Fiziks: 1 S A A P D

fiziks
Institute for NET/JRF, GATE, IIT-JAM, M.Sc. Entrance, JEST, TIFR and GRE in Physics
CHAPTER 1
STABILITY ANALYSIS AND PHASE DIAGRAM
1.1 Energy Diagrams
We can often find the most interesting features of the motion of a one dimensional system by
using an energy diagram, in which the total energy E and the potential energy U are plotted as
functions of position. The kinetic energy K  E  U is easily found by inspection. Since kinetic
energy can never be negative, the motion of the system is constrained to regions where U  E .
1.1.1 Energy Diagram of Bounded Motion
Energy
U
K  E U
x2 x
x1
Here is the energy diagram for a harmonic oscillator. The potential energy U  kx 2 / 2 is a
parabola centered at the origin. Since the total energy is constant for a conservative system, E is
represented by a horizontal straight line. Motion is limited to the shaded region where E  U ;
the limits of the motion, x1 and x2 in the sketch, are sometimes called the turning points.
Here is what the diagram tells us. The kinetic energy, K  E  U is greatest at the origin. As the
particle flies past the origin in either direction, it is slowed by the spring and comes to a complete
rest at one of the turning points x1 , x2 . The particle then moves toward the origin with increasing
kinetic energy and the cycle is repeated.
The harmonic oscillator provides a good example of bounded motion. As E increases, the
turning points move farther and farther off, but the particle can never move away freely. If E
decreased, the amplitude of motion decreases, until finally for E  0 the particle lies at rest at
x 0.
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1.1.2 Energy Diagram of Unbounded Motion

The pot U  A / r , where A is positive. There is a distance of closest approach rmin , as shown in
the diagram, but the motion is not bounded for large r since U decreases with distance. If the
particle is shot toward the origin, it gradually losses kinetic energy until it comes momentarily to
rest at rmin . The motion then reverses and the particle moves back towards infinity. The final and
initial speeds at any point are identical; the collision merely reverses the velocity.
Energy
U
E
K  E U
rmin r
For positive energy, E  0 , the motion is unbounded, and the atoms are free to fly apart. As the
diagram indicates, the distance of closest approach, rmin , does not change appreciably as E is
increased. The kinetic energy will be zero at rmin and as r increases the potential energy
decreases, but kinetic energy K  E  U will increase sharply.

Example:
E1
E2 V1 V3
V2 x
a b c d e
V4
In the above figure, potential energy in different regions are given, where
V1  8 J , a  x  b V3  6 J , cxd
V  x   and V  x   
V2  3 J , b  x  c V4  4 J , d  x  e
The potential is assumed to be zero in all other regions.
(a) What will be kinetic energy in all region if total energy E is 10J ?
Solution: If ‘ T ’ is kinetic energy and ‘ V ’ is potential energy, then total energy E  T  V , so
kinetic energy is T  E  V .
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For total energy E  E1 all regions are classical allowed region.
So, in region x  a , V ( x)  0 , so T  10  0  10 J
In region a  x  b , V ( x)  V1  8 J so T  10  8  2 J
In region b  x  c , V ( x)  V2  3 J so T  10  3  7 J
In region c  x  d , V ( x)  V3  6 J so T  10  6  4 J
In region d  x  e , V ( x)  V4  4 so T  10  (4)  14 J
In region e  x , V ( x)  0 so T  10  0  10 J
(b) What will be kinetic energy in all regions, if total energy E is 5J ?
Solution: If T is kinetic energy and V is potential energy then total energy E  T  V , so kinetic
energy is T  E  V
So, in region x  a , V ( x)  0 so, T  5  0  5 J
In region a  x  b , V ( x)  V1  8 J hence V1  E2 so, T  0 (classical forbidden region)
In region b  x  c , V ( x)  V2  3 J so, T  5  3  2 J
In region c  x  d , V ( x)  V3  6 J  V3  E2 so, T  0 (classical forbidden region)
In region d  x  e , V ( x)  V4  4 so, T  5  (4)  9 J
In region e  x , V ( x)  0 so, T  5  0  5 J
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1.2 Stability and Instability in One Dimension

