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A Case of Teacher and Student Mathematical Problem-Solving Behaviors from

the Perspective of a Cognitive-Metacognitive Framework

Article  in  Studia paedagogica · December 2019

DOI: 10.5817/SP2019-4-10

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 Studia paedagogica
vol. 24, n. 4, 2019
www.studiapaedagogica.cz
https://doi.org/10.5817/SP2019-4-10

A CASE OF TEACHER
AND STUDENT MATHEMATICAL
PROBLEM-SOLVING BEHAVIORS
FROM THE PERSPECTIVE
OF COGNITIVE-METACOGNITIVE
FRAMEWORK

SINEM SOZEN OZDOGAN,

BILAL OZÇAKIR,
BURCU ORHAN

Abstract
This study aims to investigate the problem-solving behaviors of a teacher and his students based on a cognitive–
metacognitive framework. The problem-solving behaviors of 6–8th-grade students and a mathematics teacher
were recorded and encoded during task-based interview sessions about solving problems, and semi-structured
interviews were used to obtain information regarding the mathematics teacher’s perceptions of mathematical
problem-solving processes. They solved the problems in a learning environment, and their problem-solving
processes were investigated using the think-aloud method. The results indicated that the students and the
teacher followed a similar path involving reading, understanding, exploring, planning, and implementing.
Furthermore, not all episodes occurred in each problem-solving task and the behaviors that represented given
episodes changed according to the participants. Students with different problem-solving skill levels were found
to exhibit different frequencies of cognitive and metacognitive behaviors while solving problems. The problem-
solving behaviors of the teacher and the students revealed information related to metacognitive behaviors that
are to be developed in further studies.

Keywords
metacognitive behaviors, cognitive behaviors, mathematics education, problem-solving
222 SINEM SOZEN OZDOGAN, BILAL OZÇAKIR, BURCU ORHAN

Introduction

Learning to argue has been considered by Krummheuer (2007) a sophisticated

mathematical level that a mathematics learning environment should aim for.
This process embraces the collective activities of a specific group and the
individual contributions of that group’s members (Krummheuer, 2007).
In other words, argumentation is home to individual practices along with
social practices (Kuhn, Zillmer, Crowell, & Zavala, 2013), which reinforces
justification and actively monitoring the individual’s reasoning and others’
thinking procedures, which redirects us to problem-solving processes (Kuhn,
1991). It is also possible to say that argumentation skills and individual
problem-solving skills are transferable to one another (Cho & Jonassen, 2002).
Therefore, argumentation and problem-solving are higher-order thinking
processes that rely on some similar cognitive and metacognitive attempts
(Ku & Ho, 2010). It is possible to say that development in one of these thinking
skills may imply development in the other.
Problem-solving is at the heart of argumentation and one of the significant
topics involved in all levels of education from kindergarten to teacher
training programs. Problem-solving in mathematics curricula is frequently
associated with certain behaviors, including decision-making related to
procedural operations, mathematical reasoning, organization of knowledge,
and monitoring one’s own work (Department for Education, 2000;
Ministry of National Education, 2013; National Council of Teachers of
Mathematics [NCTM], 2000). These behaviors are called managerial
decisions or metacognitive skills that are required for problem-solving
processes (Artzt & Armour-Thomas, 1992; Flavell, 1976; Garofalo & Lester,
1985; Mayer, 1998; Schoenfeld, 1985). The influences of metacognition on
problem-solving has been signified in some studies; learners possessing
metacognitive skills performed better in skills related to problem-solving
(García, Rodríguez, González-Castro, González-Pienda, & Torrance, 2016;
NCTM, 2000; Özsoy, 2007). Mathematical problem-solving requires the
ability to select and apply appropriate cognitive strategies for the given task
to understand, represent, and solve the problem as well as self-awareness of
performance. Thus, it lies at the intersection of cognitive and metacognitive
strategies and processes and therefore depends on both cognitive and
metacognitive processes (Mayer, 1998; Montague & Applegate, 1993).
Additionally, studies have revealed a relationship between achievement in
mathematics and metacognitive skills (Özsoy, 2011; Schneider & Artelt, 2010).
International examinations also reflect this perspective; for example, the
OECD Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA, 2013)
encourages the development of metacognition skills in students through
problem-solving (Welsh Government, 2012).
A CASE OF TEACHER AND STUDENT MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM-SOLVING... 223

Metacognitive strategies may change across age, experience, and self-

perceptions of capabilities and limitations (Flavell, 1976). Going beyond
individual effort, Schoenfeld (1992) stated that mathematical thinking and
understanding were socially constructed and socially transmitted through
experiences with mathematics. Similarly, metacognition in general can be
developed employing instructional practices (Ader, 2013; Desoete, 2007;
Papaleontiou-Louca, 2003). Research has provided several metacognitive
training programs for learners to develop their metacognitive knowledge
and skills (Baten, Praet, & Desoete, 2017; Schraw, 1998). In mathematics
teacher training programs, teachers have been provided information related
to mathematical problem-solving processes, cognitive and metacognitive
knowledge, skills, and strategies in order to transfer them into their teacher
practices and so to their students. It is still a question for further research to
understand the behaviors of teachers trained in such a tradition and their
students’ problem-solving behaviors in terms of the extent to which such
skills and knowledge has been transferred from the teachers to the students.
Knowing the commonalities and differences in the problem-solving practices
of such students and teachers may provide specific information related to
the students’ performance in mathematics, as Desoete and De Craene (2019)
recommended for further study. Before describing the present research,
we will first describe problem-solving in terms of metacognition and the place
of the cognitive–metacognitive framework within metacognition studies
in detail in order to provide information about the nature of the study.
Then, we will explain the purpose of the study before presenting information
relating to the participants, data, cognitive–metacognitive framework analysis,
and results. Finally, we will discuss the results in terms of the performance
of the teacher and the students while solving tasks.

