Writ i n g

Literacy
In the past, people tended to view someone as literate if they could manipulate '... a set
of discrete, value-free technical skills which included decoding and encoding meanings,
manipulating writing tools, perceiving shape-sound correspondences, etc. which are acquired
through formal education' (Hyland 2002: 53). However, as Ken Hyland points out, this view
has changed radically in the last few years so that now literacy is seen as significantly more
complex, located as it is in social contexts. We judge people as literate, in other words, if they
can read and write in certain situations and for certain purposes, some of which are more
prestigious than others. It is certainly true that to be deprived of the opportunity to write is 'to
be excluded from a wide range of social roles, which the majority of people in industrialised
societies associate with power and prestige' (Tribble 1996:12). However, in different domains
of life there are different literacies, and it is the exact nature of these which seems to matter.
Filling in a form certainly suggests literacy at one level, but if the same person is incapable
of putting together an appropriate letter of application, then they are demonstrating a lesser
standard of literacy than someone who can not only write a letter of application, but also
construct a short story or write a complex report. In the Christian world of the middle ages,
sacred texts were only written in Latin and were only available to people with prestige and,
therefore, a prestigious kind of literacy. Not that much has changed, perhaps, since in world
terms we might well say that, for example, being able to use information technology successfully
is a mark of a kind of literacy still denied to the majority of the world's population.
As we shall see below, the concept of genre is highly bound up with literacy of this kind, in
that different written genres perform purposes for specific discourse communities. In foreign-
language teaching, therefore, we need to decide what kind of writing we expect from students,
and, therefore, what kind of literacies we are asking from them. This is especially important
when students are studying English for academic purposes (EAP); the actual discipline and
the level they are studying for will determine how 'literate' they should be.
(
In this chapter we will concentrate first on the nuts and bolts' aspects of literacy, before
discussing issues to do with the writing process and genre.
•* i - - ^ ^ " ^

•/••

Handwriting
It may seem strange to worry about handwriting when so much communication takes place
electronically, in emails or by using word processing software. Yet there are still many occasions,
even for the most computer-literate, when we have to write by hand. Many language exams
are still taken by candidates using pens and pencils, and we generally write notes, postcards,
memos, journals, etc. in handwriting.
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Many students whose native-language orthography is very different from English have
difficulty forming English letters and may have to be taught exactly how it is done. This may
involve showing them which direction the writing strokes go in. For example, the following
worksheet (designed for children learning to write the letter V) shows writers where to start
(at the star) and how the strokes go. Gradually the written b becomes fainter and fainter until
the students are, in effect, writing it on their own.
The 'b' will disappear. Try to trace it. Start at the ^ r

b
*

Later on, we can get students to write words and sentences, showing them, with the help of
solid and dotted lines (and little diamonds) how tall letters should be and where the round
part of the bfinishes,etc.

Handwriting is a personal issue. Students should not all be expected to use exactly the same
style, despite copying exercises like the one above. Nevertheless, badly-formed letters may
influence the reader against the writer, something which is undesirable whether the work is
the product of some creative task or, more seriously, work that is going to be assessed in a test
or exam. We should encourage students with problematic handwriting to improve.

Spelling
Although incorrect spelling does not often prevent the understanding of a written message,
it can adversely affect the reader's judgement. All too often, bad spelling is perceived as a lack
of education or care. This is not necessarily the case in emails, and SMS text messages have
spellings and 'words' all of their own. Nevertheless, as we saw on page 24, whereas it is perfectly
acceptable in some emails to have spelling which is inexact, in other situations it is not.
One of the reasons that spelling is difficult for students of English is that the correspondence
between the sound of a word and the way it is spelt is not always obvious (see Chapter 2, F4)«
A single sound (or more correctly, a single phoneme) may have many different spellings (paw,
poor, pore, pour, daughter, Sean), and the same spelling may have many different sounds (or,
word, information, worry, correspond). When students work on different phonemes, we need
to draw their attention to the common spellings of those phonemes. We should also get them
to look at different ways of pronouncing the same letters (or combinations of letters) or have
them do exercises to discover spelling rules. When students come across new words, we can
ask them what other words they know with the same kinds of spelling or sounds. When they
listen to recordings, they can study transcripts and/or copy down sections of the recording.
 WRITING

An issue that makes spelling difficult for some students is the fact that not all varieties of
English spell the same words in the same way. Which is correct: color or colour, theater or
theatre? How do we decide between the use of s and z in words like apologise and customize*
The former, in each case, are British spellings, and the latter are North American (though in
Canada both spellings of colour and theatre, for example, are used).
To help make things clear, we should get our students to focus on a particular variety of
English (British or American English, for example) as a spelling model for them to aspire to.
But we should also make them aware of other spelling varieties, drawing their attention to
dictionary entries which show such differences.
One of the best ways to help students improve their spelling is through reading, especially
extensively (see Chapter 17, Ai). We can also draw their attention to spelling problems and
explain why they occur. Copying from written models is one way to do this; when students
see and reflect on their copying mistakes, their spelling 'consciousness' is raised (Porte 1995).

I Layout and punctuation

Different writing communities (both between and within cultures) obey different punctuation
and layout conventions in communications such as letters, reports and publicity materials.
These are frequently non-transferable from one community or language to another. Such
differences are easily seen in the different punctuation conventions for the quotation of direct
speech which different languages use, or the way in which many writers use commas instead
of or as much as full stops, although comma overuse is frowned on by many English-language
writers and editors. Some punctuation conventions, such as the capitalisation of names,
months and the pronoun I, are specific to only one or a few languages. Though punctuation
is frequently a matter of personal style, violation of well-established customs makes a piece of
writing look awkward to many readers.
Different genres of writing are laid out differendy; business and personal letters are different
from each other and emails have conventions all of their own. Newspaper articles are laid out in
quite specific ways, and certain kinds of 'small ads' in magazines follow conventional formats.
To be successful as writers in our own or another language, we need to be aware of these layouts
and use or modify them when appropriate to get our message across as clearly as we can.
A?**'

Approaches to student writing

There are a number of different approaches to the practice of writing skills both in and outside
the classroom. We need to choose between them, deciding whether we want studentstofocus
more on the process of writing than its product, whether we want them to study different
written genres, and whether we want to encourage creative writing - either indmdually or
cooperatively. We will want to build the 'writing habit'.

