Chapter 4

GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTION

4.0 Introduction

In this chapter, we shall deal with problems on geometrical construction which are mostly based
on plane geometry and which are very essential in the preparation of engineering drawings. They
are described as under:

(1) Bisecting a line

(2) To draw perpendiculars
(3) To draw parallel lines
(4) To divide a line
(5) To divide a circle
(6) To bisect an angle
(7) To trisect an angle
(8) To find the center of an arc
(9) To construct an ogee or reverse curve
(10) To construct equilateral triangles
(11) To construct squares
(12) To construct regular polygons
(13) Special methods of drawing
(14) Regular polygons inscribed in circles
(15) To draw regular figures using T-square and set-squares
(16) To draw tangents
(17) Lengths of arcs
(18) Circles and lines in contact
(19) Inscribed circles.

4.1 Bisecting a line

➢ To bisect a given straight line (FIG 4.1)

I. Let AB be the given line. With center A and radius greater than half AB, draw arcs on
both sides of AB.
II. With center B and the same radius, draw arcs intersecting the previous arcs at C and D.
III. Draw a line joining C and D and cutting AB at E.
Then AE = EB =1/ 2 AB.
Further, CD bisects AB at right angles.
 FIG 4.1

➢ To bisect a given arc (FIG 4.2)

Let AB be the arc drawn with center O. Adopt the same method as shown in above. The
bisector CD, if produced, will pass through the center 0.

FIG 4.2

4.2 To draw perpendiculars

➢ To draw a perpendicular to a given line from a point within it.

Method l (FIG 4.3)

(a) When the point is near the middle of the line.

Let AB be the given line and P the point in it.

I. With Pas center and any convenient radius R1, draw an arc cutting AB at C and D.
II. With any radius R2 greater than R1 and centers C and D, draw arcs intersecting each
other at 0.
III. Draw a line joining P and 0.
Then PO is the required perpendicular.
(b) When the point is near an end of the line.
Let AB be the given line and P the point in it.

FIG 4.3
Method II (FIG 4.4)

I. With any point O as center and radius equal to OP, draw an arc greater than the semi-
circle, cutting AB at C.
II. Draw a line joining C and 0, and produce it to cut the arc at Q. Draw a line joining P
and Q.
Then PQ is the required perpendicular.

FIG 4.4

Method III (FIG 4.5)

I. With P as center and any convenient radius, draw an arc cutting AB at C.

II. With the same radius cut (from the arc) two equal divisions CD and DE.
III. Again with the same radius and centers D and E, draw arcs intersecting each other at Q.
Draw a line joining P and Q.
Then PQ is the required perpendicular.
 FIG 4.5

➢ To draw a perpendicular to a given line from a point outside it.

(a) When the point is nearer the center than the end of the line (FIG 4.6)
Let AB be the given line and P the point.

I. With center P and any convenient radius, draw an arc cutting AB at C and D.
II. With any radius greater than half CD and centers C and D, draw the arcs intersecting
each other at E
III. Draw a line joining P and E and cutting AB at Q.
Then PQ is the required perpendicular.

FIG 4.6

(b) When the point is nearer the end than the center of the line (FIG 4.7)
Let AB be the given line and P the point.
I. With center A and radius equal to AP, draw an arc EF cutting AB or AB-produced, at
C.
II. With center C and radius equal to CP, draw an arc cutting EF at D.
III. Draw a line joining P and D and intersecting AB at Q.
Then PQ is the required perpendicular.
 FIG 4.7

➢ To draw perpendicular to a given line from a point outside it

When the point is nearer the center than the end of the line.
Let AB be the given line and P the point.
I. Using compass and with P as center draw an arc of any radius R1 cutting the line AB at
points C and 0.
II. With points C and O as centers, and with a larger radius R2 (> R1), draw arcs to cut on
the side of the line AB in which perpendicular is to draw. The arcs intersect in point E.
III. Now join points E and P. (If required) Line EP may be extended to meet the line AB at
point Q. Line EPQ will be perpendicular to line AB.
IV. Verify the an angle AQP or BQP using a protractor. The angle AQP or BQP is the
required perpendicular.

