sustainability

Article
Development Law of Overlying Strata’s Broken Fissure Based
on Bored Imaging by Big Data Analysis
Xianmeng Zhang 1,2 , Jingchun Wang 1 , Dan Feng 1, * and Minghao Wang 1

1 School of Safety Engineering and Emergency Management, Shijiazhuang Tiedao University,

Shijiazhuang 050043, China
2 Key Laboratory of Large Structure Health Monitoring and Control, Shijiazhuang 050043, China
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-17367979425

Abstract: This paper aims to provide the basis of the parameters and data interpretation for some
important problems, such as the identification of the type of overlying strata and the analytical
calculation, where the coal mine is employed as the object of the study. Particularly, the rock structure
and fracture development characteristics of the overlying strata were observed, and the development
conditions of the fracture zone were counted. By utilizing the on-site stress data, the inclination of the
broken zone based on the rock fracture theory was calculated. The study shows that the distribution
of the mining fissure is related to the rock and integrity degree of the strata, and that the native
maximum expansion angle of fissure is 70.54◦ . With mining influence, small angle native shallow
fissures will be bound to expansion, and the deep-mined fissure extension will be developed in
the same direction. Moreover, it is easy to form the abscission layer, and then eventually form the
fracture zone. The research results of this paper will not only provide an important foundation for
the engineering practice, but also benefit the study of the simultaneous extraction of coal and gas.

Keywords: bored imaging; fissure; inclination; fracture theory; broken zone

1. Introduction
Citation: Zhang, X.; Wang, J.; Feng, Rock mass is a complex medium made up with solid and pore fracture, and the pore
D.; Wang, M. Development Law of fracture is the storage place and movement channel of the fluids inside. Engineering rock
Overlying Strata’s Broken Fissure mass bears vertical and horizontal stress, as well as pore pressure, which leads to the
Based on Bored Imaging by Big Data balance of the rock mass. When coal, methane and underwater are exploited out, there is
Analysis. Sustainability 2023, 15, 4703. a certain form of deformation during the excavation. During the process of coal mining,
https://doi.org/10.3390/su15064703 with the coal face going on, the direct roof will collapse and the overlying strata will move
and break, which form the mining fissure zone. This may also result in the phenomenon of
Academic Editors: Chaolin Zhang,
Bobo Li and Shoujian Peng
stress redistribution.
The ground pressure and the strata control have been extensively studied in the
Received: 16 February 2023 literature. For instance, Qian [1,2] proposes an important theory for the movement of
Revised: 2 March 2023 strata, which establishes the criteria to identify the key strata. They also provide insights
Accepted: 5 March 2023 into the law of deformation, abscission layer and breaking with respect to the key strata.
Published: 7 March 2023
Yuan [3,4] proposes key techniques for the simultaneous extraction of the coal and gas, the
support of an easy abscission layer and the geology protection under complex geological
conditions. Based on the analogy simulation tests on the protective layer, Lin [5,6] proposes
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
the dynamic evolution law of overlying strata pressure relief, instability, crack initiation,
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. crack extension and fracture atrophy. By utilizing the numerical simulation technique,
This article is an open access article Tu [7] investigates the law of stress distribution of overlying strata and the deformation
distributed under the terms and law of protected layer. It is reported that the expansion of the protected layer will enhance
conditions of the Creative Commons its air permeability.
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// Taking fractured rock mass as the research object, the previous research results on the
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ failure mechanism under different rock mass sizes were reviewed. With the help of ad-
4.0/). vanced equipment, such as high-resolution digital cameras, scanning electron microscopy

Sustainability 2023, 15, 4703. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15064703 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

