Bce 313 Sim SDL

UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO
College of Engineering Education

Civil Engineering Program
Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged
Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for

Self-Directed Learning (SDL)
Course/Subject: BCE 313: HYDROLOGY

Name of Teacher: Engr. SHOWNA LEE T. SALES
THIS SIM/SDL MANUAL IS A DRAFT VERSION ONLY; NOT FOR REPRODUCTION AND
DISTRIBUTION OUTSIDE OF ITS INTENDED USE. THIS IS INTENDED ONLY FOR THE
USE OF THE STUDENTS WHO ARE OFFICIALLY ENROLLED IN THE COURSE/SUBJECT.
EXPECT REVISIONS OF THE MANUAL.
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Table of Contents
COURSE OUTLINE: BCE 313 - HYDROLOGY..................................................................................................... 6
COURSE OUTLINE POLICY ......................................................................................................................................... 6
Course Information .......................................................................................................................................................... 9
BIG PICTURE IN FOCUS: ULO-1. .............................................................................................................................. 9
Metalanguage ...................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Essential Knowledge .....................................................................................................................................................10
HYDROLOGIC CYCLE .....................................................................................................................................................10
THE IMPACT OF HYDROLOGIC CYCLE IN HUMAN LIFE ..............................................................................11
COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERE ...........................................................................................................................11
NUCLEATION AND PARTICLE GROWTH .............................................................................................................11
HOW CLOUDS ARE FORMED? ...................................................................................................................................12
WHY CLOUDS HAVE DIFFERENT COLORS? .......................................................................................................12
TYPES OF CLOUDS ..........................................................................................................................................................12
WATERSHED AND ITS PARTS ..................................................................................................................................13
INSTRUMENTS IN MEASURING PRECIPITATION ...........................................................................................14
DIMENSION OF RAIN GAUGE ....................................................................................................................................15
SET-UP FOR RAIN GAUGE ...........................................................................................................................................15
ESTIMATING THE MISSING DATA AND ADJUSTMENT OF RECORDS ...................................................16
MEAN AREAL PRECIPITATION ................................................................................................................................19
DEPTH-AREA-DURATION ANALYSIS ....................................................................................................................22
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF RAINFALL ...............................................................................................23
Self-Help: .............................................................................................................................................................................24
Let’s Check ..........................................................................................................................................................................25
In a Nutshell .......................................................................................................................................................................27
COURSE SCHEDULE: ....................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
BIG PICTURE IN FOCUS: ULO-2A..........................................................................................................................28
Metalanguage ....................................................................................................................................................................28
WATER LOSSES ................................................................................................................................................................29
EVAPORATION .................................................................................................................................................................29
METHOD IN ESTIMATING EVAPORATION .........................................................................................................29
INSTRUMENTS USED IN MEASURING EVAPORATION ................................................................................30
TRANSPIRATION .............................................................................................................................................................31
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION ..............................................................................................................................................32
FACTORS AFFECTING EVAPOTRANSPIRATION ..............................................................................................34
PAN COEFFICIENT ..........................................................................................................................................................34
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MEASURES TO REDUCE LAKE EVAPORATION ................................................................................................35

SOIL EVAPORATION ......................................................................................................................................................36
INTERCEPTION ................................................................................................................................................................37
DEPRESSION STORAGE ................................................................................................................................................37
Self-Help: .............................................................................................................................................................................38
Let’s Check ..........................................................................................................................................................................38
Let’s Analyze......................................................................................................................................................................39
BIG PICTURE IN FOCUS: ULO-2B..........................................................................................................................40
Metalanguage ....................................................................................................................................................................40
RUNOFF PHENOMENON .............................................................................................................................................40
TIME OF CONCENTRATION .......................................................................................................................................42
RUNOFF CALCULATIONS ............................................................................................................................................45
STREAMS .............................................................................................................................................................................49
STREAM CLASSIFICATION .........................................................................................................................................49
FLOOD PREDICTION......................................................................................................................................................50
Self-Help: .............................................................................................................................................................................51
Let’s Check ..........................................................................................................................................................................51
Let’s Analyze......................................................................................................................................................................51
COURSE SCHEDULE ........................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
BIG PICTURE IN FOCUS: ULO-3A..........................................................................................................................54
Metalanguage ....................................................................................................................................................................54
HYDROGRAPH ..................................................................................................................................................................54
TYPES OF HYDROGRAPH ............................................................................................................................................56
UNIT HYDROGRAPH FROM COMPLEX STORMS ..............................................................................................61
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-3b. ....................................................................................................................................66
Metalanguage ....................................................................................................................................................................66
INFILTRATION AND PERCOLATION .....................................................................................................................66
METHODS OF DETERMINING INFILTRATION .................................................................................................66
INFILTRATION RATE ....................................................................................................................................................68
INFILTRATION INDICES ..............................................................................................................................................69
SUPRA RAIN TECHNIQUE ...........................................................................................................................................71
GREEN AND AMPT INFILTRATION METHOD ...................................................................................................72
INTERPRETING GREEN AND AMPT GRAPH AND RESULTS ......................................................................74
PERCOLATION ..................................................................................................................................................................75
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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INFILTRATION AND PERCOLATION ................................................................77

Self-Help: .............................................................................................................................................................................77
LET’S ANALYZE ................................................................................................................................................................78
IN A NUTSHELL ................................................................................................................................................................79
BIG PICTURE IN FOCUS: ULO-3C. .........................................................................................................................79
Metalanguage ....................................................................................................................................................................79
GROUNDWATER ..............................................................................................................................................................80
CONFINED AND UNCONFINED AQUIFERS .........................................................................................................81
DARCY’S LAW....................................................................................................................................................................83
HYDRAULIC OF WELLS ................................................................................................................................................83
SPECIFIC CAPACITY .......................................................................................................................................................84
CAVITY WELLS .................................................................................................................................................................85
GROUNDWATER PROBLEMS ....................................................................................................................................86
Self-Help: .............................................................................................................................................................................87
Let’s Check ..........................................................................................................................................................................87
Let’s Analyze......................................................................................................................................................................88
BIG PICTURE IN FOCUS: ULO-3D .........................................................................................................................89
Metalanguage ....................................................................................................................................................................89
BASIC PROBABILITY .....................................................................................................................................................89
RETURN PERIOD .............................................................................................................................................................92
DESIGN STORMS..............................................................................................................................................................92
REGRESSION ANALYSIS ...............................................................................................................................................93
STANDARD ERROR OF ESTIMATE .........................................................................................................................94
Self-Help: .............................................................................................................................................................................96
LET’S ANALYZE ................................................................................................................................................................96
IN A NUTSHELL ................................................................................................................................................................97
BIG PICTURE IN FOCUS: ULO-4A. ........................................................................................................................98
Metalanguage ....................................................................................................................................................................98
RESERVOIR ROUTING...................................................................................................................................................99
STREAMFLOW ROUTING ......................................................................................................................................... 106
Self-Help: .......................................................................................................................................................................... 111
Let’s Check ....................................................................................................................................................................... 111
Let’s Analyze................................................................................................................................................................... 111
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IN A NUTSHELL ............................................................................................................................................................. 114

BIG PICTURE IN FOCUS: ULO-4B....................................................................................................................... 115
Metalanguage ................................................................................................................................................................. 115
Essential Knowledge .................................................................................................................................................. 115
SIZE OF FLOODS ........................................................................................................................................................... 116
ESTIMATION OF PEAK FLOOD .............................................................................................................................. 117
METHODS OF FLOOD CONTROL .......................................................................................................................... 118
FLOOD CONTROL BY RESERVOIRS ..................................................................................................................... 118
RETARDING BASINS ................................................................................................................................................... 119
CONSTRUCTION OF LEEVES................................................................................................................................... 120
CHANNEL IMPROVEMENT ...................................................................................................................................... 120
SOIL CONSERVATION MEASURES ....................................................................................................................... 124
FLOOD CONTROL ECONOMICS ............................................................................................................................. 126
COMBINATION OF FLOOD CONTROL MEASURES ....................................................................................... 128
FLOOD FORECASTING AND WARNING ............................................................................................................. 128
Self-Help: .......................................................................................................................................................................... 130
LET’S CHECK................................................................................................................................................................... 130
LET’S ANALYZE ............................................................................................................................................................. 130
IN A NUTSHELL ............................................................................................................................................................. 131
BIG PICTURE IN FOCUS: ULO-4C. ...................................................................................................................... 132
Metalanguage ................................................................................................................................................................. 132
Essential Knowledge .................................................................................................................................................. 132
ROLE IN HYDROLOGY IN WATER RESOURCES PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT ....................... 133
AGENCIES THAT ARE INVOLVED IN COLLECTING HYDROLOGIC DATA ......................................... 134
STATUS OF WATER RESOURCES IN THE PHILIPPINES............................................................................ 135
CLASSIFICATION OF BODIES OF WATER IN THE PHILIPPINES ........................................................... 135
Self-Help: .......................................................................................................................................................................... 137
LET’S CHECK................................................................................................................................................................... 137
IN A NUTSHELL ............................................................................................................................................................. 137
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Course Outline: BCE 313 - Hydrology
Course Coordinator: ENGR. SHOWNA LEE T. SALES

Email: [email protected]
Student Consultation: By appointment
Mobile: 296-1084
Phone: (082) 296-1084 or 300-5456 loc. 133
Effectivity Date: March 14, 2013
Mode of Delivery: Blended (On-line with face to face or virtual sessions)
Time Frame: 54 hours
Student Workload: Expected Self-Directed Learning
Pre-requisite: BCE 221
Co-requisite: BCE 314/L
Credit: 3.0 units lecture
Attendance Requirements: A minimum of 95% attendance is required at all
scheduled Virtual or face-to-face sessions
Course Outline Policy
Areas of Concern Details

Contact and Non-contact Hours This 3-unit course self-instructional manual is
designed for blended learning mode of instructional
delivery with scheduled face to face or virtual sessions.
The expected number of hours will be 108 including
the face-to-face or virtual sessions. The face-to-face
sessions shall include the summative assessment tasks
(exams) since this course is crucial in the licensure
examination for civil engineers.
Assessment Task Submission Submission of assessment tasks shall be on 3rd, 5th, 7th
and 9th week of the term. The assessment paper shall
be attached with a cover page indicating the title of the
assessment task (if the task is performance), the
name of the course coordinator, date of submission
and name of the student. The document should be
emailed to the course coordinator. It is also expected
that you already paid your tuition and other fees
before the submission of the assessment task.
If the assessment task is done in real time through the

features in the Blackboard Learning Management
System, the schedule shall be arranged ahead of time
by the course coordinator.
.
Turnitin Submission To ensure honesty and authenticity, all assessment
(if necessary) tasks are required to be submitted through Turnitin
with a maximum similarity index of 30% allowed. This
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means that if your paper goes beyond 30%, the

students will either opt to redo her/his paper or
explain in writing addressed to the course coordinator
the reasons for the similarity. In addition, if the paper
has reached more than 30% similarity index, the
student may be called for a disciplinary action in
accordance with the University’s OPM on Intellectual
and Academic Honesty.
Please note that academic dishonesty such as cheating

and commissioning other students or people to
complete the task for you have severe punishments
(reprimand, warning, expulsion).
Penalties for Late The score for an assessment item submitted after the
Assignments/Assessments designated time on the due date, without an approved
extension of time, will be reduced by 5% of the
possible maximum score for that assessment item for
each day or part day that the assessment item is late.
However, if the late submission of assessment paper

has a valid reason, a letter of explanation should be
submitted and approved by the course coordinator. If
necessary, you will also be required to present/attach
evidences.
Return of Assignments/ Assessment tasks will be returned to you two (2)
Assessments weeks
after the submission. This will be returned by email or
via Blackboard portal.
For group assessment tasks, the course coordinator

will require some or few of the students for online or
virtual sessions to ask clarificatory questions to
validate the originality of the assessment task
submitted and to ensure that all the group members
are involved.
Assignment Resubmission You should request in writing addressed to the course
coordinator his/her intention to resubmit an
assessment task. The resubmission is premised on the
student’s failure to comply with the similarity index
and other reasonable grounds such as academic
literacy standards or other reasonable circumstances
e.g.
illness, accidents financial constraints.
Re-marking of Assessment You should request in writing addressed to the
Papers and Appeal program
coordinator your intention to appeal or contest the
score given to an assessment task. The letter should
explicitly explain the reasons/points to contest the
grade. The program coordinator shall communicate
with the students on the approval and disapproval of
the
request.
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If disapproved by the course coordinator, you can

elevate your case to the program head or the dean
with
the original letter of request. The final decision will
come from the dean of the college.
Grading System All culled from BlackBoard sessions and traditional
contact
Course discussions/exercises – 30%
1st formative assessment – 10%
2nd formative assessment – 10%
3rd formative assessment – 10%
All culled from on-campus/onsite sessions (TBA):

Final exam – 40%
Submission of the final grades shall follow the usual

University system and procedures.
Preferred Referencing Style Depends on the discipline; if uncertain or inadequate,
use the general practice of the APA 6th Edition.
Student Communication You are required to create a umindanao email
account which is a requirement to access the
BlackBoard portal.
Then, the course coordinator shall enroll the
students to have access to the materials and resources
of the course. All communication formats: chat,
submission of assessment tasks, requests etc. shall be
through the portal and other university recognized
platforms.
You can also meet the course coordinator in person

through the scheduled face to face sessions to raise
your issues and concerns.
For students who have not created their student email,

please contact the course coordinator or program
head.
Contact Details of the Dean Dr. Charlito L. Cañesares
Email: [email protected]
Phone: (082) 296-1084 or 300-5456 loc. 133
Contact Details of the Program Engr. Showna Lee T. Sales
Head Email: [email protected]
Phone: (082) 296-1084 or 300-5456 loc. 133
Students with Special Needs Students with special needs shall communicate with
the course coordinator about the nature of his or her
special needs. Depending on the nature of the need,
the course coordinator with the approval of the
program coordinator may provide alternative
assessment tasks or extension of the deadline of
submission of assessment tasks. However, the
alternative assessment tasks should still be in the
service of achieving the desired course learning
outcomes.
Help Desk Contact Frida Santa O. Dagatan
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[email protected]
09562082442
082-2272902
Library Contact Brigida E. Bacani
[email protected]
09513766681
Course Information- see/download course syllabus in the BlackBoard LMS
CC’s Voice: Hello future engineer! Welcome to this course BCE 313: Hydrology.
By now, I am confident that you really wanted to become a civil engineer and
that you have foreseen yourself building and exploring the world.
CO: Upon completion of the course, you are expected to:
CO 1: Develop a good understanding of processes which water cycle between the

bodies of water, atmosphere, and land surface and of the physical meaning of
hydrologic models which capture/stimulate selected hydrologic phenomena.
CO 2: Make intelligent decisions on problems that involve hydrologic analysis and
design with social and moral consideration
Let us begin!
Big Picture
Week 1-3: Unit Learning Outcomes-Unit 1 (ULO-1): At the end of the unit, you are expected to
a. Describe the phases of hydrologic cycle and relation to meteorology

and its impact to human life with the corresponding application .
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1. Describe the phases of hydrologic cycle and relation
to meteorology and its impact to human life with the corresponding
application.
Metalanguage
The most essential terms below are defined for you to have a better understanding of
this section in the course.
1. Hydrology. The scientific study of the properties, distribution, and effects of water on the
earth’s surface, in soil and underlying rocks, and in the atmosphere.
2. Hydraulics. Involving movement operated by a fluid under pressure. It deals with the
application of fluid mechanics to engineering devices involving fluids, usually water or oil.
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3. Hydrologic Cycle. Circulation or cycle that controls the distribution of Earth’s water as it
evaporates from bodies of water, condenses, precipitates and returns to those bodies of
water
4. Watershed. A ridge of high land dividing two areas that are drained by different river
systems. The region draining into the river, river system, or other bodies of water. It is
also called drainage basin.
5. Meteorology. Is a branch of the atmospheric sciences which includes atmospheric
chemistry and atmospheric physics with a major focus on weather forecasting.
6. Humidity. Is the amount of water vapor in the air.
Essential Knowledge
We must know the different process and its role in hydrologic cycle because it is the
foundation in this course and connected to the other topics like meteorology and watershed.
Also, we must identify the importance or the impact of the hydrologic cycle in the daily life.
HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
1. Precipitation – is any type of water that forms in the Earth’s atmosphere and then drops
onto the surface of the Earth.
2. Condensation – The process by which the water vapor changes to a liquid.
3. Evaporation – Water that comes from the river, seas, etc. transfer into a gas or water
vapor.
4. Runoff – Flow of water that is not absorbed into the soil. The overflow from the surface to
the bodies of water like river.
5. Transpiration – Is the process by which plants and animals including human gives off
water vapor through pores and evaporate it.
6. Interception - When rain falls on the earth's surface, some of it strikes vegetation,
buildings, and other objects. This rain is said to be intercepted.
7. Infiltration- Rain falls into the ground infiltrates from the surface up to the root zone.
8. Percolation- From root zone, water will move down till reach to the aquifer.
9. Groundwater- is beneath most places on the land surface. This water is contained in the
voids within the underlying geologic material, and the water-bearing formations are
called aquifers.
Figure 1: Hydrological Cycle (Source: britannica.com)
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THE IMPACT OF HYDROLOGIC CYCLE IN HUMAN LIFE
Hydrologic cycle is connected to the human life. Without water, human and other living things
will vanish. Also, water is also part in the activities in daily life like irrigation, hydroelectric
power plant, groundwater source, Recreational activities and source of food. That’s why,
hydrologic cycle is important and has a great impact in human life.
COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERE
Atmosphere is spheroidal envelope of gas and vapor surrounding a planet, retained by gravity.
The composition of the earth’s atmosphere and most of its physical properties vary with
altitude.
Troposphere- Is the part that we live in. The lowest zone or part of the atmosphere. It extends
from the earth’s surface to an altitude of about 5 miles (8km) at the poles and 10 miles (16km)
at the equator. It characterized by decreasing temperature with increasing altitude. Also, it
contains most of our weather, clouds, rain, snow.
Stratosphere- This extends upwards from the tropopause to about 50 km. It contains so much
ozone in the atmosphere. The increase in temperature with height occurs because of absorption
of ultraviolet radiation (UVR) from the sun by this ozone. Temperatures in the stratosphere are
highest over the summer pole and lowest over the winter pole.
Mesosphere- The region above the stratosphere is called the mesosphere. The temperature
again decreases with height reaching a minimum of about -90 degrees Celsius at the mesopause.
Thermosphere- lies above the mesopause and is a region in which temperature again increase
with height. This temperature is caused by the absorption of energetic ultraviolet and X-Ray
radiation from the sun.
Exosphere- Lies above 500km from the surface. It contains mainly oxygen and hydrogen atoms,
but there are so few of them that they rarely collide- they follow “ballistic” trajectories under
the influence of gravity, and some of them escape right out into space.
Figure 2: Parts of the Atmosphere (Source: vtaide.com)
NUCLEATION AND PARTICLE GROWTH
Nucleation is the first step in the formation of either a new thermodynamic phase or a new
structure via self-assembly or self-organization. Nucleation is typically defined to be the
process that determines how long an observer has to wait before the new phase or self-
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organized structure appears. For example, if a volume of water is cooled (at atmospheric
pressure) below 0 degrees Celsius, it will tend to freeze into ice, but volumes of water cooled
only a few degrees below 0 degrees Celsius often stay completely free of ice for long periods. At
these conditions, nucleation of ice is either slow or does not occur at all. Nucleation is commonly
how first-order phase transitions start, and then it is the start of the process of forming a new
thermodynamic phase. In contrast, new phases at continuous phase transitions start to form
immediately. Particle growth is the next process after nucleation. It is the temperature in the
vicinity of the evaporation source is high to obtain the reasonable vapor pressure of the
evaporant. As the evaporant moves away from the source, the temperature decreases, causing
supersaturation of the vaporized material leading to the homogenous nucleation in the gas
phase. At high supersaturation, a large amount of small particles is formed upon rapid
nucleation in the gas phase.
HOW CLOUDS ARE FORMED?
Clouds form when moist, warm rising air cools and expands in the atmosphere. The vapor in
the air condenses to form tiny droplets in which are the basis of clouds.
WHY CLOUDS HAVE DIFFERENT COLORS?
The different colors of the clouds are depending on the light of the sun. The clouds having dark
color because the light of the sun cannot pass throughout the clouds. You can observe that in
the night, the clouds have dark color because there is no light or enough light. The white clouds
like cotton we see is that the light is evenly distributed in the clouds until the bottom of it.
TYPES OF CLOUDS
A cloud is a visible accumulation of a minute droplets of water, ice crystals or both, suspended
in the air. Though they vary in shape and size, all clouds are basically formed in the same way
through the vertical of air above the condensation level. Clouds may also form in contact with
the ground surface, too. Such a cloud would be known as fog, ice fog, or mist. It is divided into
three types: High-Level Clouds, Mid-Level Clouds, Low-Level Clouds.
High-Level Clouds are composed of cirrocumulus, cirrus and cirrostratus. It has an altitude of
5km to 13 km from the earth’s surface.
Cirrus – is one of the most common types of clouds that can be seen at any time of the year.
They are thin and wispy with a silky sheen appearance.
Cirrocumulus – among the most gorgeous out there. These usually form at about 5 km above
the surface with small white fluff patterns that spread out for miles and miles over the sky. They
are sometimes called “Mackerel Skies” because they can sometimes have a grayish color which
makes the clouds look a bit like fish scales.
Cirrostratus- have a sheet-like appearance that can look like a curly blanket covering the sky.
They are quite translucent which makes it easy for the sun or the moon to peer through. Their
color varies from the light gray to white and the fibrous bands can vary widely in thickness.
Purely white cirrostratus clouds signify these have stored moisture, indicating the presence of
a warm frontal system.
Mid-Level Clouds are composed of altocumulus, altostratus and nimbostratus. It has an

altitude of 2km up to 7km from the earth’s surface.
Altocumulus- form at a lower altitude so they’re largely made of water droplets though they
may retain ice crystals when forming higher up.
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Altostratus- often spread over thousands of square miles and are strongly linked to light rain
or snow. Though they’re not capable of yielding heavy rain it’s common for altostratus clouds
to morph into nimbostratus clouds which are packed with moisture and can deliver a pounding.
Nimbostratus- form as a result of the gradual accumulation of moist area over a large area as
the warm and moist area higher up in the atmosphere where it condenses.
Low-Level Clouds are composed of stratus, cumulus, cumulonimbus, and stratocumulus. It has
an altitude of 0km up to 2km from the earth’s surface.
Stratus – composed of thin layers of clouds covering a large area of the sky. This is simply mist
or fog when it forms close to the ground.
Cumulus – It is the most recognizable out of all types of clouds. These adorable piles of cotton
form a large mass with a well-defined rounded edge, which explains the name “cumulus” which
is Latin word for “heap”.
Cumulonimbus – is fluffy and white like cumulus but the cloud formations are far larger. It is
a vertical developing type of cloud whose base grows from one up to eight kilometers, hence
it’s commonly called a tower cloud. The rain comes and goes with this cloud but when it does,
it can come pouring. When you see a cumulonimbus, you know there’s a thunderstorm waiting
to happen somewhere.
Stratocumulus – looks like a thick white blanket of stretched out cotton. They resemble
cumulus clouds except they’re far bigger. The base is well-defined and flat but the upper part of
the cloud is ragged due to convection with the cloud itself. Depending on the thickness of the
cloud, a stratocumulus will have light to dark gray hues.
Figure 3: Types of Clouds (Source: zmescience.com)
WATERSHED AND ITS PARTS
Watershed are composed of many parts including surface water (estuary, bay, river, creeks,
streams, and wetlands), riparian areas, uplands and groundwater.
Wetlands are an area of land that is saturated with water for all or part of the year. A wetland
can be a marsh, pond, or bog. Wetlands are typically surrounded by riparian vegetation. They
are like giant sponges that store water collected during wet periods, reduce flooding, filter out
pollutants, diseases and nutrients, and slowly release the water into groundwater and/or
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rivers, streams, and creeks during drier periods. In addition, wetlands provide habitat for
wildlife and healthy wetlands naturally attract wildlife.
Riparian Vegetation are the plants that grow along or near the riverbanks, lakes, and wetlands.
The roots of riparian plants stabilize stream banks, and prevent erosion and silting-in of
streams and river channels. Spongy soils in riparian areas slow and store water, reducing
flooding and later releasing water to aquifers and streams.
Uplands are areas where there is not usually standing water and would typically be either
forested or agricultural land.
Groundwater is all water under the surface of the ground. It is stored in the soil and it can be
found far under the ground in deep aquifers or very near the ground surface. Groundwater
flows through the soils into our streams, river, estuary and wetlands. It also rises to the surface
in springs.
Figure 4: Watershed and its Parts (Source: howstuffworks.com)
INSTRUMENTS IN MEASURING PRECIPITATION
Today, scientists can measure precipitation directly using ground-based instruments such as
rain gauges or indirectly using remote sensing techniques like radar systems, aircraft, and Earth
observing satellites.
Rain Gauges measure precipitation amounts at a given location. Oftentimes, measurements