FIG 4.8

4.3 To draw parallel lines

➢ To draw a line through a given point, parallel to a given straight line (FIG 4.9)

Let AB be the given line and P the point.

I. With center P and any convenient radius, draw an arc CO cutting AB at E.
II. With center E and the same radius, draw an arc cutting AB at F.
III. With center E and radius equal to FP, draw an arc to cut CO at Q.
IV. Draw a straight line through P and Q. Then this is the required line.
 FIG 4.9
➢ To draw a fine parallel to and at a given distance from a given straight line (FIG 4.10)

Let AB be the given line and R the given distance.

I. Mark points P and Q on AB, as far apart as convenient.

II. With P and Q as centers and radius equal to R, draw arcs on the same side of AB.
III. Draw the line CO, just touching the two arcs. CD is the required line.

FIG 4.10

4.4 To divide a line

➢ To divide a given straight line into any number of equal parts (FIG 4.11)
Let AB be the given line to be divided into say, seven equal parts.
I. Draw the line AB of given length.
II. Draw another line AC making an angle of less than 30° with AB.
III. With the help of dividers mark 7 equal parts of any suitable length on line AC and mark
them by points 1 ', 2', 3', 4', 5', 6' and 7' as shown.
IV. Join the last point 7' with point B of the line AB.
V. Now, from each of the other marked points 6', 5' 4', 3', 2' and 1 ', draw lines parallel to
7'8 cutting the line AB at 6, 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1 respectively.
VI. Now the line AB has been divided into 7 equal parts. You can verify this by measuring
the lengths.
 FIG 4.11

➢ To divide a given straight line into unequal parts (FIG 4.12)

Let AB be the given line to be divided into unequal parts say 1/6, 1/5, 1/4, 1/3 AND 1/2.
I. Draw a line AB of given length, say, 120 mm.
II. Erect perpendicular AD and BC at the ends A and B. Complete rectangular ABCD.
III. Join diagonals AC and BO intersecting at £.
IV. Draw perpendicular from £ on AB as shown.
V. Then AF = 1/2 AB.
VI. Join D and F. The line FD intersects the diagonal AC at G. Drop perpendicular from G
to AB. Then AH =1/ 3 AB.
VII. Similarly make construction in figure, for obtaining 1/4 AB, 1/5 AB and 1/6 AB as
shown.

FIG 4.12
 4.5 To divide a circle

➢ To divide a circle of a given radius into N equal parts (FIG 4.13)

Given a circle of radius R, to divide it into 12 equal parts along its circumference, the
geometric construction procedure is as follows.

I. Draw two diagonals AB and CD at right angles to each other cutting the circle at A, B and
C, D.
II. With A as center, and radius equal to the given radius of the circle, draw arcs cutting the
circle at 2 and 7.
III. Similarly, with B as center, and with the given circle radius, draw arcs to cut the circle at
3 and 6.
IV. Similarly, from points C and D as center, and with the given radius of circle, draw arcs to
cut the circle at 1, 4 and 5, 8 respectively.
V. Thus dividing it at the cuts are the required twelve equal parts of the circle.

FIG 4.13

4.6 To bisect an angle

➢ To bisect a given angle(FIG 4.14)

Let ABC be the given angle

I. With B as center and any radius, draw an arc cutting AB at D and BC at £.

II. With centers D and E and the same or any convenient radius, draw arcs intersecting each
other at F.
III. Draw a line joining B and F. BF bisects the angle ABC, i.e. L ABF = L FBC.

FIG 4.14
 ➢ To draw a line inclined to a given line at an angle equal to a given angle(FIG 4.15)

Let PQ be the given line and AOB the given angle.

I. With O as center and any radius, draw an arc cutting OA at C and OB at D.

II. With the same radius and center P, draw an arc EF cutting PQ at F.
III. With F as center and radius equal to CD, draw an arc cutting the arc EF at G.
IV. From P, draw a line passing through G. This is the required line.

FIG 4.15

4.7 To trisect an angle

➢ To trisect a given right angle (4.16)

Let ABC be the given right angle.

I. With center B and any radius, draw an arc cutting AB at D and BC at £.

II. With the same radius and centers D and £, draw arcs cutting the arc DE at points Q and
P.
III. Draw lines joining B with P and Q. BP and BQ trisect the right angle ABC.
Thus, L. ABP = L PBQ = L QBC = 1/3 L ABC.