 Sustainability 2023, 15, 4703 2 of 13

and CT scanners, model material tests and mechanics experiments on the solid rock ma-
terial were carried out to study the effects of different conditions, such as rock bridge
inclination, fissure spacing, fracture fissure length, fissure number, fissure dip angle and
fissure penetration degree [8–10]. A set of experimental techniques for roadway excavation
under jointed surrounding rock included a mixed pouring–bricking method and a roadway
excavation device, which can reproduce the structural characteristics of the prototype and
replicate the excavation conditions of the roadway [11–13]. Some methods of machine
learning and a safety evaluation model are used to explain the dynamic propagation pro-
cess of fracture [14,15]. Although great progress has been made in the study of fractures,
it has not yet been directly applied in the field test. Bored imaging theory can effectively
solve the above deficiencies.
In order to study the breaking law of overlying strata, a special methane roadway
was deployed at the floor of the E group coal seam. Meanwhile, some holes were drilled,
and a Bored Imaging machine was used to scan the overlying strata of the F coal groups
influenced by the excavation. Then, the development condition of the fissure zone was
calculated, and the characteristic of the overlying strata evolution law of the mining face
was investigated. Together with the breaking theory of strata, we study the intensity factor
of fractured rock mass, and hence verify whether the fissure can develop and form the
macroscopic fractured zone.

2. Engineering Situation
The F coal mine group is at the middle and lower part of the Shanxi group. The
evaluation height of the working face of F15 ranges from −560 m to −660 m, and the
effective strike length of the working face is 1600 m, with a mining length of 195 m and
a mining height of 2.0 m, and 840,000 tons of coal will be mined. The inner section of
the working face only has an F15 coal mine, the thickness of which ranges from 1.6 m to
2.3 m. The outer section is the combination of an F15 and F16 coal seam, where the coal
seam is relatively stable and the structure is simple. The east dip angle of the coal seam is
relatively small, which is usually 10◦ . The angle in the middle and upper part is slightly
larger, ranging from 25◦ to 30◦ . The method used was strike retreating comprehensive
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 14
mechanized l mining, and the management method for the roof is the all-collapse method.
The borehole diagram of F15 is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Borehole diagram of F15.

Figure 1. Borehole diagram of F15.

3. Bored Imaging Technology

3.1. Bored Imaging System
Advanced DSP image collection and treatment techniques are used in a highly inte-
 Sustainability 2023, 15, 4703 3 of 13

3. Bored Imaging Technology

3.1. Bored Imaging System
Advanced DSP image collection and treatment techniques are used in a highly inte-
grated system. The probe can take panoramic pictures, and the image of the section can be
produced immediately. The image is clear, the depth can be corrected automatically and
the images of all holes can be obtained from all directions.
This equipment can not only observe the structure in the hole, but also produce plane
graph and 3D prism display. Therefore, the structure of the hole can be quantitatively
analyzed by the image produced, and the attitude of the coal and thickness can be detected
effectively. By analyzing different images of the hole at different times, the development of
surrounding rock joints and faults can be detected. Therefore, underground disasters, such
as roadway instability, can be predicted. The equipment can provide real and effective data
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
for the design of the support and protection of the surrounding rock, and hence, improve 4 of 1
the safety conditions of underground coal mining. The bored imaging technique used in
this paper is the state-of-the-art hole imaging system. The schematic diagram of the system
is shown in Figure 2. It includes a mainframe, synchronous shaft and bore bit.

Synchronous Shaft

Bore Bit

Mainframe
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the bored imaging system.
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the bored imaging system.
3.2. Actual Measurements and Results Analysis of Fractured Holes
To monitor the development condition of the overlying rock’s fissure zone, some
3.2. Actual Measurements and Results Analysis of Fractured Holes
holes for observation were drilled [16–18]. Then, the equipment was used to monitor the
To monitor
structure and fissurethedevelopment
development conditionofofthe
characteristics the overlying
overlying rock,rock’s fissure
and further zone, som
study
holes for observation
was conducted wereofdrilled
on the basis [16–18].
the data Then,
collected theequipment.
by the equipmentBased was used
on thetolocal
monitor th
condition,and
structure the holes were
fissure drilled in the characteristics
development methane roadway of of
thetheoverlying
E group, and theand
rock, working
further stud
face of
was the stope was
conducted on beneath
the basistheofmethane
the datalane. According
collected bytothe
theequipment.
local condition, 12 holes
Based on the loca
were drilled, and the parameters of the holes drilled are shown in Table 1.
condition, the holes were drilled in the methane roadway of the E group, and the workin
face of the stope was beneath the methane lane. According to the local condition, 12 hole
were drilled, and the parameters of the holes drilled are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Observation data of the hole.