from an individual rain gauge are used to represent precipitation conditions across larger areas.
However, that isn’t always the best assumption. The reality is that precipitation may fall more
or less-intensely at the location of the gauge or it may miss the gauge entirely. Damage or
obstructions to a gauge or the presence of strong winds can also introduce error.
Ground-based weather radars emerged during World War II and have since been used to
observe precipitation, mostly over land. It send out pulses of microwave energy in narrow
beams that scan in a circular pattern. When the microwave pulse encounters precipitation
particles in the atmosphere, the energy is scattered in all directions, sending some energy back
to the radar. These measurements are used to estimate intensity, altitude, precipitation type
and motion.
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Earth-observing satellites can provide frequent estimates of precipitation at a global scale. To

do this, satellites carry instruments designed to observe specific atmospheric characteristics
such as cloud temperatures and precipitation particles, or hydrometeors. These data are
extremely useful for filling in data gaps that exist between rain gauge and ground-based radar
sites and offer insights into when, where, and how much precipitation is falling worldwide.
Satellite data also provide a unique vantage point. While ground-based instruments can directly
measure or estimate how much precipitation falls to the ground, satellite instruments estimate
the amount of electromagnetic radiation or energy that is emitted or reflected either from the
top of the clouds or from the rain droplets themselves, providing a top-down view. Example of
weather satellite is Diwata 1 and Himawari 8.
DIMENSION OF RAIN GAUGE
The 8-inch diameter gauge used in the National Weather Service is of a standardized design
used throughout the world for official rainfall measurements. This standardization provides
uniformity, continuity, and credibility of precipitation data worldwide. There are two basic
types of the 8-inch gauge: the traditional large gauge has a capacity of 20 inches depth whereas
the smaller gauge has a capacity of 7 inches. The 20-inch depth gauge is the norm throughout
the National Weather Service. However, other agencies like the U.S. Forest Service often use the
smaller gauge. It has also a 8 inch diameter funnel emptying into a graduated cylinder, 1.17
inches in diameter, which fits the container that is 8 inches in diameter and 20 inches depth. If
the rainwater overflows the graduated inner cylinder, the lager outer container will catch it.
When measurements are taken, the height of the water in the small graduated cylinder is
measured, and the excess overflow in the large container is carefully poured into another
graduated cylinder and measured to give the total rainfall.
SET-UP FOR RAIN GAUGE
1. The gauge should be placed in an area that is protected from the strong winds but is not
bothered by obstacles that could either block precipitation from reaching the gauge or
cause precipitation to splash towards it.
2. The gauge should be installed 2-5 feet above the ground mounted on the side of a single
post. The top of the rain gauge should extend several inches above the top of the mounting
post. The mounting post should have rounded, pointed or slanted top to avoid upward
splash towards the rain gauge.
3. The rain gauge should be installed at a reasonable distance away from obstacles such as
buildings and trees. For example, if a tree is 40ft. tall, the gauge should be placed at least 80
ft. downwind from it. This will help to avoid potential blockage of the rain gauge. It is not
always possible to find a perfect location.
4. Avoid large obstacles that could block precipitation.
5. Avoid mounting the rain gauge where sprinklers or other sources of artificial precipitation
can affect the data.
6. Make sure the top of the rain gauge is level.
7. Mount the rain gauge so that the heavy rain could not splash into the gauge from any nearby
surfaces.
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Figure 5: Rain Gauge (Source: Ragnurath, H.M. (2006). Hydrology: Principles, Analysis,
Design. 2nd Edition)
ESTIMATING THE MISSING DATA AND ADJUSTMENT OF RECORDS
For frequency analysis of rainfall data, a sufficiently long record is required. It may be so happened
that a particular rain-gauge is not operative for part of the month or so (since it is broken or for
some other reason), when it becomes necessary to supplement the missing record by one of the
following methods:
1. STATION YEAR METHOD

In this method, the records of two or more stations are combined into one long record provided
station records are independent and the areas in which the stations are located are
climatologically the same. The missing record at a station in a particular year may be found by
the ratio of averages or by graphical comparison.
Example: In a certain year the total rainfall of station A is 75 cm and for the neighboring station
B, there is no record. But if the record at A and B are 70 cm and 80 cm, respectively, the missing
year’s rainfall at B (say, PB) can be found by simple proportion as:
2. NORMAL RATIO METHOD

In this method, simply ratio and proportion process and get the average.
Example: Rain-gauge station D was inoperative for part of a month during which a storm
occurred. The storm rainfall recorded in the three surrounding stations A, B and C were 8.5, 6.7
and 9.0 cm, respectively. If the record for the stations are 75, 84, 70 and 90 cm, respectively,
Estimate the storm rainfall at station D.
3. DOUBLE MASS ANALYSIS

The trend of the rainfall records at a station may slightly change after some years due to a
change in the environment (or exposure) of a station either due to coming of a new building,
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fence, planting of trees or cutting of forest nearby, which affect the catch of the gauge due to
change in the wind pattern or exposure. The consistency of records at the station in question
(say, X) is tested by a double mass curve by plotting the cumulative annual (or seasonal) rainfall
at station X against the concurrent cumulative values of mean annual (or seasonal) rainfall for a
group of surrounding stations, for the number of years of record. From the plot, the year in
which a change in regime (or environment) has occurred is indicated by the change in slope of
the straight-line plot. The rainfall records of the station x are adjusted by multiplying the
recorded values of rainfall by the ratio of slopes of the straight lines before and after change in
environment.
Example: The annual rainfall at station X and the average annual rainfall at 18 surrounding
stations are given below. Check the consistency of the record at station X and determine the
year in which a change in regime has occurred. State how you are going to adjust the records
for the change in regime. Determine the record for the period 1952-1970 for the changed
regime.
YEAR ANNUAL RAINFALL STATION ANNUAL STATION AVERAGE
X (cm) OF 18 STATION (cm)
1952 30.5 22.8
1953 38.9 35.0
1954 43.7 30.2
1955 32.2 27.4
1956 27.4 25.2
1957 32.0 28.2
1958 49.3 36.1
1959 28.4 18.4
1960 24.6 25.1
1961 21.8 23.6
1962 28.2 33.3
1963 17.3 23.4
1964 22.3 36.0
1965 28.4 31.2
1966 24.1 23.1
1967 26.9 23.4
1968 20.6 23.1
1969 29.5 33.2
1970 28.4 26.4
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It can be seen from the figure that there is a distinct change in slope in the year 1958, which
indicates that a change in regime (exposure) has occurred in the year 1958. To make the
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records prior to 1958 comparable with those after change in regime has occurred, the earlier
records have to be adjusted by multiplying by the ratio of slopes m2/m1. The slope is 0.9/1.25.
Cumulative rainfall 1958-1970 = 554.5 – 204.7 = 349.8 cm
Cumulative rainfall 1952-1957 adjusted for changed environment
= 204.7 × (0.9/1.25) = 147.6 cm
Cumulative rainfall 1952-1970 (for the current environment) = 497.4 cm record adjusted for
the current regime
= 497.4cm/19 years
= 26.2 cm.
MEAN AREAL PRECIPITATION
It is the rainfall at a single station. For small areas less than 50 km2, point rainfall may be taken
as the average depth over the area. In large areas, there will be a network of rain-gauge stations.
As the rainfall over a large area is not uniform, the average depth of rainfall over the area is
determined by one of the following three methods:
1. ARITHMETIC MEAN METHOD

It is obtained by simply averaging arithmetically the amounts of rainfall at the individual
rain-gauge stations in the area. This method is fast and simple and yields good estimates in
flat country if the gauges are uniformly distributed and the rainfall at different stations do
not vary very widely from the mean. These limitations can be partially overcome if
topographic influences and aerial representativity are considered in the selection of gauge
sites.
2. THIESSEN POLYGON METHOD

This method attempts to allow for non-uniform distribution of gauges by providing a
weighting factor for each gauge. The stations are plotted on a base map and are connected
by straight lines. Perpendicular bisectors are drawn to the straight lines, joining adjacent
stations to form polygons, known as Thiessen polygons. Each polygon area is assumed to
be influenced by the rain gauge station inside it, i.e., if P1, P2, P3, .... are the rainfalls at the
individual stations, and A1, A2, A3, .... are the areas of the polygons surrounding these
stations, (influence areas) respectively, the average depth of rainfall for the entire basin is
given by
The results obtained are usually more accurate than those obtained by simple arithmetic
averaging. The gauges should be properly located over the catchment to get regular shaped
polygons. However, one of the serious limitations of the Thiessen method is its non-
flexibility since a new Thiessen diagram has to be constructed every time if there is a change
in the rain gauge network.
3. ISOHYETAL METHOD
the point rainfalls are plotted on a suitable base map and the lines of equal rainfall
(isohyets) are drawn giving consideration to orographic effects and storm morphology. The
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average rainfall between the successive isohyets taken as the average of the two isohyet
values are weighted with the area between the isohyets, added up and divided by the total
area which gives the average depth of rainfall over the entire basin. This method if analyzed
properly gives the best results.
Example: Determine the mean areal depth of rainfall over the basin by the three methods.
STATION RAINFALL RECORDED

A 8.8
B 7.6
C 10.8
D 9.2
E 13.8
F 10.4
G 8.5
H 10.5
I 11.2
J 9.5
K 7.8
L 5.2
M 5.6
N 6.8
O 7.4
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Solution: Using Arithmetic Mean Method:
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Using Thiessen Polygon Method:
Using Isohyetal Method
DEPTH-AREA-DURATION ANALYSIS
Rainfall rarely occurs uniformly over a large area; variations in intensity and total depth of fall
occur from the center to the peripheries of storms. The average depths of rainfall are plotted
against the areas up to the encompassing isohyets. It may be necessary in some cases to study
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alternative isohyetal maps to establish maximum 1day, 2-day, 3 day (even up to 5-day) rainfall
for various sizes of areas. If there are adequate self-recording stations, the incremental
isohyetal maps can be prepared for the selected (or standard) durations of storms, i.e., 6, 12,
18, 24, 30, 42, 48 hours etc.
Steps in drawing a DAD Curves:

1. Determine the day of greatest average rainfall, consecutive two days of greatest average
rainfall, and like that, up to consecutive five days.
2. Plot a map of maximum 1-day rainfall and construct isohyets; similarly prepare isohyetal
maps for each of 2, 3, 4 and 5-day rainfall separately.
3. The isohyetal map, say, for maximum 1-day rainfall, is divided into zones to represent the
principal storm (rainfall) centers.
4. Starting with the storm center in each zone, the area enclosed by each isohyet is
planimetered.
5. The area between the two isohyets multiplied by the average of the two isohyetal values
gives the incremental volume of rainfall.
6. The incremental volume added with the previous accumulated volume gives the total
volume of rainfall.
7. The total volume of rainfall divided by the total area up to the encompassing isohyet gives
the average depth of rainfall over that area.
8. The computations are made for each zone and the zonal values are then combined for areas
enclosed by the common (or extending) isohyets.
9. The highest average depths for various areas are plotted and a smooth curve is drawn. This
is DAD curve for maximum 1-day rainfall.
10. Similarly, DAD curves for other standard durations (of maximum 2, 3, 4 day etc. or 6, 12, 18,
24 hours etc.) of rainfall are prepared.
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF RAINFALL
The variation of rainfall with respect to time may be shown graphically by

1. Hyetograph
2. Mass Curve
HYETOGRAPH
A hyetograph is a bar graph showing the intensity of rainfall with respect to time and is useful
in determining the maximum intensities of rainfall during a particular storm as is required in
land drainage and design of culverts.
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MASS CURVE
A mass curve of rainfall (or precipitation) is a plot of cumulative depth of rainfall against time.
From the mass curve, the total depth of rainfall and intensity of rainfall at any instant of time
can be found. The amount of rainfall for any increment of time is the difference between the
ordinates at the beginning and end of the time increments, and the intensity of rainfall at any
time is the slope of the mass curve (i.e., i = ∆P/∆t) at that time. A mass curve of rainfall is always
a rising curve and may have some horizontal sections which indicates periods of no rainfall. The
mass curve for the design storm is generally obtained by maximizing the mass curves of the
severe storms in the basin.
Self-Help:
You can also refer to the sources below to help you further understand the lesson:
Jain, S. K., Singh V. P. (2019). Engineering Hydrology: An Introduction to Processes, Analysis, and
Modeling (1st Ed.)
Gribbin, J.E. (2014). Introduction to Hydraulics and Hydrology with Applications for
Stormwater Management. 4th Edition. Cengage Learning
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Ragnurath, H.M. (2006). Hydrology: Principles, Analysis, Design. 2nd Edition. New Age
International Publishers
Let’s Check
Activity 1. Identify the following process of hydrologic cycle that fits in the definition.
____________1. is any type of water that forms in the Earth’s atmosphere and then drops onto the
surface of the Earth.
____________2. Flow of water that is not absorbed into the soil. The overflow from the surface to
____________3. Water that comes from the river, seas, etc. transfer into a gas or water vapor.
____________4. The process by which the water vapor changes to a liquid.
__________5. is beneath most places on the land surface. This water is contained in the voids
within the underlying geologic material, and the water-bearing formations are called aquifers.
__________6. Is the process by which plants and animals including human gives off water vapor
through pores and evaporate it.
__________7. From root zone, water will move down till reach to the aquifer.
__________8. Rain falls into the ground infiltrates from the surface up to the root zone.
__________9. When rain falls on the earth's surface, some of it strikes vegetation, buildings, and
other objects. This rain is said to be intercepted.
_________10. The scientific study of the properties, distribution, and effects of water on the
earth’s surface, in soil and underlying rocks, and in the atmosphere.
Activity 2. In this activity, you are required to elaborate your answer to each of the
questions below.
1. What is the difference between Hydrology and Hydraulics? Cite an Examples.
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2. How hydrologic cycle affects the daily life of human being?
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3. Explain the process on Cloud Formation.
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4. What are the environmental problems that affects the watershed? How can we protect
it?
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5. What are the difference between the ground-based instruments and earth-observing
satellites in measuring precipitation?
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RUBRICS FOR ESSAY

FOCUS CONTENT ORGANIZATION STYLE CONVENTIONS
(20%) (20%) (20%) (20%) (20%)
4 Sharp, Substantial, Sophisticated Precise, Evident
distinct, specific, arrangement of illustrative Control of
controlling and/or content with use of grammar,
point illustrative evident and/or variety of mechanics,
made content subtle words and spelling, usage
about a demonstrating transitions sentence
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single strong structures and sentence

topic with development to create formation
evident and consistent
awareness sophisticated writer’s
of task ideas voice and
tone
appropriate
to audience
3 Apparent Sufficiently Functional Generic use Sufficient
point developed arrangement of of variety control of
made content with content that of words grammar,
about a adequate sustains a and mechanics,
single elaboration or logical order sentence spelling, usage
topic with explanation with some structures and sentence
sufficient evidence or that may or formation
awareness transitions may not
of task create
writer’s
voice and
tone
appropriate
to audience
2 No Limited Confused or Limited Limited
apparent content with inconsistent word control of
point but inadequate arrangement of choice and grammar,
evidence elaboration or content with or control of mechanics,
of a explanation without sentence usage, and
specific attempts at structures sentence
topic transition that inhibit formation
the voice
and tone
1 Minimal Superficial Minimal control Minimal Minimal
evidence and/or of content variety in control of
of a topic minimal arrangement word grammar,
content choice and mechanics,
minimal spelling, usage
control of and sentence
sentence formation
structures
In a Nutshell
Activity 1. Take a picture of the current situation of the clouds in your area. Describe it based
on the color, size, thickness, and altitude. And from that, determine the type of cloud. Paste it in
an A4 size of paper and send in the blackboard.
Activity 2. Find a website or a weather company that discuss or give information about the
daily weather in your area. Obtain the 1week weather forecast and its corresponding 24 hour
temperature. Then, create a video with a medium of English, Filipino and Cebuano presenting
the data that you’ve collected like a weather forecaster. Then pass the video in Blackboard LMS.
Activity 3. Delineate the watershed assigned to you. Follow the steps in delineating a
watershed.
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RUBRICS FOR PERFORMACE TASK

MAKE FOLLOWING PRESENTATION PUNCTUALITY
RELEVANT THE OF ACTIVITIES (25%)
OBSERVATION PROCEDURE AND
(25%) (25%) SOLUTIONS
(25%)
4 Student All procedure The Student
consistently use were followed presentation of passed the
more than one activities and activities
sense to observe solutions were before and on
objects and organized and time.
events neat
3 Student uses Followed most Most of the Student
more than one procedures. activities and passed the
sense to observe solutions were activities 10
with little organized and minutes after
guidance neat the deadline.
2 Student continue Followed some Some of the Student
to use the sense procedures. activities and passed the
of sight to solutions were activities 30
observe and can organized and minutes after
use other senses neat the deadline.
with some
prompting
1 Student can use None of the None of the Student
the sense of sight directions were activities and passed the
to observe and followed solutions were activities 60
events and sort organized and minutes after
these accordingly neat the deadline.
Big Picture
a. Characterize the importance of evapotranspiration and interception in the

hydrologic cycle.
b. Discover the behavior of water through surface and subsurface runoff
phenomenon.
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-2a. Characterize the importance of evapotranspiration and

interception in the hydrologic cycle.
Metalanguage
The most essential terms below are defined for you to have a better understanding of this
section in the course.
10. Evaporation. Water that comes from the river, seas, etc. transfer into a gas or water
vapor.
7. Transpiration. The giving off of water vapor by the plants and animals.
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8. Interception. Precipitation that strikes off to the buildings, vegetation and others before
it comes down to the surface.
Essential Knowledge
We must know the importance of evapotranspiration and interception process in the

hydrologic cycle. It is important to deal with it to be able to determine the movement of water
cycle and maintain the water balance.
WATER LOSSES
There are several factors that create water losses. The following factors are:
1. Interception loss-due to surface vegetation Ex:(held by plant leaves)
2. Evaporation from water surface.
3. Evaporation from soil surface, appreciably when the ground water table is very near the
soil surface.
4. Transpiration from plant leaves.
5. Evapotranspiration for consumptive use from irrigated or cropped land.
6. Infiltration into the soil at the ground surface.
7. Watershed leakage ground water movement from one basin to another or into the sea.
EVAPORATION
Evaporation from free water surfaces and soil are of great importance in hydro-
meteorological studies. The factors affecting evaporation are air and water temperature,
relative humidity, wind velocity, surface area (exposed), barometric pressure and salinity of
the water, the last two having a minor effect. The rate of evaporation is a function of the
differences in vapour pressure at the water surface and in the atmosphere, and the Dalton’s
law of evaporation is given by:
E = K (ew-ea)
where K= constant, E = daily evaporation
ew= saturated vapour pressure at the temperature of water
ea= vapour pressure of the air (about 2m above)
if we consider the wind velocity, it becomes:
E = K(ew-ea)(a+bV)
Where K, a, and b are constant, V= Wind velocity
Higher the temperature and wind velocity, greater is the evaporation, while greater the
humidity and dissolved salts, smaller is the evaporation.
METHOD IN ESTIMATING EVAPORATION
1. WATER BALANCE METHOD
This technique relies on measuring the change in storage, all inflows, and all outflows, except
evaporation, for a body of water. The measuring done; evaporation may be calculated readily:
where I = inflows O = outflows ∆S = change in storage.
E=I – O ± ∆S
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Most bodies of water have several outflow and inflow terms. The seepage term, which may
have both inflow and outflow components, is virtually impossible to assess accurately
independent of evaporation. Hence, the water budget technique rarely is useful.
2. ENERGY BUDGET METHOD
In this approach to estimating evaporation from a free-water surface, a thermal budget for the
water body must be developed. The equation for energy used in evaporation is.
He = Hs + H w – Hl – Hc – Hr
Where:
He = energy used for evaporation
Hs = gain of energy in body of water from shortwave solar radiation
Hw = net gain or loss of energy through inflow and outflow
Hl = net change of energy in water body from long-wave radiation
He = conduction and convection of energy from water surface to atmosphere
Hr = net change of energy storage within the body of water
All terms in the equation are expressed in calories per square inch, so the amount of
evaporation in inches of depth may be calculated as
E = He/L
where L = latent heat of vaporization.
3. MASS TRANSFER METHOD
The mass-transfer approach to assessing evaporation was first mentioned almost two centuries
ago by Dalton. He recognized the relationship between evaporation and vapor pressure to be
E = b(es-ea)
where E = evaporation and b = empirical coefficient(s).
The value of the empirical coefficient(s) is related to wind velocity, surface roughness,
temperature, and air density and pressure. In short, the empirical coefficient(s) must adjust
for movement of water vapor by convection. Convection is the transfer of heat by mass
movement of air or other heat-containing medium. Water vapor moves with the air, and much
of the heat transferred by convection is contained in water vapor as latent heat. Convection
also may be called eddy diffusion.
A thin boundary layer exists above a surface where evaporation is occurring. The layer usually
extends a few tenths of an inch above the surface, and within this zone airflow is laminar
(layered flow). Upward movement of heat within the boundary layer is by molecular
movement (diffusion), and the process is called conduction. Water vapor, which contains
heat, also moves upward in the boundary layer by diffusion. The loss of water vapor and heat
from a surface by diffusion of molecules is a slow process. However, above the boundary layer
is a thicker layer (up to several feet thick) where air exhibits turbulent flow. In the turbulent
layer, movement of heat and water vapor occurs by mass movement of the air or eddy
diffusion. The degree of eddy diffusion increases as a function of wind speed, temperature,
and vapor pressure gradients between the surface and air. Roughness of the surface also
causes eddy diffusion to increase. The rate of heat and water vapor loss from a surface is a
function of eddy diffusion. The wind velocity profile above the surface is especially important,
for water vapor is assumed to move at the same speed as air.
INSTRUMENTS USED IN MEASURING EVAPORATION
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Instruments are widely used in estimating evaporation. Three types were recommended during
the International Geophysical Year (Hounam 1973); they were the 3,OOO-cm2 sunken tank, the
20-m2 sunken tank, and the Class A evaporation pan, which is widely used in the United States.
The Class A pan is made of stainless steel and is 4 ft in diameter by 10 in. deep. The pan is
mounted on an open wooden platform with the pan base 2-4 in. above ground. The pan is filled
within 2 in. of the rim with clear water. Water depth in an evaporation pan usually is measured
with a stilling well and hook gauge. The stilling well provides a smooth water surface and
supports the hook gauge. The hook gauge consists of a pointed hook that can be moved up and
down with a micrometer. With the point below the water surface, the micrometer is turned to
move the hook upward until its point makes a pimple in the surface film. The hook is not
permitted to break through the surface film. The micrometer is read to the nearest thousandths
of an inch, and the value is recorded. After a period of time, usually one day, the procedure is
repeated. The difference in the two micrometer readings is the water loss from evaporation. A
rain gauge must be positioned beside the evaporation pan to correct for rain falling into the
pan. The evaporation rate from a pan is not the same as the evaporation rate from an adjacent
body of water. A pan has a smaller volume than a lake or pond and a different exposure to the
elements. There is usually a considerable discrepancy between water temperature patterns in
a pan and in a lake or pond. The water surface in an evaporation pan is smaller and smoother
than the surface of a lake or pond.
Figure 6: Evaporation Pan (Source: Ragnurath, H.M. (2006). Hydrology: Principles, Analysis,
TRANSPIRATION
Transpiration is the process by which the water vapour escapes from the living plant leaves
and enters the atmosphere. Various methods are devised by botanists for the measurement of
transpiration and one of the widely used methods is by phytometer. It consists of a closed
water tight tank with sufficient soil for plant growth with only the plant exposed; water is
applied artificially till the plant growth is complete. The equipment is weighed in the
beginning (W1) and at the end of the experiment (W2). Water applied during the growth (w) is
measured and the water consumed by transpiration (W t) is obtained as.
Wt = (W1 + w) – W2
The experimental values (from the protected growth of the plant in the laboratory) have to be
multiplied by a coefficient to obtain the possible field results. Transpiration ratio is the ratio of
the weight of water absorbed (through the root system), conveyed through and transpired
from a plant during the growing season to the weight of the dry matter produced exclusive of
roots.
Transpiration Ratio = Weight of Water Transpired/ Weight of dry matter produced
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For the weight of dry matter produced, sometimes, the useful crop such as grains of wheat,
gram, etc. are weighed. The values of transpiration ratio for different crops vary from 300 to
800 and for rice it varies from 600 to 800 the average being 700. Evaporation losses are high
in arid regions where water is impounded while transpiration is the major water loss in humid
regions.
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
Water is returned to the atmosphere by evaporation from free-water surfaces, moist soils, and
vegetation. Water loss from vegetated areas is termed evapotranspiration, because a great
deal of the water is lost through transpiration by plants. Evaporation is important in the
hydrologic cycle because it recharges atmospheric moisture. Although excessive evaporative
losses lead to death in plants and animals, evaporation is important to organisms because it is
a cooling process. Transpiration is different from evaporation because escape of water vapor
from plants is controlled to a considerable degree by leaf resistances, which are not involved
in evaporation from a free-water surface. The soil water supply for plant use may be limited.
Water for evaporation is never limiting for a free-water surface. All factors influencing
evaporation from a free-water surface plus leaf characteristics and soil moisture supply
influence the rate of evapotranspiration. Evapotranspiration (E t) or consumptive use (U) is
the total water lost from a cropped (or irrigated) land due to evaporation from the soil and
transpiration by the plants or used by the plants in building up of plant tissue. Potential
evapotranspiration (Ept) is the evapotranspiration from the short green vegetation when the
roots are supplied with unlimited water covering the soil. It is usually expressed as a depth
(cm, mm) over the area.
The following are some of the methods of estimating evapotranspiration:
1. Tanks and lysimeter experiments
2. Field experimental plots
3. Installation of sunken (Colorado) tanks
4. Evapotranspiration equations as developed by Lowry-Johnson, Penman, Thornthwaite,
Blaney-Criddle, etc.
5. Evaporation index method, i.e., from pan evaporation data as developed by Hargreaves
and Christiansen
Blaney-Criddle Method: This method is used throughout the world for the consumptive use
determinations and is given by:
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Example for Blaney-Criddle Method: Determine the evapotranspiration and irrigation