FIG 4.15
 4.8 To find the center of an arc

➢ To find the center of a given arc (FIG 4.17)

Let AB be the given arc.

I. In AB, draw two chords CD and EF of any lengths.
II. Draw perpendicular bisectors of CD and EF intersecting each other at 0. Then O is the required
center.

FIG 4.17

➢ To draw an arc of a given radius, touching a given straight line and passing through a
given point (FIG 4.18)

Let AB be the given line, P the point and R the radius.

I. Draw a line CD parallel to and at a distance equal to R from AB

II. With P as center and radius equal to R, draw an arc cutting CD at 0.
III. With O as center, draw the required arc.

FIG 4.18
 ➢ To draw an arc of a given radius touching two given straight lines at right angles to each
other(FIG 4.19)

Let AB and AC be the given lines and R the given radius

I. With center A and radius equal to R, draw arcs cutting AB at P and AC at Q.

II. With P and Q as centers and the same radius, draw arcs intersecting each other at 0.
III. With O as center and radius equal to R, draw the required arc.

FIG 4.19

➢ To draw an arc of a given radius touching two given straight lines which make any angle
between them(FIG 4.20 and FIG 4.21)

Let AB and AC be the given lines and R the given radius.

I. Draw a line PQ parallel to and at a distance equal to R from AB.

II. Similarly, draw a line EF parallel to and at a distance equal to R from AC, intersecting
PQ at 0.
III. With O as center and radius equal to R, draw the required arc.

FIG 4.20 FIG 4.21

 ➢ To draw an arc of a given radius touching a given arc and a given straight line.

Case 1 (FIG 4.22) :-

Let AB be the given line, CD the given arc drawn with center 0 and radius equal to R1, and R2
the given radius.

I. With O as center and radius equal to (R1 - R2), draw an arc ff.
II. Draw a line parallel to and at a distance equal to R2 from AB and intersecting EF at a
point P.
III. With P as center and radius equal to R2, draw the required arc.

FIG 4.22

Case II: (FIG. 4-23)

Let AB be the given line, CD the given arc drawn with center 0 and radius equal to R1,
and R2 the given radius.
I. With O as center and radius equal to (R1 + R2 ), draw an arc ff.
II. Draw a line parallel to and at a distance equal to R2 from AB and intersecting EF at a
point P.
III. With P as center and radius equal to R2 , draw the required arc.

FIG 4.23
 ➢ To draw an arc of a given radius touching two given arcs.

Let AB be the given arc drawn with center O and radius equal to R1; CD the arc drawn with
center P and radius equal to R2, and R3 the given radius.

Case I (FIG 4.24):-

I. With O as center and radius equal to (R1 + R3), draw an arc EF

II. With O as center and radius equal to (R2 + R3), draw an arc intersecting EF at a point Q.
III. With Q as center and radius equal to R3, draw the required arc

FIG 4.24

Case II (FIG 4.25):

I. With O as center and radius equal to (R1 - R3), draw an arc ff.
II. With P as center and radius equal to (R2 + R3), draw an arc intersecting EF at a point
Q.
III. With Q as center and radius equal to R3, draw the required arc.

FIG 4.25
Case Ill (fig. 5-26):

I. With O as center and radius equal to (R3 - R1), draw an arc EF

II. With P as center and radius equal to (R3 - R2), draw an arc intersecting EF at a point Q.
III. With Q as center and radius equal to R3, draw the required arc.

FIG 4.26

➢ To draw an arc passing through points not in a straight fine

Let A, B and C be the given points.

I. Draw lines joining B with A and C.

II. Draw perpendicular bisectors of AB and BC intersecting each other at a point 0.
III. With O as center and radius equal to QA or OB or OC, draw the required arc

FIG 4.27
 ➢ To draw a continuous curve of circular arcs number of given points not in a straight fine

Let A, B, C, D and E be the given points.

