Societv of Petroleum Engineers

6200 Non% Central Exp~. %!%%!RSPE6550

Dallas, Texas 75206
L

A Critical
Review
of Steamflood
Mechanisms

by

Chinq H. Wu, Colorado School of Mines, Member SPE-AIME

TH!SPAPERIS SUBJECT TOCORRECTiON

@) Copyright 1977
.A.n%ricaq lnstituteof Mining, Metallurgical, andpetroi3Jm Engineers, Inc.
This paper was prepared forthe 197747thAnnua/CaliforniaRegitna/ Meeting of the Society of Petroleum
Engineers of AIME, held in Bakersfield, California, Aprii 13-15, 1977. Pertnission tocopyis restricted to an
abstract of not more than 300 words. illustrations may not be copied, The abstract shouid contain conspicuous
acknowledgement of where and by whom the paper is presented. Publication elsewhere after publication in the
JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY or the SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL is
usuaiiy granted upon request to the Editor of the appropriate journal, provided agreement to give proper credit is
made. Discussion of this paper is invited.

ABSTRACT great interest and importance to the in-

dustry.
A critical.review of steamflood
mechanisms is made based on published Steamflooding is a complex oil dis-
laboratory and field data. Qualitative placement process involving simultaneous
and quantitative discussions are pre- heat, mass, and fluid transports. Al-
sented on the major steamflood mechanisms though steamflood mechanisms associated
including steam drive and in-situ solvent with these complex transports may be
drive; viscosity reduction and thermal well known to some people, reports on
permeability variation; and thermal ex- these mechanisms have been scattered in
pansion and gravity segregation. Inter- many publications over more than fifteen
action of these mechanisms is responsible years and have not been readily availabl
for high steamflood displacement effi- for most petroleum engineers. Willman,
ciency, enhanced oil production rate, and et all reported experimental studies on
poor vertical steam conformance. A basic the effect of some steamflood mechanisms
understanding of these mechanisms should such as viscosity reduction, thermal ex-
assist petroleum engineers in the design, pansion, and st~am distillation, on the
analysis, and evaluation of steamflood oil recovery. Johnson, et al.2 Quinones
operation and mathematical simulation. and Wu and Brown4 reported steam distil-
lation of rude oils in porous media.
INTRODUCTION Farouq Ali~ and Alikhan and Farouq Ali6
reported the effect of solvent slug on
Steamflooding is a proven secondary the oil recovery by steam and hot-water
or tertiary method for recovering oil floods. Gates and Ramey7, Dingley , and
economically from some heavy oil reser- Braden9 presented the thermal viscosity
voirs. It has potential applications as reduction of some crude oils. Several
a secondary or tertiary method to recover articles reported the temperature effect
,lightoi~s. Therefore, it is conceivable on the ~i~-w~~er relative permeabilities
that steamflood mechanisms responsible 10,11,1 , 3, and on the absolute per-
for displacing oils or helping to dis- meability14. Dietz15 and Martin,et al.l
place oil from the reservoirs are of
2 STEAMFLOOD MECHANISMS