1.2.1 Equilibrium Point: Any potential can be function of generalized coordinate, generalized
velocity and time V  V  x, x, t  . The equilibrium point is defined where total external force on
V
the system is zero i.e. for any co-ordinate say x is said to be equilibrium point if  0 at
x
x  x0
 2V
1.2.2 Unstable Equilibrium Point: If x0 is maxima or (local maxima) i.e.  0 , then it is
x 2 x  x0
said to be unstable equilibrium point. Unstable equilibrium point always behaves like repulsive
point.
 2V
1.2.3 Stable Equilibrium Point: If x0 is minima or (local minima) i.e.  0 , then it is said
x 2 x  x0
to be stable equilibrium point. Stable equilibrium point always behaves as an attractive point.
x2 x4
Example: If potential in one dimension is given by V ( x)    then
2 4
(a) Find the point where potential is zero
(b) Find the equilibrium point.
(c) Find the stable and unstable equilibrium point
(d) Draw phase curve i.e. V ( x ) vs x for given energy
x2 x 4
Solution: (a) V ( x)  0    0  x 0, + 2 , - 2
2 4
V
(b) For equilibrium point  0   x  x3  0 . So there are three equilibrium points.
x
x1  0 , x2  1 , x3  1
 2V
(c) For discussion of stability and instability, we must find, 2
 1  3 x2 . For stable
x
 2V  2V
equilibrium  0 . At x2  1 and x3   1 the value of  2 which is greater than 0. For
x 2 x 2
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 2V  2V
unstable equilibrium point.  0 . At x1  0 , the value of  1 , which is less than 0 , so
x 2 x 2
it is unstable point.
V  x
(d) V ( x ) vs x
1 1
x
1
4
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1.3 Small Oscillations

V
Let us assume the potential V ( x ) has stable equilibrium point at x  x0 then  0 and
x x  x0
 2V
0
x 2 x  x0
The Taylor expansion of V ( x ) about x  x0 is given by

V 1  2V
V ( x )  V ( x0 )  ( x  x0 )  ( x  x0 ) 2  order( x  x0 )3 ......
x x  x0 2 x 2 x  x0
2
If term  x  x0  is small then higher order terms can be neglected, then potential energy is
1  2V V
equivalent to V ( x )  V ( x0 )  ( x  x0 ) 2 because 0
2 x 2 x  x0
x x  x0
V  2V
So, force is equal to F   , F  2 ( x  x0 ) . Hence, F  ( x  x0 ) and the motion is
x x x  x0
 2V
x 2 x  x0
small oscillation and the angular frequency is given by   , where m is mass of the
m
 2V
particle. The term k  is identified as spring constant.
x 2 x  x0
b
Example: If particle of mass m interact with potential ax 2  , then what will be the
x2
frequency of oscillation? (Assume oscillation is small)?
b
Solution: V  x   ax 2  2
x
V
For equilibrium point 0
x
1/ 4
2b b
2 ax  3  0  ax 4  b  0  x0    
x a
1/ 4
 2V 2.3b b
k  2  2a  4 . Now, put the value of x0    
x x  x0 x a
6b  a k 8a
k  2a   8a    
b m m
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1.4 Phase Portrait

1.4.1 Phase Curve
The curve between position and its conjugate momentum for a given value of energy is known as
phase space (curve).
A phase space of a dynamical system is a space in which all possible states of a system are
represented, with each possible state corresponding to one unique point in the phase space.
For mechanical system, the phase space usually consists of all possible values
of position and momentum variables.
Separatix: The part of phase curve that corresponds to energy E which separates (hence the
name) the phase space into two distinct areas.
Sign Convention of momentum: When particle is coming from negative x to positive x the
momentum has positive sign and when particle is coming from positive x to negative x the
momentum has negative sign.
Turning points: The value of x where Total energy E is equal to Potential energy V . At
turning points the kinetic energy will be zero so momentum Px will become zero.
Properties of phase curve