requirement for wheat, if the water application efficiency is 65% and the consumptive use
coefficient for the growing season is 0.8 from the following data:
MONTH Mean Monthly Monthly percentage Effective Rainfall
Temperature of sunshine (hours) (cm)
(degrees Celsius)
November 18 7.20 2.6
December 15 7.15 2.8
January 13.5 7.30 3.5
February 14.5 7.10 2.0
Solution:
Month Mean Monthly Monthly Effective Monthly
Temperature percentage of Rainfall (cm) consumptive
(degrees sunshine Pe factor
Celsius) t (hours) p f=
𝑝(4.6𝑡+81.3)
100
November 18 7.20 2.6 11.82
December 15 7.15 2.8 10.74
January 13.5 7.30 3.5 10.48
February 14.5 7.10 2.0 10.50
Total Pe: 10.9 Total f: 43.54
Seasonal Consumptive Use, U=K (total f)
= (0.8) x (43.54)
= 34.83 cm
𝑈−(𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑒)
Field Irrigation Requirement, F.I.R. =
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
34.93−10.9
= = 36.9 cm
0.65
Evaporation Index Method: Analysis of data on consumptive use indicate a high degree of
correlation between pan evaporation values and consumptive use. The relationship between
the evapotranspiration (Et) and pan evaporation (Ep) is usually expressed as:
Et = kEp
where k is a coefficient (i.e., Et/Ep ratio) and is found to vary according to the stage of growth
of the crop.
Example for Evaporation Index Method: Assuming a growing season of 4 months December-
March for wheat, determine the consumptive use of wheat in the month of January if the pan
evaporation for the month is 9.5 cm. Take the consumptive use coefficient at 40%, stage growth
of the crop as 0.52.
Solution: Et = 0.52 × 9.5 = 4.94 cm

Consumptive days = 0.4 x 121 days = 48days
17 days start of January because 31 days is consumed by month of December.
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Daily consumptive by month of January = (4.94x17) / 31 = 2.69mm/day
FACTORS AFFECTING EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
The following factors affect the evapotranspiration:

1. Climatological factors like percentage sunshine hours, wind speed, mean monthly
temperature and humidity.
2. Crop factors like the type of crop and the percentage growing season.
3. The moisture level in the soil.
PAN COEFFICIENT
Evaporation pan data cannot be applied to free water surfaces directly but must be adjusted for
the differences in physical and climatological factors. For example, a lake is larger and deeper
and may be exposed to different wind speed, as compared to a pan. The small volume of water
in the metallic pan is greatly affected by temperature fluctuations in the air or by solar
radiations in contrast with large bodies of water (in the reservoir) with little temperature
fluctuations. Thus, the pan evaporation data have to be corrected to obtain the actual
evaporation from water surfaces of lakes and reservoirs by multiplying by a coefficient called
pan coefficient and is defined as
and the experimental values for pan coefficients range from 0.67 to 0.82 with an average of
0.7.
Example 1 for Pan Coefficient: The following are the monthly pan evaporation data (Jan.-Dec.)
at Menzi Lake in a certain year in cm.
16.7 17.8 28.6

16.7 16.7 16.7
14.3 25.0 21.4
16.7 21.4 16.7
The water spread area in a lake nearby in the beginning of January in that year was 2.80km2
and at the end of December it was measured as 2.55 km2. Calculate the loss of water due to
evaporation in that year. Assume a pan coefficient of 0.7.
Solution: Calculate the mean or average area of the lake.

Aave= 1/3(A1 + A2 + √𝐴1𝐴2 )
= 1/3 (2.80 + 2.55 + √2.80𝑥2.55 )
Aave = 2.673 km2
Annual loss of water due to evaporation (adding up the monthly values) = 228.7 cm or 2.287 m
Annual volume of water lost due to evaporation:
= (2.673 x 106)m2 x (2.2287m) x 0.7
ANSWER= 4.29 × 106 m3
Example 2 for Pan Coefficient: Compute the daily evaporation from a Class A pan if the
amounts of water added to bring the level to the fixed point are as follows:
Day Rainfall (mm) Water Added or Removed
1 14 -5
2 6 3
3 12 0
4 8 0
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5 7 0
6 5 4
7 6 3
What is the evaporation loss of water in this week from a lake (surface area = 640 ha) in the
vicinity, assuming a pan coefficient of 0.75?
Solution:
Day Evaporation of Pan (mm)
1 14-5 = 9
2 6+3 = 9
3 12+0 = 12
4 8+0= 8
5 7+0= 7
6 5+4= 9
7 6+3= 9
Total Evaporation in pan for a week is = 63mm
Therefore, Daily Evaporation of Pan is = 63mm/7days = 9mm Answer
Pan coefficient = Evaporation of Lake/ Evaporation of Pan
Evaporation of Lake = 63mm x 0.75 = 47.25mm
Water loss of lake = Area of Lake x Evaporation of Lake =(6.4 x106 m2) x 0.04725m=302400 m3
MEASURES TO REDUCE LAKE EVAPORATION
The following are some of the recommended measures to reduce evaporation from water
surfaces:
1. Storage reservoirs of more depth and less surface area, i.e., by choosing a cross section of
the reservoir like a deep gorge, while the surface water is exposed to temperature gradients
the deeper waters are cool; from this standpoint a large reservoir is preferable to a number
of small reservoirs (while it is the reverse from the point of flood control).
Figure 7: Deep Gorge (Source: Ragnurath, H.M. (2006). Hydrology: Principles, Analysis,
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2. By growing tall trees like Casuarina on the windward side of the reservoirs to act as wind
breakers.
3. By spraying certain chemicals or fatty acids and formation of films. By spreading a
monomolecular layer of acetyl alcohol (hexadecanol) C16H33OH over the reservoir surface
(from boats)—a film is formed on the surface which is only 0.015 micron (approx.) in
thickness. It is a polar compound and it has great affinity for water on one side
(hydrophylic) and repels water on the other side (hydrophobic). The film will only allow
precipitation from the top into it but will not allow water molecules to escape from it. This
method is readily effective when the wind velocities are less. If the wind velocity is more, it
will sweep the film off the water surface and deposit it on the bank. However, the film is
pervious to O2 and CO2. About 2.2 kg (22 N) of acetyl alcohol is required to cover an area
of 1 ha of reservoir surface. It is best suited for small and medium size reservoirs.
4. By allowing flow of water, temperature is reduced and evaporation is reduced; i.e., by
designing the outlet works so that the warmer surface water can be released.
5. By removing the water loving weeds and plants like Phreatophytes from the periphery of
the reservoir.
6. By straightening the stream-channels the exposed area of the water surface (along the
length) is reduced and hence evaporation is reduced.
7. By providing mechanical coverings like thin polythene sheets to small agricultural ponds
and lakes.
8. By developing underground reservoirs, since the evaporation from a ground water table is
very much less than the evaporation from a water surface.
9. If the reservoir is surrounded by huge trees and forest, the evaporation loss will be less due
to cooler environment.
SOIL EVAPORATION
The evaporation from a wet soil surface immediately after rain or escape of water molecules
with more resistance when the water table lies within a meter from the ground is called soil
evaporation. This, expressed as a percentage of evaporation from free water surface is called
evaporation opportunity.
Soil evaporation will continue at a high rate for some time after the cessation of rainfall, then
decreases as the ground surface starts drying, until a constant rate is reached which is
dependent on the depth of the water table and nature of the soil in addition to meteorological
conditions. Measurement of soil evaporation can be done with tanks (lysimeters) filled with
earth and with the surface almost flush with the ground. To measure the evaporation from a soil
whose surface is within the capillary fringe, tanks equipped to maintain the water table at any
desired elevation may be used. The soil evaporation is determined by weighing the tanks at
stated intervals and knowing the amount of water that was added in the interim.
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Figure 8: Lysimeter for Soil Evaporation (Source: Ragnurath, H.M. (2006). Hydrology:
Principles, Analysis, Design. 2nd Edition)
INTERCEPTION
When precipitation reaches the surface in vegetated areas, a certain percentage of it is retained
on or intercepted by the vegetation. Rainfall that is not intercepted is referred to as throughfall.
Water that reaches the ground via the trunks and stems of the vegetation is called stemflow. The
interception storage capacities of the vegetation vary with the type and structure of the
vegetation and with meteorological factors. Measurements have shown that up to eight
millimeters of rainfall can be intercepted by some vegetation canopies. The intercepted water is
evaporated back into the atmosphere at rates determined by the prevailing meteorology
conditions and the nature of the vegetation. In humid temperate areas evaporation of
intercepted water can be an important component of the water balance. Forest areas have been
shown to have greater interception losses than adjacent grassland areas. This is due to the
greater aerodynamic roughness of the forest canopy, resulting in a much more efficient transfer
of water vapour away from the surface. According to Gerrits, A.M.J., Interception is the part of
the rainfall that is intercepted by the earth’s surface and which subsequently evaporates. In this
definition the earth’s surface includes everything that becomes wet after a rainfall event and
that dries out soon after. It includes: vegetation, soil surface, litter, build-up surface, etc. How
much of the precipitation evaporates depends on land cover characteristics, rainfall
characteristics, and on the evaporative demand. Interception can amount up to 15-50% of
precipitation, which is a significant part of the water balance. The most important role is as a
rainfall reducer, causing a significant amount of rainfall to be directly fed back to the
atmosphere which is not available for infiltration
DEPRESSION STORAGE
Depression Storage is the term applied to the water that is lost because to water that is lost
because it becomes trapped in the numerous small depressions that are characteristic of any
natural surface. When water temporarily accumulates in a low point with no possibility for
escape as runoff, the accumulation is referred to as depression storage. The amount of water
that is lost due to depression storage varies greatly with the land use. A paved surface will not
detain as much water as a recently furrowed field. The relative importance of depression
storage in determining the runoff from a given storm depends on the amount and intensity of
precipitation in the storm. Depression storage refers to small low points in undulating terrain
that can store precipitation that otherwise would become runoff. The precipitation stored in
these depressions is then either removed through infiltration into the ground or by evaporation.
Depression storage exists on pervious and impervious surfaces alike; however, depression
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storage is much greater on undisturbed, pervious surfaces. Standard design and construction
practices remove these natural depressions in order to promote drainage, which reduces
depression storage. Depression storage assumes that all water has had a chance to infiltrate or
evaporate.
Figure 9: Depression Storage, Streams, and Lake (Source:

https://echo2.epfl.ch/VICAIRE/mod_1a/chapt_7/main.htm)
Self-Help:
Modeling (1st Ed.)
Let’s Check
Activity 1. Determine the corresponding answer in the given sentence.

_____________1. The evaporation from a wet soil surface immediately after rain or escape of water
molecules with more resistance when the water table lies within a meter from the ground is
called.
_____________2. Is the process by which the water vapour escapes from the living plant leaves and
enters the atmosphere.
_____________3. Is the term applied to the water that is lost because to water that is lost because it
becomes trapped in the numerous small depressions that are characteristic of any natural
surface.
_____________4. Water is returned to the atmosphere by evaporation from free-water surfaces,
moist soils, and vegetation.
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_____________5. Precipitation that strikes off to the buildings, vegetation and others before it
comes down to the surface.
____________6. It used to determine the evaporation rate and it is made of stainless steel and is 4 ft
in diameter by 10 in. deep.
_____________7. In this approach to estimating evaporation from a free-water surface, a thermal
budget for the water body must be developed.
_____________8. Convection also may be called.
____________9. Various methods are devised by botanists for the measurement of transpiration
and one of the widely used methods is by
_____________10. Upward movement of heat within the boundary layer is by molecular movement
(diffusion), and the process is called.
Let’s Analyze
Activity 1. Calculate or Solve the following problems.

1. The following are the monthly pan evaporation data (Jan.-Dec.) at Laguna Lake in a
certain year in cm.
14.6 14.8 14.7
15.2 15.1 14.7
14.4 14.6 15.1
15.2 15.5 14.4
The water spread area in a lake nearby in the beginning of January in that year was 2.80 km 2, at
the middle of the year was 2.64 km 2 and at the end of December it was measured as 2.55 km 2.
Calculate the loss of water due to evaporation in that year. Assume a pan coefficient of 0.73.
2. Estimate the evaporation for a month for a lake of 500 hectares surface area. The mean
discharge from the lake is estimated to be 1m3/s. The monthly rainfall is about 10cm. A
stream flows into the lake with an average discharge of 2m 3/s. The water level in the
lake dropped about 5cm during the month. The seepage losses are negligible.
3. Determine the evapotranspiration and irrigation requirement for wheat, if the water
application efficiency is 65% and the consumptive use coefficient for the growing season
is 0.8 from the following data:
MONTH Mean Monthly Monthly percentage Effective Rainfall
Temperature of sunshine (hours) (cm)
(degrees Celsius)
November 22 8.5 2.6
December 17 8.1 2.8
January 15.8 7.8 3.5
February 14.6 7.2 2.0
March 17.2 8.3 2.3
April 16.7 8.0 2.1
RUBRICS FOR PROBLEM SOLVING

IDENTIFYING PRESENTATION OF ACCURACY
AND SOLUTION (50%)
ANALYZING (30%)
THE PROBLEM
(20%)
4 Student The presentation of Student accurately
anticipates solutions was organized completed the problem in
different kinds and neat more than one way. All
of problems in the steps of the problem
complicated are recorded correctly
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ways and think

of procedure to
solve them.
3 Most of the Most of the solutions Student completed the
problem were organized and neat problem correctly in one
anticipates, way. There is may be
identify and small errors, but the
analyze the answer is generally
student. accurate
2 Some of the Some of the solutions Student started the
problem were organized and neat calculations correctly but
anticipates, either left out steps or
identify and made some errors. The
analyze the answer is likely incorrect.
student.
1 None of the None of the solutions The answer is incorrect.
problem were organized and neat The student has recorded
anticipates, information incorrectly.
identify and
analyze the
student
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-2b. Discover the behavior of water through surface and
subsurface runoff phenomenon.
Metalanguage
1. Runoff. The draining away of water (or substances carried in it) from the surface of an
area of land, a building or structure, etc
2. Time of Concentration. Is a concept used in hydrology to measure the response of a
watershed to a rain event.
3. Streams. A body of running water (such as a river or creek) flowing on the earth.
Essential Knowledge
We must know the importance of runoff phenomenon and its behavior to forecast the
flow of water from streams, predict the possible flood and mitigate it.
RUNOFF PHENOMENON
All of the water that flows over the surface of the land is referred to collectively as runoff.
Runoff flows over watershed surfaces entering small streams that merge with larger streams
that finally discharge into the ocean. Streams also receive the inflow of ground water from
springs or from aquifers where the stream beds cut below the water table. In cold regions,
water from melting snow and glaciers contributes to runoff. Stream flow consists of several
components: rain falling directly into streams, water flowing over watershed surfaces, water
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flowing downslope within the upper layer of watershed soil, and ground water seeping into
streams. For large watersheds or drainage basins, runoff can be computed directly from stream
discharge. However, for watersheds too small to support streams or for ungauged watersheds
or basins, runoff must be estimated. Runoff is that portion of the rain falling on a watershed that
is not retained on or beneath the watershed surface or lost from the watershed by
evapotranspiration. It is the water that is ultimately transported from the watershed by flow
over the land surface either as overland flow or stream flow. Gravity is the force causing runoff,
and runoff begins after there has been sufficient rainfall to exceed the capacity of watershed
surfaces to detain water by absorption or in depressions and the rate of rainfall exceeds the rate
of infiltration of water into the soil. Of course, evaporation extracts water during the runoff
process. Features of the watershed, rainfall characteristics, season, and climate influence the
amount of runoff generated by a watershed. Factors favoring large amounts of runoff are
intense rainfall, heavy rainfall, impervious soil, frozen or moist soil, high proportion of paved
surface, steep slope, little surface storage, sparse vegetative cover, soils with low moisture-
holding capacity, and a shallow water table. Consider a watershed with a small stream.
Depending on the nature of the rainstorm, four different patterns of runoff are possible:
1. A brief, light rain may be detained on watershed surfaces and cause no downward infiltration
of water into the aquifer or overland flow over the watershed surface.
2. A light rain of a longer duration may not be of sufficient intensity to exceed the infiltration
rate and generate overland flow, but infiltration may raise the level of the water table, thereby
increasing base flow into the stream and runoff from the watershed.
3. A brief, intense rain may quickly exceed the ability of a watershed surface to retain water and
cause overland flow even though there is insufficient infiltration to raise the water table and
increase base flow into the stream.
4. An intense rain of longer duration will fill the storage capacity of watershed surfaces to
generate overland flow and produce sufficient infiltration to raise the water table and increase
base flow into the stream.
When a storm occurs, a portion of rainfall infiltrates into the ground and some portion may
evaporate. The rest flows as a thin sheet of water over the land surface which is termed as
overland flow. If there is a relatively impermeable stratum in the subsoil, the infiltrating water
moves laterally in the surface soil and joins the stream flow, which is termed as underflow
(subsurface flow) or interflow. If there is no impeding layer in the subsoil the infiltrating
water percolates into the ground as deep seepage and builds up the ground water table (GWT
or phreatic surface). The ground water may also contribute to the stream flow, if the GWT is
higher than the water surface level of the stream, creating a hydraulic gradient towards the
stream. Low soil permeability favors overland flow. While all the three types of flow contribute
to the stream flow, it is the overland flow, which reaches first the stream channel, the interflow
being slower reaches after a few hours and the ground water flow being the slowest reaches
the stream channel after some days. The term direct runoff is used to include the overland flow
and the interflow. If the snow melt contributes to the stream flow it can be included with the
direct runoff (from rainfall).
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Figure 10: Movement of water in the ground (Source: Ragnurath, H.M. (2006). Hydrology:
TIME OF CONCENTRATION
When the size of the drainage basin has been determined, the next step in finding Q is to
compute the time of concentration, tc. Time of concentration is a measure of the time needed
for runoff to flow from the upper end of the watershed to the lower end, or point of analysis.
Each watershed has its own unique time of concentration depending on its size, shape, slope
and ground cover conditions. To estimate time of concentration, we locate the “remotest point”
in the watershed and then sketch the path taken by runoff originating from that point as it
makes its way to the point of analysis. The remotest point is the point from which runoff
requires the greatest amount of time to flow to the point of analysis. The remotest point may
not be the farthest from the point of analysis by distance. For example, if runoff travels slowly
due to slope and ground cover conditions, it might require the greatest amount of time even
though not covering the greatest distance. The location of the remotest point of the watershed
is not always evident, so the best method to determine the location is by trial and error. This is
accomplished by choosing several likely locations for the remotest point and then estimating
the runoff travel time for each location. The point resulting in the longest travel time is the
remotest point and that travel time is the time of concentration. The path taken by the runoff
from the remotest point to the point of analysis is called the hydraulic path. Delineating the
hydraulic path, or any runoff flow path, is done by tracing the route of an imaginary drop of
water using the contours of a topographic map as a guide. The path makes a perpendicular cut
through contour lines in a downhill direction. When the path reaches a swale, it runs along the
center of the swale. The time for runoff to flow from the remotest point along the hydraulic path
to the point of analysis is illustrated in Figure 10-8. The type of flow is identified for each part
of the path and the time for each flow type computed. Therefore,
tc = t1 + t2 + t3 +…. + tn
where t1,t2, t3,…., tn represent the travel times for overland flow, shallow concentrated flow,
stream flow, and any other type of flow encountered. Overland flow is usually the first type of
flow as the drop starts from the remotest point. It is characterized by sheet flow down a
relatively featureless slope similar to the manner in which water flows across pavement. This
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is the slowest of all types of flow and is computed by either a nomograph or an empirical
formula. Typically, overland flow cannot travel more than 100 feet before consolidating into a
more concentrated flow. Shallow concentrated flow occurs when the natural indentations of
terrain cause the runoff to form into small rivulets. Since the rivulets are more concentrated,
the flow efficiency is increased, and therefore the velocity is also increased. Time for shallow
concentrated flow is determined by empirical nomograph. Stream flow is usually the last (and
the fastest) flow to occur along the hydraulic path. Time for stream flow can be computed by
using Manning’s equation.
Figure 11: Movement of water in the drainage area (Source: Gribbin, J.E. (2014).
Introduction to Hydraulics and Hydrology with Applications for Stormwater
Management. 4th Edition)
Example for Time Concentration: Determine the time of concentration for the drainage basin
shown having the following conditions.
1. Overland flow: 100’ @ 2.5%, average cover
2. Shallow concentrated flow: 600’ @ 4.0% unpaved
3. Stream flow: 4700’ @ 0.3%, average cross section as shown:
Solution:
1. For overland flow, we use the table of nomograph for overland flow time.
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Based on the plot (black line segment), the overland time is 12 minutes.
2. For shallow concentrated flow, we use the table for shallow concentrated flow.
So, the average velocity for unpaved surface with a slope of 4% is 3.2 ft/s.
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t2= d/v = 600 ft/ 3.2ft/s = 187.5 s = 3.1 minutes
3. Stream flow—Since our ultimate goal in finding tc is to find Q for flood conditions,
assume that the stream is filled up to its top of bank. (This assumption is made valid by
the fact that as water level rises onto the overbanks, channel velocity does not
appreciably increase.)
Wetted Area = 34.5 ft2 Wetted Perimeter = 17.2 ft
Hydraulic Radius = A/P = 2.01 ft
1.49 2/3 1/2
v= 𝑅 S
𝑛
v = (1.49/0.040)(2.012/3)(0.0031/2)
v= 3.25 ft/s
t3= d/v = 4700ft/3.25 ft/s = 24.1 mins
Time of Concentration = t1+t2+t3 = 12 mins +3.1 mins +24.1 mins = 39.2 mins
RUNOFF CALCULATIONS
The process in which rainfall accumulates on the ground and runs toward streams and rivers is
complicated. In this lesson we will able to determine the peak runoff using the following
Methods.
1. Rational Method - Many methods to compute runoff have been developed over the years,
and the first and most enduring of these is the Rational Method. Most methods are based
on empirical relationships among drainage area, time of concentration, rainfall, and
other factors. However, the Rational Method, introduced in England in 1889, has its
genesis in pure reasoning, from which it received its name. The Rational Method is used
to compute the peak runoff, Qp, following a rainfall event. It makes no attempt to
estimate runoff before or after the peak but simply estimates the one quantity of flow
that is greatest. Originally, the Rational Method formula for peak runoff was given as
Qp = Ai where Qp= peak runoff, A= drainage area, i= rainfall intensity
This was based on a completely impervious drainage basin in which all rainfall is
converted to runoff. Later, a proportionality factor, c, called the runoff coefficient, was
added in an attempt to account for infiltration into the ground and for
evapotranspiration. So, the formula became:
Qp=cAi
where c is the dimensionless runoff coefficient. Values of c vary between 0.0 and 1.0.
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Example for Rational Method: Compute the peak runoff, Qp, for a 25-year storm using the
Rational Method for a drainage basin located in Pennsylvania (Region 1) and having the
following parameters:
1. Area is 24 acres
2. Overland Flow: Average grass Surface with a length of 100 ft and 2%
3. Shallow Concentrated Flow: Unpaved Surface with a length of 750 ft with a slope of 4%
4. Stream Flow: Length of 100 ft with a slope of 4%
5. Runoff Coefficient: Impervious of 0.5 acres with c=0.90, Grass of 11.5 acres with c= 0.35
and wooded of 12 acres with c=0.25
Cross-section of the Stream:
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Solution:
Based on the plot, the time is 12.5 mins for overland flow.
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The average velocity of 4% slope shallow concentrated flow is 3.2 ft/s.

