Chapter 1

Properties and
Testing Methods
of metals
 Mechanical properties
Examples:
 Strength
 Hardness
 Toughness
 Ductility
 Strength
The ability to resist the application of
force without rupture.
The force may be:
Force
1. tensile
2. compressive
3. shear

Rivets
Stress: The ratio of the force and area
of the material on which
the force is acting

Force
Stress =
Cross-sectional area
( Newtons /mm2 )
A Rod, Diameter 10mm, Apply 30,000N
tensile force, Calculate The Tensile Stress
30,000N

10
xd2 3.14x102
Cross-sectional area = ----------------- = mm2
4 4
= 78.54 mm2

30,000 N
Tensile stress= ------------------- = 381.97 N / mm2
78.54 mm2
 Tensile Test
 A test-sample
subjected to a
tensile force
 Record the force
applied and
increment in length
of the test-piece

http://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/mechanical-
testing/media.php?type=video&file=annealed1.mov&caption=Full%20tensile%20test%20of
%20annealed%20copper%20speeded%20up%2020%20times&width=360&height=270&popu
p=1
Test Sample 5d

=
Gauge Length Lo
d

Diameter d Cross-sectional area Ao = d2/4

The gauge length is the part of the specimen
where the test is conducted.
Lo  5.65 Ao

Gauge length L0= 5 d

Force M Maximum point
(N)
Elastic limit
A
Yield point

O
Elastic Plastic extension Necking
Extension (mm)
http://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/mechanical-testing/videos/annealed1.mov

Click me
 The highest
force which may
Force Elastic Limit: The
highest force which M: Maximum Point be applied to a
(N) may be applied to a
material without
material without
fracture.
permanent
deformation. Yield Point:
The starting
Elastic limit
force required to
start plastic
Yield point
deformation.

Permanent
Nonpermanent Non-recoverable
Recoverable

O
Elastic Plastic extension Necking
Extension (mm)

http://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/mechanical-testing/videos/annealed1.mov

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 Force M

Extension (mm)
Ultimate Tensile Strength (U.T.S):
The maximum tensile load over by the
original cross sectional area
Maximum Load
U.T.S. =
Original Cross Sectional Area
 Force A
N Y

Extension (mm)
Yield stress:
The force at the yield point over by the
original cross sectional area
Force at Yield Point
Yield stress =
Original Cross Sectional Area
http://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/metal-forming-2/printall.php

Video on deep drawing

 Lo
d Before Test
d
After Test
du
Lu
 Lo
d Before Test
d
After Test
du
Lu

Percentage Elongation E%
Lu-L0
E% = x100%
L0
L0 = Original gauge length, Lu = Final gauge length
 Lo
d Before Test
d
After Test
du
Lu
Percentage Reduction in Area A%
A0-Au
A% = x100%
A0
A0 = Original cross sectional area= d2/4
Au = the smallest cross sectional area after test= du2/4
 Activity 2:
A cylindrical steel specimen having a diameter of 8 mm was subjected
to tensile test. The force-extension curve was plotted.

(a) The original gauge length

13000
L0=5d=40(mm)
11000
(b) Original cross-sectional area Fracture

A0= (8)2/4=50.26 (mm2)

(b) The yield strength in N/mm2
6000
Yield strength=11,000/50.26 X
4000
=218.86 (N/mm2)
2000

(c) Ultimate tensile strength in N/mm2

0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18
Extension (mm)
UTS=13,000/50.26
=258.65 (N/mm2)
Force
N

Extension ( mm )
Proof stress ( off-set yield strength)

is the stress required to start a specified

amount of permanent extension in the
material.
0.5% Proof stress
the stress which will produce a
permanent extension of 0.5% in the
gauge length of the test-piece.
 Find 0.5% Proof Stress
Force
N 9000
0.5% Proof Force Diameter is 5 mm
Gauge length =5d=25 mm
7000
0.5% Gauge length =0.5%x25
= 0.125 (mm)
5000 The force produces 0.125 mm
extension is 9000 N
3000 0.5%Proof Stress= 9000/(3.14x5x5/4)
=459 N/mm2

Extension ( mm )
0.5%Permanent Deformation
0.5% Proof stress
Steps to calculate the 0.5% Proof Stress
1. Calculate gauge length 5d
2. Extension of 0.5% gauge length
=0.5%x Gauge Length
3. Mark off the extension of 0.5% Gauge length
at X-axis
4. Draw a line parallel with the straight line
5. The force at intersection point is
0.5% Proof Force
6. 0.5% Proof Stress = ___0.5% Proof Force_______
Original cross sectional area
Activity 3: Calculate the 0.5% Proof Stress
A specimen having a diameter of 10 mm was subjected to tensile test. The force-
extension curve was plotted. Force
N