Process and product .. tU

k the teaching6 of writing we can either focus on the product of that wntmg or on the wntmg
WHU115 wv interested m the aim of a task
Process itself. When concentrating on the product, we are only * « * »
- - «he end product. As we - - Mow. - " * ^ c l ^ o n £
»mmon with a product approach to wrmng, £ « • * £ £ £ process of writing fctf).
the end-product as the main thing to be focused on (rather man u y s
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CHAPTER 19

Many educators, however, advocate a process approach to writing. This pays attention to
the various stages that any piece of writing goes through. By spending time with learners on
pre-writing phases, editing, re-drafting and finally producing a finished version of their work,
a process approach aims to get to the heart of the various skills that most writers employ
- and which are, therefore, worth replicating when writing in a foreign language. Indeed, it
might be possible to argue that editing and re-drafting are even more important when we are
writing in a foreign language than when we are writing in our first language.
In its simplest form, a process approach asks students to consider the procedure of putting
together a good piece of work. We might, for example, discuss the concept of first and final
drafts with our students and then ask them to say whether the activities listed here take place
at first or final stages, and to put them in the best order.
In reality, the writing process
a check language use (grammar, vocabulary, linkers)
is more complex than this, of
course, and the various stages of
b check punctuation (and layout)
drafting, reviewing, re-drafting c check your spelling
and writing, etc. are done in a d check your writing for unnecessary repetition of
recursive, way: we loop backwards words and/or information
and move forwards between these e decide on the information for each paragraph and
various stages (Tribble 1996: the order the paragraphs should go in
37-39)- Thus at the editing stage f note down various ideas
we may feel the need to go back 9 select the best ideas for inclusion
to a pre-writing phase and think h write a clean copy of the corrected version
again; we may edit bits of our i write out a rough version
writing as we draft it.
Ron White and Valerie Arndt stress that'...
writing is re-writing ... re-vision - seeing with Planning Drafting
new eyes - has a central role to play in the
act of creating text' (White and Arndt 1991:
5). Perhaps, then, it is better to see writing as
a kind of process * wheel', where writers move
both around the circumference of the wheel
and across the spokes. And even when they have Final version? Editing
written what they think is the final version of
their work, they may still, at the last moment, /

go back and re-plan or re-visit stages they had Final version

thought they had completed. FIGURE 1: The process wheel

One of the disadvantages of getting students to concentrate on the process of writing is that
it takes time: time to brainstorm ideas or collect them in some other way; time to draft a piece
of writing and then, with the teacher's help, perhaps, review it and edit it in various ways before,
perhaps, changing the focus, generating more ideas, re-drafting, re-editing, and so on. This
cannot be done in 15 minutes. The various stages may well involve discussion, research, language
study and a considerable amount of interaction between teacher and students and between the
students themselves so that when process writing is handled appropriately, it stretches across the
whole curriculum. Not all students see this as a good thing, however. Many will find it difficult
 WRITING

to gtve enough time to the process and would ratherfinisha piece of writing straight away. And
there are times when process writing is simply not appropriate, either because classroom time is
limited or because we want students to write quickly as part of a communication game.
However, none of these circumstances should prevent us from explaining the process to our
students and encouraging them to plan, draft, re-draft, re-plan, etc. In longer pieces of writing
(or writing for portfolios - see below), the writing process is at least as important as the product,
and even in exam writing tasks, the students' ability to plan (quickly) and later read back through
what they have written in order to make any necessary corrections is extremely important.
A?
;>

1 Genre
As we saw in Chapter 2, C2, a lot of writing within a discourse community is very genre-
bound. In other words, writers frequently construct their writing so that people within that
discourse community will instantly understand what kind of writing it is. We know what an
advertisement is when we see it, we recognise poetry formats and we know what a formal
letter should look like. Genre represents the norms of different kinds of writing.
When teachers concentrate on genre, students study texts in the genre in which they are
going to be writing before they embark on their own work. Thus, if we want them to write
business letters of various kinds, we let them look at typical models of such letters before
starting to compose their own. If we want them to write newspaper articles, we have them
study real examples to discover facts about construction and specific language use which are
common to that genre. This forms part of the pre-writing phase.
Chris Tribble (1996:148-150) suggests the following'data collection' procedure as a prelude
to the writing of letters to newspapers. Students are asked to spend some time every day
for a week looking at letters to the newspapers. They are asked to make notes of particular
vocabulary and/or grammar constructions used in them. For example, we might tell them to
find any language which expresses approval or disapproval or to note down any */sentences
*ey come across. They can use dictionaries or any other resources they need to check
understanding. At the end of a week, they bring the results of their research to the class and
make a list of commonly occurring lexis or grammar patterns.
The teacher now gets the students to read controversial articles in today's paper and plan
Otters (using language they have come across in the data collection phase) in response to
those articles. Where possible, students should actually send their letters in the hope that they
w
iU be published.
A genre approach is especially appropriate for students of English for Specific Purposes.
However, it is also highly useful for general English students, even at low levels, if we want
them to produce written work they can be proud of.
Students who are writing within a certain genre need to consider a number of different
factors. They need to have knowledge of the topic, the conventions and style of the genre, and
* e context in which their writing will be read, as well as by whom. ^ ™ ^
Siting tasks do not have an audience other than the teacher, of course, but that does not stop
*s and them working as if they did. prescriptive, encouraging
Asking students to imitate a given style could be seen * * « n y p P ^
*em to see writing as a form of Reproduction ^ ^ ^ e t o have real knowledge of a
^ s - a n d something that is absolutely necessary if students are to na
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genre - is for them to see many different examples from the same genre. This means that they
will be able to choose from a variety of features. However, at lower levels this may well be
impractical, and so imitation may, after all, be a useful first stage, designed as much to inform
as to enforce adherence to strict genre rules. Later, with exposure to different examples within
a genre, it will be up to them to decide what to do with the data they have collected.