t2= d/v = (750ft) / (3.2ft/s) = 234.375s or 3.91 mins
In stream flow, wetted area is 27ft2, wetted perimeter is 14.5ft and Hydraulic Radius is 1.86 ft
1.49 2/3 1/2
Using Manning’s Formula (English System) = v= 𝑅 S
𝑛
v= 4.45 ft/s
t3= d/v = (1000ft)/(4.45ft/s) = 225s = 3.75 mins
Total Time of Concentration = t1+ t2 + t3 = 20.16 mins
To determine the Rainfall intensity, we will use IDF curves for Pennsylvania.
Based on the plot, the rainfall intensity for 25-year storm with a duration of 20.16 minutes is
3.4 in/hr.
Now, we find the composite runoff coefficient.
(0.5)(0.9)+(11.5)(0.35)+(12)(0.25)
C= = 0.31
24
Therefore, Qp=ciA = (0.31)(3.4 in/hr) (24 acres) = 25.3 cfs
2. Modified Rational Method - expands the original Rational Method to yield a hydrograph
for use in detention basin design. First adopted in the 1970s, the method remains in
wide use today, although many variations have been created. A few of the variations are
described below.
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3. NRCS Method - The NRCS Method is a procedure for computing a synthetic runoff
hydrograph based on empirically determined factors developed by the Soil
Conservation Service (SCS). Originally called the SCS Method, it is now named for the
Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), which is descended from the SCS. The
method was first developed by SCS in the 1950s and published as part of the SCS
National Engineering Handbook. After undergoing several revisions, the method was
formulated as a design manual, Urban Hydrology for Small Watersheds, Technical
Release 55, also known as TR-55. The manual underwent major revisions in 1986. As a
design manual, TR-55 contains charts and graphs that allow the user to compute peak
runoff and runoff hydrographs for watersheds located within the United States.
STREAMS
Runoff flows over watersheds, collects in streams, and flows downslope toward the ocean. The
energy of the flowing water erodes the land surface, and material cut from the watershed or the
stream bed is transported and deposited in downstream reaches. Suspended soil particles in
runoff often may be troublesome in ponds, where it produces turbidity and deposits sediment.
STREAM CLASSIFICATION
A perennial stream normally flows year-round and has a well-defined channel. An

intermittent stream flows only during wet seasons and after heavy rains and has a well-
defined channel. An ephemeral stream only flows after rains and is often called a gully.
Area streams form a drainage pattern that can be seen on a topographic map. A tree-shaped
pattern, called a dendritic pattern, is formed where the land erodes in fairly uniform manner so
that streams randomly branch and advance upslope. Where faulting is prevalent, streams tend
to follow the faults. This gives rise to a rectangular pattern of streams. Where the land surface
is folded or is a broad, gently sloping plane, streams form a trellis pattern. A stream may be
classified according to the number of tributaries it has. A stream with no tributaries is a first-
order stream, and its basin (watershed) is a first-order basin. Two first-order streams combine
to form a second-order stream. A stream that has a second-order branch is a third-order stream,
and so on. The stream system that contributes to the discharge at a specified point in a higher-
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order stream is called a drainage network. Streams also are classified as young, mature, or old.
Young streams flow rapidly and continually cut their channels. Their sediment loads are
transported with essentially no deposition. In mature streams, slopes have been reduced and
there is no downcutting of channels. Flows are adequate to transport most of the incoming
sediment load. Old streams have gentle slopes and sluggish flows. They have broad floodplains,
and their channels meander. Sediment deposition often leads to delta formation. Many streams
may be classified as young near their sources, mature along middle reaches, and old near their
mouths.
Figure 12: Stream Patterns (Source: Ragnurath, H.M. (2006). Hydrology: Principles, Analysis,
FLOOD PREDICTION
Flood prediction can be defined as a process of estimating and predicting the magnitude, timing
and duration of flooding based on known characteristics of a river basin, with the aim to prevent
damages to human life, to properties, and to the environment. The study of rainfall patterns,
catchment characteristics, and river hydrographs to predict the future average frequency of
occurrence of flood events. Flood predictions seek to estimate the probable discharge that, on
average, will be exceeded only once in any particular period.
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Flood predictions require several types of data:

1. The amount of rainfall occurring on a real-time basis.
2. The rate of change in river stage on a real-time basis, which can help indicate the severity
and immediacy of the threat.
3. Knowledge about the type of storm producing the moisture, such as duration, intensity and
areal extent, which can be valuable for determining possible severity of the flooding.
4. Knowledge about the characteristics of a river's drainage basin, such as soil-moisture
conditions, ground temperature, snowpack, topography, vegetation cover, and
impermeable land area, which can help to predict how extensive and damaging a flood
might become.
Self-Help:
Modeling (1st Ed.)
Let’s Check
Activity 1. Determine the corresponding answer in the given sentence.

______________1. Classification of stream that normally flows year-round and has a well-defined
channel.
______________2. All of the water that flows over the surface of the land is referred to collectively
as
______________3. Runoff flows over watersheds, collects in streams, and flows downslope toward
the ocean.
______________4. only flows after rains and is often called a gully.
______________5. The study of rainfall patterns, catchment characteristics, and river hydrographs
to predict the future average frequency of occurrence of flood events.
______________6. is a procedure for computing a synthetic runoff hydrograph based on empirically
determined factors developed by the Soil Conservation Service (SCS)
______________7. expands the original Rational Method to yield a hydrograph for use in detention
basin design.
______________8. Is a measure of the time needed for runoff to flow from the upper end of the
watershed to the lower end, or point of analysis.
______________9. The rest flows as a thin sheet of water over the land surface
______________10. can be defined as a process of estimating and predicting the magnitude, timing
and duration of flooding based on known characteristics of a river basin, with the aim to prevent
damages to human life, to properties, and to the environment
Let’s Analyze
ACTIVITY 1. Calculate or Solve the following problems.

1. Compute the time of concentration and peak runoff, Qp, for a 15-year storm using the
Rational Method for a drainage basin located in Phoenix, Arizona, and having
parameters as follows:
A=14.06 acres
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Time of concentration
Overland flow: average grass, 100ft long, 5.0% average slope
Shallow concentrated flow: 50ft long, 7.0% unpaved
Runoff coefficient
Impervious: 0.06 acres
Grass: 6.5 acres
Woods: 7.5 acres
Note: In the Arizona I-D-F curves, a 15-year storm is located by the corresponding P1
value, which for Phoenix is 1.75 inches.
2. Determine the time of concentration, tc, for use in the Rational Method for a drainage
basin having a hydraulic path described as follows:
Shallow concentrated flow: 200ft long, 3.5% average slope
Swale (cross section shown below): 500ft long, 2.0% average slope
3. Determine time of concentration, tc, for a drainage basin located near Bismarck, North
Dakota, having a hydraulic path described as follows:
Shallow concentrated flow: 680ft long, 3.2% average slope
Stream flow: 2950ft long, 0.61% average slope
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AND SOLUTION (50%)
ANALYZING (30%)
THE PROBLEM
(20%)
ways and think
of procedure to
solve them.
student. accurate
student.
identify and
analyze the
student
Big Picture
a. Discuss and create the types of hydrograph and its purpose

b. Discover the behavior of water through infiltration and percolation
process
c. Distinguished the exploration of groundwater resources
d. Understand the concepts of probability and statistics hydrology
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Big Picture in Focus: ULO-3a. Discuss and create the types of hydrograph and its
purpose
Metalanguage
1. Hydrograph. Is a graph showing the rate of flow versus time past a specific point in a river,
channel, or conduit carrying flow.
2. Runoff. Flow of water that is not absorbed into the soil. The overflow from the surface to
3. Hyetograph- A hyetograph is a graphical representation of the distribution of rainfall
intensity over time.
Essential Knowledge
The primary purpose of using hydrograph analysis is to ensure a safe design of

structural works. Hydrographs, or some feature of them such as peak discharge are used in
the planning and design of water control structures. It is used to show how water flows in a
drainage basin responds to a period of rain.
HYDROGRAPH
A hydrograph is a graph showing discharge (stream flow at the concentration point) versus
time. At the beginning, there is only base flow (the ground water contribution to the stream)
gradually depleting in an exponential form. After the storm commences, the initial losses like
interception and infiltration are met and then the surface flow begins. The hydrograph gradually
rises and reaches its peak value after a time tp (called lag time or basin lag) measured from
the centroid of the hyetograph of net rain. Thereafter it declines and there is a change of slope
at the inflection point, i.e., there has been, inflow of the rain up to this point and after this there
is gradual withdrawal of catchment storage. By this time the ground water table has been built
up by the infiltrating and percolating water, and now the ground water contributes more into
the stream flow than at the beginning of storm, but thereafter the GWT declines and the
hydrograph again goes on depleting in the exponential form called the ground water depletion
curve or the recession curve.
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Figure 13: Components of a streamflow hydrograph (Source: Ragnurath, H.M. (2006).

Hydrology: Principles, Analysis, Design. 2nd Edition)
If a second storm occurs now, again the hydrograph starts rising till it reaches the new peak and
then falls and the ground water recession begins. Thus, in actual streams gauged, the
hydrograph may have a single peak or multiple peaks according to the complexity of storms. For
flood analysis and derivation of unit hydrograph, a single peaked hydrograph is preferred. A
complex hydrograph, however, can be resolved into simple hydrographs by drawing
hypothetical recession lines.
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Figure 14: Hydrograph with multiple peaks (Source: Ragnurath, H.M. (2006). Hydrology:
TYPES OF HYDROGRAPH
1. UNIT HYDROGRAPH - The unit hydrograph is defined as the hydrograph of storm runoff
resulting from an isolated rainfall of some unit duration occurring uniformly over the
entire area of the catchment, produces a unit volume (1 cm) of runoff.
STEPS IN CREATING A UNIT HYDROGRAPH

1. Select from the records isolated (single-peaked) intense storms, which occurring
uniformly over the catchment have produced flood hydrographs with appreciable
runoff (>1 cm, say, 8 to 16 cm). The unit period selected should be such that the excess
rainfall occurs fairly uniformly over the entire drainage basin. Larger unit periods are
required for larger basins. The unit periods may be in the range of 15-30% of the ‘peak
time’ period, i.e., the time from the beginning of surface runoff to the peak, and the
typical unit periods may be 3, 6, 8, 12 hours. (The time of concentration may be a little
longer than the peak time). The unit storm is a storm of such duration that the period
of surface runoff is not much less for any other storm of shorter duration
2. Select a flood hydrograph, which has resulted from a unit storm chosen in step 1
above.
3. Separate the base flow from the total runoff (by the well-known base flow separation
procedures)
4. From the ordinates of the total runoff hydrograph (at regular time intervals) deduct
the corresponding ordinates of base flow, to obtain the ordinates of direct runoff.
5. Divide the volume of direct runoff by the area of the drainage basin to obtain the net
precipitation depth over the basin.
6. Divide each of the ordinates of direct runoff by the net precipitation depth to obtain
the ordinates of the unit hydrograph.
7. Plot the ordinates of the unit hydrograph against time since the beginning of direct
runoff. This will give the unit hydrograph for the basin, for the duration of the unit
storm (producing the flood hydrograph) selected in step 1 above.
In unit hydrograph derivation, such storms should be selected for which reliable rainfall
and runoff data are available. The net rain graph (hyetograph of excess rain) should be
determined by deducting the storm loss and adjusting such that the total volume of net
storm rain is equal to the total volume of direct surface runoff. The unit hydrograph
derived, which, when applied to the known net rain data, should yield the known direct
runoff hydrograph.
The steps given above for the derivation of unit hydrograph can be formulated as follows:
Where: P = total rainfall

Pnet = net precipitation (from hyetograph) or direct runoff as equivalent depth
over the basin
Losses = due to infiltration, evaporation, etc.
A = area of the drainage basin
DRO = direct runoff ordinate
TRO = total runoff ordinate
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t = time interval between successive direct runoff ordinates

BFO = base flow ordinate
Elements of unit hydrograph – The elements of a certain unit hydrograph are the
following:
1. Base Width (T) - The period of direct surface runoff (due to a unit storm) of the unit
hydrograph is called the time base or the base width.
2. Unit Storm - The storm of unit duration (duration of the unit hydrograph) regardless
of its intensity.
3. Unit Period - The time duration of the unit storm (the duration of the unit
hydrograph).
4. Lag Time(tp) - The time from the center of a unit storm to the peak discharge of the
corresponding unit hydrograph.
5. Recession Time (Tr) - The duration of the direct surface runoff after the end of the excess
or net rainfall.
Figure 15: Derivation of a unit hydrograph (Source: Ragnurath, H.M. (2006). Hydrology:
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Figure 16: Elements of a unit hydrograph (Source: Ragnurath, H.M. (2006). Hydrology:
Proposition of Unit Hydrograph
1. Same Runoff Duration – For all unit storms of different intensities, the period of surface
runoff (time base, base width or base period) is approximately the same, although they
produce different runoff volumes.
2. Proportional Ordinates - For unit storms of different intensities, the ordinates of the
hydrograph at any given time, are in the same proportion as the rainfall intensities.
3. Principle of Superposition - If there is a continuous storm and/or isolated storms of
uniform intensity net rain, they may be divided into unit storms and hydrographs of
runoff for each storm obtained, and the ordinates added with the appropriate time lag to
get the combined hydrograph.
4. Same distribution percentages - If the total period of surface runoff (time base or base
width) is divided into equal time intervals the percentage of surface runoff that occurs
during each of these periods will be same for all unit storms of different intensities.
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Figure 17: Proportional ordinates and same time base and proposition (Source:
Ragnurath, H.M. (2006). Hydrology: Principles, Analysis, Design. 2nd Edition)
Limitation of the Unit Hydrograph - Certain limitations are inherent in the unit hydrograph
theory. The runoff hydrograph reflects the combined effects of rainfall factors, loss factors and
physiographic factors. The design storm continuing for several unit periods may not have the
same areal distribution for each time increment. Storm movements also affect the proportions
of the unit hydrograph if the basin is large. Hence, the unit hydrograph cannot be applied for
basins larger than 5000 km2. For basins larger than 5000 km2, unit hydrographs for the
principal sub-areas or sub-basins are developed and the hydrographs of runoff determined for
each sub-area. These hydrographs are then combined, through flood routing procedure, to get
the resulting hydrograph at the required section.
Example 1 for Unit Hydrograph: The runoff data at a stream gauging station for a flood are
given below. The drainage area is 40 km2. The duration of rainfall is 3 hours. Derive the 3-
hour unit hydrograph for the basin and plot the same.
DATE Time (hour) Discharge (cm3/s) Remarks

1-3-1986 2 50
5 47
8 75
11 120
14 225
17 290 PEAK
20 270
23 145
2-3-1986 2 110
5 90
8 80
11 70
14 60
17 55
20 51
23 50
Solution:
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1. TRO (Total Runoff Ordinate) = gauged discharged of stream

2. BFO (Base Flow Ordinate) = Using arbitrary line of separation
3. DRO (Direct Runoff Ordinate) = TRO – BFO
4. UGO = Unit Hydrograph Ordinate
𝑆𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐷𝑅𝑂 𝑥 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒) 986(3𝑥60𝑥60)𝑐𝑚3
5. Pnet = = 6
𝐴 40 𝑥10
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Graph for Example 1
UNIT HYDROGRAPH FROM COMPLEX STORMS
Unit hydrographs from complex storms, involving varying intensities of rain can be obtained
by considering the complex storm as successive unit storms of different intensities and the
runoff hydrograph (due to complex storm) as the result of superposition of the successive
storm hydrographs. The ordinates of each storm hydrograph are obtained as ‘the storm
intensity times the corresponding ordinate of the unit hydrograph. The unit hydrograph
ordinates u1, u2, ... are thus obtained by writing a series of equations for each of the ordinates
Q1, Q2, .... of the runoff hydrograph (due to complex storm) and successively solving them.
Q1 = xu1
Q2 = xu2 + yu1
Q3 = xu3 + yu2 + zu1
Thus, the tr –hour unit graph ordinates can be determined. Although the method is straight
forward, errors will creep in due to the assumptions on the intensity and duration of rainfall
and deduction of an assumed base flow; many trials are required to get a reasonable unit
graph.
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Figure 18: Derivation of unit hydrograph from multi-period storms (Source: Ragnurath, H.M.
(2006). Hydrology: Principles, Analysis, Design. 2nd Edition)
2. S-CURVE METHOD
S-curve or the summation curve is the hydrograph of direct surface discharge that would
result from a continuous succession of unit storms producing 1 cm in tr –hr. If the time
base of the unit hydrograph is T hr, it reaches constant outflow (Qe) at T hr, since 1 cm of
net rain on the catchment is being supplied and removed every tr hour and only T/tr unit
graphs are necessary to produce an S-curve and develop constant outflow given by
𝟐. 𝟕𝟖𝑨
𝑸𝒆 =
𝒕𝒓
Where: Qe = constant outflow (cm3/s)
tr = duration of the unit graph (hr)
A = area of the basin (km2)
Given a tr -hour unit graph, to derive a t r ′-hour unit graph (tr ′ ≥ tr )—Shift the S-curve by
the required duration tr ′ along the time axis. The graphical difference between the
ordinates of the two S-curves, i.e., the shaded area in Fig. 5.18 represents the runoff due to
tr ′ hours rain at an intensity of 1/tr cm/hr, i.e., runoff of tr ′/tr cm in tr ′ hours. To obtain
a runoff of 1 cm in tr ′ hours (i.e., tr ′-hour UG), multiply the ordinates of the S-curve
difference by tr /tr ′. This technique may be used to alter the duration of the given unit
hydrograph to a shorter or longer duration. The longer duration need not necessarily be a
multiple of short.
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Figure 19: Changing the duration of UG by S-curve technique (Source: Ragnurath, H.M.
(2006). Hydrology: Principles, Analysis, Design. 2nd Edition)
APPLICATION OF UNIT HYDROGRAPH – The application of unit hydrograph consists of two

aspects.
1. From a unit hydrograph of a known duration to obtain Changing the duration of UG by
S-curve technique.
2. From the unit hydrograph so derived, to obtain the flood hydrograph corresponding to
a single storm or multiple storms. For design purposes, a design storm is assumed,
which with the help of unit hydrograph, gives a design flood hydrograph.
Self-Help:
Modeling (1st Ed.)
LET’S ANALYZE:
ACTIVITY 1: Solve and graph the following hydrograph problems.
1. The ordinates of a 6-hour unit hydrograph are given. A storm had 3 successive 6-hour
intervals of rainfall magnitude of 3, 5, and 4 cm. respectively. Assuming the infiltration
losses of 0.2 cm/hr and a uniform base flow of 30 m3/s. determine the resulting
hydrograph and graph it.
Time (hour) Ordinate of 6-hr Unit Hydrograph
(m3/s)
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0 0
6 250
12 600
18 800
24 700
30 600
36 450
42 320
48 200
54 100
60 50
66 0
2. Given below are observed flows from a storm of 6-hr duration on a stream with
catchment area of 500 km2. Assuming the base flow to be zero. Derive the ordinates of
the 6-hr Unit hydrograph.
Time (hour) Discharge (m3/s)
0 0
6 100
12 250
18 200
24 150
30 100
36 70
42 50
48 35
54 25
60 15
66 0

AND SOLUTION (50%)
ANALYZING (30%)
THE PROBLEM
(20%)
ways and think
of procedure to
solve them.
student. accurate
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student.
identify and
analyze the
student
IN A NUTSHELL
Activity 1. Explain the following question.
1. What is the purpose of hydrograph?