reported hot water under-tonguing in experiment. These regions have been des
laboratory and field hot wate.rfloods. ignated as the steam zone, solvent bank,
Baker7, van Dijk18, and Blevinsl et al. hot water bank, oil bank, and initial
~9?20 reported steam overriding also un- zone. Figure 2 shows a schematic dia-
ier laboratory and field conditions. gram of the possible distribution of
temperature-fluid flow regions of a
A systematic study of basic steam- steamflood when gravity segregation is
Elood mechanisms is essential in undlm- considered. The three regions have been
standing the complex oil displacement designated as steam zone, hot condensate
?rocesses. It should assist in the .3e- zone, and initial zone. These regions
sign, analysis, and evaluation cf stea,n- were hypothetically synthesized from
flood operation and mathematical simula- temperature distributions ~bserved
Lion. It should a:so provide valuable during hot waterfloods15’1 and steam-
insights for petroleum engineers to im- floods17t18?19?20. With gravity seg-
?rove the oil recovery efficiency when regation, the delineation between solven
~teamflooding a reservoir. It is the bank and hot water bank becomes less ob-
?urpose of this paper to present a re- vious, therefore, both were lumped to-
view of present knowledge and where data gether as a hot condensate zone. The
me available, a quantitative discussion oil bank may lie between the hot conden-
~f basic steamflood mechanisms. sate zone and the initial zone.
STEAMFLOOD MECHANISMS Based on laborator
investigationsl~6~10?Y4~9?~?$1a~~c~~~~
In reservoir engineering, the word tests16#18~19, steamflood mechanisms may
“mechanism” implies an oil displacement be identified as: (1) steam drive, (2)
?rocess associated with a certain driving in-situ solvent drive, (3) viscosity re-
mergy, e.g. solution gas drive, water duction, (4) thermal permeability and
iirive,etc. In steamflooding, the proc- capillary-pressure variations, (5) ther-
?sses involved in the oil recovery are mal expansion, (6) gravity segregation,
considerably more complex. Therefore, (7) solution gas drive, and (8) emulsion
the meaning of “mechanism” is extended drive. These mechanisms may take place
to imply oil displacement processes as in each, between, or over several of the
flellas alterations of process properties possible temperature-fluid flow regions.
that make the oil displacement more ef-
fective. The major mechanisms in the steam
zone are steam drive and gravity segre-
Steamflood mechanisms are intimately gatian. Predominant mechanisms in the
related with the thermal and temperature hot condensate zone are viscosity reduc-
~ffects on the reservoir rock and fluid tion, thermal permeability variation,
properties because of steam injection. thermal expansion, graviky segregation,
~haracteristics of reservoir heating by and in-situ solvent drive. In the ini-
steam injection are: (1) increasing the tial zone, the main mechanisms are con-
reservoir rock and fluid temperature by ventional water drive and gravity segre-
heat convection and conduction,(2) re- gation.
ducing the oil and water viscosities, (3)
increasing the fluid and rock volumes, STEAM DRIVE AND IN-SITU SOLVENT DRIVE
thus reducing their densities,(4) vapor-
izing the light-fraction of crude oil,(5) Steam drive in the steam zone may
reducing the interracial forces, and (6) include two main mechanisms: steam dis-
charging the permeability to oil and tillation and steam displacement. Steam
water. These thermal phenomena do not drive also involves gravity segregation
occur uniformly throughout the reservoir which will be discussed later. Since
volume subjected to steamflood. Instead, steam distillation is directly and in-
some are more conspicuous in a certain directly responsible for the low resid-
portion of the thermally affected region ual oil saturation of a steamflood, it
than the other. Thus, a steamflood pro- is discussed in great detail.
cess usually results in several temper-
ature-fluid flow regions. Steam distillation is a process of
separating the light fractions from the
Figure 1 illustrates the various crude oil by the action of steam. As
regions postulated for a linear steam- schematically shown in Figure 3, it in-
flood process. These regions were re- volves four phases in the process: oil,
constructed from pressure, temperature, water? steam and hydrocarbon vapor, and
and production histories of a laboratory rock matrix. If oil and water are con-
 CHING H. WU 3

sidered immiscible (to a certain degree (solvents) condensed in the hot conden-
they are mutually soluble depending on sate zone may be estimated from the
&he temperature), the boiling pressure steam distillation yields such as shown
of the liquid mixture is the sum of in- in Figure 4. For this estimation, it is
dividual liquid vapor pressures at the necessary to determine the amount of oil
system temperature. If the boiling pres remaining in the hot condensate zone at
sure is greater than or equal to the sys the time the zone is invaded by steam
ternpressure, which is the sum of par- front (designated as Voi, which changes
tial pressures of steam and hydrocarbon with the advance of the steam front),
vapors, than, the liquid mixture will and the equivalent water volume (Vw) of
boil and give off component vapors. If live steam throughput in the steam zone.
the steam zone is considered to be at a At a particular time during a steamflood
constant pressure, then the boiling tem- Voi may be estimated from Eq. (l):
perature of the liquid mixture will al- voi = (Sor)HW $ Vst; ..(1)
ways be lower than or equal to the boil- where, (Sor)HW is the residual Oil sat-
ing temperature of either phase. Con-
sequently, the light fractions of the uration of hot waterflood in hot con-
~il is effectively distilled at a tem- densate zone and may be determined
perature lower than or equal to the from a laboratory test; and Vstz is
boiling temperature of water. the reservoir volume swept by steam
Although simple mathematical treat- which may be estimated from a steam-
ments of st am distillation process are flood mathematical model such as de-
available3~$3,24,25, they are inadequate veloped by Marx and Langenheim26.
for predicting the crude oil steam dis- The Vw may also be estimated from a sim-
iliar mathematical model. From a ratio,
tillation because of restrictive assump-
tions or lack of appropriate hydrocarbon- Vw/Voi, and the steam distillation yield
water PVT data. Quinones3 determined the curves, the steam distillation yield can
With this steam distil-
steam distillation yields of Bradford and be determined.
Lagunillas crude oils in an open cell lation yielfl,the volume of solvents gen
erated
under pressures less than 60 psig (305°F).Ea. (2): in-situ can be calculated from
Wu and Brown4 reported steam distillation -* .—.
yields of six crude oils ranging from 9 Vsolvent = Voi(yield/lOO) ..(2)
to 36° AP~ under test pressures up to 500 It should be cautioned that interpolation
psig (471 F). They also reported that
crude oil steam distillation yields when of steam distillation yield curves such
correlated with Vw/Voi* are independent as in Figure 4 should be made with caret
of (1) porous media used, (2) theinitial because they may not be monotonely de-
oil volume, and (3) steam injection rate; pendent on the API gravity of the crude
and that changes in saturated steam pres- oils. However, if no steam distillation
sure and temperature (up to 500 psig and data is available for the particular
471°F) have an insignificant effect on crude oil under consideration, interpo-
the magnitude of steam distillation lation of distillation curves as illus-
yields. Figure 4 illustrates the crude trated in Figure 4 may be used to obtain
oil steam distillation yields at 200 psig a first estimate of in-situ solvent gen-
and 500 psig, respectively. eration.