I. Draw lines joining A with B, B with C, C with D etc.

II. Draw perpendicular bisectors of AB and BC intersecting at 0.
III. With O as center and radius equal to OA, draw an arc ABC.
IV. Draw a line joining O and C.
V. Draw the perpendicular bisector of CD intersecting OC or OC produced, at P.
VI. With P as center and radius equal to PC, draw an arc CD.
VII. Repeat the same construction. Note that the center of the arc is at the intersection of the
perpendicular bisector and the line, or the line-produced, joining the previous center
with the last point of the previous arc.

FIG 4.28

4.9 To construct an ogee or reverse curve

An ogee curve or a reverse curve is a combination of two same curves in which the second curve
has a reverse shape to that of the first curve. In other words, any curve or line or mould consist of
a continuous double curve with the upper part convex and lower part concave, to some extent
having shape of "5".

➢ To draw an ogee shaped arc tangent between two parallel lines (FIG 4.29)

I. Let AB and CD be the two given parallel lines which are to be connected by an ogee
curve.
II. Join points B and C. Bisect the line BC and obtain its center point T.
III. Bisect line segment BT and draw the bisector line PQ. Similarly, bisect segment CT and
draw the bisector line RS.
IV. From point B, draw a perpendicular line to cut the bisector line PQ at E.
V. Similarly, from point C, draw a perpendicular line to cut the bisector line RS at F.
VI. Points E and F are the center points of the ogee curve. With £ as center draw an arc BT.
With F as center draw another arc CT. Arc BTC is the required ogee curve.
 FIG 4.29

4.10 To construct equilateral triangles

➢ To construct an equilateral triangle, given the length of the side

(a) With T-square and set-square only (FIG. 4.30).

I. With the T-square, draw a line AB of given length.

II. With 30°-60° set-square and T-square, draw a line through A making 60° angle with
AB.
III. Similarly, through B, draw a line making the same angle with AB and intersecting the
first line at C. Then ABC is the required triangle.

FIG 4.30 FIG 4.31

(b) With the aid of a compass (fig. 5-31).

I. With centers A and B and radius equal to AB, draw arcs intersecting each other
at C.
II. Draw lines joining C with A and B.
Then ABC is the required triangle.
 ➢ To construct an equilateral triangle of a given altitude

(A) With T-square and set-square only (FIG 4.32).

I. With the T-square, draw a line AB of any length.

II. From a point P in AB, draw with a set-square, the vertical PQ equal to the given
altitude. Art. 5-11] Geometrical Construction 81
III. With T-square and 30°-60° set-square, draw lines through Q on both sides of and
making 30° angles with PQ and cutting AB in R and T. Then QRT is the required
triangle.

(B) With the aid of a compass (FIG 4.33).

I. Draw a line AB of any length.

II. At any point P in AB, draw the perpendicular PQ equal to the given altitude (Problem 5-
3).
III. With center Q and any radius, draw an arc intersecting PQ at C.
IV. With center C and the same radius, draw arcs cutting the first arc at E and F.
V. Draw bisectors of CE and CF to intersect AB at R and T respectively. Then QRT is the
required triangle.

FIG 4.32 FIG 4.33

5.11 To construct squares

➢ To construct a square, length of a side given

FIG 4.34
 (A) With T-square and set-square only.

I. With the T-square, draw a line AB equal to the given length.

II. At A and B, draw verticals AE and BF.
III. From point A draw a line inclined at 45° to AB, cutting BF at C.
IV. From point B draw a line inclined at 45° to AB, cutting AE at 0.
V. Draw a line joining C with 0.
Then ABCO is the required square.

(B) With the aid of a compass

I. Draw a line AB equal to the given length.

II. At A, draw a line AE perpendicular to AB. (Refer problem 5-3, Method Ill, fig. 5-5).
III. With center A and radius AB, draw an arc cutting AE at D.
IV. With centers B and D and the same radius, draw arcs intersecting at C.
V. Draw lines joining C with B and D.
Then ABCD is the required square

FIG 4.35

5.12 To construct regular polygons

➢ To construct a regular polygon, given the length of its side

Let the number of sides of the polygon be seven (i.e. heptagon).

Method I:

I. Draw a line AB equal to the given length.

II. With center A and radius AB, draw a semi-circle BP.
III. With a divider, divide the semi-circle into seven equal parts (same as the number of
sides). Number the division-points as 1, 2, etc. starting from P.
IV. Draw a line joining A with the second division-point 2.
 FIG 4.36 FIG 4.37

a) Inscribe circle method (FIG 4.36).