Creative writing
The term creative writing suggests imaginative tasks, such as writing poetry, stories and plays.
Such activities have a number of features to recommend them. Chief among these is that the
end result is often felt to be some kind of achievement and that'... most people feel pride in
their work and want it to be read' (Ur 1996:169). This sense of achievement is significantly
more marked for creative writing than for other more standard written products.
Creative writing is 'a journey of self-discovery, and self-discovery promotes effective
learning' (Gaffield-Vile 1998: 31). When teachers set up imaginative writing tasks so that
their students are thoroughly engaged, those students frequently strive harder than usual
to produce a greater variety of correct and appropriate language than they might for more
routine assignments. While students are writing a simple poem about someone they care
about, or while they are trying to construct a narrative or tell stories of their childhood,
for example, they are tapping into their own experiences. This, for some, provides powerful
motivation to find the right words to express such experience. Creative writing also provokes
the kind of input-output circle we described in Chapter 16, Ai.
In order to bolster the 'product pride' that students may feel when they have written creatively,
we need to provide an appropriate reader audience. In addition to ourselves as teachers, the
audience can be the whole class. We can put students' writing up on a class noticeboard or copy
it and include it in class magazines. We can make anthologies and distribute them to friends,
parents and other teachers. We can, if we want, set up websites for our classes on the Internet, or
have students write blogs (see the example on page 338) which can be read by others.
There is always a danger that students mayfindwriting imaginatively difficult. Having 'nothing
to say', they may find creative writing a painful and demotivating experience, associated in their
minds with a sense of frustration and failure. A lot will depend upon how we encourage them
(see B5 below). It is also important not to expect whole compositions from the very first. We
need, instead, to 'build the writing habit*, providing students with motivating, straightforward
tasks to persuade them that writing is not only possible but can also be great fun.

Writing as a cooperative activity

Although many people in their personal lives write on their own, whether at home or at work, in
language classes teachers and students can take advantage of the presence of others to make writing
a cooperative activity, with great benefit to all those involved. In one example of such an approach,
group writing allowed the lecturer to give more detailed and constructive feedback since she was
dealing with a small number of groups rather than many individual students (Boughey 1997)-
Individual students also found themselves saying and writing things they might not have come up
with on their own, and the group's research was broader than an individuals normally was.
Cooperative writing works well whether the focus is on the writing process or, alternatively,
on genre study. In the first case, reviewing and evaluation are greatly enhanced by having more
 WRITING

Aan one person working on a text, and the generation of ideas is frequently more lively with
two or more people involved than it is when writers work on their own. In genre-based writing
it is probably the case that two heads analyse genre-specific texts as well as, if not better, than one
nead would do, and often create genre-specific texts more successfully as a result.
Cooperative writing is immensely successful if students are writing on a computer. If the
screen is big enough, everyone can clearly see what is being created, and everyone can make
small changes both during the initial writing process and also later on. Students and teachers
can also email each other, of course; and just as with Wikipedia, anyone can modify entries, so
with student writing on the Internet (or on an Intranet - that is on a hard disk that everyone
in the school, or from a group can access), other students can alter things that are there, and
gradually co-construct a final finished product.
Writing in groups, whether as part of a long process or as part of a short game-like
communicative activity, can be greatly motivating for students, including as it does, not only
writing, but research, discussion, peer evaluation and group pride in a group accomplishment.
&1&&

Building the writing habit

oome students are extremely unconfident and unenthusiastic writers. There may be many
reasons for this: perhaps they have never written much in their first language(s). Perhaps they
think that they don't have anything to say and can't come up with ideas.
Whatever the reason, we need to help such students build the writing habit so that they
recognise writing as being a normal part of classroom practice and they come to writing tasks
with as much enthusiasm as they do other activities. One way of doing this, of course, is to give
them interesting and enjoyable tasks to do. We must make sure, however, that we give them
enough information to do what we have asked. We will want to make sure that they have enough
of the right kind of language to do the task. We need to be able to give students ideas to complete
the task, too. Sometimes we may dictate half-sentences for them to finish so that they do not
have to come up with too much information of their own. Sometimes we will feed in ideas to a
student or students as they do the task. Of course, we don't want to crowd the students with too
many ideas if this is going to stifle creativity, but we need to be ready with enough suggestions
to make sure they can never say I can't think of anything to write. Finally, patterns and schemes
help students to write with confidence. This is thefirststage of looking at different genres that we
mentioned above. If students are given a model for postcard-writing, it is easy to come up with
their own slightly different version. Simple poems often provide a framework in which students
« n say something meaningful while still being supported by a helpful structure. Giving students
some kind of simple structure to write in provides the same kind of support that every writer
gets when, instead offindingthemselves infrontof a blank screen, they are given parameters and
constraints to write with. However, we are not suggesting that all writing needs to be constrained
or supported in this way. The blank screen is the place where a great deal of creativityfirststarts.
Building the writing habit can be done with a range of activities. We can promote instant
siting by dictating half a sentence which the students have to complete (e.g. Before am
thirty I would like to...). We can get them to write three Don't sentences for a new school <e.g.
Don't run in the corridors). We can get students to respond to music by writing what words
or scenes a piece of music suggests, or by describing the film scene a piece of music might
accompany They can write about how a piece of music makes them feel or wnte stones that
the music 'tells them to write' (Harmer 2004:66).
 CHAPTER 19