Closely associated with steam dis- The solvent condensed in the hot con-
tillation is steam displacement in the densate zone should partially mix with
steam zone. The boiling of oil and water the in-place oil and form a solvent
mixture due to steam distillation dis- drive. Figure 5 is a hypothetical illus
turbs the residual oil configuration tration of solvent generation, recycling
formed after the passage of the hot con- and accumulation in the steam zone and
densate zone and redistributes portions hot condensate zone as the steam front
of the oil in the pore spaces. These advances downstream. The solvent drive
partially redistributed oils are dis- effects a reduction of oil viscosity and
placed downstream by steam. Also, the a decrease of heavy-fraction concentra-
steam distilled light fractions of the tion in the oi16. The efficiency of sbl
oil are swept downstream by the steam vent d%i*~ewill depend on the solvent
displacement and condensed in the hot slug size, the properties of solvent anti
condensate zone. oil in the hot condensate zone, and the
Properties of reservoir rocks. After
The amount of light fractions ~ol~ent drive, the steam drive on the
diluted oil eventually establishes a low
*See nomenclature at the end of paper. steamflood residual oil saturation in th
 . . . . . .. . --- ---------- ----
4 WKEVWWLUUIJ MEKHAN 1 SMS

I
steam zone. permeabilities. The concensus of these
authors indicates that as the tempera-
ture increases, (1) the oil relative

I
VISCOSITY REDUCTION AND THERMAL
PERMEABIT,ITYVARIATION permeability increases, (2) the residua
oil saturation decreases, and (3) the
In the hot condensate zone, the irreducible water sa ration increases.
most important mechanism is thermal oil- While Poston, et al.i~ reported an in-
viscosity reduction (in addition to the crease in water relative permeability
solvent dilution). A significant reduc- with temperature increased, Montgomery
tion in oil viscosity results in i.:- and Weinbrandt, et al.14, asserted that
creased oil flow rate and efficient oil the water relative permeability does no
displacement by hot water. change significantly with temperature
increase, except where water saturation
Figure 6 shows the viscosity reduc- values are greatly increased. Figure 8
tion of 12°, 20°, and 30° API crude oils shows the effect of temperature increas
with temperature7~8. When the tempera- on the oil-water relative permeabilitie
11 (cetus oil-water pair) of natural un
ture is higher than 350°F, the crude oils
have a viscosity less than 7 centipoises. consolidated sand from Midway-Sunset
As the temperature increases from 100°F Field in California. Figure 9.shows th
to 350°F, the 12° API crude has an approx- effect of temperature on the fractional
imately 265-fol,dreduction in oil viscos- flow curves, where capillary pressure
ity; 35-fold for the 20° API crude; and and gravity effect are neglected. A
n-fold for the 30° API crude. Since shift of fractional flow curves to the
flow rate is inversely proportional to right with a temperature increase means
the viscosity, such significant oil vis- a higher water saturation at the front
cosity reduction should increase the oil and a higher displacement efficiency by
production rate at high temperature. the hot water.
Similarly, as the water viscosity de-
creases (a 5-fold reduction from 100°F to The temperature effect on the abso
350°F), the water production rate should lute permeability of two consolidated
increase with temperature increase. ~~es was reported by Weinbrandt, et al
. Figure 10 shows that for Boise and
Figure 7 shows the reduction of oil - Berea cores, the absolute permeability
water viscosity ratio with temperature reduction is about 2 to 3-fold as the
for the three crude oils. As the tem- temperature increases from 75° to 300°F
perature increases from 100°F to 350°F, This absolute permeability reduction
the 12° API crude has a 59-fold reduction will decrease the oil flow rate. Howeve
in oil-water viscosity ratio; 8-fold re- this decrease of oil flow rate will be
a:lctionfor the 20° API crude; and 2-fold more than offset by the increase of oil
reauction for the 30° API crude. The flow rate due to oil visocsity reductio
greater viscosity-ratio reduction for the especially for heavy oils.
heavier oils is effective in decreasing
the fractional flow of hot water, conse-
quently, in increasing the hot water dis- THERMAL EXPANSZON AND GRAVITY SEGREGATI [
placement efficiency.
Thermal expansion is also a very i
In steamflood, the fluids are flow- portant mechanism in the hot condensate
ing under a transient temperature dis- zone. It increases the fluid saturatio I