I. Draw perpendicular bisectors of A2 and AB intersecting each other at 0.

II. With center O and radius OA, describe a circle.
III. With radius AB and starting from B, cut the circle at points, C, D..... 2.
IV. Draw lines BC, CD etc. thus completing the required heptagon.

b) Arc method (FIG 4.37)

I. With center B and radius AB, draw an arc cutting the line A6-produced at C.
II. With center C and the same radius, draw an arc cutting the line AS-produced at D.
III. Find points E and F in the same manner.
IV. Draw lines BC, CD etc. and complete the heptagon.

Method II: General for drawing any polygon (fig. 5-38):

I. Draw a line AB equal to the given length.

II. At B, draw a line BP perpendicular and equal to AB.
III. Draw a line joining A with P.
IV. With center B and radius AB, draw the quadrant AP.
V. Draw the perpendicular bisector of AB to intersect the straight line AP in 4 and the arc
AP in 6.

(a) A square of a side equal to AB can be inscribed in the circle drawn with center 4 and radius
A4.
(b) A regular hexagon of a side equal to AB can be inscribed in the circle drawn with center 6
and radius A6.
(c) The mid-point 5 of the line 4-6 is the center of the circle of the radius AS in which a regular
pentagon of a side equal to AB can be inscribed.
(d) To locate center 7 for the regular heptagon of side AB, step-off a division 6-7 equal to the
division 5-6.
(i) With Center 7 and radius equal to A7, draw a circle.
(ii) Starting from B, cut it in seven equal divisions with radius equal to AB.
(iii) Draw lines BC, CD etc. and complete the heptagon.

Regular polygons of any number of sides can be drawn by this method.

Alternative method (FIG 4.39 and FIG 4.40)

I. On AB as diameter, describe a semi-circle.

II. With either A or B as Centre and AB as radius, describe an arc on the same side as the
semi-circle.
III. Draw a perpendicular bisector of AB cutting the semi-circle at point 4 and the arc at
point 6.
IV. Obtain points 5, 7, 8 etc. as explained in method II.

Fig. 5-40 shows a square, a regular pentagon, a regular hexagon and a regular octagon, all
constructed on AB as a common side.

FIG 4.38 FIG 4.39 FIG 4.40

4.13 Special methods of drawing of drawing regular polygons

➢ To construct a pentagon, length of a side given

Method I (FIG 4.41)

I. Draw a line AB equal to the given length.
II. With center A and radius AB, describe a circle-1.
 III. With center B and the same radius, describe a circle-2 cutting circle-1 at C and D.
IV. With center C and the same radius, draw an arc to cut circle-1 and circle-2 at f 2 and f
respectively.
V. Draw a perpendicular bisector of the line AB to cut the arc EF at G.
VI. Draw a line EC and produce it to cut Q circle-2 at P.
VII. Draw a line FG and produce it to cut circle-1 at R.
VIII. With P and R as centers and AB as radius, draw arcs intersecting each other at Q.
IX. Draw lines BP, PQ, QR and RA, thus completing the pentagon.

FIG 4.41

Method II: (FIG. 4.42):

I. Draw a line AB equal to the given length. B E

II. Bisect AB in a point C.
III. Draw a line BD perpendicular and equal 1 to AB.
IV. With center C and radius CD, draw an arc to intersect the line AB-produced at E.
V. Then AE is the length of the diagonal of the pentagon.
VI. Therefore, with center A and radius AB, draw an arc intersecting the arc drawn with
center B and radius AE at R.
VII. Again with center A and radius AE, draw an arc intersecting the arc drawn with centre
B and radius AB at P.
VIII. With centers A and B and radius AE, draw arcs intersecting each other at Q.
IX. Draw lines BP, PQ, QR and RA, thus completing the pentagon.

FIG 4.42
 ➢ To construct a hexagon, length of a side given

(a) With T-square and 30°-60° set-square only (FIG 4.43).