Hole Vertical Distance between Coal Horizontal Distance between Hol

Number
Depth/m Seam and Hole Bottom/m Bottom and Mining Face/m
1# −90 90.8 109.4
2# −150 39.5 170.54
3# −184 34.3 221.15
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4703 4 of 13

Table 1. Observation data of the hole.

Vertical Distance between Horizontal Distance between

Hole
Number Coal Seam and Hole Hole Bottom and Mining
Depth/m
Bottom/m Face/m
1# −90 90.8 109.4
2# −150 39.5 170.54
3# −184 34.3 221.15
4# −160 64.3 139.29
5# −91 91.85 108.69
6# −91.5 91.27 109.01
7# −129 61.5 152.75
8# −94.5 101.89 109.7
9# −73.5 94.91 109.13
10# −67.5 105.4 109.97
11# −69 109.1 108.89
12# −66 107.57 109.05

The depth of the hole is designed to be 150 m. Some water-flowing fractured zones
were
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW encountered during the process of drilling the overlying rock. During the process, the
5 of 14
hole started to lose water, and the drill ended when no water returned. Consequently, the
end position of the hole can be regarded as the height of the overlying rock fissure zone.
The layout conditions of the holes are shown in Figure 3. Six boreholes were monitored.
monitored.
The Thewas
inclination inclination was 20° for
20◦ for borehole No.borehole No.No.
10, 30◦ for 10, 11,
30°40
for No.No.
◦ for 11, 6,
40°45for No.
◦ for No.6, 12,
45°
for No.
◦ 12, −20° for No. ◦9 and −35° for No. 8. The sign represents the direction,
−20 for No. 9 and −35 for No. 8. The sign represents the direction, defining the angle defining
the angle
with with the
the vertical vertical
stress, stress,
and is andin
positive is the
positive in the counterclockwise
counterclockwise direction and direction
negativeand in
the clockwise direction. The methane roadway was in coal seam E, and beneathE,was
negative in the clockwise direction. The methane roadway was in coal seam andcoal
be-
neathF15.
seam was coal seam F15.

Figure3.3.Schematic
Figure Schematiclayout
layoutof
ofdrilling.
drilling.
Taking 1# as an example, there is no need of angle conversion because it is vertical.
Taking 1# as an example, there is no need of angle conversion because it is vertical.
The measured altitude at the start point of the hole was −560 m, and that of the end point
The measured altitude at the start point of the hole was −560 m, and that of the end point
was −620 m. When experimenting with bored imaging on 1#, the working face of the F
was −620 m. When experimenting with bored imaging on 1#, the working face of the F
coal seam was directly beneath the methane roadway. The expansion columnar image
coal seam was directly beneath the methane roadway. The expansion columnar image
received from bored imaging is shown in Figure 4. Ten cracks were observed and signed
received from bored imaging is shown in Figure 4. Ten cracks were observed and signed
in red marks. The results are shown in Table 2. With the increasing depth of the hole, the
bottom of the hole was closer to the mining area. Meanwhile, the fissure became closer,
and the angle of the fissure grows larger. Finally, the fissure zone was developed. The
more broken the rock was, the larger the width of the fissure. The distribution of the fis-
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4703 5 of 13

in red marks. The results are shown in Table 2. With the increasing depth of the hole, the
bottom of the hole was closer to the mining area. Meanwhile, the fissure became closer,
and the angle of the fissure grows larger. Finally, the fissure zone was developed. The
more broken the rock was, the larger the width of the fissure. The distribution of the
fissure influenced by mining is related to the characteristic and integrity of the strata. The
fissure in the hard strata is relatively larger, and the fissures inside usually have a large
angle; soft strata has relatively more fissures, and the fissures inside are crisscrossed. When
it is closer to the broken zone of the coal seam, the fissures inside the strata are mainly
made up with horizontal fissures, and the abscission layer appears. Figure 5 shows four
kinds of typical fracture shapes after propagation. Four kinds of typical fracture include
bedding, horizontal fracture, vertical fracture and fracture zone. The upper part of the
rock mass is mainly composed of primary fractures. The downward part has the trend of
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 14
transforming from horizontal fractures to vertical fractures. The fracture zone appeared
near the coal seam.