tribution. As the oil viscosity is re- and reduces the liquid densities.
duced in the hot condensate zone, the oil
is more readily displaced downstream. Figure 11 shows the thermal expans m
When the oil displaced reaches the cool- of ii uid crude oil fractions at 500
er portion of the reservoir, the oil vis- psig27 . Since thermal expansion data o
cosity will increase to decrease the oil crude oils above 350°F are scarce, Figu
mobility, so the oil will accumulate to 11 may be used to estimate the thermal
form an oil bank. The formation of oil expansion-of crude oils. As shown, for
bank and the oil saturation in the oil same API gravity, non-paraffinic frac-
bank will depend on the oil and water tions have a larger thermal expansion
viscosities and relative permeabilities. than paraffinic fractions. Assuming th
one can use the 10° API non-paraffinic
Although there is no report on the fractions to estimate the thermal ex-
temperature effects on the three-phase pansion of a similar gravity crude oil,
relative ermeability, many investigators the oil volume at 60°F will be increase
1.0,11,12,
Y 3,14 have reported the tempera- by eleven percent at 300°F and by twent
ture effects on the oil-water relative
 CHING H. WU 5

-6.32 k.
one percent at 5000F. This also means ~~+pogi
40 = 1.1:%)( ~3)
same percentage increase in terms of the c
oil saturation at 60°F, provided the oil . .(4)
is not displaced during the thermal ex- = qox I+qy Oy
pansion. The thermal expansion of crude
oils has two effects on the oil recovery - 6.32 kw
processes: (1) increasing the oil flow ~~+pwgi
GW = W ax
11( y])
rate because of increase in oil satura- c
tion, and (2) improving the hot-water
displacement efficiency when combined + . . (5)
with a reduction in residual oil satura- = qwx l+q w~
tion because of temperature increase.
Figure 12 presents the densities of To further simplify the analysis, one
non-paraffinic oil fractions (500 psig) can only consider the oil-water flow in
and the densities of saturated hot water the hot condensate zone. In this zone,
and steam at temperatures up to 705°F. the horizontal components are expressed
AISO shown are 14° API and 20° API rude in Darcy’s equation:
oil densities reported by Edmondsonfo .
The density of 10o API oil fractions is - 6.32 k. 8P
comparable with the density of saturated q= . .(6)
hot water up to 400°F, above this tem- ox %?
I.lo
perature, the oil has a greater density
than hot water. When the gravity of oil - 6.32 kw ~P
fractions is greater than 20° API, the qWx = . .(7)
Dw ~
oil density is smaller than the hot water
density for temperatures up to approxi-
mately 550°F. The saturated steam den- These components are directly proportions
sity is always smaller than the oil den- to the mobility of each phase and to the
sity. Also, steam density is always pressure gradient. Since the pressure
smaller than the saturated hot water den- gradient is affected by the steam injec-
sity except at 705°F where the steam and tion rate for a fixed well spacing,
hot water density becomes identical. steam injection rate is an important
These fluid density data indicate that operational parameter which can be used t
gravity segregation is an inherent steam- partially control the gravity segregation
flood mechanism: stei?malways charm in the hot condensate zone. The2~ertical
!?$s components can be expressed as :
ZntZ j#N ‘K! li?!&~i%~~~da~~l~?~Er ; h&
water has & tendency to channel to the Mw
bottom such as reported by Dietz15 and qoy = 6.32g(Pw-po)/gc[~ + @ . .(8)
Martin, et al.16 (>20° API, <400°F). o
Uw
A simple analysis of gravity segre-