I. Draw a line AB equal to the given length.

II. From A, draw lines A1 and A2 making 60° and 120° angles respectively with AB.
III. From B, draw lines 83 and 84 making 60° and 120° angles respectively with AB.
IV. From O the point of intersection of A1 and 83, draw a line parallel to AB and
intersecting A2 at F and 84 at C.
V. From F, draw a line parallel to BC and intersecting 83 at E.
VI. From C, draw a line parallel to AF and intersecting A1 at D.
VII. Draw a line joining E and D.
Then ABCDEF is the required hexagon.

FIG 4.43

(b) With the aid of a compass (FIG 4.44).

I. With Point O as center, draw a circle of radius equal to the given side length of the
required polygon.
II. Draw a horizontal line passing through the center of the circle and cutting the circle at
opposite ends, say at points F and C. Mark the center of circle as 0.
III. Starting with either F or C as center and side as length, go on marking the points on the
circumference, A, B, D and E.
IV. Join points A-B-C-0-E-F. You will get the required Hexagon (6 sided polygon).

FIG 4.44
 ➢ To inscribe a regular octagon in a given square (FIG 4.45).

I. Draw the given square ABCD.

II. Draw diagonals AC and BO intersecting each other at 0.
III. With center A and radius AO, draw an arc cutting AB at 2 and AD at 7.
IV. Similarly, with canters B, C and D and the same radius, draw arcs and obtain points 1, 3,
4 etc. as shown.
Draw lines 2-3, 4-5, 6-7 and 8-1, thus completing the octagon.

FIG 4.45

4.14 Regular polygons inscribed in circles

➢ To inscribe a regular polygon of any number of sides, say 5, in a given circle (fig. 4.46).

I. With center 0, draw the given circle.

II. Draw a diameter AB and divide it into five equal parts (same number of parts as the
number of sides) and number them as shown.
III. With centers A and B and radius AB, draw arcs intersecting each other at P.
IV. Draw a line P2 and produce it to meet the circle at C. Then AC is the length of the side
of the pentagon.
V. Starting from C, step-off on the circle, divisions CD, DE etc., equal to AC.
VI. Draw lines CO, DE etc., thus completing the pentagon.

FIG 4.46
 ➢ To inscribe a square in a given circle (FIG 4.47).

I. With center 0, draw the given circle.

II. Draw diameters AB and CD perpendicular to each other.
III. Draw lines AC, CB, BO and DA, thus completing the square.

FIG 4.47
➢ To inscribe a regular pentagon in a given circle (FIG 4.48).

I. With center 0, draw the given circle.

II. Draw diameters AB and CD perpendicular to each other.
III. Bisect AO in a point P. With center P and radius PC, draw an arc cutting OB in Q.
IV. With center C and radius CQ, draw an arc cutting the circle in E and f.
V. With centers f and f and the same radius, draw arcs cutting the circle in C and H
respectively.
VI. Draw lines Cf, EC, CH, HF and FC, thus completing the required pentagon.

FIG 4.48
FIG 4.49

➢ To inscribe a regular hexagon in a given circle (FIG 4.49).

Apply the same method as shown in Problem 5-28(b).

Note:
(a) When two sides of the hexagon are required to be horizontal the starting point for stepping-
off equal divisions should be on an end of the horizontal diameter.

(b) If they are to be vertical, the starting point should be on an end of the vertical diameter.

In either case, to avoid inaccuracy, the points should be joined with the aid of
T-square and 30°-60° set-square.
 ➢ To inscribe a regular heptagon in a circle (FIG 4.50)

1. With center 0, draw the given circle.

2. Draw a diameter AB. With center A and radius AO, draw an arc cutting the circle at E
and f.
3. Draw a line EF, cutting AO in G.
Then EC or FC is the length of the side of the heptagon.

Therefore, from any point on the circle, say A, step-off divisions equal to EC, around
the circle. Join the division-points and obtain the heptagon.

FIG 4.50

➢ To inscribe a regular octagon in a given circle (fig. 4-51).

(i) With center 0, draw the given circle.

(ii) Draw diameters AB and CO at right angles to each other.
(iii) Draw diameters EF and CH bisecting angles AOC and COB.
(iv)Draw lines AE, EC etc. and complete the octagon.