Pictures can provide stimulation for writing-habit activities. Students can describe pictures
or write descriptions of a wanted man or woman so that their colleagues have to identify that
person from a group photograph. They can write postcards from a picture we give them, or
create an interview with a portrait, say, from 200 years ago.
There are many writing games, too, such as story reconstruction activities where students
have to build up a story from a set of pictures, each of which only one of them has seen (see
below). We can get students into story circles where, in groups, they create a story together.
The whole point of all these activities is just to get students to write for the fun and practice
of it, rather than have them write as a skill Building the writing habit falls halfway between
writing-for-learning and writing-for-writing (see B6 below).

BB Writing-for-learning and writing-for-writing

We need to make a distinction between writing-for-learning and writing-for-writing if we are
to promote writing as a skill.
Writing-for-learning is the kind of writing we do to help students learn language or to test
them on that language. Thus, if we say Write three sentences using the 'going to'future, our aim
is not to train students to write, but rather to help them remember the going to future. The
same is true when we get them to write (say for a test) four sentences about what they wish
about the present and the past.
When we ask students to design a good magazine advertisement, however, we are doing
this so that they may become good at writing advertisements. When we get them to write a
narrative, it is their ability to write a story that counts, not just their use of the past tense.
If we are to build the students' writing skills (as opposed to building their writing habits
or getting them to write for language practice), we will have to use such writing-for-writing
tasks as often as is appropriate.

B7 The roles of the teacher

Although the teacher needs to deploy some or all of the usual roles (see Chapter 6, Bi) when
students are asked to write, the ones that are especially important are as follows:
• Motivator: one of our principal roles in writing tasks will be to motivate the students, creating
the right conditions for the generation of ideas, persuading them of the usefulness of the
activity, and encouraging them to make as much effort as possible for maximum benefit. This
may require special and prolonged effort on our part for longer process-writing sequences.
Where students are involved in a creative writing activity, it is usually the case that some
find it easier to generate ideas than others. During a poetry activity (see Example 6 below),
for example, we may need to suggest lines to those who cannot think of anything, or at least
prompt them with our own ideas.

• Resource: especially during more extended writing tasks, we should be ready to supply
information and language where necessary. We need to tell students that we are available
and be prepared to look at their work as it progresses, offering advice and suggestions in a
constructive and tactful way. Because writing takes longer than conversation, for example,
there is usually time for discussion with individual students or students working in pairs
or groups to complete a writing task.

330
 WRITING

• Feedback provider: giving feedback on writing tasks demands special care (see Chapter
8D). Teachers should respond positively and encouragingly to the content of what the
students have written. When offering correction, teachers will choose what and how much
to focus on, based on what students need at this particular stage of their studies and on the
tasks they have undertaken.

C Writing lesson sequences

In the following examples, the writing activity is specified, together with its particular focus.
Some of the activities are about the nuts and bolts of writing (Examples 1, 2 and 5), some
are designed to build the writing habit (Examples 5 and 6) and others are designed to give
students practice in the skill of writing (Examples 3 and 4).

Example 1; Dino at the hotel Activity; punctuating a text

Focus: writing conventions
Age: young adult and above
Level: elementary

If we want students to learn about punctuation, they need to make the connection between
the way we speak and the way punctuation reflects this. Commas, for example, are often
placed at the points where a speaker would take a breath if they were reading the text. Full
stops represent the end of a tone group, etc.
The following task - at elementary level - asks students to punctuate a prose passage using
capital letters, commas, inverted commas (quotation marks) and full stops.
Students read the unpunctuated text from an elementary graded reader (see page 283) and
then listen to the story on CD. This is so they can get a good idea of what it is about. In pairs,
they then try to add punctuation. They can listen to the recording as many times as they like.

20 april was dino bracco's twenty-first birthday he worked giovanni his boss at
the hotel grand brought him a cake from the hotel kitchen just twenty-one said
giovanni and then he put his hand on dino's back ah dino dino... when I was
twenty-one...
dino ate some cake and smiled he was only twenty-one years old but he was a
young man who knew what he wanted he had a plan
you must know what you want dino his mother said to him when he was a child
and he did he had a plan dino came from a very small town called rocella in the
south of itaty his mother and father were farmers rocella was beautiful but no
one had any money dino was born there but now he lived and worked in vemce
he worked at the reception of the hotel grand
From Hotel Casanova by S Leather (Cambridge University Press)

We can put the unpunctuated text on the board, OHT or a projected computer screen.
Students from the different pairs can punctuate it, line byline and the rest of the class can say
whether or not they agree. Punctuating poems in this way is also very effective.