Metacognition and Problem-Solving

The concept of metacognition came to light by the end of the 1970s with
studies on the constructs of problem-solving rules, the structure of memory,
and knowledge of representations within the “architecture of cognition”
(Schoenfeld, 1992). The procedure of metacognitive thinking has become
the primary focus of many researchers (Artz & Armour-Thomas, 1992, 2001;
Flavell, 1976; Garofalo & Lester, 1985; Hartman & Sternberg, 1993). Flavell
defined metacognition as “one’s knowledge concerning one’s own cognitive
processes and products or anything related to them” (Flavell, 1976, p. 232),
and this definition became the origin of further studies about metacognition.
224 SINEM SOZEN OZDOGAN, BILAL OZÇAKIR, BURCU ORHAN

The difference between cognition and metacognition was identified as

cognition invoking a cognitive process and metacognition monitoring that
process (Flavell, 1976). In a writing process, for example, the decision to
write is deemed to be metacognitive, while the writing activity is considered
cognitive ( Jacobse & Harskamp, 2012). Garofalo and Lester (1985) stated
that “cognition is involved in doing whereas metacognition is involved in
choosing and planning what to do and monitoring what is being done”
(Garofalo & Lester, 1985, p. 164) and divided metacognition into two parts:
knowledge of cognition and regulation of cognition. Knowledge of cognition
is similar to the “metacognitive knowledge” definition from Flavell (1979)
and is formed by the influence of person (knowledge of one’s own capabilities
and limitations), task (knowledge of what makes a task more difficult or beliefs
about the nature of the task), and strategy (knowing where, when, and how
to apply it for a certain task) factors on performance. Metacognitive strategies
have been mentioned with metacognitive monitoring and control (Flavell,
1976; Özsoy, 2007; Schoenfeld, 1992), and a problem-solving task embraces
both cognitive and metacognitive processes. Monitoring the task and selecting
appropriate strategies for the task are about the process of cognition
regulation, which is another part of metacognition (Garofalo & Lester, 1985).
Any problem-solving activity may be influenced by interactions among
knowledge of task, person, and strategy, which also affects the regulation of
cognition. Those interactions result in monitoring, revising, regulating,
and evaluating possible solutions to the problem throughout the process,
which leads to successful problem-solving. The NCTM (2000) stated that
good problem solvers “...become aware of what they are doing and frequently
monitor, or self-assess, their progress or adjust their strategies as they
encounter and solve problems” (NCTM, 2000, p. 54). What makes one
monitor and adjust one’s problem-solving was called reflective skills, also known
as metacognition.
A problem represents a challenging situation for some learners if they
do not know how to solve it or do not have direct methods, procedures,
or algorithms to solve it (Blum & Niss, 1991; Schoenfeld, 1992). Problem-
solving is a goal-directed process of seeking, finding, and conducting an
appropriate method to cross the gap between a learner’s current state and
the goal state of knowledge through problem-solving stages, as described by
Polya (2004). A problem is regarded as the “difference between a goal state
and a current state” ( Jonassen, 2000, p. 65). To solve the problem, a learner
performs complex cognitive activity by engaging multiple processes, such
as cognitive, metacognitive, and self-regulatory mechanisms (García et al.,
2016). The problem solver then has to use these mechanisms to find an
appropriate solution to the problem.
A CASE OF TEACHER AND STUDENT MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM-SOLVING... 225