10000
1 Calculate the original gauge length =
L0=5d=50(mm)
8000
2 Calculate the extension of 0.5% of gauge length =
Extension of 0.5% gauge length = 0.5%x50=0.25 mm
3 Mark off the extension of 0.5% of gauge length in the 6000

extension axis
4000
4 Draw a line parallel to the straight line portion of the
graph 2000

5 Read the 0.5% proof force at the interception point 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

10,000 Extension mm
6 0.5% proof stress
= 10,000/(10)2/4=10,000/78.5
=127.39 N/mm2
 Force (N)
Stress =
Original cross-sectional area (mm2)

Extension ( mm )
______________________
Strain=
Gauge length ( mm)
Stress
N/mm2 A
B

elastic
stress

O Strain
Young's Modulus of Elasticity
Stress (N/mm2 )
= -------------------- (within the elastic limit)
Strain (mm/mm)

is a measure of the stiffness of a material.

The slope of the straight portion of the
stress-strain curve
Stress A

Strain
Calculate Young’s Modulus

Force Original diameter=12 mm

Gauge length = 5d = 60 mm
3.14x12x12
Cross-section area= 4
20 KN X =113 mm2
Stress at point X=
________
20 K N
=0.177
113.1 mm2
KN/mm2
0.054 mm
________
Strain= = 0.0009
60 mm

Stress 0.177K N/mm2

_________
E= = 0.0009
Strain

=196.7 KN/mm2
0.054 mm extension
Activity 4: Young’s Modulus of Elasticity Force
N
Force/extension curves of four different types of
20000 A
materials are shown below.
B
16000
1. Which material has the highest stiffness and
why? 12000
C
A has the highest stiffness as it has the steepest
D
gradient in the straight portion of the curve. 8000

2. Compare & contrast the elastic behaviour of

4000
materials B and C.
B & C have the same modulus of elasticity, same 0

stiffness, but B has higher elastic limit than C Extension mm

3. Discuss the importance of the modulus of

elasticity for the engineering applications such as
beams or columns.
Modulus of elasticity is the important property for
many engineering applications such as beam,
column, shaft, axle etc,
High modulus of elasticity, i.e. stiffness is essential
to avoid elastic buckling.
 Ductility
is the ability of a material to undergo
plastic ( permanent ) deformation due to
a tensile stress before fracture.
 Ductility
The ductility may be indicated from:
 The tensile test, E% & A%
 Bend test Bend Test
Examples of
 Cupping test ductile metals:
Cupping Test Copper, Aluminium,
Gold, Silver

Test
Piece Punch
 Operations that require good ductility:
Wire Drawing

Pulling the Wire

http://www.braxtonmfg.c die
om/animation-large.htm

http://www.braxtonmfg.com/animation-56k.htm
 Malleability
is defined as the ability of a material to
deform plastically ( permanently ) due to
a compressive stress before fracture.
 Malleability
Operations that require good malleability:
(a) Cold heading of rivets, bolts.
(b) Hammering /stamping
Examples of malleable metals:
Lead, gold, silver, copper, aluminium
 Brittleness
A tendency to fracture without
undergoing visible permanent
(plastic) deformation.
Examples of brittle materials:
Chalk, glass, ceramic, hardened steel
 Elasticity
The ability of a material to
undergo temporary
(elastic) deformation.
Examples:
 Elastomers ( rubber )
 Spring
 Plasticity
The ability of a material to undergo
permanent deformation.
Examples:
 Hot forging
 Cold heading of bolts
 Brittle and Ductile metals
Brittle Ductile
Stress Stress

 Very little plastic  Large amount

deformation plastic deformation
 Very small E%  Higher E%
 Very small A%  Higher A%

Strain Strain
 Toughness
The ability to undergo shock or impact load.
How doesmaterial:
Ductile it relate toHigher
Ductility/Brittleness?
toughness
Brittle material: Lower toughness

Stress
The area below the curve
indicates the toughness

Strain
 Hardness
The ability of a material to resist
indentation, abrasion & deformation
The higher the strength
the lower the ductility, low E% & A%
the more brittle the material will be
the lower the toughness
the lower the machinability
the higher the hardness
the higher the wear resistance
Hardness tester
The three common hardness tests:

 Brinell test

 Vickers pyramid hardness test

 Rockwell test
 Brinell Hardness (HB) Test
Load F
A hardened steel ball
as indentor D

Test specimen
 Brinell Hardness (HB) Test
 Measure the diamater Load F
of indentation d
 Hardness HB D
relates d and F/D2
(c) d

d
Test specimen
The thickness T of the test piece should be
15 times d for soft materials
7 times d for hard materials
Load Load

Depth of
impression

d Thickness T Thickness T

Soft Test Piece Hard Test Piece

Table of testing machine
 Load Load
Load

Load too small

Correct size
of indentation
Load too large

Correct choose the ratio of F/D2

F/ D2 values for representative materials:
Materials F/D2 Ball Dia. (mm) Load ( Kgf)

Steel & cast iron 30 2.5 187.5

Copper,
10 2.5 62.5
copper alloy
Aluminium alloys

F/D2 = 30 F=30D2 F= 30 (2.5)2 =187.5 kgf

Vickers Pyramid Hardness , HV
Indentor:
A Square-base diamond pyramid
 Vickers Hardness test
d1

Impression d2

 Measure the diagonal distances

 The hardness Hv related d and F
 Advantages
 The accuracy of the result does not vary
with the depth of the impression.
 Suitable for very hard materials.
 Negligible surface damage
 Suitable for thin sheets.
 Can be used for both
hard and soft materials
 Disadvantages

 More surface preparation

 Indenter is more expensive.
 Rockwell Hardness Test
 Measure the depth of impression
 Rockwell Hardness Test
 Measure the depth of impression
Why Apply Minor Load
Minor load
 To take up 'slackness'
in the system
 To eliminate errors
Indenter due to surface condition
 Rockwell Hardness Test
 Measure the depth of impression
Major load

This distance is used

as a measure of the hardness
 The common Rockwell scales
Scale Minor load Major load Indentor
Kgf Kgf

1.6 mm
B 10 100 hardened steel ball

C 10 150 120° Apex angle

diamond cone or

A 10 60 Brale
IMPACT TEST
The energy
required to break
the test piece is
used to measure of
the toughness.
 Application of Impact Test
 To indicate the toughness
 To indicate the brittleness
 For monitoring heat treatment
 For quality control of welded seams
 To study the effect of temperature
on toughness
This ship was one of 19 during
World War II that had completely
fractured; Over 200 other ships
had partial fracture.
On Jan 15, 1919, a huge tank on
commercial St in Boston fractured,
more than 2 million gallons of liquid
cascaded into the street.
The test-piece is notched
to set up stress concentration
to encourage fracture to occur.
Two Common Impact Test

 Charpy Test
 Izod Test
 Impact Test

Specimen

Charpy Impact Test Izod Impact Test

 Two ends of test piece is supported  The test specimen is held at one end
 The striker hits at the centre  The striker hits on the other end.
What would take place if a component subject to
Fatigue
repetitive Failure
stresses having a maximum value less
than the yield stress of the materials?
Fatigue Resistance:
The ability of a metal to
withstand repeated stress cycles
What Creep
would take place if a component subject to static
stresses having a maximum value less than the yield
stressThe slow
of the permanent
materials deformation
at elevated of a metal
temperature?
under a constant load which is below its
tensile strength.
Examples:
Gas turbines
Steam turbines
Boilers
 Creep
The slow permanent deformation of a metal
under a constant load which is below its
tensile strength.

Examples:
Gas turbines
Steam turbines
Boilers
Activity 5
The table below shows the properties of different materials obtained from various tests in the
laboratory. Refer to the table and answer the following questions.
Materials Yield Strength UTS Percentage Young’s Modulus Toughness HB
(N/mm2) (N/mm2) Elongation % (KN/mm2)
Mild steel 347 440 36 207 87 121
Medium Carbon Steel 374 590 28 207 48 170
Austenitic Stainless Steel 205 515 40 193 79 147
Ductile Iron 325 465 18 166 41 137
2024 Aluminum Alloy (O) 75 185 20 69 44 47
Cartridge Brass 125 340 53 97 50 109
Nylon (dry) 69 94.5 15 2.7 2.7 -

(a) The hardest material is Medium Carbon Steel

(b) The toughest material is Mild Steel

(c) The strongest material is Medium Carbon Steel

(d) The material with the lowest stiffness is Nylon

(e) The most brittle material is Nylon
(f) The material with highest ductility is Cartridge Brass
The table below shows the mechanical properties of the three materials.
Referring to the data, answer the following questions:
Materials UTS Percentage HV Impact Young’s
(N/mm2) Elongation (%) Energy (J) Modulus (KN/mm2)
Alloy steel 715 25 460 80 205