2. What is the difference between hydrograph and hyetograph?
3. Cite an example of complete project here in the Philippines that uses a hydrograph.
RUBRICS FOR ESSAY
(20%) (20%) (20%) (20%) (20%)
about a demonstrating transitions sentence and sentence
single strong structures formation
topic with development to create
tone
appropriate
to audience
of task create
writer’s
voice and
tone
appropriate
to audience
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the voice
and tone
sentence formation
structures
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-3b. Discover the behavior of water through infiltration and
percolation process
Metalanguage
1. Infiltration. Is a graph showing the rate of flow versus time past a specific point in a river,
channel, or conduit carrying flow.
2. Percolation. Flow of water that is not absorbed into the soil. The overflow from the
surface to the bodies of water like river.
Essential Knowledge
Infiltration and Percolation replenishes aquifers. Natural refilling of deep aquifers is a slow
process because groundwater moves slowly through the unsaturated zone and the aquifer.
The rate of recharge is also an important consideration.
INFILTRATION AND PERCOLATION
Water entering the soil at the ground surface is called infiltration. It replenishes the soil
moisture deficiency and the excess moves downward by the force of gravity called deep seepage
or percolation and builds up the ground water table. The infiltration depends upon the intensity
and duration of rainfall, weather (temperature), soil characteristics, vegetal cover, land use,
initial soil moisture content (initial wetness), entrapped air and depth of the ground water
table. The vegetal cover provides protection against rain drop impact and helps to increase
infiltration.
METHODS OF DETERMINING INFILTRATION
The methods of determining infiltration are:

1. Infiltrometers
2. Observation in pits and ponds
3. Placing a catch basin below a laboratory sample
4. Artificial rain simulators
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5. Hydrograph analysis
1. Infiltrometers. A double ring infiltrometer is composed of two rings (22.5 to 90 cm

diameter) are driven into the ground by a driving plate and hammer, to penetrate into
the soil uniformly without tilt or undue disturbance of the soil surface to a depth of 15
cm. After driving is over, any disturbed soil adjacent to the sides tamped with a metal
tamper. Point gauges are fixed in the center of the rings and in the annular space
between the two rings. Water is poured into the rings to maintain the desired depth (2.5
to 15 cm with a minimum of 5 mm) and the water added to maintain the original
constant depth at regular time intervals (after the commencement of the experiment) of
5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 60 min, etc. up to a period of at least 6 hours is noted and the results
are plotted as infiltration rate in cm/hr versus time in minutes.
Figure 20: Double Ring Infiltrometer (Source: Ragnurath, H.M. (2006). Hydrology:
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Figure 21: Infiltration Curve (Source: Ragnurath, H.M. (2006). Hydrology: Principles,
Analysis, Design. 2nd Edition)
2. Observation from infiltration pits and ponds. By noting the depression in the level of
water in the pits and ponds and deducting the loss due to evaporation, an idea about the
infiltration rates in such soils can be obtained.
3. By placing a catch basin called a lysimeter under a laboratory sample or at some depth
below the land surface, the infiltrating water can be measured and the infiltration rate
in the soil can be obtained.
4. Artificial rain simulators on a small area of land of 0.1 to 50 m2, water is applied by
artificial showers at a uniform rate. The resulting surface runoff is measured and the
infiltration capacity of the soil is determined.
5. Hydrograph analysis. By knowing accurately, the varying intensities of rainfall during
a storm and the continuous record of the resulting runoff, the infiltration capacity can
be determined.
INFILTRATION RATE
Using Horton’s Equation:
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Figure 22: Horton Infiltration Curve (Source: Ragnurath, H.M. (2006). Hydrology:
INFILTRATION INDICES
The infiltration curve expresses the rate of infiltration (cm/hr) as a function of time. The
area between the rainfall graph and the infiltration curve represents the rainfall excess,
while the area under the infiltration curve gives the loss of rainfall due to infiltration. The
rate of loss is greatest in the early part of the storm, but it may be rather uniform particularly
with wet soil conditions from antecedent rainfall. Estimates of runoff volume from large
areas are sometimes made by the use of infiltration indices, which assume a constant
average infiltration rate during a storm, although in actual practice the infiltration will be
varying with time. This is also due to different states of wetness of the soil after the
commencement of the rainfall.
The infiltration takes place at capacity rates only when the intensity of rainfall equals or
exceeds fp; i.e., f = fp when i ≥ fp; but when i < fp, f < fp and the actual infiltration rates are
approximately equal to the rainfall rates. The infiltration depends upon the intensity and
duration of rainfall, weather (temperature), soil characteristics, vegetal cover, land use,
initial soil moisture content (initial wetness), entrapped air and depth of the ground water
table. The vegetal cover provides protection against rain drop impact and helps to increase
infiltration. There are three types of infiltration indices:
1. φ-index - The φ-index is defined as that rate of rainfall above which the rainfall volume
equals the runoff volume. The φ-index is relatively simple and all losses due to
infiltration, interception and depression storage (storage in pits and ponds) are
accounted for; hence
𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝑹𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆
φ-index =
𝑫𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝑹𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒇𝒂𝒍𝒍
provided i > φ throughout the storm. The bar graph showing the time distribution of
rainfall, storm loss and rainfall excess (net rain or storm runoff) is called a hyetograph.
Thus, the φ-index divides the rainfall into net rain and storm loss.
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Figure 23: ∅- index intensity graph (Source: Ragnurath, H.M. (2006). Hydrology:
2. W-index - The W-index is the average infiltration rate during the time rainfall intensity
exceeds the infiltration capacity rate.
𝐹𝑝 𝑃−𝑄−𝑆
W-index = =
𝑡𝑅 𝑡𝑅
Where: P= total rainfall
Q= surface runoff
S = effective surface retention
tR = duration of storm during which i > fp
Fp = total infiltration
The W-index attempts to allow for depression storage, short rainless periods during a
storm and eliminates all rain periods during which i < fp. Thus, the W-index is
essentially equal to the φ-index minus the average rate of retention by interception
and depression storage, i.e., W < φ. Information on infiltration can be used to estimate
the runoff coefficient C in computing the surface runoff as a percentage of rainfall.
Q = CP
𝑖−𝑊
C=
𝑖
3. fave index = In this method, an average infiltration loss is assumed throughout the
storm, for the period i > f.
Example: The rates of rainfall for the successive 30 min period of a 3-hour storm are: 1.6,
3.6, 5.0, 2.8, 2.2, 1.0 cm/hr. The corresponding surface runoff is estimated to be 3.6 cm.
Establish the φ-index. Also determine the W-index.
Solution: Construct the hyetograph

Σ(i – φ)t = Pnet
30
[(3.6-φ) + (5.0-φ) + (2.8- φ) + (2.2- φ)] = 3.6
60
Φ = 1.6 cm/hr
30
P = (1.6 + 3.6 + 5.0 + 2.8 + 2.2 +1.0) = 8.1 cm
60
𝑃−𝑄 8.1−3.6
W-index = = = 1.5 cm/hr
𝑡𝑅 3
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Figure 24: Hytegraph with indices (Source: Ragnurath, H.M. (2006). Hydrology:
SUPRA RAIN TECHNIQUE
Due to complex conditions antecedent and during the rain, and complex catchment
characteristics, the use of infiltration method is usually limited to small areas with well-
established values of infiltration. The rainfall in excess of a particular value of φ-index for
the entire pattern of storm rainfall is called supra rain. Allowance for areal variation of
rainfall and f-capacity is made by dividing into sub areas in the case of large areas. The
mean hourly net rains over the whole catchment can be obtained as
∑ 𝐴1 (𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑡1)
Pnet-mean = ∑ 𝐴1
where A1, A2, ... are the sub-areas. Pnet1, Pnet2, .... are the net rains in the sub areas
Σ A1 = A = total area of the catchment
When a large number of sub-areas are involved the hourly net rains over the whole
catchment can be derived by constructing a supra-rain-curve, in which the supra-rain is
plotted against hypothetical values of the φ-index, Fig. 3.15. The supra-rain-curve thus
obtained is valid only for that particular storm from which it is derived. For other storms,
new supra rain curves must be prepared.
Example: Hourly rainfalls of 2.5, 6, and 3 cm occur over a 20-ha area consisting 4 ha of φ =
5 cm/hr, 10 ha of φ = 3 cm/hr, and 6 ha of φ = 1 cm/hr. Derive hourly values of net rain.
Solution:
4(0)+10(0)+6(2.5−1)
1st hour (P=2.5 cm) Pnet-mean = = 0.45 cm
20
4(6−5)+10(6−3)+6(6−1)
2nd hour (P=6cm) Pnet-mean = = 3.20 cm
20
4(0)+10(0)+6(3−1)
3rd hour (P=3cm) Pnet-mean = = 0.60 cm
20
Total net rain for the 3-hour storm = 0.45 cm + 3.20 cm + 0.60 cm = 4.25 cm
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GREEN AND AMPT INFILTRATION METHOD
The Horton equation captures the basic behavior of infiltration but the physical
interpretation of the exponential constant is uncertain. Green and Ampt (1911) presented
an approach that is based on fundamental physics and also gives results that match
empirical observations. They use the following simplification of infiltration reality:
Figure 25: Movement of water into the soil (Source: Jain, S. K., Singh V. P. (2019). Engineering
Hydrology: An Introduction to Processes, Analysis, and Modeling (1st Ed.))
In reality, there is often not a sharp wetting front and/or the soil above the wetting front
may not saturate. The equation to use if you need to consider the most realistic situation is
the Richard’s equation; Richard’s equation is beyond the scope of this class but you should
be aware of it. The problem with all mechanistic infiltration equations is uncertainty about
how to generalize to the field or landscape scale, especially with respect to the suction
forces at the wetting front. None-the-less, many researchers are embracing these
approaches and making good progress so you should have some rudimentary knowledge
of, at least, the Green and Ampt concept.
In its simplest form the Green and Ampt equation for infiltration rate, f, can be written as:
𝒅𝒉 𝑑ℎ 𝑐𝑚3
1. 𝒇 = −𝑲𝒔 where is the hydraulic gradient. f is in
𝒅𝒛 𝑑𝑧 𝑐𝑚2−𝑠
𝒉𝒇−𝒉𝒐 𝑐𝑚3
2. 𝒇 = −𝑲𝒔 and f is in
𝒁𝒇 𝑐𝑚2−𝑠
𝜳𝒇+𝒁𝒇
3. 𝒇 = 𝑲𝒔 where ho = 0 because of no ponding and 𝛹𝑓 is an absolute value. f is in
𝒁𝒇
𝑐𝑚3
𝑐𝑚2−𝑠
The subscript “f” refers to the wetting front and “o” refers to the soil surface, e.g., hf is the
hydraulic head at the wetting front (sum of matric forces at the wetting front and the
weight of the water above), and ho is the hydraulic head at the surface (zero, unless there
is water ponded on the surface). 𝛹𝑓 is a matric pressure at the wetting front [cm of water],
Ks= saturated hydraulic conductivity [cm/hr]. The depth of the wetting front can be related
to the cumulative amount of infiltrated water, F [cm], by:
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𝑐𝑚3
4. 𝑭 = 𝒁𝒇 (𝜽𝒔 − 𝜽𝒊) and F is in
𝑐𝑚2−𝑠
Where 𝜽𝒔 = saturated moisture content and 𝜽𝒊 = initial moisture content before

infiltration began. Rearranging Eq. 4 to solve Zf and substituting it into Eq. 3 , the
infiltration rate
𝛹𝑓 (𝜽𝒔− 𝜽𝒊)
5. 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑠 + 𝐾𝑠 for t > tp
𝐹
6. 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑃 for t ≤ tp
where: P = rainfall rate [cm/hr] and tp is the time when water begins to pond on the
surface [hr]. Unfortunately, Eq. 3a does not have time as a variable but instead uses F, the
cumulative amount of water that has infiltrated. Recognizing that f =dF/dt, we can solve
Eq. 3 to get the following, somewhat complicated, expression for F(t):
1 𝛹𝑓(𝜽𝒔− 𝜽𝒊)+𝑭𝒑
7. 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑝 + [𝐹 − 𝐹𝑝 + 𝛹𝑓(𝜽𝒔 − 𝜽𝒊)𝒍𝒏 ( )]
𝐾𝑠 𝛹𝑓(𝜽𝒔− 𝜽𝒊)+𝑭
Where Fp = the amount of water that infiltrates before water begins to pond at the surface
[cm] and tp = the time it takes to have water begin to pond at the surface [hr]. The
following are expressions of these quantities:
𝛹𝑓[𝐾𝑠(𝜽𝒔− 𝜽𝒊)]
8. 𝐹𝑝 = where t = tp and P > Ks
𝑃−𝐾𝑠
𝐹𝑝
9. 𝑡𝑝 =
𝑃
To determine the amount of infiltration from a rain storm of duration, tr, and intensity P
you will have to first determine the time at which surface ponding occurs (Eqs. 7 & 8). If tr
< tp or P < Ks then the amount of infiltration, F = Ptr and the infiltration rate, f = P. If td >
tp, then you will have to use Eq. 7 and find, by trial and error, the value F that gives t = tr.
Example: What’s the total runoff and infiltration [cm] from a 2-hour rainfall event with a
0.5 cm/hr intensity? When does runoff begin? The soil’s Ks 0.044 cm/hr, i = 0.25 and s =
0.50, and f = 22.4 cm (we could calculate Ks and f if we know the soil type). What’s the
infiltration rate at the end of the storm?
Solution:
Step 1: Calculate tp and Fp
𝛹𝑓[𝐾𝑠(𝜽𝒔− 𝜽𝒊)] (22.4)(0.044)(0.50−0.25)
𝐹𝑝 = = = 0.54 cm
𝑃−𝐾𝑠 0.50−0.044
𝐹𝑝 0.54𝑐𝑚
𝑡𝑝 = = = 1.08 hr
𝑃 0.5 𝑐𝑚/ℎ𝑟
Step 2: Calculate t and f using Eqs. 7, 6 and 5, respectively
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The infiltration rate at the end of the storm is 0.31 cm/hr.
INTERPRETING GREEN AND AMPT GRAPH AND RESULTS
Figure 26: Example of Infiltration Curve using Green Ampt Method (Source: Jain, S. K., Singh V.
P. (2019). Engineering Hydrology: An Introduction to Processes, Analysis, and Modeling (1st
Ed.))
The figure above identifies the parts of an infiltration-rain intensity analysis with respect
to Green and Ampt. The curved dashed line is what the Green and Ampt equation, Eq. 4,
mathematically describes and you can see that for times below the time of ponding, tp, it
deviates substantially from the solid line, which is how we hypothesize that the actual
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infiltration processes occur. Therefore, it is important to remember that the mathematical

results for F vs. t, Eq. 7, and f vs t, Eq. 5 and 6, for times less than the ponding time, tp, are
incorrect and that, during this period, f = rain intensity (P) and F = Pt. Always graph your
solutions and make sure that your math matches what you conceptually think is
happening. For times larger than tp, the F vs t and f vs t are correct.
PERCOLATION
Percolation is the movement of water though the soil, and it's layers, by gravity and
capillary forces. The prime moving force of groundwater is gravity. Water that is in the
zone of aeration where air exists is called vadose water. Water that is in the zone of
saturation is called groundwater. For all practical purposes, all groundwater originates as
surface water. Once underground, the water is moved by gravity. The boundary that
separates the vadose and the saturation zones is called the water table. Usually the
direction of water movement is changed from downward and a horizontal component to
the movement is added that is based on the geologic boundary conditions. Geologic
formations in the earth's crust serve as natural subterranean reservoirs for storing water.
Others can also serve as conduits for the movement of water. Essentially, all groundwater
is in motion. Some of it, however, moves extremely slowly. A geologic formation which
transmits water from one location to another in sufficient quantity for economic
development is called an aquifer. The movement of water is possible because of the voids
or pores in the geologic formations. Some formations conduct water back to the ground
surface. A spring is a place where the water table reaches the ground surface. Stream
channels can be in contact with an unconfined aquifer that approach the ground surface.
Water may move from the ground into the stream, or vice versa, depending on the relative
water level. Groundwater discharges into a stream forms the base flow of the stream
during dry periods, especially during droughts. An influent stream supplies water to an
aquifer while and effluent stream receives water from the aquifer. Percolation rate is the
speed of the water percolates on the geologic forms. The percolation rate is calculated for
each test hole by dividing the time interval used between measurements by the magnitude
of the last water level drop. This calculation results in a percolation rate in terms of
minutes per inch or minutes per cm.
STEPS IN DETERMINING PERCOLATION RATE
1. At least three test holes distributed evenly over the proposed lateral field are required.
2. Percolation test holes shall be 4 to 12 inches in diameter and to the same depth as the
proposed absorption trenches (not to exceed 36 inches in depth). 6 to 12 inches is an
ideal depth for percolation.
3. Sides and bottoms of the test holes shall be scratched or roughened to provide a
natural surface. All loose material shall be removed from each hole.
4. The bottoms of the test holes shall be covered with approximately 2 inches of rock to
protect the bottom from scouring action when the water is added.
5. The hole shall be filled with at least 12 inches of clean water, and this depth shall be
maintained for at least 4 hours and preferably overnight if clay soils are present. It is
important that the soil be allowed to soak for a sufficiently long period of time to allow
the soil to swell if accurate results are to be obtained. Failure to perform the presoak
when required will invalidate the percolation test results.
6. In sandy soils with little or no clay, soaking is not necessary. If, after the hole has been
filled twice with 12 inches of water, the water seeps completely away in less than 10
minutes, the test can proceed immediately.
7. Except for sandy soils, percolation rate measurements should be made at least 4 hours
but no more than 24 hours after the soaking period began. Any soil that sloughed into
the hole during the soaking period is removed, and the water level is adjusted to 6
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inches above the gravel (or 8 inches above the bottom of the hole). At no time during
the test is the water level allowed to rise more than 6 inches above the gravel.
8. Immediately after adjustment, the water level is measured from a fixed reference point
to the nearest 1/8 inch at 40- minute intervals. The test is continued until two
successive water level drops do not vary by more than 1/8 inch. At least three
measurements are made.
9. After each measurement, the water level is readjusted to the 6-inch level. The last
water level drop is used to calculate the percolation rate.
10. In sandy soils or soils in which the first 6 inches of water added after the soaking
period seep away in less than 30 minutes, water level measurements are made at 10-
minute intervals for a 1-hour period. The last water level drop is used to calculate the
percolation rate.
11. The percolation rate is calculated for each test hole by dividing the time interval used
between measurements by the magnitude of the last water level drop. This calculation
results in a percolation rate in terms of minutes per inch. To determine the percolation
rate for the area, the rates obtained from each hole are averaged. (If tests in the area
vary by more than 20 minutes per inch, variations in soil type are indicated. Under
these circumstances, percolation rates should not be averaged.) Example: If the last
measured drop in water level after 30 minutes is 5/8 inch, the percolation rate = (30
minutes)/(5/8 inch)=48 minutes/inch.
Test Hole Depth
#1 (in)
Start End Time Starting Ending Drop Percolation
Time Time Interval Level (in) Level Level Rate
(min) (in) (in) (min/in)
Test Hole Depth

#2 (in)
Test Hole Depth

#3 (in)
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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INFILTRATION AND PERCOLATION
Infiltration is the process by which water on the ground surface enters the soil. Percolation
is the vertical movement of infiltrated water beyond the average depth of root-zone. The
main factors the affecting infiltration and percolation are the volume of precipitation, base
flow of the certain area, soil characteristics, soil saturation, land cover, slope of the land and
evapotranspiration. Precipitation is the amount and characteristics (intensity, duration,
etc.) of precipitation that falls as rain or snow. Precipitation that infiltrates into the ground
often seeps into streambeds over an extended period of time, thus a stream will often
continue to flow when it hasn't rained for a long time and where there is no direct runoff
from recent precipitation. Base flow is the water in streams have a sustained flow, even
during periods of lack of rain. Much of this "base flow" in streams comes from groundwater
seeping into the bed and banks of the stream. Soil characteristics is that some soils, such
as clays, absorb less water at a slower rate than sandy soils. Soils absorbing less water result
in more runoff overland into streams. Soil saturation is like a wet sponge, soil already
saturated from previous rainfall can't absorb much more, thus more rainfall will become
surface runoff. Land cover is that some land covers have a great impact on infiltration and
rainfall runoff. Vegetation can slow the movement of runoff, allowing more time for it to
seep into the ground. Impervious surfaces, such as parking lots, roads, and developments,
act as a "fast lane" for rainfall - right into storm drains that drain directly into streams.
Agriculture and the tillage of land also changes the infiltration patterns of a landscape. Water
that, in natural conditions, infiltrated directly into soil now runs off into streams. The slope
of the land is the water falling on steeply-sloped land runs off more quickly and infiltrates
less than water falling on flat land. Lastly, Evapotranspiration is some infiltration stays
near the land surface, which is where plants put down their roots. Plants need this shallow
groundwater to grow, and, by the process of evapotranspiration, water is moved back into
the atmosphere.
Self-Help:
Modeling (1st Ed.)
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LET’S ANALYZE
Activity 1. Solve the following problems involving infiltration.
1. Hourly rainfalls of 3.5, 7, 9, and 4 cm occur over a 35-ha area consisting 10 ha of φ = 5

cm/hr, 10 ha of φ = 3 cm/hr, and 15 ha of φ = 1 cm/hr. Derive hourly values of net
rain.
2. The rates of rainfall for the successive 30 min period of a 3-hour storm are: 2.5, 4.6,
5.5, 3.0, 2.3, 1.5 cm/hr. The corresponding surface runoff is estimated to be 4.2 cm.
Establish the φ-index. Also determine the W-index.
3. What’s the total runoff and infiltration [cm] from a 2-hour rainfall event with a 1.2
cm/hr intensity? When does runoff begin? The soil’s Ks 0.055 cm/hr, i = 0.35 and s =
0.65, and f = 24.4 cm (we could calculate Ks and f if we know the soil type). What’s
the infiltration rate at the end of the storm?
AND SOLUTION (50%)
ANALYZING (30%)
THE PROBLEM
(20%)
ways and think
of procedure to
solve them.
student. accurate
student.
identify and
analyze the
student
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IN A NUTSHELL
Activity 1. Determine the percolation rate in your respective area using the steps that are
given above. Kindly attached the pictures in each steps of the activity. Note: It is better to
conduct in a good weather and the soil is not saturated.
RUBRICS FOR PERFORMANCE TASK

MAKE FOLLOWING PRESENTATION PUNCTUALITY
RELEVANT THE OF ACTIVITIES (25%)
OBSERVATION PROCEDURE AND
(25%) (25%) SOLUTIONS
(25%)
4 Student All procedure The Student
consistently use were followed presentation of passed the
more than one activities and activities
sense to observe solutions were before and on
objects and organized and time.
events neat
3 Student uses Followed most Most of the Student
more than one procedures. activities and passed the
sense to observe solutions were activities 10
with little organized and minutes after
guidance neat the deadline.
2 Student continue Followed some Some of the Student
to use the sense procedures. activities and passed the
of sight to solutions were activities 30
observe and can organized and minutes after
use other senses neat the deadline.
with some
prompting
1 Student can use None of the None of the Student
the sense of sight directions were activities and passed the
to observe and followed solutions were activities 60
events and sort organized and minutes after
these accordingly neat the deadline.
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-3c. Distinguished the exploration of groundwater

resources.
Metalanguage
1. Groundwater. Is the water found underground in the cracks and spaces in soil, sand
and rock.
2. Aquifer. Is an underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock, rock fractures or
unconsolidated materials (gravel, sand, or silt).
3. Well. is an excavation or structure created in the ground by digging, driving, or drilling to
access liquid resources, usually water.
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Essential Knowledge
According to USGS, Groundwater is which in aquifers below the surface of the Earth, is one
of the Nation's most important natural resources. Groundwater is the source of about 37
percent of the water that county and city water departments supply to households and
businesses (public supply). It provides drinking water for more than 90 percent of the rural
population who do not get their water delivered to them from a county/city water
department or private water company.
GROUNDWATER
Ground water is widely distributed under the ground and is a replenishable resource unlike
other resources of the earth. The problems in Ground Water Investigation are the zones of
occurrence and recharge. The modern trends are to create more opportunity for recharge
of ground water from natural sources like rain, percolation dams, etc. The ground water is
free from pollution and the ground water storage is free from atomic attacks. Ground water
can be developed at a small capital cost in least possible time, and intensive irrigation can
be practiced with double and triple cropping including commercial crops; ground water can
be used for supplemental irrigation during periods of deficient surface supply, for the year-
round irrigation practice.
A water bearing geologic formation or stratum capable of transmitting water through its
pores at a rate sufficient for economic extraction by wells is called ‘aquifer’. Formations that
serve as good aquifers are:
1. unconsolidated gravels, sands, alluvium
2. lake sediments, glacial deposits
3. limestones with cavities (caverns) formed by the action of acid waters (solution
openings in limestones and dolomites)
4. granites and marble with fissures and cracks, weathered gneisses and schists
5. heavily shattered quartzites
A geologic formation, which can absorb water but cannot transmit significant amounts is called
an aquiclude. Examples are clays, shales, etc. A geologic formation with no interconnected
pores and hence can neither absorb nor transmit water is called an aquifuge. Examples are
basalts, granites, etc. A geologic formation of rather impervious nature, which transmits water
at a slow rate compared to an aquifer (insufficient for pumping from wells) is called an
aquitard. Examples are clay lenses interbedded with sand. Specific Yield is the volume of
water that is expressed as a percentage of the total volume of the saturated aquifer, that will
drain by gravity when the water table drops due to pumping or drainage. Specific Retention
is the percentage volume of water which will not drain by gravity. Porosity is a measure of the
water bearing capacity of the formation, all this water cannot be drained by gravity or by
pumping from wells as a portion of water is held in the void spaces by molecular and surface
tension forces. Thus,
Porosity = Specific Yield + Specific Retention
Or
n= Sy + Sx
Specific yield depends upon grain size, shape and distribution of pores and compaction of the
formation. The values of specific yields for alluvial aquifers are in the range of 10–20% and for
uniform sands about 30%.
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CONFINED AND UNCONFINED AQUIFERS
If there is homogeneous porous formation extending from the ground surface up to an