Figure 4.
Figure 4. Part
Part of
of the
the columnar
columnar expanded
expanded view
view of
of the
the No.
No. 11 drilling
drilling hole.
hole.

The borehole imaging data acquisition work was carried out for the drill hole from
15 August to 15 September. The original fractures of geological coring and the impact
of mining conditions were analyzed. The geological loggings were carried out for the
drilling core to record the location, occurrence and other information relating to the original
fractures upon the completion of drilling. In the whole observation section, 1455 fractures
were counted by using the method of combining geological coring with borehole television.
In addition, 1208 pieces of cracks nearly did not expand and were less affected by mining.
We also defined the main crack with its detailed growth trend. Excluding the influence of
primary fractures, the statistical analysis of 274 main fractures with obvious development
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4703 6 of 13

shows that there are 47 fractures with a dip angle of less than 20◦ , accounting for about
17%, mostly appearing at the depth of 0 to 50 m. The minimum dip angle of the cracks
is 8◦ . There are 159 cracks with the dip angle between 20◦ and 50◦ , accounting for about
58%. The number of cracks in this part is the largest, and most of them are in the area of
50–110 m, which is the transition area from transverse cracks to oblique cracks. There are
68 cracks with the dip angle greater than 50◦ , accounting for about 25%. The cracks in
this part are mainly concentrated below 110 m. Among them, there are two cracks with
inclination angles greater than 70◦ , which are 70.13◦ and 70.39◦ , respectively. Figure 6
shows the statistics of the number of typical cracks. Therefore, it can be inferred that the
initial crack initiation angle is about 8◦ and the final crack propagation angle is 70.4◦ .

Table 2. Part of the original data.

Number Starting Depth/m Ending Depth/m Ending Altitude/m Core Attribute

L = 0.586 cm
1 12.525 12.578 −12.578
∠20.63◦
L = 1.591 cm
2 20.258 20.338 −20.338
∠32.06◦
L = 1.590 cm
3 27.483 27.588 −27.588
∠39.82◦
L = 1.748 cm
4 37.537 37.665 −37.665
∠45.19◦
L = 1.854 cm
5 45.166 45.299 −45.299
∠56.05◦
L = 2.419 cm
6 52.349 52.431 −52.431
Figure 4. Part of the columnar expanded view of the No. 1 drilling hole. ∠70.39◦

(a–d)Measured
Figure5.5.(a–d)
Figure Measuredtypical
typicalfissure
fissurefigure.
figure.
 area of 50–110 m, which is the transition area from transverse cracks to oblique cracks. There
are 68 cracks with the dip angle greater than 50°, accounting for about 25%. The cracks in
this part are mainly concentrated below 110 m. Among them, there are two cracks with in-
clination angles greater than 70°, which are 70.13° and 70.39°, respectively. Figure 6 shows
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4703 the statistics of the number of typical cracks. Therefore, it can be inferred that the initial crack
7 of 13
initiation angle is about 8° and the final crack propagation angle is 70.4°.

Figure
Figure 6.
6. Typical
Typical number
number of
of crack
crack statistics.
statistics.

3.3. Analysis on
3.3. Analysis on the
the Theory
Theory of
of Broken
Broken Strata
Strata
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 14
In geotechnical
In geotechnical engineering,
engineering, to to evaluate
evaluate whether
whether thethe fissures
fissures inside
inside the
the strata
strata can
can
turn to macroscopic broken zone under external force, the stress intensity
turn to macroscopic broken zone under external force, the stress intensity factor should factor should be
considered
be considered and the rules for broken should be used together [19].
Fracturedand
Fractured rock
rock
theisrules
beard
is beard
forwith
broken shouldstress.
complex
with complex
be used
The
stress. The
together
maximum
maximum
[19].principal stress is σ 1.
principal stress is σ1 .
Taken a fissure with length of 2a in an infinite plane as an example,
Taken a fissure with length of 2a in an infinite plane as an example, the angle the angle between
between the
the
fissure and minimum principal stress(σ 3) is φ, the force condition of the fissure is shown
fissure and minimum principal stress(σ3 ) is ϕ, the force condition of the fissure is shown in
in Figure
Figure 7. 7.