Brass 470 15 220 15 97

Aluminium 320 30 180 60 69

(a) The most brittle material is Brass

(b) The material with the highest stiffness is Steel
(c) The material has the best wear resistance Steel
(d) The material has the best ductility is Aluminium
(e) The material has the best combination of strength and
toughness Steel
(f) Which of the above materials is most suitable for making
crankshaft? Steel
Stress A B C D

Strain
Which one has highest tensile strength? A
Which one is the most ductile materials? D
Which one has highest stiffness? A
Which one is very brittle?
A&B
Which one has the highest toughness?
D
 Materials UTS Percentage Impact energy Young’s
(N/m elongation modulus
m2) (%) (J) KN/mm2
X 600 25 42 195
Y 260 68 56 70
Z 1200 0 6 200
• Which of the materials above would be Y
recommend for making containers such as
drinking bottles?
• Which of the materials above would be Z
recommend for making cutting tools?

• Which of the above materials is most suitable X

for making crankshaft for cars?
• Rank the three materials in order of their
expected hardness from high , intermediate to Z-X-Y
low
 Stress Metal A

Metal B

Metal C

Strain
Which of the metal has a highest hardness? A
Which of the metal has a highest ductility? C
Do you agree that metal A has a higher stiffness No
than metal B ? Same
Which metal is better for application such as B
heavy duty crankshaft?
Which metal is better for application such as A
Cutting Tools?
Advantages of Brinell Hardness Test:
 The HB has a close relation to the
tensile strength.

Disadvantages :
 Too many different loads and
diameter ball indentor.
 Can not be used for very hard materials
 Application of Impact Test
 To indicate the toughness
 To indicate the brittleness
 For monitoring heat treatment
 For quality control of welded seams
 To study the effect of temperature
on toughness
• Transition from ductile/tough to
brittle occurs as temperature reduces.
• Transition occurs around 0 degree for
metal A while -50 degree for metal B.
• Below the transition temperature,
metals are brittle and above the
transition temperature, metals are
tough.
Advantages of Rockwell Test
1. Very rapid in action
2. Have a wide range of scale.
3. Suitable for both hard and soft materials

Disadvantage:
Too many scales
 Which of the following hardness tests is suitable for
measuring the hardness of cemented carbide?
(a) Rockwell A scale
(b) Rockwell B scale
(c) Rockwell C scale
(d) Brinell

The percentage reduction in area of steel A is 2% and

that of B is 30%. Which of the following statement is
correct?
(a) Steel A is softer than steel B
(b) Steel A is more ductile than steel B
(c) Steel A is ideal for cold working operations
(d) Steel A fractures with no visible plastic deformation.
Which of the following properties of a metal is
important when forging is used to produce connecting
rods for use in engines?
(a) Toughness
(b) Hardness
(c) Malleability
(d) Tensile strength

The stress required to start a specified amount of

permanent extension in a material which does not
show a well-defined yield point is known as
(a) ultimate tensile strength
(b) elastic limit
(c) proof stress
(d) strain
The higher the hardness of a material, the higher will
be its
(a) mallealibility
(b) ductility
(c) tensile strength
(d) Young’s modulus.

The type of failure without any sign of plastic

deformation when a metal is subjected to alternating
stresses is known as
(a) ductile failure
(b) brittle failure
(c) creep failure
(d) fatigue failure
The permanent extension in a specimen produced by
0.5% proof stress on a specimen of the material of
10mm diameter is
(a) 0.125mm
(b) 0.200mm
(c) 0.250mm
(d) 0.300mm.

The highest stress which may be applied to a

material without permanent deformation
taking place is known as its
(a) tensile strength
(b) proof stress
(c) yield stress
(d) elastic limit.
What is the load applied in carrying out hardness test
on a steel specimen with a brinell tester with 2.5 mm
hardened steel ball ?
(a) 30 kgf
(b) 60 kgf
(c) 187.5 kgf
(d) 250 kgf
Which of the following hardness tests makes use of
the depth of impression to determine the hardness
(a) Rockwell hardness test
(b) Brinell hardness test
(c) Vickers hardness test
(d) Knoop hardness test.
What of the following tests is used to investigate the
effect of temperature on the ductility of a material?
(a) Hardness test
(b) Impact test
(c) Fatigue test
(d) Creep test

Which of the following hardness tests is used to

measure the hardness of a hardened shaft?
a) Brinell hardness
b) Rockwell hardness B scale
c) Rockwell hardness C scale
d) Rockwell hardness A scale
Brittleness of a material is defined as its
ability to
(a) withstand repeated stress cycle
(b) resist impact or shock load
(c) fracture without undergoing visible
plastic deformation
(d) resist indentation, abrasion and
deformation
5. Rockwell test on B-scale is most suitable
for determining the hardness of

(a) Copper alloys

(b) Hardened steels
(c) Hard cast iron
(d) Cemented carbide
3. Which hardness test measures the depth of
the indentation and calibrates to give
hardness numbers ?