(1) For given values of energy Phase curve will be unique.
(2) The phase curve will never intersect.
(3) The phase curve can be bounded as well as unbounded.
The phase portrait is a geometrical representation of trajectories of dynamical system in phase
plane which is defined by generalized coordinate and its conjugate generalized momentum. The
phase trajectory about unstable equilibrium point is mainly unbounded but phase trajectory about
stable point is bounded and motion is defined as small oscillation.
How to draw a phase curve:
Step 1: Draw a curve of potential U ( x) Vs x , where U ( x) as vertical axis and x as horizontal
axis.
Step 2: Just below of potential U ( x) vs x curve, draw momentum P( x) as vertical axis and x as
horizontal axis.
Step 3: For different values of constant energy in U ( x) Vs x draw the trend of P( x) vs x in all
classical allowed region.
Step 4: Use sign convention as mention above.
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x2 x4
Example: If potential in one dimension is given by V ( x)    then plot the phase curve
2 4
i.e. curve between momentum p x as function of x for all possible range of energy E .
Solution: To plot phase curve first one should plot potential ( V vs x ), then on the same axis one
should plot momentum with common x axis.
We can check how momentum is changing with position keeping in mind how potential is
changing with position.
One will plot the phase curve by assuming that if the potential is increasing, then kinetic energy
will be decreasing and if the potential is decreasing, then kinetic energy will be increasing
because total energy will always remain constant. One should plot the phase curve for different
range of energy.
For example in the given potential, there are three range of energy.
1
Case 1: If   E  0 the particle has motion about stable equilibrium point x  1, 1 the
4
motion is bounded.
Case 2: If 0  E   the particle has motion about unstable equilibrium point x  0 the motion is
bounded.
Case 3: At E  0 the particle can be landed exactly at unstable equilibrium point which is nature
of transition from case 1 to case 2.
V  x
1 1
x
P  x E 0
E 0
x
E0
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Example: If potential in one dimension is given by V ( x)  kx 2 then plot the phase curve i.e.
curve between momentum p x as function of x for all possible range of energy E .
Solution: To plot phase curve first one should plot potential ( V vs x ), then on the same axis one
should plot momentum with common x axis . We can check how momentum is changing with
position keeping in mind how potential is changing for a given value of energy. For given value
px2 p2 x2
of potential the phase curve is hyperbolic as shown in equation E   kx 2  x  1
2m 2mE E / k
One will plot the phase curve by assuming that if the potential is increasing, then kinetic energy
will be decreasing and if potential is decreasing then kinetic energy will be increasing, because
total energy will always remain constant. One should plot the phase curve for different range of
energy. For example in this potential there are three range of energy
V x
E 0 E0
x
A A
E 0
E0
E0 E0
Case 1: E  0 , the particle will come from  . As it is approaches the potential its kinetic
energy as well as momentum decreases finally became zero at turning point A and turn back
towards  with increasing kinetic energy and momentum.
Same trend will also follow when particle approaching the potential from x   , for turning
point A .
Case 2: E  0 , the particle will come from x   . As it approaches the potential. its kinetic
energy as well as momentum decreases till x  0 . As it crosses x  0 and move towards x   ,
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again kinetic energy as well as momentum increases and same trend will be followed, when
particle approaches the potential to x   .
Case 3: E  0 , the particle can reach at x  0 , which is unstable equilibrium point and that
phase curve will also be separated between E  0 and E  0 , identified as separatix.
px2
E  kx 2 for E  0  p x   x which is straight line.
2m
p2
Example: The energy of simple pendulum is given by E   mga cos  , where p is
2ma 2
angular momentum and  mga cos  is potential energy.
V  
mga
 0  
 mga
E  mga
Pq
E  mga
 mga  E  mga
One will plot the phase curve by assuming that if the potential energy is increasing, then kinetic
energy will be decreasing and if the potential energy is decreasing then kinetic energy will be
increasing, because total energy will always remain constant. One should plot the phase curve for
different range of energy. For example in this potential there are three range of energy.
The stable equilibrium point is   0 .    and    are unstable equilibrium points.
Case 1: For energy  mga  E  mga particle is bounded about stable equilibrium point .so
phase curve is periodic.
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Case 2: For energy E  mga motion will become unbounded and phase curve will be a periodic.
Liberation will take place.
Case 3: For energy E  mga particle will reach at unstable equilibrium point it also separate two
type of motion (mention in case 1 and case 2) identified as separatix.
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Questions
MCQ (Multiple Choice Questions)
Q1. A particle of mass m interacts with potential energy function V  V  x  . Particle executes small
oscillation about point x  x0 , then which one is correct property of V  x 
I. At x  x0 , the force is zero and momentum is maximum for conservation system.
1
II. The potential energy can be approximated for small oscillation as V  x   V0  k x  x 0 
2
d 2V
where V0 is constant and k  is force constant.
dx 2 x  x0
(a) Only I (b) Only II (c) Both I and II (d) Neither I nor II
Q2. Suppose V ( x ) is potential energy function then which one is correct statement?
Statement 1: If at any point x  a1 , the total energy is equal to potential energy then x  a1 is
turning point.
Statement 2: If at any point x  a2 is maxima, then a2 is stable equilibrium point and if any
point x  a2 is minima then a2 is unstable equilibrium point
Statement 3: The phase curve around x  a2 is bounded and execute simple harmonic motion if
a2 is minima of curve
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3 (c) 2 and 3 (d) all are correct
Q3. A particle of unit mass moves along the x -axis under the influence of a potential,
2
V  x   x  x  4  . The particle is found to be in stable equilibrium at the point. The angular
frequency of oscillation of the particle is