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Example 2: The bear Activities: story reconstruction, story continuation

Focus: coherence and cohesion
Age: young adult and above
Level: upper intermediate and above

This sequence aims to make students aware of coherence - and especially cohesive devices
- in writing. It is similar to Example 5 in Chapter 17 (page 296), but the objective of this whole
sequence is to get students writing more coherently, using cohesive devices appropriately.
The students are told that they are going to reconstruct a text about Kitty Redcape, whose
grandmother lives in the woods. Kitty frequently goes there to have tea. They are given a series
of cards and told to re-order them to make a story (the first one is done for them). They need
to look out for clues, such as the use of pronouns, repetition of lexical items and a coherent
order of events. These are the cards they are given:

A (1) One day, on her way to visit her G So he rode away, sadder, but alas no wiser.
grandmother, Kitty Redcape saw a handsome
prince.
UiHUlMW
m H The bear, who by this time was fed up with 'Oh shut up, you silly old woman,' he retorted.
being ignored, followed the prince into the
forest and ate him. At that moment the prince rode by and
•*w??^w?^^^??^^"^r
charged into the garden.
'I'm sure you were,' said the prince.'Come
•"
on, let's get away from that silly old lady and 'I have come to save you, young maiden,' he
go to my castle for lunch.' cried, knocking the grandmother down in his 1

WUMWWUW •SWBP

Her heart skipped a beat or two, but the haste to be by her side.
'^S^p^iw^M^myw^J, • m
princehardly noticed her a s ^ r o d e ^ y .
K
R e d c a p °,\f C°, hming
e
t0 o u r rescu
e . ' Kitty
'Hey! Watch what you're doing!' said Kitty gun a n ^ ' f ° <*K», 'though I have
Redcape's grandmother. gun and was quite capable of ,00kjng ^
:
That silly old lady's my grandmother, " ^ "

actually,' said Kitty, 'and I didn't like the way

By the time she got to her 9 ^ ^ ^ ,
you spoke to her. And now that I can see
house, Kitty had forgotten^bouUhe pnnc
you close to, I can't imagine why I thought
but she was horrified to see the old iaay
you were good-looking. Why don't you rejoin
being attacked by a bear.
your hunt?'
n W m i » m u . r > i - i i u . i , u ; . . , . t i j . m i » i j i , n m . . , ^ J J . . , | I L J . , H ! i.iu.wiain^iinjijii.iii... t .ii,ijpu.wu.w.'M^wiJiitiwPMgM'•P'WWfiU

If students are having trouble with the sequence, we can point out, for example, that the
first three cards all have the prince in them, and that this lexical repetition helps to tie the story
together with a 'chain of reference'. We can show them how he is used in the same way in this
two-sentence sequence:

At that moment the prince rode by and charged into the garden. T have come to
save you, young maiden,' he cried, knocking the grandmother down in his haste to
be by her side.

After the pairs and groups have completed the task, they check to see if they have all got the
same order (A, J, L, C, D, E, B, K, I, F, G, H) and discuss why and how it is arrived at.
We can now get them to develop more sentences about Kitty and her grandmother, perhaps
going as far as making their own stories. For example, we might give them the following
exercise:
 WRITING

Read the opening sentence and then complete the sentences which follow.
When Kitty was on her way to her grandmother s house, she stopped to talk
to two woodcutters in the forest.
1. She
2. They
3. It
4. The old lady

Alternatively, they can be asked to re-write the following paragraphs, replacing Kitty
Redcape, the prince and the bear by she, her, he, him or it where necessary.

Kitty Redcape often goes to visit Kitty Redcape's grandmother in the woods. One
day, on Kitty Redcapes way to Kitty Redcape's grandmother's house, Kitty Redcape
sees the prince and Kitty Redcape thinks the prince is very attractive. The prince
does not notice Kitty Redcape.
When Kitty Redcape arrives at the cottage, Kitty Redcape sees Kitty Redcape s
grandmother being attacked by a bear. Just then the prince rides into the garden to
save Kitty Redcape and the prince is rude to Kitty Redcape's grandmother.
The prince asks Kitty Redcape back to his castle for lunch but Kitty Redcape says
no because Kitty Redcape doesn't like the prince's treatment of Kitty Redcape s
grandmother and Kitty Redcape doesn't fancy the prince after all. Kitty Redcape
suggests that the prince should go back to the prince's hunt and leave them alone.
And that's what the prince does. The bear follows the prince into the forest and the
bear eats the prince.

If students are enjoying the fairy story aspect of this sequence, we can then use a variation
°f Julia's story' (see Example 7 below) and have them write their own texts starting with a
sentence we give them such as:
Once upon a time there was a handsome prince who lived in a castle by the river.
They can then put their knowledge of coherence and cohesion into action.

^'•^^['W^^-^i^^W-- Activity: writing a review

t ' • ' ••"
identifying genre features
-'>* -, X "'< "
young adult and above
"Level: upper intermediate and above

In this sequence, we want our students to write reviews of plays, concerts or films they have
seen, and to do this in a way which is appropriate for the kind of audience (either real or
imaginary) that they are writing for.
Firstly, we ask our students to look at a collection of reviews of plays and films from
newspapers, magazines and/or on the Internet (see Example 4 on page 295). For each one
they have to use the following 'reviewers' genre-analysing kit*:

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REVIEWERS' GENRE-ANALYSING KIT

Answer the following questions about the review you are reading:

MEANING
What is being reviewed?
Does the reviewer like it?
What, if anything, was especially good about the thing/event being reviewed?
What, if anything, was especially bad about the thing/event being reviewed?
Who, if anybody, deserves credit for their part in it?
Who, if anybody, should be criticised for their part in it?
What, if anything, does the thing/event remind the reviewer of?

CONSTRUCTION
How is the headline/caption constructed?
What does each paragraph contain, and how are the paragraphs sequenced?
What grammar and lexis is used to show approval?
What grammar and lexis is used to show disapproval?

By studying the reviews and answering the questions above about them, students build up a
picture of how they are usually written.
We can now show them a DVD or get them to go to a play or a film. While watching it
they make notes about such items as the plot, the characters, the performances, the music, the
cinematography and the special effects.
Afterwards, students draft their reviews, using language - if appropriate - from the reviews
they read previously. We can go round, encouraging and helping. If there is time, we can rea
the full drafts and give constructive feedback on each one. Students then write their tina
version, and later, when all the reviews have been read, the class can vote on the best one.
Writing reviews can be greatly enhanced by having students write in pairs or groups, keying
their opinions directly onto a computer screen. The discussion and focus which this provides
will add to the creative nature of the activity in many ways.
Studying different writing genres - whether through a genre-analysing kit, through data
collection, or even by putting a variety of texts into a corpus to run with concordancmg
packages (see Chapter 11, G2) - is a vital first stage in having students do their own writing in
specific genres.