(a) Brinell hardness test

(b) Vickers hardness test
(c) Rockwell test
(d) Shore hardness test
2. Which hardness test makes use of a
diamond cone as indentor ?

(a) Brinell hardness test

(b) Vickers hardness test
(c) Rockwell test on B-scale
(d) Rockwell test on C-scale
Name a hardness test which is most
suitable to measure the hardness of
the hardeded steel thin sheets.
Explain your choice
Vickers hardness test
Only Vickers hardness test is suitable
for hard and thin sheets while
Rockwell cannot be used for very thin
sheet and Brinell cannot be used for
hard materials
4. Which of the following materials is most
ductile ?

(a) cast iron

(b) copper
(c) fully hardened steel
(d) chalk
Which of the following materials has
the highest toughness ?
(a) Copper alloys
(b) Hardened steels
(c) Cast irons
(d) Cemented carbides
The slow permanent deformation of a metal
under a constant load which is below the
tensile strength of the metal is known as
(a) ductility
(b) malleability
(c) creep
(d) plasticity
 To refresh what has been covered
1. The ability of a material to undergo
permanent deformation due to a
tensile force before it fractures is
known as

(a) malleability
(b) ductility
(c) brittleness
(d) elasticity
3. Which of the following materials is
most brittle ?

(a) cast iron

(b) copper
(c) aluminium
(d) mild steel
Components subject to alternating stresses during service:

 Coil or leaf-springs in suspension system of vehicles

 Bridges
 Shafts with un-balanced loads
 Fastening bolts for jet engines
 Calculate 0.1% Proof Stress
Force 0.1% Proof
N 8000 Force
Diameter is 5 mm
Gauge length =5d=25 mm
6000
0.1% Gauge length =0.1%x25
= 0.025 (mm)
4000 The force produces 0.025 mm
extension is 8000 N

2000 0.1%Proof Stress= 8000/(3.14x5x5/4)

=408 N/mm2

Extension ( mm )
0.1%Permanent Deformation
The energy required to break the test piece
is used to measure of the toughness.

Swing
pendulum

Initial Potential energy

Specimen
The table below shows the mechanical properties of the three materials.
Referring to the data, answer the following questions:
Materials UTS Percentage Vickers Impact Young’s
(N/mm2) Elongation (%) Hardness Energy (J) Modulus (KN/mm2)
Alloy steel 715 25 460 80 205

Brass 470 15 220 15 97

Aluminium 320 30 180 60 69

(a) The most brittle material is Brass

(b) The material with the highest stiffness is Steel
(c) The material has the best wear resistance Steel
(d) The material has the best ductility is Aluminium
(e) The material has the best combination of strength and
toughness Steel
(f) Which of the above materials is most suitable for making
crankshaft? Steel
A cylindrical steel specimen having a diameter of 8 mm was
subjected to tensile test. The force-extension curve was plotted.
The diameter after the fracture at the neck was 6.8mm, and the
14000
final gauge length was 48mm.
12000
Fracture
(h) Stress at point X 10000

=5000/50.24=0.099 (KN/mm2) 8000

6000

(i) Strain at point X 4000

X

=0.02/40=0.0005 2000

0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18

(j) Young’s modulus of elasticity Extension (mm)

=stress/strain
=0.099./0.0005
=199.04 (KN/mm2)
Example: Force
A test piece of N 8000
diameter 5mm is 6000
subjected to tensile
test. After the test,
diameter at neck is
3000 5d = 5x5=25 (mm)
3mm and the gauge A0=3.14x5x5/4=19.6

length is 29mm.
Calculate: 0.6 Extension (mm)
Young’s Modulus
Stress = Elastic force / Original cross sectional area
= 3000/19.6 = 153 (N/mm2)
Strain = Extension / gauge length
= 0.6/25 = 0.024
Young’s Modulus = stress/strain =153/0.024 =6375 (N/mm2)
 Steel has smaller deflection