1 1
(a) 2 (b) 8 (c) (d)
2 8
b
Q4. A particle of unit mass moves in a potential V  x   ax  , where a and b are positive constants.
x
The angular frequency of small oscillations about the minimum of the potential is
1 1 1 1
 a3  4  b3  4  a3  2  b3  2
(a)   2   (b)   2   (c)   2   (d)   2  
b a b a
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Q5. We can find state of system in classical mechanics when we can find
(a) Position x(t ) at time t
(b) Velocity xt  at time t
(c) Both position x(t ) and velocity xt  at time t
(d) Any of position x(t ) and velocity xt  at time t .
cx
Q6. A particle of mass m moves under a potential energy V  x   where c and a are
 x  a2
2

positive constants. If the particle executes small oscillation about stable equilibrium point, then
time period of oscillation is given by
2ma 2ma ma ma
(a)  a (b) 2 a (c)  a (d) 2 a
c c c c
Q7. Consider a Hamiltonian system with a potential energy function given by V  x   x 2  x 4 . If a
particle of mass m  1 oscillates about stable equilibrium point then time period of oscillation is
given by
(a) 2  (b) 2 (c)  (d) 

2 2
Q8. Consider a particle of mass m moving in one dimension under a force with potential
 
U  x   k 2 x3  5 x 2  4 x where k  0 . If the particle oscillates about the stable equilibrium
point then time period of oscillation is given by
2m m 2m m
(a)  (b) 2 (c) 2 (d) 
k k k 2k
1 1
Q9. A particle of mass m is moving in the potential V x    ax 4  bx 6 where a, b are positive
4 6
constants. The angular frequency of small oscillations about a point of stable equilibrium is
2a 2 a2 a2 a2
(a) (b) 2 (c) (d)
bm bm bm 2bm
Q10. A particle moves under the influence of the potential V  x   A / x 2  B / x , where A , B  0 . The
time period of small oscillations around the equilibrium point is
mA3 2mA3 2mA3 8mA3