Example 4: Unsent tetters Activity: letter writing

Focus; communicative writing
Age: any
Level: intermediate and above
In this activity, students are told that they are going to write a letter to someone that they
would never normally write to. For example, they could write:
 WRITING

- to someone who bu§5 you !

- to someone you have hurt or
- to an ex-boyfriend or girlfriend, or an ex-friend
- to an unborn child
- to an examiner
- to a burglar who has 'dope' your house
- to a person who has helped you without knowing it
»to the present owner of the house you used to live in
- to a famous historical figure
From Letters by N Burbidge etal (Oxford University Press)

When students have chosen the recipient of their letter, they write it. While they are doing
this, the teacher can offer help and suggestions if they want it.
When students have finished their letters, they can show them to their colleagues. Their
colleagues have to be able to say who the letter is to and what points it is trying to make.
Although these letters are only pseudo-communicative - because they will not actually be
sent - they nevertheless fulfil all the characteristics of a communicative activity (see Chapter
4, A5); students choose who to write to so that they compose their letters with both purpose
and enthusiasm. They emphasise content rather than language for its own sake.

Example 5: A poem Activity: running dictation

Focus: writing for fun/concentrating on writing correctly
Age: any
Level: pre-intermediate and above

In the following example (adapted from Davis and Rinvolucri 1990) the basic idea of a
dictation has been altered so that it is the students who dictate to each other (rather than the
teacher). It has a competitive element, is very active and is often extremely enjoyable.
Students are put into groups. The teacher puts an A4 copy of the following poem on a table
at the front of the classroom.

A man bought a piano for his wife

which she constantly tunes
and polishes. He says her hands and fingers
are Less flexible than once they were
which is depressing.
She came home and she found it there,
a big surprise. Its brown respectability
dominates the room. He watches her straight back
and fumbling fingers in the evening city, lit
by brakes and klaxons. pet& Hed[ey

Each group sends a representative to the front of the class to read only the first line of the
poem, memorise it, and then run back to their group and dictate the line. When this has
happened, groups send a second (and then a third) representative to read the second (and
third) line and take that back to their groups and dictate it.

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The activity goes on in this way until one group has the whole poem. The teacher can then
give that group a further task while the others finish, or stop the class and show everyone a
complete version of the poem for them to check their own version against. They are then
asked to decide on their own title for the poem (originally called 'Piano Piece').
An alternative procedure at this point is to ask all the students to write down, in complete
silence, what the poem means for them - however flippant or profound their response is.
They can, for example, write nothing if they feel like it. When they have done this, they stand
up, still in silence, and go round reading what other people have written. The effect of writing
and silence in this way can be dramatic and enjoyable.
There are many different ways of doing dictations, and when students have some element
of control (or agency- see page 103), they are especially convincing. For example, it is possible
for the teacher to read out a dictation, but have students pretend that they have a control
button of the kind that you get with tape recorders, DVD players, etc. This means that they
can say pause, stop, rewind, fast forward, etc. to control the teacher's speed and get repetition
if they need it. Of course, this activity works just as well if a student is the one reading out the
passage they have to write.

Example 6: Ancient monuments Activity: writing a poem

*
focus: creative writing
Age: any
'
Level: lower intermediate plus

Simple poetry-writing activities are often extremely effective ways of getting students to write
creatively, but within clearly delineated frameworks (so that they do not feel oppressed by the
need to be too imaginative).
In the following example from Jane Spiro (2004: 88-90), students are going to write poems
from the point of view of ancient monuments and buildings (this makes much more sense
than it appears!).
The teacher brings in pictures of famous buildings, statues, landscapes and monuments,
etc. which the students are likely to know. Alternatively, she can direct students to websites
where they can see these things.
Students now choose one of these places. They are going to think about what the place or
thing has seen, has heard, has known, etc. The teacher may write up the following on the board
(and ask students to think of completions):
You have seen...
You have heard...
You have known...

The teacher now divides the class into small groups. She gives them a picture or name of a
place. She may have a list for the students to choose from, and can move round the groups
suggesting possibilities both about the monuments in question and about the kind of things
the students might want to include in their poems (e.g. the sadness of a king, camels in the
desert, the sound or war, the shouts of revolution, etc.).
The students now write their poems, but they can either write to the monument/place (You
have seen ...) or take on its personality (and write I have seen ...). When thev have finished
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 WRITING

their poems, they can show them (without a title) to different groups to see if they can guess
what the monument or place is.
Jane Spiro quotes the following student poem, produced with the procedure we have
described.

And ihcn o$t<;

.And ihc<ft frincd

I havfc &c*\ cfofto
And fh^H mvblo
I havfe #wi fife
And -then dcaih
Of course this is not a great poem, but it has the air of poetry about it, and, above all, it has
given students a chance to write creatively however restricted the poetry frame may be.

