty and fragrance, heal body ailments,
add flavor to food or prevent its decay, etc.

Given the above key ideas, you can have an idea of what your learning objectives could be. Consider
the sample objectives below.

Objectives
1. Explain plant properties and their usefulness.
2. Distinguish the specific purposes of some plants.
3. Conduct research on a selected plant and its uses and present your research using 2 or 3-
dimensional materials
4. Demonstrate an ability to ask, give feedback or respond to questions/remarks clearly and
courteously
5. Demonstrate an appreciation of plants and their purpose in creation.

Activity 8-4
Consider a lesson that you plan to teach. What would be its scope? What competencies could you
possibly develop in your students?

References:

Tyler, Ralph. Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction. Retrieved 18 July 2012 from
blogs.ubc.ca/ewayne/files/2002/02/tyler_001.pdf

Print, Murray (1993). Curriculum Development and Design 2 nd ed., Australia: Allen and Unwin

Aims and Objectives-Purposes. Retrieved 23 September 2012 from

http://www.leeds.ac.uk/tlmt/dream/webshops/mainpage.htm

Blooms' Taxonomy of Learning Domains. Retrieved 27 September 2012 from

http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/bloom.html

Rubric: Guidelines for Evaluating Behavioral Objectives. Retrieved 10 September 2012 from
http://pixel.fhda.edu/id/Goals/goals_rubric.html