Problem-Solving and the Cognitive–Metacognitive Framework

Problem-solving in mathematics education is based on Polya’s (2004) four-

stage problem-solving structure. This model and other models were developed
based on Polya’s model (Artzt & Armor-Thomas, 1992; Garofalo & Lester,
1985; Mayer, 1998; Schoenfeld, 1985) and they aim to explain the problem-
solving process and reveal the cognitive and metacognitive structure during
problem-solving. In other words, they break the problem-solving process
down into pieces (Schoenfeld, 1985).
Problem-solving was investigated after Polya’s (2004) development of
problem-solving heuristics, which involved understanding, planning, carrying
out the plan, and looking back, in order to better understand the characteristics
of problem-solving (Olkin & Schoenfeld, 1994). To address this need,
Schoenfeld (1985) proposed a framework and described a problem-solving
process with reading analysis, exploration, planning or implementation, and
verification behaviors by considering managerial or metacognitive decisions
that are required for effective problem-solving ( Jonassen, 2000). Although
his framework emphasized the necessity of metacognitive decisions in the
problem-solving process, he did not specifically explain the cognitive levels
of problem-solving behaviors themselves (Schoenfeld, 1992). Garofalo and
Lester (1985) also developed a framework in order to analyze metacognitive
processes during problem-solving in mathematics. They described the
components of these processes as orientation, organization, execution,
and verification. These components resemble Schoenfeld’s framework,
but exploration was not included in Garofalo and Lester’s framework
and Garofalo and Lester (1985) did not explain in depth which specific
cognitive processes needed to be analyzed in mathematical problem-solving.
Therefore, Artzt and Armour-Thomas (1992) developed a framework that
synthesized the cognitive and metacognitive levels of problem-solving
behaviors identified by Garofalo and Lester (1985), Polya (2004), and
Schoenfeld (1985), although they include similar stages or episodes (Table 1).
It is also possible to combine these episodes and stages, as seen in a recent
study by Jacobse and Harskamp (2012). They synthesized findings by
Veenman, Kerseboom and Imthorn (2000) and Veenman, Kok and Blöte
(2005) related to metacognitive behaviors while problem-solving and
Schoenfeld’s stages (1985). Jacobse and Harskamp (2012) did not involve
cognitive behaviors in this framework.
226 SINEM SOZEN OZDOGAN, BILAL OZÇAKIR, BURCU ORHAN

Table 1
Problem-solving processes

Garofalo and Artzt and

Polya’s stages Schoenfeld’s Veenman et al.
Lester’s stages Armour-Thomas’
(2004) episodes (1985) (2000, 2005)
(1985) episodes (1992)
Understanding Read
Reading Orientation Read/
the problem Understand
analyze/
Analysis Analyze explore
Devising a plan Organization
Exploration Plan
Carrying Planning/ Explore Plan/
Execution
out the plan implementation Implement implement
Looking back Verification Verification Verify
Verify
– – – Watch and listen

Schoenfeld’s framework was used as a starting point in this cognitive–

metacognitive framework. Schoenfeld (1985) categorized problem-solving
behaviors as read, analyze, explore, plan or implement, and verify. Schoenfeld’s
problem-solving behaviors were used to categorize the behaviors of individual
students within the small group in Artzt and Armour-Thomas’ framework.
In this framework, the distinction between cognition and metacognition was
similar to Garofalo and Lester’s (1985) description that cognition was related
to doing, while metacognition was related to the action of choosing the right
strategies, planning, monitoring the entire process, and regulating actions.

Cognitive Metacognitive

Exploring Understanding
Reading Implementing
Analyzing
Verifying
Planning

Figure 1
Episodes and levels of problem-solving behaviors (Artzt & Armour-Thomas, 1992)
A CASE OF TEACHER AND STUDENT MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM-SOLVING... 227

It is not an easy task to differentiate cognitive and metacognitive behaviors,

but the distinction based on the predominant characteristics of behaviors
made by Artzt and Armour-Thomas (1992) is helpful in identifying behaviors.
Metacognitive behaviors could be differentiated and observed based on the
solver’s statements about the process of problem-solving, whereas cognitive
behaviors could be observed in the verbal or nonverbal actions of the solver.
Artzt and Armour- Thomas (1992) assigned the episodes to different levels,
as displayed in Figure 1.
Artzt and Armour-Thomas’ framework (1992) emphasized that an action
by the problem-solver can represent both cognitive and metacognitive
behaviors, but one may be more predominant than the other. Based on this
issue, exploring, implementing, and analyzing may represent cognitive and
metacognitive behaviors according to the problem-solver’s behavior. The
authors emphasized that cognitive behaviors are the actual process itself.
While reading, the solver can conduct other stages, such as understanding
the problem by underlining the relevant components of the problem and
taking notes that are predominantly metacognitive in nature. Artzt and
Armour-Thomas (1992) provided an outline for the descriptions of each
behavior, as seen in Table 2. This framework is still being used to analyze
problem-solving behaviors (see Erbas & Okur, 2012).

Table 2
Description of cognitive and metacognitive behaviors by a problem solver

Description of cognitive Description of metacognitive

Stages
behavior behavior
Reading Just reads the problem –
Uses domain-specific knowledge
including recognition of the linguistic,
semantic, and schematic attributes of
Understanding –
the problem in his or her own words
and represents the problem in a different
form.
Decomposes the problem into its basic
Analyzing elements and examines the implicit or
–
the problem explicit relations between the givens
and the goals of the problem.
Selects steps for solving the problem and
a strategy for combining them that might
Planning –
potentially lead to the problem solution
if implemented.
228 SINEM SOZEN OZDOGAN, BILAL OZÇAKIR, BURCU ORHAN

Executes a trial-and-error Monitors the progress of attempted

strategy in an attempt to reduce actions thus far and decides whether to
Exploring
the discrepancy between the finish or continue working through the
givens and the goals. operation.
Executes a strategy that grows Conducts a similar metacognitive
out of his or her understanding, exploring process but considering time
Implementing
analysis, and/or planning and efficiency issues based on previous
decisions and judgments. experiences.
Evaluates the problem solution by
scanning through all the stages and
Evaluates the outcome of the
judging whether the outcome reflected
Verifying work by checking
adequate problem understanding,
computational operations.
analysis, planning, and/or
implementation.