Example 7; Julia's Activity: story circle

story Focus: building the writing habit; cooperative narrative writing
Age: any
Level: elementary and above

In this activity, students join together to write a story. However, there is an element of fun
built into the activity and the results are not intended to be taken too seriously
Students are put into groups of about five, sitting in circles. The teacher then dictates a
sentence such as:
That day, when Julia came back from work, she knew something was different
Each student writes the sentence at the top of their piece of paper. They are then asked to
write the next sentence in Julia's story; all they have to do is write one sentence which follows
on from this introduction.
When all the students have done this, the teacher tells them to pass their pieces of paper to
the person on their left. They all now have to write the next sentence of the story which has
just been passed to them. When they have finished, the teacher again asks everyone to pass
their papers to the person on their left. They all now have to write the next sentence of the
story on the piece of paper in front of them.
The procedure continues until the pieces of paper return to their original owners. At this
point the teacher tells everyone to write a sentence to finish the story off- however ridiculous!
The students are then encouraged to read out the stories they have just finished. The results
are often highly amusing, and because many hands have collaborated in the process, nobody
has to suffer individual responsibility for the final versions. The teacher should make sure
that quite a few of the stories are heard by the class and that the rest are available for everyone
else to read.
This kind of group writing is enjoyable and useful for developing writingfluency.However,
it should be used sparingly otherwise it will lose its main attraction - that of spontaneity.
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Example 8: Such is life Activity: student blogging

Focus: writing for communication
Age: adult
Level: any

On page 193 we discussed the value of keypals and blogging for student writing. Students
can now post their own contributions onto the web so that others can comment and react in
writing to what they have to say.
The following example shows a student blog in action. However, it starts with a blog by
Rosa for the adult migrant English programme at St George's College of TAFE (technical,
further educational and vocational classes), in Sydney, Australia.
The blog she runs (http://ourclass2006.blogspot.com at the time of writing) offers students'
views on a number of topics and posts photos of student activities. It has games, descriptions
and grammar activities as well as sections for teachers. But it also encourages students to
write blogs and make podcasts.
In order for students to learn how to become bloggers, Rosa sends them to a tutorial site
(see Figure 2). Once they have done this, they are ready to go.
5
One of the students, called Jessie, set up her own blog entitled 'Such is life . One of her
postings (see Figure 3) muses on how her life might change; it is accompanied by a picture
Jessie has found to make her posting more interesting.

Welcome to our
So you want to blog. We are going to walk yon through all the steps you need to set up
a blog. You can set up a blog very simply. You can stop when you get a confirmation
that your blog is set up. Or you can customize it by changing the settings of your blog.
Either way this is a simple process that can get you and your students up and running.

FIGURE 2: Rosa's blog tutorial (opening page)

3 Collapse comments C!os< t h « wir

bltola said...
Hello Jessie )

Your lotos Is very beautiful

and your new sttt of live is good.
!
'1 '.'t-t- ;:', ' - > •

said...
Hi Jess&e. You are the ^trst professional blogger I
meet in one of my classes. You must share your
knowledge with your clasmar.es. it will help your
English a lot and they'll learn so much form you.

yuthy said...
Hi jessie. Your photos is so beautiful and i am so glad of your
language. Smoking is not a good ktea for your health, also
drinking, so it's very good that you stop It now.

•3'06 21.47

338 FIGURE 3: Jessie's blog FIGURE 4: Replying to Jessie

 WHITING

As with all successful student blogs, she gets some replies (see Figure 4), and writing has
now become real communication.
Of course the task for the teacher and the students is to keep blogs like this going.
Furthermore, teachers will have to decide how much (if at all) they intervene to help students
with their English- In the examples above, there are points where a writing teacher would
want to intervene. In a blog (or with keypals and chatting) we have to decide how much
to leave students to communicate on their own, and how much to use this as raw data for
successful feedback on student work.

Example 9: College transport Activity: report writing

Focus: how reports are constructed; making notes
Age; young adult +
Level: upper intermediate

In the following sequence, students are lead through an exam-type task (for the Cambridge
ESOL First Certificate exam). The clear objective is to teach report-writing skills.
The sequence (from First Certificate Expertby Ian Bell and Roger Gower, published by Pearson
Education Ltd) starts when the teacher asks students to discuss the following questions:
1 Which form ofpublic transport do you prefer?
2 What is good and bad about public transport where you live?

The students can discuss this in pairs or groups before the teacher talks about the question;
with the class. They then look at the following task:

It is difficult for students to get to your college. Public transport is not very good and the college car park
is very small. A committee has been set up by the principal to analyse the problem and to recommend
what the college should do. You are on the committee, and you have just had your last meeting.
You have been asked to write a report for the principal.
Write your report in 120-180 words in an appropriate style.
Students have to look at the task and decide how many parts there are to it, how informal
or formal the style should be (bearing in mind who you are and who you are writing to J, and
what will make the reader think it is a good report.
Once the teacher has discussed these questions with the class, they then start planning for
the report by making notes under three headings:

Public transport Car park Possible solutions

bueee every hour more etuJente have care write to bue company
They then match a typical four-paragraph sequence with what might be written in each of
the four paragraphs.
Paragraph Is Introducing the report a Focus on a minimum of two points.
Paragraph 2: Describing thefirstproblem b State the purpose of the report
Paragraph 3; Describing the second problem c Give a dear summary of the » ^
Paragraph
r
4: Summarising and recommending d Describe how you got the mformatron.
^ . e Only give relevant information.
f Give just one or two recommendations.
g Give thefectsbriefly and clearly without
strong personal opinions.
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 CHAPTER 19

They can then match their notes about public transport, car parking and possible solutions
to the paragraphs.
Finally, in this phase, students are offered three titles for their report: (a) Cars, buses and
trains, (b) To and from college, (c) Student transport. They are then given some language they
might want to use before being asked to complete the task.
When students have written their reports, they are asked to look at them again and edit
them, considering the following questions:
• Is the information relevant?
• Is the style clear and natural?
• Does the report feel balanced? (Are different viewpoints presented fairly?)
One of the reasons for this detailed writing sequence is that students are learning how to
write successful exam answers (see the backwash effect' in Chapter 22D). But the habits being
encouraged here - an analysis of the task followed by detailed planning, drafting and review-
are the same habits which we have suggested for both genre and process-writing sequences.