(a) 2 (b) 4 (c) 2 (d) 4
B4 B4 B4 B4
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x 2 x3
Q11. The potential is given by V  x    . Which one of the following is a correct plot of V  x  ?
2 3
V x V  x
(a) (b)
x x
V  x
V  x
(c) (d)
x
x
Q12. Which of the following system in column A match correctly with column B?
(A) System (B) Phase Curve
Pq
(I) One dimensional Harmonic oscillation with
1
potential V (q )  kq 2
2 q
I
Pq
(II) Simple Pendulum with potential

q
V ( q )   k cos q
II
(III) Particle trapped in one dimensional rigid box Pq
o q
(a) (I) and (II) (b) (II) and (III)
(c) (I) and (III) (d) (I), (II) and (III)
III
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Q13. If potential of the system is given by V ( x)  kx2 , which of the following is phase space for
E 0?
px px
(a) (b)
x
x
px px
(c) (d)
x x
Q14. The trajectory on the z  pz plane (phase-space trajectory) of a ball confined into a potential
V ( z )  z 4 is approximately given by (neglect friction).

PZ PZ
(a) (b)
z z
PZ PZ
(c) (d)
z z
Q15. A particle of mass m moves in one dimension in a potential V  x    k 2 x 4   2 x 2 where k and

 are constants. Then which of the following is correct?
2 2
(1) The particle will execute small oscillation about x  0 with angular frequency
m
(2) There is only bounded motion possible
(a) Only 1 is correct (b) Only 2 is correct
(c) Both 1 and 2 are correct (d) Neither 1 nor 2 are correct
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Q16. Which of the following figures is a schematic representation of the phase space trajectories (i.e.,
contours of constant energy) of a particle moving in a one-dimensional potential V  x    cos x
p p
(a) (b)
x
x
p p
(c) (d)
x x
Q17. The plot of potential V  x  vs x in one dimension is as V  x

shown in the figure. V0
x
O
Then the phase curve is given by
P  x
P  x
(a) (b)
x x
(c) P  x (d) P  x
x x
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NAT (Numerical Answer Type)

b
Q18. A particle of unit mass moves in a potential V x   ax 2  , where a and b are positive
x2

constants. The time period of small oscillations about the minimum of the potential is , then
a
value of  is __________ (answer must be upto two decimal point )
Q19. Consider a Hamiltonian system with a potential energy function given by V  x   x 2  x 4 . If a
particle of mass m  1 oscillates about stable equilibrium point then angular frequency of
oscillation is ________
Q20. A particle of unit mass moves along the x -axis under the influence of a potential,
2
V  x   x  x  4  . The stable equilibrium point is identified as________
Q21. Consider a particle of mass m moving in one dimension under a force with potential
 
U  x   k 2 x3  5 x 2  4 x where k  0 . The force will be maximum at _________
Q22. The potential energy of a particle moving in a one-dimensional potential is given by

1 1
V  x    x 2  x 4 , then unstable equilibrium point will correspond to energy E  _______
2 4
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Solutions
MCQ (Multiple Choice Questions)
Ans. 1: (c)
Solution: At x  x0 potential energy is minimum. Since total energy is constant therefore, K. E. is
maximum. So momentum is maximum.
From Taylor’s expansion V  x  can be approximated as
V  x  x0   2V
2
V x   V x 0    x  x 0    ...........
x 2 x 2 x 0
3 4
 x  x0    x  x0   ......... is very small.
So it can be zero.
V 2 1  2V
 V  x   V  x0    x  x0    x  x0 
x x  x0 2 x 2 x 0
V
hence V  x  is min 0
x
so force  0
1  2V  2V
hence V  x   V x0    x  x0 2 so k 
2 x 2 x 0
x 2 x  x0
Ans. 2: (b)
Solution: At x  a1 , E  V ( x ) i.e. momentum p is zero then x  a1 is turning point.
V  2V
 0 and  0 , then it is minima which is also attractive point so it is stable point.
x x 2
For small displacement around x  a2 is bounded and execute simple harmonic oscillator.
Ans. 3: (b)
2
Solution: V  x   x  x  4  for equilibrium point
V
 0  ( x  4) 2  2 x ( x  4)  0  ( x  4)  3 x  4   0
x
4
x  4, x 
3
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 2V
 (3 x  4)  3( x  4)  6 x  16
x 2
 2V
At x  4 ,  6 x  16  8  0 ; which is stable equilibrium point
x 2
4  2V
and at x  ,  6 x  16  4  0 , so it is an unstable equilibrium point.
3 x 2
 2V
x 2 x 4 8
   8
m 1
Ans. 4: (a)
1
b V b  b 2
Solution: V  x   ax    0  a  2  0 ax 2  b  0  x0     .
x x x a
k  2V
Since   , m  1 and k  2 where x0 is stable equilibrium point.
m x x  x
0
2 3
 V 2b a
Hence k  2
 3 2 .
x x0 b
1
 a3  4
Thus   2   .
b
Ans. 5: (c)
Ans. 6: (b)
Solution: 
V  c a2  x2 
 0  x1  a, x2  a