Source: Artzt & Armour-Thomas (1992, p. 172–175)

Problem Statement and Research Questions

In line with the review by Desoete and De Crane (2019), there is a relationship
between metacognition and mathematical performance and good problem
solvers are expected to use metacognitive knowledge, skills, and strategies in
an effective way ( Jonassen, 2000; Schoenfeld, 1992). Students’ mathematical
performance can be improved by developing metacognition using strategies
that target individual users and approaches that draw on teachers’ impetus
(see Baten et al., 2017; Curwen, Miller, White-Smith, & Calfee, 2010; Desoete,
2007; Özsoy, 2007; Pugalee, 2004). Preservice mathematics teacher training
programs offer knowledge and skills for problem-solving and its components
as an independent course or part of a pedagogical content course for teacher
candidates hoping to develop their future students’ problem-solving skills.
Teachers who have taken part in such training can be assumed to transfer
some of their problem-solving behaviors to their students. Similarly, the
literature has suggested that not only mathematical achievement, but also
other individual issues such as motivation might be involved in the problem-
solving process (Desoete & De Crane, 2019; Jonassen, 2000; Mayer, 1998).
Therefore, it may be important to study different groups of students.
Through this case study, we hope to shed light on the issue of teacher and
student problem-solving behaviors in a classroom where the teacher had
metacognitive knowledge related to problem-solving heuristics. Therefore,
the present study aimed to investigate the problem-solving behaviors of
a teacher and his students within mathematical problem-solving cases by
determining the contribution of the teacher’s practices to the promotion
A CASE OF TEACHER AND STUDENT MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM-SOLVING... 229

of the students’ thinking skills and metacognitive functioning in problem-

solving situations in accord with the systematic framework developed by
Artzt and Armour-Thomas (1992). The research questions are as follows:

R1. What are the similarities and differences between the cognitive and
metacognitive problem-solving behaviors of the different student groups?
– What are the similarities and differences between the cognitive and
metacognitive problem-solving behaviors of the teacher-selected group
and the mathematical achievement group?
– What are the similarities and differences between the cognitive and
metacognitive problem-solving behaviors of the different student levels?

R2. What are the similarities and differences between the cognitive and
metacognitive problem-solving behaviors of the teacher and the students?

Method

Participants
Compulsory education in the Turkish education system starts at 1st grade
(age 6) and ends with 8th grade (age 14) and is divided into two levels: primary
(1st–4th grade) and middle school (5th–8th grade). Pupils in each level have
five hours of mathematics per week. Elementary mathematics teachers are
responsible for the middle-school level. There are more public schools than
private schools in Turkey. The classrooms are heterogeneous in regard to
students’ cognitive, affective, and motor skills.
The teacher was selected from among graduate students who had graduated
from elementary mathematics education, attended a graduate course related
to advance problem-solving, and worked for at least five years as an in-service
teacher. He knew the problem-solving process and self-reported that he
was using this problem-solving process while solving problems, which
might influence the cognitive and metacognitive behavior of the students.
The students were purposefully selected from the 8th-grade (13–14-year-olds).
The teacher had been teaching these students for three years (six semesters),
which is the maximum amount of time that a teacher spends with a given
group of students at the middle-school level. Therefore, it was assumed that
the students had benefited from having the highest problem-solving practices
with the same teacher for three years.
Based on these criteria, we reached out to one teacher and he voluntarily
participated in the study. We selected 6 of the teacher’s 38 8th-grade students.
These students were selected based on the criteria given in Table 3.
230 SINEM SOZEN OZDOGAN, BILAL OZÇAKIR, BURCU ORHAN

Table 3
Student selection criteria

Name of the group Criteria

Poor (P1) MATCH – Selected based on results from the national
(mathematical mathematics examination
achievement group) – Lowest performing student in the ranking (38/38)
Average (A1) MATCH – Selected based on results from the national
mathematics examination
– Average performing student (19/38)
Successful (S1) MATCH – Selected based on results from the national
mathematics examination
– Highest performing student (1/38)
Poor (P2) TEACH – Selected by the teacher
(teacher-selected – Reported as an unsuccessful problem solver
group) – Reported as having the lowest math exam scores
– Reported as poorest attitude toward mathematics
Average (A2) TEACH – Selected by the teacher
– Reported as having a moderate ability to solve
mathematical problems
– Reported as seeking alternate ways to solve
problems but as easily distracted
– Reported as having some family and friendship
issues as a handicap
Successful (S2) TEACH – Selected by the teacher
– Reported as being a problem solver in a short time
– Reported as seeking alternate ways to solve problems
– Reported as being eager to solve problems
– Reported as being a student at the top of the rankings
and having the highest scores on the midterms