Figure7.
Figure 7. Crack
Crack stress
stress field
fieldanalysis.
analysis.

The tangential stress  xy and normal stress  xx in the fissure surface are:
The tangential stress σxy and normal stress σxx in the fissure surface are:

σ − σ3
σxy = Ct 1 1 −  sin 2ϕ (1)
 xy = Ct 2 3 sin 2 (1)
2
σxx = Cn (σ1 cos2 ϕ + σ3 sin2 ϕ) (2)
 xx = Cn (1 cos2  +  3 sin 2  ) (2)
In the equation, Ct is the shearing transferring coefficient and Cn is the compression
transferring coefficientC[20].
In the equation, t is the shearing transferring coefficient and C n is the compres-
The slide driving force in the fissure surface is:
sion transferring coefficient [20].
The slide driving force in the fissure
Ts = surface
σxy + f σis:
xx (3)
Ts =  xyof+thef
In the equation, f refers to the coefficient xx
sliding friction.
(3)

In the equation, f refers to the coefficient of the sliding friction.

Due to the existence of a pre-existing fissure, the top of the fissure appeared to be
singular. The angle between the top determined by the slide driving force and the pre-
existing fissure is  , where the tangential stress is defined as   .
3 TS a 
 = sin  cos (4)
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4703 8 of 13

Due to the existence of a pre-existing fissure, the top of the fissure appeared to be
singular. The angle between the top determined by the slide driving force and the pre-
existing fissure is θ, where the tangential stress is defined as σθ .
√
3 TS πa θ
σθ = √ sin θ cos (4)
2 2πr 2

According to Cotterell and Rice’s suggestion [21,22], the intensity factor of tiny fissure
I on top of the fissure is shown in the following equation:

3 √ θ
KI = Ts πa sin θ cos F (5)
2 2
where F is the stress strength influence coefficient of the fissure.
The place where the dislocation most likely occurs, and is caused by shear stress, is
the direction where the maximum efficient shear stress exits, and it can be derived from
Equation (6):
∂TS ∂2 Ts
= 0, 2 < 0 (6)
∂ϕ ∂ ϕ
Further, the following equation is derived:

Ct
tan(2ϕ) = (7)
f Cn

when Cn = 1, equals σxx = σ1 cos2 ϕ + σ3 sin2 ϕ, the force to the fissure is at its limit position,
indicating that the fissure only bears tensile stress, and the strata is most likely to break at
this moment. Then, we have the following equation:

3 √ θ √ θ
K I = ( σxy πa sin θ cos + σxx πa cos3 ) F (8)
2 2 2
The biggest angle θ can be obtained from the derivation of nine, and the equation is:

θ θ
σxx tan + σxy (2 tan2 − 1) = 0 (9)
2 2

3.4. Big Data Analysis for Crack Propagation Angle

The development law of the fissure under the influence of mining can be analyzed
based on theoretical analysis and the initial azimuth of the pre-existing fissure. The
numerical simulation is used to analyze the distribution of the stress and plastic zone
under mining conditions, and the stress value is used in the theoretical formula to calculate
the crack propagation angle. To simplify the calculation, the middle stress σ2 is ignored,
and the layer with an altitude of −514 m (−785 m) is considered as the top (bottom) layer
of the model. According to the stress data, the upper surface is loaded with 17.48 MPa
of vertical stress, and the direction of the stress is downward; on the right of the model,
trapezoidal load ranging from 31.43 MPa to 34.32 MPa is loaded on the model, and the
stress direction is horizontal leftward. The left boundary of the model is horizontally fixed,
and the bottom boundary of the model is vertically fixed. Table 3 shows the current stress
of different drilling depths. Figure 8 illustrates the stress contours during drilling, and
Figure 9 shows the stress contours after excavation.
 The biggest angle  can be obtained from the derivation of nine, and the equation
is:
 
 xx tan +  xy (2 tan 2 − 1) = 0 (9)
2 2

Sustainability 2023, 15, 4703 3.4. Big Data Analysis for Crack Propagation Angle 9 of 13