0 2 2
 x  x a 2
 
  2V  2cx x 2  3a 2  
 2  3
 x  
x2  a2 
  2V  c
At x1  a,  2   3  0  x1 is stable equilibrium
 x  2a
  2V  c
At x1  a,  2    3  0  x2 is unstable equilibrium
 x  2a
 2V
x 2 x  x1 c 2ma
  3
, T  2 a
m 2ma c
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Ans. 7: (a)
V 1
Solution: V  x   x 2  x 4 ,
x
 
 2 x  4x 3  0  2x 1  2 x 2  0  x   , 0
2
 2V
 2  12 x 2
dx 2
V  2V
For stable point  0 and 0
x x
 2V 1  2V
 2  12   4  0 and 20
dx 2 x 
1 2 x 2 x 0
2
 2V
x 2 x0 2
  2  2  T  2
m T
Ans. 8: (a)
dU 2
Solution:
dx
 
 0  k 6 x 2  10 x  4  0  x  1, x 
3
d 2U
 k 12x  10 
dx2
2
d 2U 2 d U
For x  1 ,  2 k  0 and for x  ,  2k  0 So
dx 2 3 dx2
2k 2 2k m 2m
    T  2 
m T m 2k k
Ans. 9: (a)
1 1
Solution: V  x    ax 4  bx 6
4 6
1
V  a 2
 0  ax3  bx5  0  x 3   a  bx 2   0  x     , 0
x b
2 2
V V
 2  3ax 2  5bx 4  At x  0, 2  0
x x
Thus x  0 is a saddle point.
 2V a a 2 2a 2
1  3a.  5b 2  (Positive, so it is a stable point)
x 2  a 2
x  
b b b
b
 2V
2
  x 2  2 a
m bm
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Ans. 10: (c)

Solution: The first thing we need to do is calculate the equilibrium point x0 . The minimum occurs where
2A B 2A
0  V  x   3
 2  x  x0 .
x x B
The Second derivative of V  x  is
6 A 2B
V   x   
x4 x3
Plugging in x0  2 A / B , we find
V   x0  B4 2 B4 8mA3
     T  2 .
m 8mA3 T 8mA3 B4
Ans. 11: (b)
dV
Solution:  0  x  x 2  0  x  0, x  1 are equilibrium points.
dx V  x
d 2V
 1  2x
dx 2 x
d 2V
At x  0,  1  0 , which is stable equilibrium point.
dx 2
So, it is minima of the curve.
d 2V
At x  1,  1  0 , which is unstable equilibrium point. So it is maxima of the curve.
dx 2
Ans. 12: (d)
1 2 V (q)
Solution: For harmonic oscillation, V (q)  kq
2
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For simple pendulum, V ( q)   k cos q V q
Pq
For particle in Box,

q
Px2
E 2mE
2m
o x
 Px2  2mE  Px   2mE
Ans. 13: (c)  2mE
Solution: V x
E0
px
E0 E0
Ans. 14: (b) V ( z)

Solution: V  z   z 4
z
P
z
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Ans. 15: (a)