In order to achieve maximum variation in the data and investigate the first
research question, students were selected based on two criteria. For the first
criterion, three of the six students were selected by the teacher according to
his understanding of a successful, an average, and a poor student at problem-
solving (the teacher-selected group; TEACH). This criterion was the result
of consideration related to critics of standardized tests, who discuss whether
standardized tests measure problem-solving skills (Latterell, 2003).
Furthermore, some studies have considered teachers’ judgments as trustworthy
in assessing student achievement (Desoete, 2007). Therefore, we used the
teacher’s experience with the students related to their problem-solving to
gather varied data. The teacher described his reasons for defining the levels
A CASE OF TEACHER AND STUDENT MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM-SOLVING... 231

and characteristics of students in the TEACH group as including that the

inability to solve mathematical problems might be related to a poor level of
problem-solving due to study habits, achievement level, previous educational
experiences, and negative attitudes toward mathematics/problem-solving,
as described in Table 3 in detail. According to the teacher, the student with
a moderate ability to solve mathematical problems was talented and could
find a few alternative ways of solving problems. The successful problem solver
had the highest scores on both the national examination and examinations
conducted by the teacher, responded first when the teacher asked a question
in the classroom, and was able to find alternative methods to solve problems.
The teacher believed that standardized examinations may repress students’
problem-solving skills due to the overall time limitation on the exam,
and he selected the students based on their skills using the problem-solving
heuristics developed by Polya (2004). For the second criterion, the other three
students were determined by the researchers based on their academic
achievement on the national examination (the mathematical achievement
group; MATCH). For the MATCH group, the successful student was at
the top of the rankings, the average in the middle, and the poor at the bottom.
In contrast, the selection of the TEACH group was determined by the teacher.
Each group included students at successful, average, and poor levels to
represent a heterogenous classroom in terms of problem-solving behaviors.

Data-Gathering Methods and Procedure

Within the process, the mathematics teacher and his six students were
asked to solve one problem for practice and then three problems for analysis.
The problems were selected from mathematics items in PISA tests (PISA,
2013) to evaluate problem-solving and thinking skills as PISA tests encourage
the development of metacognitive skills through problem-solving (Welsh
Government, 2012). Tasks in the PISA test correspond to the level of students
from 7th grade to 11th grade, and the problems for this study were selected
based on the required knowledge for 8th grade.
The problems were non-routine problems from different domains that
assumed students could use different mathematical concepts: numbers,
proportions, data. While solving the problems, they were asked to express
all of the steps and strategies in their minds in order to apply a think-aloud
process. Thinking aloud is one data-gathering method to understand cognitive
and metacognitive processes while solving problems (Baten et al., 2017).
There was no intervention while the problems were being solved except asking
them to “be louder” or “keep going” to maintain the think-aloud process.
Since thinking aloud requires practice, the teacher and the students were first
provided a warm-up problem. Video and audio recordings were used to
provide a permanent record for the coding of the problem-solving behaviors
232 SINEM SOZEN OZDOGAN, BILAL OZÇAKIR, BURCU ORHAN

of the students and teacher. There was no time limitation for solving the
tasks. Students could keep working until they were satisfied with their answers.
Therefore, the tasks lasted between 5 and 30 minutes.
A semi-structured interview was used to obtain information regarding
the mathematics teacher’s perceptions of mathematical problem-solving
processes; his previous experiences with mathematical problem-solving at
university, high school, secondary school, and elementary school; the methods
he uses; the types of problems he solves; and the criteria he used in selecting
the students according to their mathematical problem-solving abilities and
to produce some memos related to his problem-solving background. In the
interview, the teacher was also asked to share his understanding of a successful
problem solver and how he selected the students. This interview was required
to select the teacher.

Data Analysis
Video and audio records of the students’ work and teacher interviews were
made. Before coding, a brief description of the students’ behaviors was created
(see Table 5). While analyzing the data, these transcriptions were encoded
based on the cognitive and metacognitive framework of Artzt and Armour-
Thomas (1992). They explicated each episode with examples in their study.
These examples and definitions for each episode were considered in the
analysis and encoding of the transcripts. The framework was adapted to the
individual problem-solving process for this study. Watch-and-listen episodes
were not evaluated because students worked on their problems individually.
Table 4 breifly presents the episodes, cognitive levels, and codes. In the analysis
of the task transcriptions, episodes were identified first and their codes were
matched, as described briefly in Table 4. Based on the results of the matching,
the cognitive level of the episodes was identified. Abbreviations for the
cognitive levels were defined by the researchers with a capital letter representing
the episode and a lowercase letter the cognitive level, such as Rc for reading
(R) as a cognitive behavior (c).
A CASE OF TEACHER AND STUDENT MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM-SOLVING... 233

Table 4
Sample codes used for data analysis for the cognitive and metacognitive framework

Episode Cognitive level Codes

& abbreviations
Read Cognitive (Rc) Reading, partial reading, rereading
Understand Metacognitive (Um) Paraphrasing, highlighting
Analyze Metacognitive (A m) Clarifying, visualizing,
Explore Cognitive (Ec) Drawing, demonstrating, selecting information
Drawing, demonstrating or selecting information
Metacognitive (Em)
with self-monitoring, self-instruction
Plan Metacognitive (Pm) Making plans, selecting strategy
Implement Cognitive (Ic) Computing, Estimating
Computing or estimating with self-correction,
Metacognitive (Im)
self-monitoring
Verify Cognitive (Vc) Checking, evaluating, confirming
Checking, evaluating or confirming with self-
Metacognitive (Vm)
evaluation, self-explaining
Watch and listen Not assigned (Not applicable to the current study)