FIG 4.51
4.15 To draw regular figures using T-square and set-squares

➢ To describe an equilateral triangle about a given circle (fig. 4-52).

(i) With center 0, draw the given circle.

(ii) Draw a vertical radius QA.
(iii) Draw radii OB and OC with a 30°-60° set-square, such that LAOB = LAOC = 120°.
(iv) At A, B and C, draw tangents to the circle, i.e. a horizontal line ff through A, and lines FG
and GE through B and C respectively with E a 30°-60° set-square. FIG. 5-52 Then EFG is the
required triangle.

FIG 4.52
➢ To draw a square about a given circle (fig. 4-53).

(i) With center 0, describe the given circle.

(ii) Draw diameters AB and CO at right angles to each other as shown.
(iii) At A and B, draw vertical lines, and at C and 0, draw horizontal lines intersecting at E, F, G
and H. EFGH is the required square.

FIG 4.53
 ➢ To describe a regular hexagon about a given circle (fig. 4-54).

(i) With center 0, draw the given circle.

(ii) Draw horizontal diameter AB, and diameters CO and ff making 60° angle with AB.
(iii) Draw tangents at all the six ends, i.e. verticals at A and B, and lines with a 30°-60° set-
square at the remaining points intersecting at 1, 2, ..... 6. A hexagon with two sides horizontal
can be drawn by drawing a vertical diameter AB and the other lines as shown in fig. 4-55.

FIG 4.54 FIG 4.55 FIG 4.56

➢ To describe a regular octagon about a given circle (fig. 4-56).

(i) With center 0, describe the given circle.

(ii) Draw a horizontal diameter AB, a vertical diameter CD and diameters ff and CH at 45° to
the first two.
(iii) Draw tangents at the eight points A, B ..... H intersecting one another at
1, 2 ..... 8. Then 1, 2 ..... 8 is the required octagon.

4.16 To draw tangents

Problem 5-40. (fig. 5-57): To draw a tangent to a given circle at any point on it.
(i) With center 0, draw the given circle and mark a point P on it.
(ii) Draw a line joining O and P.
(iii) Produce OP to Q so that PQ = OP.
(iv) With centers O and Q and with any convenient radius, draw arcs intersecting each other at R.
(v) Draw a line through P and R. Then this
line is the required tangent.
 FIG 4.57

➢ (fig. 4-58): To draw a tangent to a given circle from any point outside it.

(i) With center 0, draw the given circle.

(ii) Mark a point P outside it.
(iii) Draw a line joining O and P.
(iv) With OP as diameter, draw a semi-circle
cutting the given circle at R and R1.
(v) Draw a line through P and R. Then this
line is the required tangent. The line through
P and R1 is the other tangent which can be
drawn from the same point.

FIG 4.58
➢ (fig. 4-59): To draw a tangent to a given arc of inaccessible center at any point on it.

Let AB be the given arc and P the point on it.

(i) With center P and any radius, draw arcs cutting the arc AB at C and D. Draw EF, the bisector
of the arc CD. It will pass through P.
(ii) Through P, draw a line RS perpendicular to EF. RS is the required tangent.

FIG 4.59
 ➢ (fig. 4-60): To draw a tangent to a given circle and parallel to a given line.

The circle with center O and the line AB are given.

(i) From 0, draw a line perpendicular to AB and cutting the circle at a point P or Q.
(ii) Through P or Q, draw the required tangent CD or C1 D1 (problem 5-40).

FIG 4.60

➢ To draw a common tangent to two circles of equal radii (fig. 4-61).

Draw the given circles with centers O and P.

(a) External tangents (fig. 5-61):
(i) Draw a line joining O and P.
(ii) At O and P, erect perpendiculars to OP on the same side of it and intersecting the
circles at A and 8.
(iii) Draw a line through A and 8. This line is the required tangent. A1 81 is the other
tangent

(b) Internal tangents (fig. 4-62):

(i) Draw a line joining O and P.
(ii) Bisect OP in R. Draw a semi-circle with OR as diameter to cut the circle at A.
(iii) With center R and radius RA, draw an arc to intersect the other circle on the other
side of OP at B.
(iv)Draw a line through A and 8. This line is the required tangent. The other tangent
through A1 and 81 can also be similarly drawn.