D Portfolios, journals, letters

Many educational institutions and teachers get students to keep portfolios of examples ot
their written work over a period of time. These can be used for assessment, since judging
different pieces of student work written over a period of time is seen by many people to be
fairer than 'sudden death' final tests. However, using portfolios is a somewhat controversial
alternative and not without its problems (see page 380).
Portfolios are also used as a way of encouraging students to take pride in their work; by
encouraging them to keep examples of what they have written, we are encouraging them to
write it well and with care.
For the Common European Framework (see page 95) portfolios are considerably more
than just getting students to keep examples of their writing. The European Language Portfolio
has three parts:
• Language biography: here students reflect on their language abilities using 'can do'
statements (see page 96) to say things like I can understand numbers, prices and times in
English. They can record if and why such abilities are important for them.
The language biography asks them to say what language experiences they have had, and
reveals the fact that a huge number of school students in various countries have rich and
varied language backgrounds.
• Language passport: this is the 'public' version of the biography, and it tells, in simple
tabular form, what languages the holder can speak and how well. The learners fill in this
profile and can obviously amend it as their linguistic ability improves in one language or
another.
The language passport is the clearest possible statement of the advantages and benefits
that accrue to people who speak more than one language, and it reinforces students' pride
in their language(s) profile,
 WRITING

• Dossier: this is where students keep examples of their work - projects, reports, diplomas,
PowerPoint presentations, etc. The students indicate whether this work was done individually
or with other students.
The ELP is not an easy option in terms of the time needed to complete and read it by both
students and teachers, and it comes with many add-ons (such as a list of'can do' statements,
see page 96) which make it somewhat cumbersome. However, it makes a powerful statement
about an individual student's language identity and helps them to reflect on their learning.
Indeed, portfolios may be successful mechanisms by which teachers 'can not only diagnose
the learners' skills and competencies, but also become aware of their preferences, styles,
dispositions and learning strategies...' (Nunes 2004:327). As with student journals and letter/
email exchanges between teachers and students, portfolios can have a powerful effect on the
development of learner autonomy, something we will discuss in more detail in Chapter 23A.

LU..I 1 S\.l

Chapter notes and further reading

• Writing in general
On writing in general, see C Tribble (1996), T Hedge (2000: Chapter 9) and J Harmer
(2004). T Hedge (2005) has a wealth of good writing ideas. K Hylands important book
(2002) discusses research in writing and W Grabe and R Kaplan (1996) write about the
theory and practice of writing in the Longman Applied Linguistics series.
• Mixed composition classes
N Ibrahim and S Penfield (2005) describe the benefits of mixing ESL students with first
language English speakers in afreshmancomposition class in the USA.
• Literacy
E Helmer (2005) discusses twenty-first-century literacy. P Stapleton (2005) discusses
Internet literacy and its relationship to academic writing.

• Spelling ,
R Shemesh and S Waller (2000) offer a complete book on teaching spelhng See also
S Waller (2002), P Brabbs (2004), J Desmond (2006) and R Hamilton (2003), who has an
'NLP spelling strategy'.

C Kelly (2003) stresses the need to focus of pre-writing ^ ^ / ^ ^ ^ ^

understand structure. M Vince (2004) sees the educational value of a process approach. See
also J Harmer (2004: Chapter 1). .
, Chau b „ „ 3 ) co.es up wi* a « ^ J ^ ^ ^ T ^
less proficient student writers. K Hill (2005) wants to link essay types an &

' C u L e ( W & C H a p t t r S , a n d „ ^ ^ ™ * £ £ T , K ^

Chapter 2). 341

 CHAPTER 19

• Process and genre

R Badger and G White (2000) advocate a process-genre approach. J Muncie (2002) wants
to find a place for grammar in composition classes. C Vickers and E Ene (2006) show how
students can improve their grammatical accuracy by autonomously noticing their own
writing errors.
• Creative writing
C Riihlemann (2005) gives a number of ideas for students to recreate dialogue, etc. on the
basis of material given to them by the teacher. S Mercer (2004) describes getting students to
create different characters who can then be incorporated into play scenes. A G Elgar (2002)
has students writing playscripts.
• Penpals/keypals
See H Hennigan (1999) on how penpals became, in his words, 'keypals'. K Fedderholdt
(2001) describes a successful keypal exchange between Japanese and Danish students.
To set up penpal or keypal arrangements, teachers can contact the embassy of the country
they are interested in, post notices at teachers' conferences or access penpal sites on the
Internet such as the following three:
www.penpalgarden.com/ - a large free penpal site where you fill in details about yourself
and indicate whether you want penpals of the same or opposite gender.
www.penpal.net - one of the largest free penpal sites on the Internet, you can select
contacts by age and country.
[email protected] - a site where children are matched to similar penpals
around the world. There is a small charge per person.
• Writing examples
For more writing activities, see T Hedge (2005), J Harmer (2004: Chapters 4-6,2007:
Chapter 8). On teaching writing for exams, see S Burgess and K Head (2005: Chapter 4).
• Weblogs
M Vallance (2004) set up a blog project for his students with mixed results. The students
were enthusiastic but Vallance himself had to intervene to (a) provide interesting topics,
and (b) stop students disagreeing with each other too violently. J Askari Arani (2005)
discusses teaching reading and writing in this way. S Peters (2006) gives clear tutorial
information about weblogs and A P Campbell (2003) explains weblogs clearly.
• Portfolios
The European Language Portfolio is clearly explained in F Heyworth and R Blakely (2005).
A McDonald (2004,2005a and b) discusses each of the three elements of the portfolio in turn.

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