The researchers worked on solving the problems, and they coded the heuristic
episode and cognitive level representing the observed behavior of the
participants. The warm-up problem was not evaluated. The coded behaviors
were added and can be found as episodes in the Results section.
Table 5
234

Brief description of the students’ problem-solving behaviors

MATCH TEACH
Successful (S1) Average (A1) Poor (P1) Successful (S2) Average (A2) Poor (P2)
Question 1 Read the problem,
Read the
(charts): Read the problem Read the problem investigated the Read the problem Read the problem
problem, no
Interpret a bar aloud aloud graph, no further aloud aloud
further step
chart and step
estimate the Reread the problem
number of CDs Decided
Found the group and marked the given Found the group
sold in the future to investigate
in the graph months Spinach in the table
assuming the the graph first
(February and June)
linear trend will Found the Kicking Showed the
continue (data Decided to determine Saw there was a
Kangaroos on the graph decrease in the
and uncertainty) what is asked for decrease between
(chose an incorrect bar, sales and compared
(average) months
the light gray one) other groups
Saw the increase month Estimated the
Estimated the numbers Decided the
over month and decrease in July
that matched to the number of the
estimated this increase as approximately
sales of CDs by the decrease was 250
as 200 by calculating 500 by looking
Kicking Kangaroos and said at last 250
700 − 500 = 200 at the graph
Reread the problem
Summed the total CD statement (emphasizing
sales over 6 months the decrease) and said,
SINEM SOZEN OZDOGAN, BILAL OZÇAKIR, BURCU ORHAN

“But it increases”
Divided the result by Concluded the answer
6 to find the average was 1,100
Concluded the answer
was 1,325
A CASE OF TEACHER AND STUDENT MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM-SOLVING... 235

Results

The results are presented according to the research questions, with the
differences and similarities between the two student groups discussed first
in terms of their cognitive and metacognitive behaviors, and the similarities
and differences between the teacher and the students discussed as the next
research question.
R1: The Students’ Problem-Solving Behaviors
The students’ problem-solving behaviors varied between cognitive and
metacognitive steps. There were two distinct groups in the study. The
frequency of their coded behaviors revealed some trends. The successful
student in the TEACH group had 55% cognitive and 45% metacognitive
behavior, while the successful student in the MATCH group had 62%
cognitive and 38% metacognitive behavior. There was no difference between
the metacognitive behaviors of the successful students in two groups, but
they had different cognitive behaviors in terms of frequency. The frequency
of metacognitive behavior for the average student in the TEACH group
was 30% and for the average student in the MATCH group it was 14%.
The average student in the TEACH group showed fewer metacognitive
understanding behaviors, while the average student in the MATCH group
showed some behaviors related to taking notes, underlining the values given
in the problem. The poor students did not display any metacognitive behaviors
and only read the given problem in a period of time they decided. The
successful students showed most metacognitive behaviors in their groups.
All of the students started solving the problems by reading. In both groups,
the students with poor problem-solving skills utilized as solving processes
just reading and rereading and did not pass beyond reading the problem.
Although it was beyond the scope of this study, the students were observed
to have problems in reading. They tended to repeat written words and did
not make any inference from the problem statements. These students did
not elaborate on problems, but just read and did not interact with the
information given within the problem context. Within the context of this
study, the poor students did not underline the problem, did not rephrase the
given problem, did not show any understanding stage of the problem.
Therefore, they exhibited only reading as a cognitive behavior. On the other
hand, the average and successful students in both groups were engaged
with the problem, showed signs of understanding the problem, and finished
the tasks with both cognitive and metacognitive behaviors (Table 6). The
average problem solver in the TEACH group was relatively successful and
exhibited more self-adjustment and monitoring episodes than his counterpart
236 SINEM SOZEN OZDOGAN, BILAL OZÇAKIR, BURCU ORHAN

in the MATCH group. Moreover, the successful problem solvers in both groups
demonstrated and successfully applied nearly every step in the problem-solving
framework.

Table 6
The teacher and the students’ problem-solving episodes
Problem 1 Problem 2 Problem 3
Successful Rc Um Rc Um Ic Rc Em Um Ic Rc Um
MATCH Average Rc Um Ec Ic Rc E c Rc Um Em Ic
Poor Rc Rc Rc

Successful Rc Um Ic Rc Um Pm Ic Rc Um Ic Rc Um Vc
TEACH Average Rc Um Ic Rc E c Rc Ic
Poor Rc Rc Rc
Teacher Rc Um Pm Ic Rc Um Pm Im Rc Um Rc Um Pm Im