impervious bed underneath, rainwater percolating down in the soil saturates the formation and
builds up the ground water table (GWT). This aquifer under water table conditions is called an
unconfined aquifer (water-table aquifer) and well drilled into this aquifer is called a water
table well.
On the other hand, if a porous formation underneath is sandwiched between two impervious
strata (aquicludes) and is recharged by a natural source (by rain water when the formation
outcrops at the ground surface—recharge area, or outcrops into a river-bed or bank) at a higher
elevation so that the water is under pressure in the aquifer (like pipe flow), i.e., artesian
condition. Such an aquifer is called an artesian aquifer or confined aquifer. If a well is drilled
into an artesian aquifer, the water level rises in the well to its initial level at the recharge source
called the piezometric surface. If the piezometric surface is above the ground level at the
location of the well, the well is called flowing artesian well since the water flows out of the
well like a spring, and if the piezometric surface is below the ground level at the well location,
the well is called a non-flowing artesian well. In practice, a well can be drilled through 2-3
artesian aquifers (if multiple artesian aquifers exist at different depths below ground level).
Sometimes a small band of impervious strata lying above the main ground water table (GWT)
holds part of the water percolating from above. Such small water bodies of local nature can be
exhausted quickly and are deceptive. The water level in them is called perched water table.
Figure 27: Types of Aquifers and Location of Wells (Source: Ragnurath, H.M. (2006).
Hydrology: Principles, Analysis, Design. 2nd Edition. New Age International Publishers)
Storage Coefficient is the volume of water given out by a unit prism of aquifer (a column of
aquifer standing on a unit horizontal area) when the piezometric surface (confined aquifers)
or the water table (unconfined aquifers) drops by unit depth is called the storage coefficient
of the aquifer (S) and is dimensionless (fraction). It is the same as the volume of water taken
into storage by a unit prism of the aquifer when the piezometric surface or water table rises by
unit depth. In the case of water table (unconfined) aquifer, the storage coefficient is the same
of specific yield (Sy). Since the water is under pressure in an artesian aquifer, the storage
coefficient of an artesian aquifer is attributable to the compressibility of the aquifer skeleton
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and expansibility of the pore water (as it comes out of the aquifer to atmospheric pressure
when the well is pumped) and is given by the relation.
1 1
𝑆 = 𝛾𝑤(𝑛𝑏)( + )
𝐾𝑤 𝑛𝐸𝑠
Where, S = storage coefficient (decimal)
𝛾𝑤 = specific weight of water
n = porosity
b = thickness of the confined aquifer
Kw = bulk modulus of elasticity of water
Es = modulus of compressibility (elasticity) of the soil grains of the aquifer.
Since water is practically incompressible, expansibility of water as it comes out of the pores
has a very little contribution to the value of the storage coefficient. The storage coefficient of
an artesian aquifer ranges from 0.00005 to 0.005, while for a water table aquifer S = Sy = 0.05–
0.30. The specific yield (unconfined aquifers) and storage coefficient (confined aquifers),
values have to be determined for the aquifers in order to make estimates of the changes in the
ground water storage due to fluctuation in the GWT or piezometric surface (ps) from the
relation.
∆𝐺𝑊𝑆 = 𝐴𝑎𝑞 𝑥(∆𝐺𝑊𝑇 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑠)𝑥(𝑆 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑦)
Where, ∆𝐺𝑊𝑆 = change in ground water storage
𝐴𝑎𝑞 = involved area of the aquifer
∆𝐺𝑊𝑇 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑠 = fluctuation in GWT or ps
𝑆 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑦 = storage coefficient (confined aquifer) or specific yield (unconfined aquifer)
Example 1: In a certain alluvial basin of 100 km2, 90 Mm3 of ground water was pumped in a
year and the ground water table dropped by about 5 m during the year. Assuming no
replenishment, estimate the specific yield of the aquifer. If the specific retention is 12%, what
is the porosity of the soil?
Solution: Change in ground water storage

∆𝐺𝑊𝑆 = 𝐴𝑎𝑞 𝑥 ∆𝐺𝑊𝑇 𝑥 𝑆𝑦
90 x 106 = (100 x 106) x 5 x 𝑆𝑦
𝑆𝑦= 0.18
n = Sy +Sr = 0.18 +0.12 = 0.3 or 30%
Example 2: An artesian aquifer, 30 m thick has a porosity of 25% and bulk modulus of
compression 2000 kg/cm2. Estimate the storage coefficient of the aquifer. What fraction of this
is attributable to the expansibility of water? Bulk modulus of elasticity of water = 2.4 × 104
kg/cm2.
Solution:
1 1 1 1
𝑆 = 𝛾𝑤(𝑛𝑏)( + ) = 1000 x 0.25 x 30 ( + )
𝐾𝑤 𝑛𝐸𝑠 2.14 𝑥108 0.25𝑥2 𝑥107
= 7500 [(0.467 x 10 ) + (20 x 10 )] = 1.54 x 10
-8 -8 -3
Storage coefficient due to the expansibility of water as a percentage of S above

1 1
𝑆𝑤 𝛾𝑤(𝑛𝑏)(𝐾𝑤) 2.14 𝑥108
= = 1 1 = 1 1 = 0.02283 or 2.28 %
𝑆 𝛾𝑤(𝑛𝑏)(𝐾𝑤+𝑛𝐸𝑠) +
2.14 𝑥108 0.25𝑥2 𝑥107
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DARCY’S LAW
Flow of ground water except through coarse gravels and rockfills is laminar and the velocity of
flow is given by Darcy’s law (1856), which states that ‘the velocity of flow in a porous medium
is proportional to the hydraulic gradient.
v = ki
Seepage Velocity, vs = v/n
Where, i= ∆h/L = hydraulic gradient
k = coefficient of permeability or hydraulic conductivity in m/s or m/day
n = porosity
Flow of water Q = kiA
The transmissibility is the flow capacity of an aquifer per unit width under unit hydraulic
gradient and is equal to the product of permeability times the saturated thickness of the
aquifer. In a confined aquifer, T = kb and is independent of the piezometric surface. In a water
table aquifer, T = kH, where H is the saturated thickness. As the water table drops, H
decreases and the transmissibility is reduced. Thus, the transmissibility of an unconfined
aquifer depends upon the depth of GWT.
HYDRAULIC OF WELLS
Underground water constitutes an important source of water supply. The stratum of soil in
which this water is present is known as aquifer. On the basis of their hydraulic characteristics,
wells are divided into two categories: gravity or unconfined or water-table wells and
artesian or confined or pressure wells. If the pressure at the surface of the surrounding
underground water is atmospheric, the well is gravity type, if this pressure is above
atmospheric because of an impervious soil stratum overlies the aquifer, the well is artesian.
1. Gravity Well
Figure 28: Example of a Gravity Well (Source: Ragnurath, H.M. (2006). Hydrology: Principles,
Analysis, Design. 2nd Edition. New Age International Publishers)
𝝅𝒌[(𝒉𝟐)𝟐− (𝒉𝟏)𝟐 ]
Discharge or Flow Q = 𝒓𝟐
𝒍𝒏
𝒓𝟏
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2. Artesian Well
Figure 29: Example of a Artesian Well (Source: Ragnurath, H.M. (2006). Hydrology:
Principles, Analysis, Design. 2nd Edition. New Age International Publishers)
𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒃[(𝒉𝟐)𝟏 − (𝒉𝟏)𝟏 ]
Discharge or Flow Q = 𝒓𝟐
𝒍𝒏
𝒓𝟏
𝟐.𝟕𝟐𝑻(𝑯−𝒉𝒘)
Or Using Dupuit (1863) Formula, Q = 𝑹
𝒍𝒐𝒈(𝒓𝒘)
Where, T = transmissibility
H = height from impermeable up to GWT
(H-hw) = Sw = Drawdown in the well
2rw = width of the well
SPECIFIC CAPACITY
𝑄
The specific capacity of a well is the discharge per unit drawdown in the well and is
𝑆𝑤
usually expressed as liters per minute per 1 meter or lpm/m. The specific capacity is a
measure of the effectiveness of the well; it decreases with the increase in the pumping
rate (Q) and prolonged pumping (time, t).
Example: A 20-cm well penetrates 30 m below static water level (GWT). After a long
period of pumping at a rate of 1800 lpm, the drawdowns in the observation wells at 12
m and 36 m from the pumped well are 1.2 m and 0.5 m, respectively. Determine the
following:
a. the transmissibility of the aquifer
b. the drawdown in the pumped well assuming R = 300 m
c. the specific capacity of the well.
Solution: a. Transmissibility of the aquifer

𝝅𝒌[(𝒉𝟐)𝟐 − (𝒉𝟏)𝟐 ]
Q= 𝒓𝟐
𝒍𝒏𝒓𝟏
Q = 1800 lpm or 1.8 m3/m or 0.03 m3/s
h2= 30m – 0.5m = 29.5m
h1 = 30m – 1.2 = 28.8m
r2 = 36m
r1 = 12m
Substitute all the given to get the hydraulic conductivity k
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k = 2.57 x 10-4 m/s or 22.211 m/day

Transmissibility = kH = (2.57 x 10-4 m/s)(30m) = 7.71 x10-3 m2/s or 666.14
m2/day
b. the drawdown in the pumped well assuming R = 300 m or the Sw
𝟐.𝟕𝟐𝑻(𝑯−𝒉𝒘)
From Dupuit Formula, Q = 𝑹
𝒍𝒐𝒈(𝒓𝒘)
(H-hw) = Sw = drawdown in the pumped well
2rw = width of the well = 20cm or 0.2m
rw= 0.1m
𝐦𝟐
2.72 (𝟕.𝟕𝟏 𝐱𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝐬 )(𝐒𝐰)
0.03 m3/s = 300𝑚
log(0.10𝑚)
Sw = 4.97m
c. The specific capacity of the well

m3 60s 1000liters
𝑄 (0.03 s )(min)( 1m3 )
= = 362.17 lpm/m
𝑆𝑤 𝟒.𝟗𝟕𝐦
CAVITY WELLS
If a relatively thin impervious formation or a stiff clay layer is encountered at a shallow depth
underlain by a thick alluvial stratum, then it is an excellent location for a cavity well. A hole is
drilled using the hand boring set and casing pipe is lowered to rest firmly on the stiff clay
layer. A hole of small cross-section area is drilled into the sand formation and is developed
into a big hollow cavity by pumping at a high rate or by operating a plunger giving a large
yield. The depth of the cavity at the center varies from 15-30 cm with 6-8 m radius of the
cavity. The flow of water into the cavity is spherical and the yield is low. The failure of a cavity
well is usually due to caving of the clay roof. Since the depth is usually small, deep well pumps
are not necessary and thus the capital costs of construction, development and installation of
pump set of a cavity well are low. The yield of the cavity well are depending on the following:
1. For unsteady flow condition, the pumping rate Q of a cavity well is given by:
𝑸√𝑺𝒔 𝑸
𝒔= +
𝟔𝑲√𝝅𝒕 𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒓
2. For steady flow condition, the pumping rate Q of a cavity well is given by:
𝟐𝝅𝑲𝒚(𝑯 − 𝒉𝒘)
𝑸= 𝒓𝒘
𝟏−
𝑹
Width of cavity, re = √(𝟐𝒓𝒘 − 𝒚)𝒚
Where, s = drawdown in the observation well at a distance r from the cavity well
Q = constant pumping rate
Ss = specific storage coefficient (for unit aquifer thickness)
K = permeability of the aquifer
t = time since pumping began
y = depth of the cavity (at the center)
rw = radius of cavity
R = radius of influence
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Figure 30: Flow into the Cavity Well (Source: Ragnurath, H.M. (2006). Hydrology: Principles,
Example: The following data are obtained from a cavity tube well:
Discharge 30 lps
Drawdown 4 m
Permeability of the aquifer 50 m/day
Depth of cavity 20 cm
Radius of influence 150 m
Determine the radius and width of cavity
𝟐𝝅𝑲𝒚(𝑯−𝒉𝒘) 𝟐𝝅(𝟓𝟎)(𝟎.𝟐)(𝟒)
Solution: Well yield, 𝑸 = 𝒓𝒘 = 𝒓𝒘 = rw = 135.5m
𝟏− 𝑹 (𝟐𝟒𝒙𝟔𝟎𝒙𝟔𝟎)𝟏−𝟏𝟓𝟎
re = √(𝟐𝒓𝒘 − 𝒚)𝒚 = √(𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟑𝟓. 𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟐)𝟎. 𝟐 = 7.36m
GROUNDWATER PROBLEMS
Since prehistoric times, groundwater has been an important resource that people have relied on for
drinking, irrigation, and industry. Though groundwater accounts for about 95% of the liquid freshwater on
the planet, accessible groundwater cannot be replenished quickly, and this leads to shortages. Groundwater
contamination is also a growing tragedy. Such pollution, caused when toxic wastes and other impurities
infiltrate down to the water table, may be invisible to us but may ruin a water supply for generations to
come. In this section, we’ll take a look at problems associated with the use of groundwater supplies.
1. Depletion of Groundwater Supplies - Groundwater depletion is primarily caused by
sustained groundwater pumping. Some of the negative effects of groundwater depletion
including lowering of water table, reduced surface water supplies, land subsidence, and
water quality concerns.
2. Contamination due to Human Activities - Some contaminants in groundwater occur
naturally. But in recent decades, contaminants have increasingly been introduced into
aquifers because of human activity. These contaminants include agricultural waste
(pesticides, fertilizers, and animal sewage), industrial waste (dangerous organic and
inorganic chemicals), effluent from “sanitary” landfills and septic tanks (including
bacteria and viruses), petroleum products and other chemicals that do not dissolve in
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water, radioactive waste (from weapons manufacture, power plants, and hospitals), and
acids leached from sulfide minerals in coal and metal mines. The cloud of contaminated
groundwater that moves away from the source of contamination is called a contaminant
plume. The best way to avoid such groundwater contamination is to prevent
contaminants from entering groundwater in the first place. This can be done by placing
contaminants in sealed containers or on impermeable bedrock so that they are isolated
from aquifers. If such a site is not available, the storage area should be lined with plastic
or with a thick layer of clay, for the clay not only acts as an aquitard, but it can bond to
contaminants. Fortunately, in some cases, natural processes can clean up groundwater
contamination. Chemicals may be absorbed by clay, oxygen in the water may oxidize the
chemicals, and bacteria in the water may metabolize the chemicals, thereby turning them
into harmless substances.
3. Natural Ground Quality - Much of the world’s groundwater is crystal clear, and pure
enough to drink right out of the ground. Rocks and sediment are natural filters capable
of removing suspended solids these solids get trapped in tiny pores or stick to the
surfaces of clay flakes. In fact, the commercial distribution of bottled groundwater
(“spring water”) has become a major business worldwide. But dissolved chemicals,
and in some cases methane, may make some natural groundwater unusable. For
example, groundwater that has passed through salt-containing strata may become
salty and unsuitable for irrigation or drinking. Groundwater that has passed through
limestone or dolomite contains dissolved calcium (Ca2) and magnesium (Mg2) ions;
this water, called hard water, can be a problem because carbonate minerals precipitate
from it to form “scale” that clogs pipes. Also, washing with hard water can be difficult
because soap won’t develop a lather. Groundwater that has passed through iron-
bearing rocks may contain dissolved iron oxide that precipitates to form rusty stains.
Some groundwater contains dissolved hydrogen sulfide, which comes out of solution
when the groundwater rises to the surface; hydrogen sulfide is a poisonous gas that
has a rotten-egg smell. In recent years, concern has grown about arsenic, a highly toxic
chemical that enters groundwater when arsenic-bearing minerals dissolve in
groundwater.
Self-Help:
Modeling (1st Ed.)
Let’s Check
Activity 1: Identify the following that corresponds the given definition.
1. The stratum of soil in which this water is present is called as.

2. A geologic formation, which can absorb water but cannot transmit significant amounts
is called.
3. Gravity well is also called as.
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4. The volume of water that is expressed as a percentage of the total volume of the
saturated aquifer, that will drain by gravity when the water table drops due to
pumping or drainage is called as.
5. The flow capacity of an aquifer per unit width under unit hydraulic gradient and is
equal to the product of permeability times the saturated thickness of the aquifer is
called as.
6. The volume of water given out by a unit prism of aquifer when the piezometric surface
or the water table drops by unit depth is called as.
7. A measure of the water bearing capacity of the formation, all this water cannot be
drained by gravity or by pumping from wells as a portion of water is held in the void
spaces by molecular and surface tension forces is called as.
8. If the piezometric surface is above the ground level at the location of the well, the well
is called.
9. The water found underground in the cracks and spaces in soil, sand and rock is called
as.
10. A geologic formation with no interconnected pores and hence can neither absorb nor
transmit water is called.
Let’s Analyze
Activity 1: Solve the following problems.
1. The following data are obtained from a cavity tube well:

Discharge 0.062 m3
Drawdown 5.3 m
Permeability of the aquifer 62 m/day
Depth of cavity 23 cm
Radius of influence 183 m
Determine the radius and width of cavity
2. A 26-cm well penetrates 38 m below static water level (GWT). After a long period of
pumping at a rate of 2200 lpm, the drawdowns in the observation wells at 16 m and 38 m
from the pumped well are 1.5 m and 0.8 m, respectively. Determine the following:
a. the transmissibility of the aquifer
b. the drawdown in the pumped well assuming R = 350 m
c. the specific capacity of the well
3. An artesian aquifer, 45 m thick has a porosity of 43% and bulk modulus of compression
2500 kg/cm2. Estimate the storage coefficient of the aquifer. What fraction of this is
attributable to the expansibility of water? Bulk modulus of elasticity of water = 2.4 × 10 4
kg/cm2.

AND SOLUTION (50%)
ANALYZING (30%)
THE PROBLEM
(20%)
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ways and think

of procedure to
solve them.
student. accurate
student.
identify and
analyze the
student
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-3d. Understand the concept of probability and statistics
hydrology.
Metalanguage
1. Probability. is simply how likely something is to happen.
2. Statistics. is a form of mathematical analysis that uses quantified models, representations
and synopses for a given set of experimental data or real-life studies.
Essential Knowledge
Probability and Statistics in Hydrology treats probability theory and mathematical statistics
as applied to hydrology. Probability theory is presented in a summarized form with emphasis
on its use in hydrology. Statistically, the emphasis is on inferential rather than descriptive
statistics of classical hydrologic applications.
BASIC PROBABILITY
A probability is a number that reflects the chance or likelihood that a particular event will
occur. Probabilities can be expressed as proportions that range from 0 to 1, and they can also
be expressed as percentages ranging from 0% to 100%. A probability of 0 indicates that there
is no chance that a particular event will occur, whereas a probability of 1 indicates that an
event is certain to occur. A probability of 0.45 (45%) indicates that there are 45 chances out of
100 of the event occurring.
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The probability of an event A = P(A). P(A) can be estimated using an observed set of data. If a
sample of “n” observations has “n A” values in the range of event A, then P(A) is estimated to
be n A/n. As “n” approaches ∞, P(A) becomes more accurate.
Example: The following rainfall depths were observed in the month of May over the past 10
years at the Philadelphia rain gage. Based on the sample of data below, estimate the
probability that May’s total rainfall will not exceed 4” in any given year.
Month, Year Observed Rainfall (in)

May 1999 3.2
May 2000 4.8
May 2001 4.2
May 2002 5.9
May 2003 2.0
May 2004 3.1
May 2005 3.8
May 2006 4.5
May 2007 2.1
May 2008 5.2
A = 4”
n = 10
na = 5
5
P(A) = = 0.5 or 50%
10
Total Probability: If the sample space (1 represents the whole space) is completely divided
into non-overlapping events (i.e. A1 or A2 or A3, etc.), then,
Figure 31: Concept of a Probability (Source: Jain, S. K., Singh V. P. (2019). Engineering
Hydrology: An Introduction to Processes, Analysis, and Modeling (1st Ed.))
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Conditional Probability: Two events, A and B. The overlap is the event that both occur (A∩B or
A intersects with B). P(B|A) is the conditional probability that event B will occur given that
event A has already occurred. Therefore, the joint probability that both will occur (A and B) is:
P(A& B) = P(A∩ B) = P(B | A)P(A)
If A and B are independent events, then,
P(A∩ B) = P(A)P(B)
Complementary: If B is the complement to A, then,
P(B) =1− P(A)
Example: The values of annual precipitation in College Station, TX, from 1911 to 1979 are
shown in Table 11.1.1 and plotted as a time series (below). What is the probability that the
annual precipitation R in any given year will be less than 35 inches? Greater than 45 inches?
Between 35 and 45 inches?
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Solution: There are n = 69 data. Let A be the event R>45.0 inches. The numbers of values in
the previous table falling in these ranges are na=23 and nb=19. Therefore,
23
P(A) = P(R<35.0) = = 0.33
69
19
P(B) = P(R>45.0) = = 0.28
69
P(35.0≤R≤45.0) = 1-P(A)-P(B) = 1-0.33-0.28 = 0.39
RETURN PERIOD
A return period, also known as a recurrence interval or repeat interval, is an average time or
an estimated average time between events such as earthquakes, floods, landslides, or a river
discharge flows to occur.
The inverse of probability (generally expressed in %), it gives the estimated time interval
between events of a similar size or intensity.
T = 1/P
Where, T = Return Period

P = Probability
For example, the return period of a flood might be 100 years; otherwise expressed as its
probability of occurring being 1/100, or 1% in any one year. This does not mean that if a flood
with such a return period occurs, then the next will occur in about one hundred years' time -
instead, it means that, in any given year, there is a 1% chance that it will happen, regardless of
when the last similar event was. Or, put differently, it is 10 times less likely to occur than a flood
with a return period of 10 years (or a probability of 10%).
DESIGN STORMS
Coastal protection structures will often be designed to with stand wave attack by the extreme
design storm. The severity of the storm (i.e. Return period) is chosen in view of the acceptable
level of risk of damage or failure. A design storm consists of a design wave condition, a design
water level, and a duration. A hypothetical extreme storm whose wave's coastal protection
structures will often be designed to withstand. The severity of the storm is chosen in view of the
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acceptable level of risk of damage or failure. A DESIGN STORM consists of a DESIGN WAVE
condition, a design water level and a duration.
A critical rainfall event that is used for assessing the flood hydrograph of a certain return period
is called design rainfall. As the amount of the design rainfall corresponds to rare frequencies,
they have high values of rainfall depth or intensity and that is why the design rainfall is usually
termed as "design rainstorm" or simply "design storm". In summary, Design Storm is
hyetograph, or time distribution, of the design rainfall over a specific duration. A design storm is
synthesized from pieces of extreme rainfall taken from many actual storm events in region.
The term design storm is used to refer to a rainfall hyetograph that is believed to have the
characteristics that are critical to the safety of the project. A design storm can be a synthetic
distribution based on characteristics inherent to an intensity-duration-frequency curve or an
actual hyetograph that caused major damage in the past, and the policymakers are trying to
prevent such damages in the future.
REGRESSION ANALYSIS
Regression is a statistical method used in finance, investing, and other disciplines that
attempts to determine the strength and character of the relationship between one dependent
variable (usually denoted by Y) and a series of other variables (known as independent
variables).
The fitting of a straight line may be done objectively by one of the following statistical
methods:
a. The method of least squares
b. The method of moments
c. The method of maximum likelihood
But the common method is the method of least squares. Two variables y (dependent) and x
(independent) can be correlated by plotting them on x– and y–axis. If they are plotted on a
straight line, there is a close linear relationship; on the other hand, if the points depart
appreciably (without a definite trend), the graph is called a scatter diagram or plot.
If the trend is a straight line, the relationship is linear and has the equation
y = a +bx
Number of lines can be obtained depending on the values of a and b. The method of least
squares is used to select the line that fits the data best. The principle of least squares states
that the best line for fitting a series of observations is the one for which the sum of the squares
of the departures is minimum. A departure is the difference between the observed value and
the line. Since x is the independent variable, the departures of y are used
Σy = na + b Σx
Σxy = a Σx + b Σx2
where n = number of pairs of observed values of x and y
The most commonly used statistical parameter for measuring the degree of association of two
linearly dependent variables x and y, is the correlation coefficient
∑[(∆𝑥)(∆𝑦)]
𝑟=
√∑(∆𝑥)2 ∑(∆𝑦)2
∑ 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑛𝑥𝑦
=
(𝑛 − 1)𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦
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Where, ∆𝑥 = x – x, ∆𝑦 = y - y
𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 = standard deviations of x and y, respectively
X, y = middle of each class interval, respectively
If r = 1, the correlation is perfect giving a straight-line plot (regression line).