gation can be made by considering a two- qWy = -6.32q(Pw-Po)/9c[~ + q]. .(9)
o
dimensional multiphase-phase flow along
a vertical cross section of a reservoir.
Figure 13 is a schematic diagram showing These components are equal and opposite i
gravity segregation with velocity and flow direction. They are proportional tc
pressure gradient components. In the the density difference between water and
steam zone, three phases - steam, hot oi1 oil! and inversely proportional to the su
and hot water - are flowing; in the hot of inverses of individual mobility ratio.
condensate zone and in the initial zone Since these vertical components affect
mainly oil and water are flowing. Assum- the gravity segregation, the undertongui~
ing a horizontal reservoir with its top of hot water in the hot condensate zone
and bottom completely sealed and with its should be more conspicuous :- ~ighter
entire interval open for steam injection oils than for heavier oils.
and fluid production, and assuming neg-
ligible capillary pressure effects, the Similar analysis can be made for
velocity of each phase can be expressed steam overriding in the steam zone by COE
as: sidering oil and water as a liquid phase.
-6.32 ks In addition, because of steam condensa-
~~~+%gt tion at the steam front, the horizontal
6s= Ps ax 73)
c velocity component is decreased. Further-
more, the solvent distilled is lighter
=!l~yl+q=v~ . . (3)
 6 STEAMFLOOD MECHANISMS

than the original oil and tends to chan- ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

nel to the upper leading edge of the
steam zone. These factors will amplify The a’uthoris indebted to the numer.
the steam overriding to decrease the ous authors and friends who have contri-
vertical steam conformance. buted in terms of publications and sti-
mulating discussions. Many enlightening
and critical comments from D. M. Bass
DISCUSSIONS AND SUMMARY are greatly appreciated.
Solvent generated in-situ during a
steamflood has an important effect on the NOMENCLATURE
residual oil saturation and gravity
segregation in the steam zone. In-situ g= acceleration of gravity, 32.2
solvent drive and steam drive may be ft/sec2
responsible for low residual oil satura-
tions (less than 8 ercent) reported in 9C = conversion5
factor, 4,636.8 lbm ft/
field steamfloods(l~ )1(20). The amount lbf sec
of solvent that can be generated in-situ ?= horizontal unit vector
may be estimated from laboratory steam
distillation data. The estimated volume 3= vertical unit vector
of solvent may help decide whether a k= effective permeability, md
solvent injection with steam is necessary
for a particular steamflood. 1? = partial pressure, psi
P = pressure, psi
Oil viscosity reduction is the major +
mechanism responsible for enhanced oil q .= velocity vector
production rate from heavy oil steamflood.q = velocity component, ft/day
However, it is the combinatory effects of
viscosity reductions and thermal relative (Sor)HW = as defined in the text,
fra~tion
permeability variations that improve the
displacement efficiency of hot water. vOi = the amount of oil available initi-
When steam override is severe, consider- ally in the steam zone for steam
able oil recovery may be obtained from distillation, ft3
the hot condensate zone due to vi::osity v=
reduction, thermal permeability> ‘ria- W the amount of water equivalent of
tion, and gravity segregation. live ste m throughput in the steam
zone, ft9
Steam overriding in the steam zone Vstz = the reservoir volume swept by
is inevitable due to the tremendous dif- steam, ft3
ference between steam and liquid densi-
ties in the steam zone. The steam over- X = horizontal coordinate, ft