The students read the problems, which was a cognitive behavior. Observed
reading behaviors involved looking at the diagrams and pictures in the
problem. The successful students returned to reading when they got stuck
solving the problem. However, the average students stayed engaged in the
last episodes they were in to come up with a result. Students in both groups
displayed understanding metacognitive behavior such as paraphrasing the
problems; underlining significant information in the problems; taking notes
on this information; using the information given; showing the information
on the table, graph, or picture; and clarifying the meaning of the problem.
The students explored the problem using trial and error (cognitive) and
implemented a strategy as they explored (cognitive). The students executed
a strategy that grew out of their understanding and/or planned their decisions.
Some of the students skipped planning and so implementation and were thus
unsuccessful problem solvers since they read the problem aloud and
investigated the figures and graphs, but showed no further step. They tended
to conclude the solving process and write an answer without giving reasons
after reading the problem aloud. Exploration (cognitive) was the behavior
displayed when they did not understand the problem. “What if I did it like
this?” was the characteristic differentiation between metacognitive exploration
and cognitive exploration. If they found enough evidence (showing numbers
or diagrams or drawing diagrams) that they understood the problem,
they jumped into the implementation (cognitive) by calculating the numbers
and finished the problem-solving when they found a result.
A CASE OF TEACHER AND STUDENT MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM-SOLVING... 237

While solving the problem, the students in neither group performed

metacognitive planning or verification, which is both cognitive and
metacognitive. When they found a result for the problem, they, in general,
did not display a verification (cognitive or metacognitive) behavior. Likewise,
the students did not come up with a plan after exploration in order to solve
the problem correctly and efficiently.
All in all, the students in the TEACH (25% total metacognitive behavior)
and MATCH (26% total metacognitive behavior) groups presented nearly
the same proportions of cognitive and metacognitive behaviors. The successful,
average, and poor problem solvers in the two groups demonstrated similar
cognitive and metacognitive behaviors.

The Teacher’s Problem-Solving Behaviors

Before exploring the differences and similarities between the teacher and the
students’ behaviors, it will be helpful to investigate the teacher’s problem-
solving behaviors. It was seen that the teacher tended to first read all of the
problems aloud word by word. This behavior could be classified as cognitive
since he just read the entire problem statement without interrupting the
process. Next, he tried to show or signify the given information in the problem
statement on a table, graph, or list in order to clarify the meaning of the
problem by highlighting statements and recognizing domain-specific
knowledge. This behavior could be stated as metacognitive understanding
of the problems using the given information since he tried to explain the
problem statements to himself in his own words and demonstrations. Then,
he constructed plans for solving the problems using his demonstrations for
the problems, which displayed understanding episodes. Therefore, this
behavior was also metacognitive. Last, he implemented the plans by monitoring
his progress through asking questions such as “…where does this attempt
take me?”. The teacher’s implementation episodes involved both cognitive
and metacognitive behaviors. He implemented his plans systematically while
monitoring his solving processes and regulating the plan when needed for
two problems and implemented his plans without monitoring his work and
solution process for one problem. Table 6 presents sample problem-solving
behaviors by the teacher for one problem.
238 SINEM SOZEN OZDOGAN, BILAL OZÇAKIR, BURCU ORHAN

Table 6
An example of the teacher’s behaviors for understanding, planning, and implementing.

Episode Coding Behavior

Soo, The distance between M and there… (shows the

Understanding
distance by drawing an arrow). If the river bed is there….
the problem Um
If M is there… It (the problem) asks how many meters it
(metacognitive)
is (shows the area in the picture that the problem is asking about).

Planning the problem Now, to find the result, it was given as 10 meters.
Pm
(metacognitive) We need to find the distance between M and P.

What is there between M and P? Now, since point M

is the center of the Ferris wheel ,what does that tell us?
(shows the radius of the Ferris wheel in the problem) What is
the radius? We already know the radius is half of the
Implementing
Im diameter. Ahh... the problem gave us the diameter
(metacognitive)
and we need to find radius. 140 divided by 2, we get 70
meters (calculates on paper). Now, if r is 70 meters, there is
10 meters in here (shows the distance between point M and the
bottom of the river bed). 70 plus 10, the result is 80 meters.

In the interview, he defined his problem-solving process which he applies in

class as follows:

I read the problem to students as quickly as possible since our time is

generally limited, and I ask what we have and what we need to find.
Then, I ask what we can do, and it actually forms our plan. After that,
we discuss some plans and we employ one of the plans and check
whether our result is true. In this process, I try to allow the students
to explore the situation with individual-work or group-work.

Generally, his problem-solving process is similar to Polya’s (2004) problem-

solving steps except for one difference. He stated that he always tries to find
some different situations or a different solving process while solving problems.
Therefore, according to his solving process, he applied an extension phase at
the end of the process.

R2: The Teacher’s and the Students’ Problem-Solving Behaviors

Each student showed different episodes for each problem. Although there
may have been behaviors that were coded the same, they represented
individual-dependent distinct behaviors. Analysis of the transcriptions
indicated that students with different problem-solving skill levels exhibited
different frequencies of cognitive and metacognitive behaviors with the PISA
A CASE OF TEACHER AND STUDENT MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM-SOLVING... 239

problems. Students who were selected as successful problem-solvers had more

frequent metacognitive behaviors compared to their groups. The frequency
and episodes of metacognitive behaviors were found to be similar for the
same level in two groups. The number of metacognitive behaviors decreased
in terms of the levels within the groups. The most common cognitive behavior,
which was observed in both the teacher and the students, was reading the
problem. The teacher also tended to reread the problem as the successful
students did to go on to a further step. The most common metacognitive
behaviors, which were observed in both the teacher and the successful
problem-solvers, involved understanding the problem (clarifying the meaning
of the problem, recognizing domain-specific knowledge, identifying data on
the graph).
While solving the problems, the teacher explored, consistently planned,
and implemented metacognitively. That is, while exploring he explained his
actions and monitored his progress; he planned what to do next to reach
a result. Such consistency across each task was not observed in the students’
episodes. Verifying and planning episodes were not observed in the students
in either group. Although planning was seen in the teacher’s think-aloud
process, it was not traced in the students’ episodes, which means the students’
problem-solving did not reflect their teacher’s solution.