r = 0, no relation exists between x and y (scatter plot).
r → 1, indicates a close linear relationship.
If a linear regression cannot be fitted, a quadratic parabola can be used as the fitting curve,
given by
y = a + bx + cx2
From the principles of least squares, a, b and c can be obtained by solving the three normal
equations
Σy = na + bΣx + c Σx2
Σxy = aΣx + b Σx2 + c Σx3
Σx2y = aΣx2 + b Σx3+ c Σx4
where n = number of pairs of observed values of x and y.
The variables x and y, for instance, may be precipitation and the corresponding runoff, or
gauge height and the corresponding stream flow, and like that.
For the exponential function y = cxm
it can be transformed to a straight line by using logarithms of the variables as
log y = log c + m log x
By putting log x = X, log y = Y, log c = a and m = b the function and can be solved for a and b and
the exponential function can be determined.
STANDARD ERROR OF ESTIMATE
A measure of the scatter about the regression line of y on x is given by
∑(𝑦 − 𝑦𝑒𝑠𝑡 )2
𝑆𝑦𝑥 = √
𝑛−2
which is called the standard error of estimate of y with respect to x; and yest is the value of y for the
given value of x and also the other formulas in getting it are:
𝑆𝑦𝑥 = 𝜎𝑦 (√1 − 𝑟 2 )
∑ 𝑦 2 − 𝑎 ∑ 𝑦 − 𝑏 ∑ 𝑥𝑦
𝑆𝑦𝑥 = √
𝑛−2
𝑛−1
𝑆𝑦𝑥 = √ (𝜎 2 − 𝑏 2 𝜎𝑥 2 )
𝑛−2 𝑦
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Example: Annual rainfall and runoff data for the Bangkerohan River for 17 years (1934-1950)
are given below. Determine the linear regression line between rainfall and runoff, the
correlation coefficient and the standard error of estimate.
Year Rainfall (mm) Runoff (mm)

1934 1088 274
1935 1113 320
1936 1512 543
1937 1343 437
1938 1103 352
1939 1490 617
1940 1100 328
1941 1433 582
1942 1475 763
1943 1380 558
1944 1178 492
1945 1223 478
1946 1440 783
1947 1165 551
1948 1271 565
1949 1443 720
1950 1340 730
Solution:
Therefore, the equation is, R = 0.86P – 581.
where P = rainfall (mm) and R = runoff (mm)
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The correlation coefficient r = 0.835, which indicates a close linear relation and the straight-
line plot is shown in Fig. 13.1, the relation is very close.
Standard Error of Estimate
𝑆𝑦𝑥 = 𝜎𝑦 (√1 − 𝑟 2 )
∑(∆𝑦)2 40.10 𝑥 104
𝜎𝑦 = √ =√ = 160 𝑚𝑚
𝑛−1 17 − 1
𝑆𝑦𝑥 = 160√1 − (0.835)2 = 𝟗𝟎. 𝟐𝟒 𝒎𝒎
Self-Help:
Modeling (1st Ed.)
LET’S ANALYZE
Activity 1: Solve the following problem.
1. On a small area the rainfall-runoff (P-R) observations are given below. Establish an
equation relating them by linear regression. Find the coefficient of correlation. What is
the runoff expected for a rainfall of 20 mm?
Prep (mm) 22 26 14 4 30 12
Runoff (mm) 6 12 4 0 18 6
2. The observed annual rainfall (P) and the corresponding runoff (R) for a small
catchment are:
Prep (mm) 90 110 40 130 146 100
Runoff (mm) 30 50 6 62 75 40
Develop a rainfall-runoff regression equation and find the coefficient of correlation.
What is the runoff expected for an annual rainfall of 80 cm?
3. Determine the probability of the river to occur of such event if the return period is 200
years.

AND SOLUTION (50%)
ANALYZING (30%)
THE PROBLEM
(20%)
of problems in
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complicated the steps of the problem

ways and think are recorded correctly
of procedure to
solve them.
student. accurate
student.
identify and
analyze the
student
IN A NUTSHELL
Activity 1: Explain the following statement/question.
1. Explain the design period.

2. How probability and statistics helps to understand the movement of water in
hydrology?
RUBRICS FOR ESSAY
(20%) (20%) (20%) (20%) (20%)
tone
appropriate
to audience
topic with explanation with some structures
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sufficient evidence or that may or and sentence

awareness transitions may not formation
of task create
writer’s
voice and
tone
appropriate
to audience
the voice
and tone
sentence formation
structures
Big Picture
a. Distinguished the different flow routing techniques

b. Discover the importance of flood prediction
c. Familiarize and appreciate the role of hydrology in water resources planning and
management in the Philippines
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-4a. Distinguished the different flow routing techniques
Metalanguage
4. Reservoir Routing. Storage volume of the outflow hydrograph corresponding to a known
hydrograph of inflow into the reservoir.
5. Stream Flow Routing. Provides a set of methods for describing and predicting the
movement of water from one point to another along a river.
6. Attenuation- The reduction in the peak of the outflow hydrograph due to storage effects.
Essential Knowledge
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Flow routing connects excess water from precipitation and runoff to the stream to other
surface water as part of the hydrological cycle. Simulating flow helps elucidate the
transportation of nutrients through a stream system, predict flood events, inform decision
makers, and regulate water quality and quantity issues.
RESERVOIR ROUTING
Flood routing is the process of determining the reservoir stage, storage volume of the outflow
hydrograph corresponding to a known hydrograph of inflow into the reservoir; this is called
reservoir routing. For this, the capacity curve of the reservoir, i.e., ‘storage vs pool elevation’,
and ‘outflow rate vs. pool elevation’, curves are required. Storage volumes for different pool
elevations are determined by planimetering the contour map of the reservoir site. For
example, the volume of water stored (V) between two successive contours having areas A 1
and A2 (planimeter) and the contour interval d, is given by:
𝒅
1. Cone Formula, V = (𝑨𝟏 + 𝑨𝟐 + √𝑨𝟏 𝑨𝟐 )
𝟑
𝒅 𝐴1 + 𝐴2
2. Prismoidal Formula, V = (𝑨𝟏 + 𝑨𝟐 + 𝟒𝑨𝒎 ) where Am =
𝟔 2
The prismoidal formula is more accurate. The outflow rates are determined by computing the
discharge through the sluices and the spillway discharge for different water surface elevations
of the reservoir.
3. Discharge through sluices, Qsl = 𝑪𝒅 𝑨√𝟐𝒈𝒉

4. Discharge over spillway crest, Qsp = CLH3/2
5. Outflow from the reservoir, O = Qsl + Qsp
Where: h = height of water surface of reservoir above the centre of sluice

H = height of water surface of reservoir above the crest of spillway
Cd = coefficient of discharge for the sluice
C = coefficient of spillway
A = area of sluice opening
L = length of spillway
The purpose in flood routing is to determine the relation between the inflow, the outflow and
the storage as a function of time. The problem can be solved by applying the hydrologic
equation
6. I = O + ∆S
Where: I = inflow rate

O = outflow rate
∆S = incremental storage, at any instant
Taking a small interval of time, t (called the routing period and designating the initial and final
conditions by subscripts 1 and 2 between the interval) may be written as:
𝑰 +𝑰 𝑶 +𝑶
7. ( 𝟏 𝟐 ) 𝒕 − ( 𝟏 𝟐 ) 𝒕 = 𝑺𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏
𝟐 𝟐
The routing period, t selected should be sufficiently short such that the hydrograph during the
interval 1-2 can be assumed as a straight line, Rearranging:
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𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 𝑶𝟏 𝒕 𝑶𝟐 𝒕
8. ( ) 𝒕 + 𝑺𝟏 − = 𝑺𝟐 +
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝑂𝑡
After selecting a routing period t, curves of O vs. S, and O vs. S ± on either side of O-S curve
2
are drawn. At the beginning of the routing period all the terms on the left side of Eq. 8 are
𝑂𝑡
known and the value of the right-side terms is found out. Corresponding to this O2 and (S- )
2
are read from the graph, which become the initial values for the next routing period and so on.
This method of flood routing was developed by LG Puls of the US Army Corps of Engineers and
is called the ISD (Inflow-storage-discharge) method. It is assumed that the outflow
(discharge) from the reservoir is a function of the pool elevation provided that the spillway
and the sluices have no gates (uncontrolled reservoirs) or with constant gate openings, if
provided with control gates for which poor elevation vs. discharge curves are drawn,
Rearranging equation 7,
𝟐𝑺𝟏 𝟐𝑺𝟐
9. (𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 ) + ( − 𝑶𝟏 ) = ( + 𝑶𝟐 )
𝒕 𝒕
2𝑆 2𝑆
After selecting a routing period t, a curve of “ + 𝑂 𝑣𝑠. 𝑂” can be drawn since ( + 𝑂) − 2𝑂 =
𝑡 𝑡
2𝑆 2𝑆
( − 𝑂) a curve of “ − 𝑂 vs. O” can also be drawn. At the beginning of the routing period all
𝑡 𝑡
terms on the left of Eq. 9 are known. This method is called modified puls or Storage Indication
Method
Example: For a reservoir with constant gate openings for the sluices and spillway, pool
elevation vs storage and discharge (outflow) curves are shown. The inflow hydrograph into
the reservoir is given below. Route the flood through the reservoir by (a) ISD method, and (b)
modified Puls method, and compute the outflow hydrograph, the maximum pool elevation
reached, the reduction in the flood peak and the reservoir lag. Pool elevation at the
commencement is 110m and the discharge at the commencement is 124 cumec or cm 3/s.
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Figure 32: Elevation vs. Storage and Discharge (Source: Ragnurath, H.M. (2006). Hydrology:
Time (hour) Inflow (cm3/s)

0 50
6 70
12 160
18 300
24 460
30 540
36 510
42 440
48 330
54 250
60 190
66 150
72 120
78 90
84 80
90 70
Solution: Using ISD Method, Take the routing period as 6 hr or 1/4 day. It is easier to work the
flow rates in cumec and the storage volumes in terms of cumec per 1/4 day. Get the data of the
corresponding output, elevation and storage based on the graph given. In 106-meter elevation, the
corresponding outflow is 100 cumec or cm3/s (yellow line) and the corresponding storage is 1480
cumec per ¼ day (blue line).
Pool Outflow Storage 𝑶𝒕 𝑶𝒕 𝑶𝒕 𝟐𝑺 𝟐𝑺 𝟐𝑺

𝑺+ 𝑺−
Elevation (O) (S) 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝒕 𝒕 𝒕
m cm3/s Cumec- +𝑶 −𝑶
1/4 Cumec- Cumec- Cumec- Cumec Cumec Cumec
day 1/4 1/4 1/4
day day day
100 60 400 30 430 370 800 860 740

102 70 700 35 735 665 1400 1470 1330
104 86 1480 43 1123 1037 2160 2246 2074
106 100 1480 50 1530 1430 2960 3060 2860
108 110 1850 55 1905 1795 3700 3810 3590
110 124 2270 62 2332 2208 4540 4664 4416
112 138 2700 69 2769 2631 5400 5538 5262
113 310 2920 155 3075 2765 5840 6150 5530
114 550 3160 275 3435 2885 6320 6870 5770
115 800 3400 400 3800 3000 6800 7600 6000
116 1030 3650 515 4165 3135 7300 8330 6270
117 1280 3880 640 4520 3240 7760 9040 6480
118 1520 4160 760 4920 3400 8320 9840 6800
120 - 4680 - - - - - -
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Figure 33: Reservoir Routing Using ISD Method (Source: Ragnurath, H.M. (2006). Hydrology:
For routing the flood by the I.S.D. method, the known outflow at the commencement of 124
𝑶𝒕 𝑰 +𝑰 𝟓𝟎+𝟕𝟎
cumec, 𝑺 − is read from the curve as 2208 cumec– ¼ day and to this ( 𝟏 𝟐 ) 𝒕 =
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
cumec X ¼ day = 60 cumec – ¼ day is added to get the right hand side of Eq. 8, therefore 𝑺 +
𝑶𝒕
= 2268 cumec – ¼ day. And by graph of outflow vs storage, we plot 2268 cumec- ¼ day, we
𝟐
can get now the outflow (yellow line) of 120 cumec which is also the outflow at the beginning
of the next routing period. Corresponding to this O = 120 cumec, the pool elevation of 109.2 m
is read from the ‘pool elevations vs. O’ curve that you can see above (green line).
𝑶𝒕
Corresponding to this O = 120 cumec, 𝑺 − = 2040 cumec – ¼ day is read from the graph
𝟐
𝑰 +𝑰 𝟕𝟎+𝟏𝟔𝟎 𝑶𝒕
and( 𝟏 𝟐 ) 𝒕 = = = 115 cumec – ¼ day is added to get 𝑺 + = 2155 for which O is read
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
as 116 cumec and pool elevation as 108.4 m. Thus, the process is repeated till the flood is
completely routed through the reservoir and the outflow hydrograph is obtained.
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Using Modified Puls Method, Corresponding to the initial pool elevation of 110 m, O = 124
𝟏
𝟐𝑺 𝟐(𝟐𝟐𝟕𝟎 𝒄𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒄−𝟒𝒅𝒂𝒚) 𝟐𝑺
cumec, S = 2270 cumec – ¼ day, = 𝟏 = 4540 cumec, + 𝑶 = 4540 + 124 =
𝒕 𝒅𝒂𝒚 𝒕
𝟒
𝟐𝑺
4664 cumec and − 𝑶 = 4540 – 124 = 4416 cumec. Thus, for other values of O, values of
𝒕
𝟐𝑺 𝟐𝑺 𝟐𝑺 𝟐𝑺
+ 𝑶 and − 𝑶 are computed and ‘O vs. + 𝑶 and − 𝑶’ curves.
𝒕 𝒕 𝒕 𝒕
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Figure 34: Reservoir Routing by Modified Puls Method (Source: Ragnurath, H.M. (2006).
For routing the flood by the modified Puls method, corresponding to the initial pool elevation
𝟐𝑺 𝟐𝑺
of 110 m, O = 124 cumec, + 𝑶 = 4664 cumec, and − 𝑶 = 4416 cumec are read off. For
𝒕 𝒕
𝟐𝑺
this − 𝑶 = 4416 cumec, (𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 ) = 50 + 70 = 120 cumec is added to the eq. 9, therefore,
𝒕
𝟐𝑺 𝟐𝑺
+ 𝑶 = 4416 +120 = 4536 cumec. Based on the graph of outflow vs. + 𝑶, the outflow is
𝒕 𝒕
𝟐𝑺
123 cumec and sub to eq. 9 to get the value of − 𝑶 = 4416 – 123 = 4293 cumec. Again, for
𝒕
𝟐𝑺
− 𝑶 = 4293 cumec, (𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 ) = 70 +160 = 230 cumec and use again the equation 9 to get
𝒕
𝟐𝑺
the value of + 𝑶 which is 4293 + 230 = 4523 cumec for which O are read off in the graph
𝒕
the equate again. Thus, the process is repeated till the flood is completely routed through the
reservoir and the outflow hydrograph is obtained.
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Reservoir Routing Method using Modified Puls Method
Figure 35: Graph of Reservoir Routing using ISD and Modified Puls Method (Source:
International Publishers)
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Results:
ISD METHOD MODIFIED PULS METHOD
Maximum pool elevation 113.4 m 113.6m
reached
Reduction in flood peak 132 cumec 75 cumec
Reservoir Lag 14.5 hr 12 hr
STREAMFLOW ROUTING
In a stream channel (river) a flood wave may be reduced in magnitude and lengthened in
travel time attenuated, by storage in the reach between two sections. The storage in the reach
may be divided into two parts-prism storage and wedge storage, since the water surface is not
uniform during the floods. The volume that would be stored in the reach if the flow were
uniform throughout, below a line parallel to the stream bed, is called ‘prism storage’ and the
volume stored between this line and the actual water surface profile due to outflow being
different from inflow into the reach is called ‘wedge storage’. During rising stages, the wedge
storage volume is considerable before the outflow actually increases, while during falling
stages inflow drops more rapidly than outflow, the wedge storage becoming negative.
Figure 36: Storage in a stream Channel during a flood wave (Source: Ragnurath, H.M. (2006).
In the case of stream-flow routing, the solution of the storage equation is more complicated,
than in the case of reservoir routing, since the wedge storage is involved. While the storage in
a reach depends on both the inflow and outflow, prism storage depends on the outflow alone
and the wedge storage depends on the difference (I – O). A common method of stream flow
routing is the Muskingum method (McCarthy, 1938) where the storage is expressed as a
function of both inflow and outflow in the reach as
10. 𝑺 = 𝑲[ 𝒙𝑰 + (𝟏 − 𝒙)𝑶]
where K and x are called the Muskingum coefficients and first developed by the U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers in connection with the flood control schemes in the Muskingum River
Basin, Ohio), K is a storage constant having the dimension of time and x is a dimensionless
constant for the reach of the river. In natural river channels x ranges from 0.1 to 0.3. The Eq.
10 in most flood flows approaches a straight line. Trial values of x are assumed and plots of ‘S
vs. [xI + (1 – x) O]’ are in the form of storage loops; for a particular value of x, the plot is a
straight line and the slope of the line gives K. If S is in cumec-day and I, O are in cumec, K is in
day.
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After determining the values of K and x, the outflow O from the reach may be obtained by
combining and simplifying the two equations same as Eq. 7.
𝑰 +𝑰 𝑶 +𝑶
7. ( 𝟏 𝟐 ) 𝒕 − ( 𝟏 𝟐 ) 𝒕 = 𝑺𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏
𝟐 𝟐
And 11. 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 = 𝐾[𝑥(𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) + (1 − 𝑥)(𝑂2 − 𝑂1 )]
for a discrete time interval the following equation may be obtained
11. 𝑶𝟐 = 𝑪𝟎 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑪𝟏 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 𝑶𝟏
𝑲𝒙−𝟎.𝟓𝒕 𝑲𝒙+𝟎.𝟓𝒕 𝑲−𝑲𝒙−𝟎.𝟓𝒕

Where: 𝑪𝟎 = - 𝑪𝟏 = 𝑪𝟐 =
𝑲−𝑲𝒙+𝟎.𝟓𝒕 𝑲−𝑲𝒙+𝟎.𝟓𝒕 𝑲−𝑲𝒙+𝟎.𝟓𝒕
By combining, 𝑪𝟎 + 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 = 𝟏
where t is the routing period. The routing period should be less than the time of travel for the
flood wave through the reach, otherwise it is possible that the wave crest may pass
completely through the reach during the routing period. Usually the routing period is taken as
about 1/3 to 1/4 of the flood wave travel time through the reach (obtained from the inflow-
hydrograph).
If there is a local inflow due to a tributary entering the mainstream, it should be added to I or
O accordingly as it enters the reach at the upstream or downstream end, or the local inflow
may be divided, a portion added to I and another portion added to O.
Example 1: The inflow and outflow hydrographs for a reach of a river are given below.
Determine the value of the Muskingum coefficients K and x for the reach.
Time (hr) Inflow (cumec) Outflow (cumec)
0 35 39
24 125 52
48 575 287
72 740 624
96 456 638
120 245 394
144 144 235
168 95 142
192 67 93
216 50 60
Solution: From the daily readings of the inflow and outflow hydrographs, a routing period t =
24 hr = 1 day is taken. The mean storage is determined from Eq. 7 and then the cumulative
storage S is tabulated. For trial values of x = 0.2, 0.25 and 0.3, the values of [xI + (1 – x) O] are
computed. Storage loops for the reach, i.e., curves of S vs. [xI + (1 – x) O] for each trial value of
x are plotted. By inspection, the middle value of x = 0.25 approximates a straight line and
hence this value of x is chosen. K is determined by measuring the slope of the median straight
line which is found to be 0.7 day. Hence, for the given reach of the river, the values of the
Muskingum coefficients are
x= 0.25, K = 0.7 day
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Table of determination of the muskingum coefficients K and x for a reach of the river
Figure 37: Storage loops for the reach of the river (Source: Ragnurath, H.M. (2006).
Example 2: The inflow hydrograph readings for a stream reach are given below for which the
Muskingum coefficients of K = 36 hr and x = 0.15 apply. Route the flood through the reach and
determine the outflow hydrograph. Also determine the reduction in peak and the time of peak
of outflow.
Time (hour) Inflow (cumec)

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0 42
12 45
24 88
36 272
48 342
60 288
72 240
84 198
96 162
108 133
120 110
132 90
144 79
156 68
168 61
180 56
192 54
204 51
216 48
228 45
240 42
Solution:
𝑶𝟐 = 𝑪𝟎 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑪𝟏 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 𝑶𝟏
x = 0.15, K = 36 hr = 1.5 day; take the routing period (from the inflow hydrograph readings) as 12
hr = ½ day. Compute C0, C1 and C2 as follows:
𝑲𝒙−𝟎.𝟓𝒕 𝟏.𝟓(𝟎.𝟏𝟓)−𝟎.𝟓(𝟎.𝟓) −𝟎.𝟎𝟐𝟓

𝑪𝟎 = - =- =− = 0.02
𝑲−𝑲𝒙+𝟎.𝟓𝒕 𝟏.𝟓−𝟏.𝟓(𝟎.𝟏𝟓)+𝟎.𝟓(𝟎.𝟓) 𝟏.𝟓𝟐𝟓
𝑲𝒙+𝟎.𝟓𝒕 𝟏.𝟓(𝟎.𝟏𝟓)+𝟎.𝟓(𝟎.𝟓)
𝑪𝟏 = = = 0.31
𝑲−𝑲𝒙+𝟎.𝟓𝒕 𝟏.𝟓−𝟏.𝟓(𝟎.𝟏𝟓)+𝟎.𝟓(𝟎.𝟓)
𝑲−𝑲𝒙−𝟎.𝟓𝒕 𝟏.𝟓− 𝟏.𝟓(𝟎.𝟏𝟓)−𝟎.𝟓(𝟎.𝟓)
𝑪𝟐 = = = 0.67
𝑲−𝑲𝒙+𝟎.𝟓𝒕 𝟏.𝟓−𝟏.𝟓(𝟎.𝟏𝟓)+𝟎.𝟓(𝟎.𝟓)
𝑪𝟎 + 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 = 𝟏
𝑶𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝑰𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝑰𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝑶𝟏
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Stream Flow Routing using Muskingum Method
Figure 38: Hydrograph of the stream Using Muskingum Method (Source: Ragnurath, H.M.
(2006). Hydrology: Principles, Analysis, Design. 2nd Edition. New Age International
Publishers)
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Self-Help:
Let’s Check
Activity 1: Identify whether the statement is True or False. If false, correct the statement.
1. The outflow consists of discharge over the spillway only.