The development law of the fissure under the influence of mining can be analyzed
based on theoretical analysis and the initial azimuth of the pre-existing fissure. The nu-
merical Current stress
Table 3.simulation of different
is used drilling
to analyze depths.
the distribution of the stress and plastic zone under
mining conditions, and the stress value is used in the theoretical formula to calculate the
Stress before Excavation/MPa
crack propagation angle. To simplify
Depth/m the calculation, the middleStress
stressafter Excavation/MPa
 2 is ignored,
Number
and the layer with an altitude of −514 σ1 m (−785 m) is considered
σ3 as the σtop
1 (bottom) layerσ3
of the model.
1 According
−560 to the stress data,
22.77 the upper surface
0 is loaded with
44.45 17.48 MPa 0of
−570
vertical2 stress, and the direction of 31.71
the stress is downward;
13.65 on the right of the model, trap-
45.98 13.03
−580from 31.43 MPa
ezoidal3 load ranging 32.47to 34.32 MPa is 17.93 47.01 and the stress
loaded on the model, 15.42
4 −
direction is horizontal leftward. The left boundary of the model is horizontally fixed,16.85
590 32.26 21.12 50.49 and
5
the bottom −600 of the model38.53
boundary is vertically fixed.21.96
Table 3 shows 52.70
the current stress15.88
of
6 −610 37.86 22.18 52.44 14.47
different drilling depths. Figure 8 illustrates the stress contours during drilling, and Fig-
7 −620 39.30 22.46 51.33 12.85
ure 9 shows the stress contours after excavation.

Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 14

Stress
Figure8.8.Stress
Figure contours
contours during
during drilling.
drilling.

Figure
Figure9. 9.
Stress contours
Stress after
contours excavation.
after excavation.

Table 3.The
Current
limitstress of different
condition, whendrilling depths.
the rock mass only bears tensile stress and the inclination
is 20◦ , 30◦ , 40◦ , 45◦ , −35 ◦ or −20◦ , represents the maximum expansion angle at different
Stress before Excavation/MPa Stress after Excavation/MPa
depths. The results are shown in Table 4.
Number Depth/m
Figure 10 shows the maximum 1  3 with different
angle curve  3 drilling,
 1 azimuth during
and the maximum angle curve after excavation. All curves are in good agreement. The
1 −560 22.77 0 44.45 0
boundary between the rock stratum and the coal seam is −590 m. The fracture at −590 m
2 −570 31.71 13.65 45.98 13.03
3 −580 32.47 17.93 47.01 15.42
4 −590 32.26 21.12 50.49 16.85
5 −600 38.53 21.96 52.70 15.88
6 −610 37.86 22.18 52.44 14.47
 Sustainability 2023, 15, 4703 10 of 13