riding is amplified by the condensation o iy= vertical coordinate, ft
steam and solvent at the steam front. In
addition to the effect of high permeable ‘= viscosity, cp
streaks, severe steam overriding causes p= density, lb/ft3
poor vertical steam sweep efficiency.
However, hot water undertonguing com- 4 = porosity, fraction
bined with convection and conduction heat
transport improves the vertical sweep Subscripts:
efficiency of the “heat wave”.
1 = liquid phase
In summary, the major steamflood o= oil phase
mechanisms are (1) steam drive and in-
situ solvent drive, (2) viscosity reduc- ‘= steam phase
tion and thermal permeability variation, v = vapor pressure
and (3) thermal expansion and gravity
segregation. Depending on the reservoir ‘= water phase
geometry, rock and fluid properties, and x = horizontal direction
formation depth, various steamflood
schemes may be designed to take advantage y= vertical direction
of these mechanisms to obtain maximum oil
recovery.
 CUTNt2
-.. U W? -J
-..” . . . ,.”
I
I

REFERENCES
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Q !2WF!!~M17T.nf3n
w - -J*=-*.
MS?PU7ilUTCMC
.-*”w.
MWwu m&v & “.-4”

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McGraw-Hill Co. 1967. Inc., Third Printing, 1955.
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Eng. J. (June, 1962) p. 185.
27. Maxwell, J. B.: “Data Book on Hy-

4 I

+ I

+ ‘
STEAM A
. . . . . . . . .. . ., ,
-b 1
. . .. . . . . . . . . .
4 ‘

I-. DISTANCE + I

Iioot
071
m .
1 B I I 1
Fig.2 - Hypothetical
A. STSAM ZONE
B. HOT cONOSNSATE
C. INITIAL

regions of two-dimensional
ZONS

ste~”nflood.
ZONE

g
80

r r OVSRHSAD

40 se,
ii
~
U-I
d s., STEAM
II t
50 HC vA;ORS
A Bc D E
II . ROCK
MATRIX

A. STEAM ZONE
WATSR 01 L
B. SOLVENT BANK HOTz::#DkNSATE
c. Hv?WATLR BANK }
D. oIL BANK
E. INITIAL ZONE

STiAM
%wtwn
S p, ● P.cvep.at
Fig. 1 PVW* P,xmpo,
%oillng ●

STEAM DISTILLATION:
‘beil!ttg J ‘system

Fig. 3 - Steam distillation.

 80 80

[
200 Pslg ; 3D7°F soopsl~ ; 4 71%

t [
60 - 60 -
34°APl

z
>
40 -
.
a
A
In

20
20
l,4°APl

-d

,
10 +-+0
k ,FRAcTION + , FRA~@N
Voi

FIG, ~ - CRUDE OIL STEAII DISTILLATION (4)),

Y ‘EUS (MU ANO BRORN

sT~ENA SOl}~Nl HOT WATER OIL

BANK BANK

. ...
... ... . 4
STEAM+
t T
?
DISTILLATION
; :::”
:CONOE”
.. . . 5ATI%N . ; -? Production
‘MIXING;:.”.
.. .
. . .. : ‘. ‘“: ~’:..”.
.. .. . .. .... .... ...’.’
....:. . .. . .. .. .....

1+
pa&

..... . . . . ...... .
... ....:..:,,.;..,., :..
...,...:...’,,..:,. .
f t ? f

~ppRoOuc””
STMM+

FIG,
5- A HYPOTHETICAL DIAGRAM SHWNG IN-SITU GENERATION OF
SOLVENTS.
I ,209 !-

I’2*API
1.C

Soo -
CEIUS OIL, 22°4Pl
k,e
\ :h&$&3i~&!!k!0 SANO
“s
A. i
\
=4- OB
a \
\
\,
400 \
\
\
?4+\
t \

\\

k,

!?0 40 60 80
TEMPERATURE. W WATER SATURATION . % PORE VOLUME
 1.0
r

CE7US OIL, 22°APl

MIHAY-S NSI1
UNCONSOLkJAIJD SAND

WATER SATURAT ION, %?ORE VOLUME

FIG, 9. THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATUREON FRACTIONAL FLOH (MONTGOMERY),
11,400

1
40 I I t 1 I
so 100 ‘zoo So:

TEMPERATURE, %

[&i&A~~~~qf~EwTuRE EFFEcT oN THE AGSOLUTE PER.EABILIw

!,5
/wAl~E ISA1.I
.- I
. [ I

1,3 - iAT 500FsI0

1.2 -

I .1 -

TEMPERATuRE, OF
FIG,11-THERKAL EXPAFMO OF LIQUtD CRUDE OIL FRACTIOXS (llAXHELL(27)),
 WATER(SAT.I

A t4 ●API CUUDE1l 0) \
1
O 22*API CRUDt
/’
)

lT8AMlsAr.>
H“
/“
.--H
e~ ---- I
o I 1 1 J
0 200 400 600 Soo

TEMPERATURE , “F

FIG, 12- THE TEMPERATURE EFFECT ON THE DENSIT!ES OF NON- PARAFFINIC OIL FRACTIONS AND
SATURATED WATER AND STEAM,

# DISTANCE

9 ( OW-PO) /9=

PRESSURE ‘(c dP ~ d,
GRADIRUT G
,,~ G
9 Pol-P~)/9= W-oc

FIG, 13- VELOCITY COMPONENTSAND PRESSURE GRADIENTS IN GRAVITY SEGREGATION,