Solution: V  x    k 2 x 4   2 x 2
For equation point V  x

V 2
 0  4k 2 x3  2 2 x  0 , x  0 or x 2  2
x 2k x
2
dV
Now,  12k 2 x 2  2 2 . At, x  0
dx 2 Px
d 2V
2
 2 2 , x  0 is minimum. x
dx
2 d 2V 2 
2
At, x 2  and   12 k  2 2  4 2
2k 2 dx 2 2k 2
2
Hence, x   is maxima. Both bounded and unbounded motions are possible
2k 2
Ans. 16: (d)
Ans. 17: (b) V x
E  V0
V0
E  V0
x
O
E0 E  V0
V  x
x
O
0  E  V0
E  V0
0  E  V0
Ans. 18: 2.22
1
b V 2b  b 4
Solution: V  x   ax  2 
2
 0  2ax  3  0  ax 4  b  0   x0    .
x x x a
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k  2V
Since   , m  1 and k  2 where x0 is stable equilibrium point.
m x x  x0
1
 2V 6b 6b  b 4
Hence k  2  2a  4  2a   8a at x  x0    .
x x0 b a
a
2 2  1
Thus   8a   8a  T    2.22 .
T 8a 2a a
Ans. 19: 1.414
V 1
Solution: V  x   x 2  x 4 ,
x
 
 2 x  4 x 3  0  2x 1  2 x 2  0  x   , 0
2
 2V
 2  12 x 2
dx 2
V  2V
For stable point  0 and 0
x x
 2V 1  2V
 2  12   4  0 and 20
dx 2 x 
1 2 x 2 x 0
2
 2V
x2 x 0
  2  1.414
m
Ans. 20: 4
2
Solution: V  x   x  x  4  for equilibrium point
V
 0  ( x  4) 2  2 x ( x  4)  0  ( x  4)  3 x  4   0
x
4
x  4, x 
3
 2V
 (3x  4)  3( x  4)  6 x  16
x 2
 2V
At x  4 ,  6 x  16  8  0 ; which is stable equilibrium point
x 2
4  2V
and at x  ,  6 x  16  4  0 , so it is an unstable equilibrium point.
3 x 2
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Ans. 21: 0.833 F

Solution: U  x   k 2 x3  5x 2  4 x  5
6
x
dU 2
dx
 
 k 6 x 2  10 x  4  0 x  1, x 
3
dU
F  x  
dx
 
 k 6 x 2  10 x  4 x , which is maximum at 0.833
Ans. 22: 0
 x2 x 4
Solution: V  x   
2 4 V  x
V
 0  x  0, x  1 x
x
 2V
 ve for x  0 (unstable point)
x 2
= positive for x  1 (stable point)
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1.1.2 Energy Diagram of Unbounded Motion

decreases, but kinetic energy K  E  U will increase sharply.

For total energy E  E1 all regions are classical allowed region.

In region c  x  d , V ( x)  V3  6 J  V3  E2 so, T  0 (classical forbidden region)

In region d  x  e , V ( x)  V4  4 so, T  5  (4)  9 J

1.2 Stability and Instability in One Dimension

1.3 Small Oscillations

The Taylor expansion of V ( x ) about x  x0 is given by

1.4 Phase Portrait

Properties of phase curve

curve between momentum p x as function of x for all possible range of energy E .

oscillation about point x  x0 , then which one is correct property of V  x 

I. At x  x0 , the force is zero and momentum is maximum for conservation system.

point x  a2 is minima then a2 is unstable equilibrium point

frequency of oscillation of the particle is

(a) 2  (b) 2 (c)  (d) 

point then time period of oscillation is given by

time period of small oscillations around the equilibrium point is

mA3 2mA3 2mA3 8mA3

(II) Simple Pendulum with potential

V ( z )  z 4 is approximately given by (neglect friction).

Q15. A particle of mass m moves in one dimension in a potential V  x    k 2 x 4   2 x 2 where k and

Q17. The plot of potential V  x  vs x in one dimension is as V  x

NAT (Numerical Answer Type)

Q22. The potential energy of a particle moving in a one-dimensional potential is given by

Ans. 10: (c)

For simple pendulum, V ( q)   k cos q V q

For particle in Box,

Ans. 14: (b) V ( z)

Ans. 15: (a)

For equation point V  x

Ans. 21: 0.833 F

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