FIG 4.61 FIG 4.62

 ➢ To draw a common tangent to two given circles of unequal radii (fig. 4-63 and fig. 4-
64).

Draw the given circles with centers 0 and P, and radii R1 and R2 respectively, of which R1 is
greater than R2 •
(a) External tangents (fig. 4-63):
(i) Draw a line joining centers 0 and P.
(ii) With center O and radius equal to (R1 - R2 ), draw a circle.
(iii) From P, draw a tangent PT to this circle (Problem 4-41).
(iv)Draw a line OT and produce it to cut the outer circle at A.
(v) Through P, draw a line PB parallel to OA, on the same side of OP and cutting the
circle at B.
(vi)Draw a line through A and B. Then this line is the required tangent.

The other similar tangent will pass through A1 and B1 .

(b) Internal tangents (fig. 4-64):
(i) Draw a line joining the centers O and P.
(ii) With center O and radius equal to (R1 + R2 ), draw a circle.
(iii) From P, draw a line PT tangent to this circle.
(iv) Draw a line OT cutting the circle at A
(v) Through P, draw a line PB parallel to OA, on the other side of OP and cutting the
circle at B.
(vi) Draw a line through A and B. Then this line is the required tangent. The second
tangent will pass through A1 and B1 .

FIG 4.63 FIG 4.64

4.17 Lengths of arcs

➢ To determine the length of a given arc (fig. 4-65).

Let AB be the given arc drawn with center 0.
(i) At A, draw a tangent to the arc.
(ii) Draw the chord AB and produce it beyond A to a point C such that AC = ~ AB.
(iii) With center C and radius equal to CB, describe an arc cutting the tangent at D.
(iv)Then the length AD is approximately equal to the length of the arc AB.

This method is satisfactory for arcs which subtend at the center, angles smaller than 60°.

➢ To determine the length of the circumference of a given circle (fig. 4-66).

Let the circle with center O be given.

(i) Draw a- diameter AB.
(ii) At A, draw a tangent AC equal to 3 times AB.
(iii) Draw a radius OD making an angle of 30° with OB.
(iv) From D, draw a line DE perpendicular to OB.
(v) Draw a line joining E and C. Then EC is approximately equal in length to the circumference
of the circle.

FIG 4.65 FIG 4.66

4.18 Circles and lines in contact

➢ To draw a circle passing through a given point and tangent to a given fine at a given
point on it (fig. 4-67).

A point P and a line AB with a point Q in it are given. At Q, draw a line perpendicular to AB.
(i) Draw a line joining P and Q.
(ii) Draw a perpendicular bisector of PQ to intersect the perpendicular from Q at 0.
(iii) With center O and radius OP or OQ, draw the required circle.

➢ To draw a circle passing through a given point and touching a given circle at a given
point on it (fig. 4-68).

A point P, a circle with center A and a point Q on the circle are given.
(i) Draw a line joining P and Q.
 (ii) Draw a perpendicular bisector of PQ, to intersect the line through A and Q at 0.
(iii) With center O and radius OP, draw the required circle.

The required circle includes the given circle when the point is in a position such as P'.

FIG 4.67 FIG 4.68

4.19 Inscribed circles.

➢ To inscribe a circle in given triangle (fig. 4.69).

Let ABC be the triangle.

(i) Bisect any two angles by lines intersecting each other at 0.
(ii) Draw a perpendicular from O to any one side of the triangle, meeting it at P.
(iii) With center O and radius OP, describe the required circle

➢ To draw a circle touching three lines inclined to each other but not forming a triangle
(fig. 4.70).

Let AB, BC and AD be the given lines.

(i) Draw bisectors of the two angles intersecting each other at 0.
(ii) From 0, draw a perpendicular to any one line intersecting it at P.
(iii) With center O and radius OP, draw the required circle.

FIG 4.69 FIG 4.70

➢ To inscribe a circle in a regular polygon of any number of sides, say a pentagon (fig.4.71).
Let ABCDE be the pentagon.
(i) Bisect any two angles by lines intersecting each other at 0.
(ii) From 0, draw a perpendicular to any one side of the pentagon cutting it at P.
(iii) With center O and radius OP, draw the required circle.

FIG 4.71