is different from that seen at other depths, indicating that the formation has a certain
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEWinfluence on the fracture propagation angle. Positive and negative signs represent 11 of 14 the
expanding direction of the fissure. The expansion of the fissure began with the top of the
fissure, and the expansion tended to parallel the maximum primary stress. As the mining
went on, the stress field redistributed. As the difference of primary stress increased, so
3 did the maximum
−590 −64.00
angle. When the initial−67.23
azimuth was−70.54 45◦ , the expansion −70.54
of the fissure
4 had nothing
−600to do with−65.31 −67.39 −70.54
the maximum and minimum primary stress, and the largest angle −70.54
5 of the fissure
−610 was 70.54 ◦ . Because mining
−65.10 −67.51 fissure is in−70.54
the dynamic process,−70.54 when the
6 expansion −620 −65.29 small, the−67.62
angle was relatively fissure was in an−70.54
unstable condition.−70.54 As the stress
condition changed, the expansion
Drilling of the fissure
Inclination −35°continued. WhenInclination
Drilling the expansion−20° angle was
relatively large, indicating when the initial azimuth reached 45◦ , the expansion angle of the
Number Depth/m  during the  during the
fissure could reach 70.54◦ . As for the  after Miningof the borehole asa negative
inclination after Miningvalue, the
Drilling Drilling
opposite direction of the fissure expansion was considered, and the results showed that the
1 expansion −570
of the fissure66.44
had the tendency 68.26 37.82
to parallel the maximum primary42.79
stress.
2 −580 64.08 67.79 32.48 41.42
3 Table 4. Crack
−590 expansion angle
60.90 due to different
67.72drilling inclinations.
26.88 41.24
4 −600 63.63 68.07
Drilling Inclination 20◦
31.58 42.25
Drilling Inclination 30◦
5 Number −610Depth/m 63.20 68.33 30.76 43.01
θ during the Drilling θ after Mining θ during the Drilling θ after Mining
6 −620 63.59 68.57 31.51 43.73
1 −570 −42.08 −47.90 −63.78 −66.87
2 −580 −35.80 −46.31 −59.86 −66.06
Figure
3 10 shows
−590 the maximum
−29.25 angle curve −
with
46.09 different azimuth
−54.76 during drilling,
−65.95
4 − 600 − 34.75 − 47.28 − 59.12
and the maximum angle curve after excavation. All curves are in good agreement. The − 66.56
5 −610 −33.78 −48.16 −58.42 −66.99
boundary6 between the rock stratum
−620 −34.66and the coal−seam
49.00 is −590 m. The fracture at −590
−59.06 m
−67.40
is different from that seen at other depths,
Drilling indicating
Inclination 40◦ that the formation
Drillinghas a certain
Inclination 45◦in-
fluenceNumber Depth/m propagation angle. Positive and negative signs represent the ex-
on the fracture θ during the Drilling θ after Mining θ during the Drilling θ after Mining
panding direction of the fissure. The expansion of the fissure began with the top of the
1 −570 −66.63 −67.47 −70.54 −70.54
fissure, and
2 the expansion
−580 tended to parallel the maximum
−65.52 −67.26 primary−stress.
70.54 As the mining −70.54
went on, 3the stress field redistributed.
−590 −64.00 As the difference−67.23 of primary stress increased,
−70.54 so
−70.54
4
did the maximum −600
angle. When−the 65.31initial azimuth −67.39 −70.54
was 45°, the expansion −70.54
of the fissure
5 −610 −65.10 −67.51 −70.54 −70.54
had nothing6 to do with the maximum
−620 −65.29 and minimum primary stress,−70.54
−67.62 and the largest angle−70.54
of the fissure was 70.54°. Because mining
Drilling fissure−is
Inclination 35◦in the dynamicDrilling
process, when the
Inclination −20ex-◦
pansionNumber Depth/m
angle was relatively small, the fissure was in an unstable condition. As the stress
θ during the Drilling θ after Mining θ during the Drilling θ after Mining
condition changed, the expansion of the fissure continued. When the expansion angle was
1 −570 66.44 68.26 37.82 42.79
relatively2large, indicating
−580 when64.08
the initial azimuth 67.79reached 45°, the expansion angle
32.48 of
41.42
the fissure3 could−reach
590 70.54°. As for the inclination
60.90 67.72of the borehole as a negative value,
26.88 41.24
4
the opposite −600 of the fissure
direction 63.63 expansion was 68.07
considered, and 31.58
the results showed 42.25
5 −610 63.20 68.33 30.76 43.01
that the expansion
6 of the fissure had
−620 63.59the tendency to parallel the maximum
68.57 31.51 primary stress. 43.73

20°during the drilling

20°after mining
-30

-35
θ (°)

-40

-45

-50
-620 -610 -600 -590 -580 -570
Depth (m)

(a)

Figure 10. Cont.

Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 14
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4703 11 of 13

30°during the drilling

-54 30°after mining

-56

-58

-60
θ (°)
-62

-64

-66

-68
-620 -610 -600 -590 -580 -570
Depth (m)

(b)

45°during the drilling

45°after mining

-66

-68

-70
θ (°)

-72

-74

-76

-620 -610 -600 -590 -580 -570

Depth (m)

(c)

70

65

60
-35°during the drilling
55 -35°after mining
-20°during the drilling
50
θ (°)

-20°after mining
45

40

35

30

25
-620 -610 -600 -590 -580 -570
Depth (m)
(d)
Figure 10. Maximum
Figure angleangle
10. Maximum curvecurve
with with
different azimuth
different during
azimuth drilling
during and excavation.
drilling (a) Drill-
and excavation. (a) Drilling
ing Inclination 20°.◦(b) Drilling Inclination 30°. ◦(c) Drilling Inclination 45°. ◦(d) Drilling Inclination
Inclination 20 . (b) Drilling Inclination 30 . (c) Drilling Inclination 45 . (d) Drilling Inclination −35◦
−35° and −20°.◦
and −20 .
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4703 12 of 13

4. Discussion
Drill holes are arranged in the upper part of the coal seam to observe the fracture
development trend. If the depth of the borehole is 40 to 50 m below and located in the
roof of the coal seam, the primary crack is observed at a certain initial angle. With the
development of the mining process, the secondary crack tends to be the same fixed angle.
It is indicated that this part is the fracture zone. And the fracture observed at the lower part
of the borehole is a mining fracture, which is easy to connect with each other and form a
horizontal separation layer. If the shallow part of the borehole is 10 m to 20 m, it can be
seen from the previous text that this part is obviously affected by the change of ground
stress. Generally, the fracture angle is not large, and this part of the fracture is considered a
primary fracture. Once there is mining impact, it will expand into a large-angle fracture,
before finally forming a new fracture zone. Therefore, the height of the fracture zone can be
determined by observing the fracture angle, and it can provide an important basis for the
simultaneous extraction of coal and gas.

5. Conclusions
By taking advantage of bored imaging technology, we analyze the evolution and
distribution characteristics of the fissure field and then form the following important
conclusions according to the fracture theory-based calculation:
The mining fissure distribution of the strata not only relates to the characteristics of
the strata, but also relates to the integrity of the strata. The fissure in the hard strata is
relatively larger, and the fissures inside are mainly of a large angle. On the other hand, the
soft strata have relatively more fissures, and the fissures inside are crisscrossed.
Comparing the results of local observation and analysis on fissure strata using fracture
theory, the largest expansion angle of the fissure is 70.54◦ , which is inconsistent with the
phenomenon that the amount of fissure with an angle more than 70◦ is relatively small.
Once there is any mining activity on the original fissure with a small angle, which
is located in the shallow layer, the influence will be extended to other areas. Meanwhile,
the deep mining angle will extend and move toward the same direction. This has a high
probability of producing the abscission layer and eventually leading to the breaking area.
Therefore, the height of the fissure zone can be judged by the observation of the fissure
angle, and it can provide an important basis for the simultaneous extraction of coal and gas.
This paper investigates the problem based on the drill hole, and does not consider
the fracture law of the whole overlying strata on soft rock ring in the drilling area. As a
possible future work, drill holes can be arranged at the entire range of the soft rock ring,
and the expansion angle of fissure at the entire breaking area with a different drilling angle
can be studied using bored imaging technique. In this way, the fracture law of the strata
will be further studied, which can be better applied to engineering practice.

Author Contributions: Methodology, X.Z.; Software, M.W.; Formal analysis, X.Z.; Investigation, D.F.;
Data curation, D.F.; Supervision, J.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This paper is funded by the Science and Technology Project of Hebei Education Department
(Grant Number: QN2021128) and Key Laboratory of Large Structure Health Monitoring and Control,
Shijiazhuang, 050043 (Grant Number: KLLSHMC2113).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: All datasets generated for this study are included in this paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4703 13 of 13

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