10KN

Al has larger deflection

10KN

A
Stress B

Strain
Hardness testing

Indentor
Select a test to study the effect of
temperature on the toughness of a medium
carbon steel

• Impact Test
Name a hardness test which is most
suitable to measure the hardness of
the hardeded steel thin sheets.
Explain your choice
Vickers hardness test
Only Vickers hardness test is suitable
for hard and thin sheets while
Rockwell cannot be used for very thin
sheet and Brinell cannot be used for
hard materials
 Example:
A test piece of 8000
diameter 5mm is 6000
subjected to tensile
Force
test. After the test,
diameter at neck is N
3mm and the gauge
length is 29mm.
Calculate: Extension (mm)
The original gauge length= 5d = 5x5=25 (mm)
(Lu-L0) 29-25
The percentage elongation= x100% = 25 x100% =16%
L0
(A0-Au)
The percentage reduction in area= A0 x100%
6000 A =3.14x5x5/4=19.63
The Yield Stress= 19.63 = 305.73N/mm 2 0

A =3.14x3x3/4=7.07
u
8000
U.T.S.= 19.63 = 407.64 N/mm2 A%= 19.63-7.07 x100%=63.97%
19.63
Force B
N

Extension ( mm )
Elastic Plastic Deformation
deformation
Crankshaft
The force-extension curves of steel plates A and B were plotted below from the tensile
tests of specimens with original diameter of 8mm. The final gauge length of steels A
and B after testing were found to be 52mm and 43mm respectively.
1.1. The original cross-sectional
area of the specimens 27 Steel B
Force
(KN)
d o2  82
Ao    50.3
4 4 14 Steel A
1.2. The original gauge length 10
of test specimens
Lo=5d0=40 (mm) 0.056
Extension (mm)
1.3. The percentage elongation of
steel A
L u  Lo 48  40
E%  100%  100%  20%
Lo 40
1.4. The yield stress of steel A in N/mm2
F yield 10, 000
 ys    198.7
Ao 50.3
1.5. The ultimate tensile strength of steel B in N/mm2
Fmax 27, 000
U .T . S .    536.8
Ao 50.3
The force-extension curves of steel plates A and B were plotted below from the tensile
tests of specimens with original diameter of 8mm. The final gauge length of steels A
and B after testing were found to be 52mm and 43mm respectively.
1.6. The young’s modules of steel
B in KN/mm2 27 Steel B
Force
14 0.056 (KN)
stress   0.278 strain   0.0014
50.3 40
14 Steel A
E=0.278/0.0014=198.6
10
1.7. Do you agree that steel B
has a higher stiffness than
steel A? Why? 0.056
Extension (mm)
No, A & B have the same stiffness
because they have the same gradient in the straight line portion of the curve
1.8. Which of the two steels has a higher toughness value? Why?

1.9. Which of the above steels would you recommend for cold working operations
such as forging and rolling? Why?

1.10 Which of the above steels would you recommend for making cutting tools?
Why?
 A cylindrical steel specimen having a diameter of 8 mm was
subjected to tensile test. The force-extension curve was plotted.
The diameter after the fracture at the neck was 6.8mm, and the
final gauge length was 48mm.
(a) Original cross-sectional area 14000

A0= (8)2/4=50.26 (mm2) 12000

(b) Cross-sectional area at fracture Fracture

Au= (6.8)2/4=36.32 (mm2) 10000

(c) The percentage reduction in area 8000

50.26  36.32
A%   100%  27.73% 6000
50.26
(d) The original gauge length 4000
X

L0=5d=40(mm) 2000
(e) The percentage elongation
48  40
E%   100%  20% 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18
40 Extension (mm)
(f) The yield strength in N/mm2
Yield strength=12,000/50.26 =238.76 (N/mm2)
(g) Ultimate tensile strength in N/mm2
UTS=13,000/50.26=258.65 (N/mm2)
A cylindrical steel specimen having a diameter of 8 mm was
subjected to tensile test. The force-extension curve was plotted.
The diameter after the fracture at the neck was 6.8mm, and the
final gauge length was 48mm. 14000

Calculate the Young’s Modules

Force N
12000
Fracture

(h) Stress at point X 10000

=5000/50.24=0.099 8000

(KN/mm2) 6000
X
4000
(i) Strain at point X
=0.02/40=0.0005 2000

(j) Young’s modulus

0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18
Extension (mm)

=stress/strain
=0.099./0.0005
=199.04 (KN/mm2)
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