Discussion and Implications

The results indicated that the students and the teacher followed a path
involving reading, understanding, exploring, planning, and implementing,
which was consistent with the literature (Artzt and Armour-Thomas, 1992;
Erbas & Okur, 2012; Kuzle, 2013). Furthermore, not all episodes occurred
in each problem-solving task and the behaviors that represented the episodes
changed according to the participants. It is not new to say that problem-solving
episodes are task- and individual-dependent (Erbas & Okur, 2012; Kuzle,
2013).
Just as Schoenfeld (1981) claimed that, in contrast to average problem-
solvers, whose sequence of heuristics was only reading and exploring, expert
problem solvers return several times to different heuristic steps, the average
participants in this study also displayed this kind of behavior. Each participant
started to solve the problem by reading as a habit, but rereading emerged
in this study based on a specific focus on solving the problem such as to
clarify what was given or to see the problem statement, which might mean
self-evaluating understanding. Although Artzt and Armour-Thomas (1992)
considered reading as a cognitive process, there should be a differentiation
between reading and rereading in terms of cognitive levels.
240 SINEM SOZEN OZDOGAN, BILAL OZÇAKIR, BURCU ORHAN

Verification is another concern to be discussed for this study. As we reported,

neither the teacher nor the students displayed verification, in other words,
looking back (Polya, 2004). Verification is an episode for not only checking
the answer but also improving the problem-solving experience, which means
encouragement to find other solution strategies (Polya, 2004) Verification
being absent from the episodes is not a new result for this study (Erbas &
Okur, 2012; Kuzle, 2013). Cai and Brook (2006) explained this issue as
learners’ hastiness to finish the problem by reaching the result. This might
be the case for the students, but the teacher being a participant knowledgeable
about the problem-solving process might suggest other issues relating to teacher
education. According to Curwen et al. (2010), teachers’ metacognition about
their practice leads upper elementary grade students to higher learning goals
by developing the students’ metacognition and reflection about their thinking,
exploration of ways of solving and deep understanding in content domains,
and integration of literacy in content areas. Such training increased the
performance of students in mathematical problem-solving and this training
had a sustained effect on mathematical problem-solving. However, training
of metacognitive skills must be done explicitly by teachers (Desoete, 2007).
Previous studies have already revealed that there is a relationship between
mathematical performance and metacognitive behaviors (Özsoy, 2011;
Schneider & Artelt, 2010). Here, the successful problem solvers showed more
metacognitive behaviors than other participants in their groups. Their
selection criteria were a national examination and teacher observation.
Based on the episodes in the behaviors of the students at the same levels in
the two groups, it can be concluded that they were similar. National
examinations and achievement in mathematics have been used as a selection
criterion for participants in metacognition studies (Erbas & Okur, 2012).
It might be worth further discussion to consult a teacher’s observations about
the metacognitive behaviors of his/her students.
There were also differences in the metacognitive behaviors that the teacher
displayed but the students did not, such as planning. The role of the teacher
is to be emphasized in terms of the metacognitive aspect of problem-solving.
Some experimental studies have found significant changes in students’
problem-solving tasks in terms of metacognitive behaviors after according
instruction from teachers (Curwen, et al., 2010; Desoete, 2007). For example,
Desoete (2007) found in her study that metacognitive skills were trainable
and students were able to learn to adapt a more orienting and self-judging
learning approach after brief metacognition training. However, studies have
not revealed more detail about the development of poor students’ problem-
solving behaviors. They need help to go beyond reading the problems.
The role of the teacher for different levels of problem solvers could be
identified and further studies should be conducted.
A CASE OF TEACHER AND STUDENT MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM-SOLVING... 241

Limitations and Recommendations

This study was limited to seven participants with six students and a mathematics
teacher from the 8th grade. Therefore, it constitutes a pilot study for further
studies that will consider teacher–student interactions in terms of cognitive
and metacognitive behaviors. Similar studies may be conducted with other
education levels and their results may be compared and contrasted to
strengthen or refute the argumentation provided in this study. Another
limitation was that this study relied on self-reporting by the teacher and a
non-routine problem-solving process by the students. There was no classroom
observation and the selection of the TEACH group relied on the teacher’s
definition of successful, average, and poor students.

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Corresponding authors
Sinem Sozen-Ozdoğan
Department of Elementary Education, Faculty of Education, TED University, Ankara, Turkey
Email: [email protected]

Bilal Ozçakır
Department of Mathematics Education, Faculty of Education, Alanya Alaaddin Keykubat
University, Antalya, Turkey
E-mail: [email protected]

Burcu Orhan
Center for Evaluation, Selection and Placement, Ankara, Turkey
E-mail: [email protected]

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