2. The routing period should be greater than the time of travel of the flood wave through the
reach.
3. The routing period should be sufficiently short such that the hydrograph during this
interval can be assumed as a straight line.
4. Reservoir routing by modified Puls method is simpler than I.S.D. method.
5. Stream flow routing is more complicated than reservoir routing since the prism storage is
involved.
6. While storage is simply a function of discharge in reservoir routing, it (storage) is a
function of both inflow and outflow in streamflow routing since wedge storage is involved.
7. Inflow is a parameter in the storage equation of streamflow routing to adequately
represent the prism storage.
8. The storage in a reach consists of prism storage and wedge storage, the former is due to
the nonuniformity of water surface while the latter is beneath a line parallel to the stream
bed.
9. The routing period is taken as about 1/3 to 1/4 of the flood wave travel time through the
reach and is obtained from the flood hydrograph of inflow.
10. The wedge storage depends on the outflow alone while the prism storage depends on the
difference of inflow and outflow.
Let’s Analyze
1. A retarding basin has storage and discharge characteristics as given below. The dam has
an ungated sluice 1.5 m diameter with its center at elevation 157.5 m and a spillway at
crest elevation 226.5 m. Discharge given below for pool elevations above 226.5 m include
both sluice and spillway discharge. The inflow hydrograph is also given below. Route the
flood through the reservoir using ISD and Modified Puls Method. Determine the maximum
pool elevation reached, the reduction in flood peak and the reservoir lag. Pool elevation at
commencement = 157.8 m (for which the discharge = 5.95 cumec).
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Pool Elevation vs Storage and Discharge data
Inflow hydrograph Data
Hint: Take Routing period t = 6 hours or ¼ day
Also, draw the curves of “pool elevation vs. outflow”, “outflow vs S ± Ot/2” for ISD Method and
“outflow vs. 2S/t ± O” for modified Puls method.
2. The inflow hydrograph readings for a stream reach are given below for which the
Muskingum coefficients of K = 30 hr and x = 0.2 apply. Route the flood through the reach
and determine the reduction in peak and the time of peak of outflow. Outflow at the
beginning of the flood may be taken as the same as inflow.
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3. The inflow and outflow hydrographs for a reach of a river are given below. Determine the
best values of the Muskingum coefficients K and x for the reach.

AND SOLUTION (50%)
ANALYZING (30%)
THE PROBLEM
(20%)
ways and think
of procedure to
solve them.
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student. accurate
student.
identify and
analyze the
student
IN A NUTSHELL
Activity 1: Explain the following statement.
1. Define ‘flood routing’. What are the usual assumptions made in routing a flood in a
reservoir?
2. Explain clearly the I.S.D. curves method of reservoir flood routing. What are the factors to
be considered in choosing the routing period?
RUBRICS FOR ESSAY

(20%) (20%) (20%) (20%) (20%)
tone
appropriate
to audience
transitions may not
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awareness create
of task writer’s
voice and
tone
appropriate
to audience
the voice
and tone
sentence formation
structures
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-4b. Discover the importance of flood prediction
Metalanguage
The most essential terms below are defined for you to have a better understanding of this
section in the course.
1. Flood Prediction. is the use of forecasted precipitation and streamflow data in rainfall-
runoff and streamflow routing models to forecast flow rates and water levels for periods
ranging from a few hours to days ahead, depending on the size of the watershed or river
basin.
2. Standard Project Flood. This is the estimate of the flood likely to occur from the most
severe combination of the meteorological and hydrological conditions, which are
reasonably characteristic of the drainage basin being considered, but excluding extremely
rare combination.
3. Maximum Probable Flood. It includes the extremely rare and catastrophic floods and is
usually confined to spillway design of very high dams. The SPF is usually around 80% of
the MPF for the basin.
4. Design Flood. It is the flood adopted for the design of hydraulic structures like spillways,
bridge openings, flood banks, etc.
Essential Knowledge
Flood prediction can be defined as a process of estimating and predicting the magnitude,
timing and duration of flooding based on known characteristics of a river basin, with the aim
to prevent damages to human life, to properties, and to the environment.
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SIZE OF FLOODS
A flood is an unusual high stage of a river due to runoff from rainfall and/or melting of snow in
quantities too great to be confined in the normal water surface elevations of the river or
stream, as the result of unusual meteorological combination. The maximum flood that any
structure can safely pass is called the design flood and is selected after consideration of
economic and hydrologic factors. The design flood is related to the project feature; for
example, the spillway design flood may be much higher than the flood control reservoir design
flood or the design flood adopted for the temporary coffer dams. A design flood may be arrived
by considering the cost of constructing the structure to provide flood control and the flood
control benefits arising directly by prevention of damage to structures downstream,
disruption communication, loss of life and property, damage to crops and underutilization of
land and indirectly, the money saved under insurance and workmen’s compensation laws,
higher yields from intensive cultivation of protected lands and elimination of losses arising
from interruption of business, reduction in diseases resulting from inundation of flood waters.
The direct benefits are called tangible benefits and the indirect benefits are called intangible
benefits. The design flood is usually selected after making a cost-benefit analysis and
exercising engineering judgement.
When the structure is designed for a flood less than the maximum probable, there exists a
certain amount of flood risk to the structure, nor is it economical to design for 100% flood
protection. Protection against the highest rare floods is uneconomical because of the large
investment and infrequent flood occurrence.
In the design flood estimates, reference is usually made to three classes:
a. Standard Project Flood (SPF) - This is the estimate of the flood likely to occur from
the most severe combination of the meteorological and hydrological conditions, which
are reasonably characteristic of the drainage basin being considered, but excluding
extremely rare combination.
b. Maximum Probable Flood (MPF) - This differs from the SPF in that it includes the
extremely rare and catastrophic floods and is usually confined to spillway design of
very high dams. The SPF is usually around 80% of the MPF for the basin.
c. Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP) - From the observations of air moisture
from the maximum due-point and temperature recorded and air-inflow (from the wind
speed and barometric pressure recorded), the moisture inflow index in the storm is
determined. The best-known upward adjustment to be applied to the historical and
hypothetical major storms is the maximization with respect to moisture charge. The
adjusted storm rainfall is assumed to bear the same ratio to the observed storm
rainfall, as the maximum moisture charge over the basin to the moisture charge of the
observed storm. From the critical combinations of storms, and moisture adjustment
the PMP is derived which, after minimizing losses, when applied on the design unit
hydrograph for the basin, will produce the MPF. Occasionally when enough storm data
for the given basin is not available, PMP can be estimated by adopting a severe storm
over neighboring catchment (which is meteorologically homogeneous) and
transposing it to the catchment under consideration.
d. Design Flood - It is the flood adopted for the design of hydraulic structures like
spillways, bridge openings, flood banks, etc. It may be the MPF or SPF or a flood of any
desired recurrence interval depending upon the degree of flood protection to be
offered and cost economics of construction of structures to the desired flood stage; the
design flood is usually selected after making a cost-benefit analysis, the ratio of benefit
to cost may be desired to be the maximum.
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ESTIMATION OF PEAK FLOOD
The maximum flood discharge (peak flood) in a river may be determined by the following
methods:
1. Physical indications of past floods—flood marks and local inquiry or observations
at nearby structure. - By noting the flood marks (and by local enquiry), depths, affluxes
(heading up of water near bridge openings, or similar obstructions to flow) and other
items actually at an existing bridge, on anicut (weir) in the vicinity, the maximum flood
discharge may be estimated. The flood marks are connected by levelling, the profile is
plotted and HFL marked on it, and the cross-sectional area is determined. The surface fall
at HFL is calculated from the difference in HFL at known distance apart. It may be checked
with the bed slope; there should not be much disparity between the two. By assuming a
suitable value of Manning’s n for the nature (roughness) of bed and sides of the river, the
velocity may be determined by Manning’s or Chezy’s formula and the flood discharge
estimated.
2. Empirical Flood Formula – A general equation may be written in the form:
Q = CAn
Where: Q - is the peak flow or maximum discharge

C – constant for catchment
n - index
The constant for a catchment is arrived at, after taking following factors into account:
a. Basin Characteristics
- Area
- Shape
- Slope
b. Storm Characteristics
- Intensity
- Duration
- Distribution
c. Limitations
- This method does not take frequency of flood into consideration.
- This method cannot be applied universally.
- Fixing of constant is very difficult and exact theory cannot be put forth for its selection.
3. Envelope Curves - It is another method of estimation of peak flow. It is based on the

assumption that highest known peak flow per unit area registered in the past in one basin
in a region may occur in future in another basin in the same region or a region possessing
similar hydrologic characteristics. A graph is constructed by plotting the highest peak
flows observed per unit area of the catchment against their catchment areas in the region.
The points obtained on the graph are joined by an envelope curve. The curve once
constructed can be used to calculate the probable maximum peak flow for any basin in
that region. Areas having similar topographical features and climatic conditions are
grouped together. All available data regarding discharges and flood formulae are compiled
along with their respective catchment areas. Peak flood discharges are then plotted
against the drainage areas and a curve is drawn to cover or envelope the highest plotted
points. Envelope curves are generally used for comparison only and the design floods got
by other methods, should be higher than those obtained from envelope curves.
4. Concentration Time Method - The concentration time method of estimating the peak
discharge consists of two steps:
a. Determination of the concentration time
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b. Selection of the period of maximum net rainfall for the concentration time duration.
This method can be used for design storms or in conjunction with intensity-duration
frequency curves
METHODS OF FLOOD CONTROL
A flood is an unusual high stage of a river overflowing its banks and inundating the marginal
lands. This is due to severe storm of unusual meteorological combination, sometimes
combined with melting of accumulated snow on the catchment. This may also be due to
shifting of the course of the river, earthquake causing bank erosion, or blocking of river, or
breaching of the river flood banks. Floods cause much loss of life and property, disruption of
communication, damage to crops, famine, epidemic diseases and other indirect losses.
The damages due to the devastating floods can be minimized by the following flood control
measures, singly or in combination.
a. by confining the flow between high banks by constructing levees (flood banks), dykes, or
flood walls.
b. by channel improvement by cutting, straightening or deepening and following river
training works.
c. by diversion of a portion of the flood through bypasses or flood ways. In some cases, a fuse
plug levee is provided. It is a low section of levee, which when once over topped, will wash
out rapidly and develop full discharge capacity into the flood-way. In other locations, a
concrete sill, weir or spillway controlled by stop logs or needles may be provided so that
the overflow occurs at a definite river stage. Sometimes dynamiting a section of levee is
resorted to bypass the flood.
d. by providing a temporary storage of the peak floods by constructing upstream reservoirs
and retarding basins (detention basins)
e. by adopting soil conservation measures (land management) in the catchment area.
f. by temporary and permanent evacuation of the flood plain, and flood plain zoning by
enacting legislation.
g. by flood proofing of specific properties by constructing a ring levee or flood wall around
the property.
h. by setting up flood forecasting—short term, long term, rhythm signals and radar, and
warning centers at vulnerable areas.
FLOOD CONTROL BY RESERVOIRS
The purpose of a flood control reservoir is to temporarily store a portion of the flood so that
the flood peaks are flattened out. The reservoir may be ideally situated immediately upstream
of the area to be protected and the water discharged in the channel downstream at its safe
capacity (known from its stage-discharge curve). All the inflow into the reservoir in excess of
the safe channel capacity is stored until the inflow drops below the channel capacity and the
stored water is released to recover the storage capacity for the next flood. If there is some
distance between the reservoir and the protected area but no local inflow between these
points, the reservoir operation is similar to the above but the peak will further be reduced due
to storage in the reach downstream from the reservoir. If there is a substantial local inflow
between the dam and the control point, the reservoir must be operated to produce a
minimum peak at the protected area rather than at the dam site; otherwise the release from a
reservoir may unfortunately synchronize at some point downstream with flood flows from a
tributary. Timely and reliable weather forecasts and prompt information about precipitation
upstream and downstream of the reservoir and the means of translation of this information
into necessary flood hydrographs will all help in effective reservoir operation. Construction of
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reservoirs for flood control only is rarely economical and other benefits like irrigation, hydel
power, also have to be taken into consideration. It is the modern practice to construct
multipurpose reservoirs, where a space is allocated exclusively for flood control, usually
above the spillway crest level and is made available when required by closing the spillway
crest gates.
The effectiveness of the reservoir in reducing peak flows, increases as its storage capacity
increases. The maximum capacity required is the difference in volume between the safe
release from the reservoir and the maximum inflow. Since the hydrograph is wider at low
flows, more water must be stored to reduce the peak by a given amount. As the peak
reduction is increased, more marginal area will be protected from the floods. The benefits
accrued by a unit peak reduction are usually less. Thus, the size of the reservoir has to be
determined by weighing the cost involved in reducing the peak with the benefits accrued. A
single reservoir across the main river may not give the required protection to all towns and
cities widely located and reservoirs constructed across tributaries are effective in flood
protection. In general, at least one-third of the total drainage area should come under one
reservoir for effective flood control.
Figure 39: Flood Control by Reservoirs (Source: Ragnurath, H.M. (2006). Hydrology:
RETARDING BASINS
The release from a storage reservoir is controlled by gates and valves and regulated by the
project engineer. A retarding basin is provided with outlets like a large spillway and sluices
with no control gates. The sluice discharges like an orifice and there is a greater throttling of
flow when the reservoir is nearly full than would a spillway discharging like a weir. However,
a spillway is necessary for emergency in case of the flood exceeding the design maximum.
The discharge capacity of a retarding basin when full should equal the safe discharging
capacity of the channel downstream. The storage capacity of the basin should be equal to the
volume of the design flood minus the volume of water released during the flood. A retarding
basin is used only for the purpose of flood control. After the peak of flood has passed, the
inflow will gradually become equal to the outflow. One of the limitations of the retarding
basins is that the discharge from the basin may synchronise with the flood flow of a tributary
downstream and as such they are constructed on comparatively small stream while storage
reservoirs are provided across big rivers (since the release can be regulated).
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For any pool elevation of the reservoir, the storage and discharge can be calculated. For a
known inflow hydrograph, the corresponding outflow hydrograph can be determined by any
method of flood routing.
Figure 40: Retarding Basin (Source: Ragnurath, H.M. (2006). Hydrology: Principles, Analysis,
Design. 2nd Edition. New Age International Publishers)
CONSTRUCTION OF LEEVES
The construction of levees (flood banks or dykes) is extensively followed in India, since it is an
economical, direct and immediate method. The design and construction of levees are similar
to those of an earth dam. The levees are constructed beyond the meander belt of a river, and
they tame a river not to change its course. As far as possible, there should be very few curves
in their alignment. They require constant watch and after the floods recede, repairs and
restoration of levees should be resorted to.
The spacing and height of levees are determined by a series of trials. A height is assumed and
the discharge through the proper channel is computed for the assumed high-water flow,
which is the level of the top of bank less the free board. This flow subtracted from the
estimated probable maximum flood discharge gives the discharge to be passed over the flood
ways between the proper channel and the levees. Area of the flood ways is then obtained by
dividing it by the velocity of flow. The spacing of levees thus obtained, should give a minimum
value for the cost of levees and the value of the submerged land in the flood way. The effects of
levees on flood flow are:
a. increase in the rate of flood flow
b. increase in the flood water elevation
c. increase in the carrying capacity of the channel
d. increase in the scouring action
e. decrease of surface slope of stream above the leveed section
CHANNEL IMPROVEMENT
Channel improvement increases the discharging capacity of the stream thereby decreasing the
height and duration of the flood. Flood carrying capacity can be increased either by increasing
the cross-sectional area or by increasing the velocity along the river. Enlarging the section is
attempted only for narrow and shallow channels with small watersheds, the limit of such
enlargement in width being 30-40 m. Deepening is preferred to widening since the hydraulic
mean radius increases more with depth (for the same increase in the sectional area) thus
increasing the velocity.
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The channel velocity (given by Manning’s or Chezy’s formulae) is affected by hydraulic mean
radius, slope of river bed and roughness of the bed and sides. Roughness can be reduced by
a. removing sand bars.
b. prevention of cropping on river beds near banks
c. removal of fallen trees and other snags
d. elimination of sharp bends of meanders by providing cutoffs
In a stream, deepening results in the loss of slope as its outlet cannot usually be lowered.
Deepening can be resorted to only when cutoffs are provided, when the slope of the channel is
increased due to the reduction in the length of flow. Thus, a cutoff helps
a. in increase the velocity by increasing the slope
b. to shorten the path of flow by elimination of meanders, and consequently
c. to shorten the levees necessary to confine flood waters
Figure 41: Flood Control by Leeves (Source: Ragnurath, H.M. (2006). Hydrology: Principles,
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Figure 42: Ring Leevee to protect a City (Source: Ragnurath, H.M. (2006). Hydrology:
Figure 43: Flood Protection by Reservoir and Leeves for a city (Source: Ragnurath, H.M.
Publishers)
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Figure 45: Cut-off in a meandering river (Source: Ragnurath, H.M. (2006). Hydrology:
Example: A channel has a bottom width of 200 m, depth 6 m and side slopes 1:1. If the depth
is increased to 9 m by dredging, determine the percentage increase in velocity of flow in the
channel. For the same increase in cross sectional area, if the channel is widened (instead of
deepening), what is the percentage increase in the velocity of flow.
Solution: Chezy Formula: 𝑉 = 𝐶√𝑅𝑆
Where: V = velocity of flow in the channel

R = hydraulic mean radius
S = bed slope of the channel
C = constant, depending on the roughness of the bed and sides
Assuming the bed slope and roughness are the same in both the cases of deepening and
widening,
Case 1: Increasing the depth to 9 m by dredging
Putting the subscript ‘o’ for the original area of cross section (A), wetted perimeter (P) and the
hydraulic mean radius (R), before deepening
A0 = (200+1 x 6)(6) = 1236 m2
Po = 200 + 2 x 6 √1 + 12 = 217 m2
𝐴 1236
R0 = 𝑜 = = 5.7m
𝑃0 217
After deepening from 6 m to 9 m
A = (194+1 x 9)(9) = 1827 m2

P = 194 + 2 x 9 √1 + 12 = 219.4 m2
𝐴 1827
R= = = 8.33 m
𝑃 219.4
√8.33−√5.70
Velocity increase by deepening = x 100 = 21%
√5.70
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Figure 46: Channel Improvement by deepening (Source: Ragnurath, H.M. (2006). Hydrology:
Case 2: For the same increase in the cross-sectional area, widening the channel, Let the
bottom width after widening be b′.
1827 = (𝑏 + 1 𝑥 6)(6)
b = 298.5 m
After widening, P = 298.5 + 2 x 6 √1 + 12 = 315.42 m

𝐴 1827
R= = = 5.8m
𝑃 315.42
√5.8−√5.70
Velocity Increase of widening = x 100 = 0.84%
√5.70
Thus, the velocity increase will be only 0.84% on widening as against 21% by deepening.
Hence, exploding the river channels at the mouths at the start and ebbing of floods will be
logical proposition.
SOIL CONSERVATION MEASURES
The best way to prevent silt deposition is to arrest silt at the place of its origin, i.e., by
undertaking soil conservation measures in the catchment area. Soil conservation measures for
the entire catchment like contour bunds, check dams, terraces, gully plugging, vegetative cover
(strip croping), afforestation, land management, stream bank protection, etc. are very
necessary to retard the velocity of runoff, to control soil erosion, to absorb more water in the
soil and to protect the dams and reservoirs from being silted up. For example, a change in land
use by surface vegetation increases the infiltration capacity and reduces surface runoff. The
choice of the management practices should be based on information of the hydrologic cycle of
the watershed. A coordinated effort by engineers, agronomists, foresters, geologists,
hydrologists and economists would be very desirable. Flood plain zoning Areas, very near to
the river are the most vulnerable and therefore should not be allowed to be used for building
houses. They may be used for parks, recreation grounds, etc. so that inundation of such land
may not result in loss of human lives or any significant damage to property. Raising place for
habitations above flood heights can be viewed as an adjunct to embankments.
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Figure 47: Gully Plugging (Source: Ragnurath, H.M. (2006). Hydrology: Principles, Analysis,
Figure 48: Check Dams (Source: Ragnurath, H.M. (2006). Hydrology: Principles, Analysis,
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Contour Farming
Figure 49: Contour Terrace (Source: Ragnurath, H.M. (2006). Hydrology: Principles, Analysis,
Figure 50: Contour Trenching (Source: Ragnurath, H.M. (2006). Hydrology: Principles,
FLOOD CONTROL ECONOMICS
In a flood control project, the degree of flood protection (to the required stage) should be
justified by an economical analysis of the costs involved in raising the structure to the
required heights (say, the height of spillway) and the direct and indirect benefits obtained by
flood protection up to that stage. Generally, the flood stage for which the ratio annual benefits
to cost is a maximum is adopted for the design of the flood protection works. Protection
against floods of rare occurrence is uneconomical because of the large investment (for a small
increase in the benefits) and hence there is always a certain amount of flood risk involved.
The flood control costs include:

a. Capital costs involved in the construction of the structure to the required flood height (to
offer the required degree of flood protection, say, by a combination of dams, spillway,
levees and channel improvement)
b. Interest cost on capital expenditure
c. Sinking fund, depreciation and taxes
d. Operational expenses and maintenance cost
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The benefits of flood control include:

a. Direct or primary benefits accruing from prevention of flood damages to structures
downstream, losses arising from disruption of communication, (and business), loss of life
and property, damage to crops, etc.
b. Indirect benefits resulting from the money saved under insurance and Workmen’s
compensation laws, higher yields from intensive cultivation of protected lands and
reduction in flood-prone epidemic diseases, etc.
Figure 51: Contour Bond (Source: Ragnurath, H.M. (2006). Hydrology: Principles, Analysis,
Figure 52: Cost-benefit analysis for design stage of flood protection (Source: Ragnurath, H.M.
Publishers)
Assessment of potential flood damage is an important requirement in any organized flood

control programmed. Generally, stage-damage curves are plotted to show that damage in a
particular region in relation to the rising flood stages in that reach. Indirect damage by floods
deals with the loss of business and services to community. This is a socioeconomic loss and is
difficult to assess because of the various economic and physical factors involved whereas the
direct damages can be estimated in terms of money value. An assessment of the damages
caused by floods can be made when the data is collected and presented in the following form:
a. Area affected
b. Population affected
c. Crops affected
d. Damage to property
e. Loss of livestock
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f. Human lives lost

g. Damage to public works in rupees
Suitable flood indices have to be developed from year to year to enable comparison to be
made of the various flood damages.
COMBINATION OF FLOOD CONTROL MEASURES
The object of a flood-control study is to decide which of the flood control measures, singly or
in combination, are most suited and their location, size, design and costs. The design of flood
control works should be closely related to the hydrological features and economic justification
of the project.
Suppose the flood control project involves the construction of a reservoir, levees and channel
improvement works, the factors governing the final selection of various combinations. The
cost of construction of reservoir to reduce the design flood to various lower peaks is indicated
by curve (1). The cost of construction of levees and other channel improvement works for
protection against various flood peaks is indicated by curve (2). The sum of the ordinates of
the two curves indicates the combined cost of flood protection by reservoirs, levees and
channel improvement works and is given by the curve (3). The minimum point P of the
combined cost curve represents the most economic combination. The reduced flood peak and
the total cost of works can be read off at this point.
Figure 53: Cost Analysis for Combination of Flood Control Measures (Source: Ragnurath, H.M.
Publishers)
FLOOD FORECASTING AND WARNING
The flood forecasts are issued on the basis of the analysis of weather charts and indicate the
likelihood of heavy rainfall over the specified areas with the next 24 to 48 hours. Radar is very
effective in the detection and tracking of severe storms. Meteorological satellites give an
excellent idea of the cloud cover over the whole of India and neighboring countries. After the
formulation of forecast, it must be disseminated amongst persons concerned at the fastest
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speed. This can be done by utilizing all available media of communications like telegraph,
teleprinter, telephone and wireless and organizing a hierarchy for onward transmission, if
necessary.
One of the methods of forecasts in The Bureau of Meteorology, Australia comprises the
following procedural steps:
a. Collection of previous 24-hour rainfall in respect of each catchment

b. Updating the Antecedent Moisture Index
c. Working out the average depth of rainfall
d. Assessment of likely extent of the rain from weather charts
e. Collection of river stages
f. Issue of preliminary warnings with all factual data collected at every 6-hour interval; the
final advice is issued using the crest relationship.
The flood warning system basically means the working out of the flood hydrograph at a given
point sufficiently in advance, given the flood hydrograph of some gauge or gauges sufficiently
upstream, taking into consideration.
a. the effect of the incidence of rainfall forecast for or that has fallen in the intervening
catchment and the consequent contribution of floods enroute.
b. the moderation affected by the valley storage from the upstream gauge to the point under
consideration.
The flood warning system is prepared by

a. forecasting crest height and time.
b. flood routing techniques.
With a properly developed system of scientific flood forecasting and warning, human toll and
destruction to movable properties could be greatly mitigated.
The various steps involved in the design of a flood control project are:
a. Determination of the project design flood and flood characteristics of the basin.
b. Assessment of flood damages for different flood stages and socio-economic problems
involved
c. Field survey of flood-prone areas and defining areas to be protected.
d. Determination of the possible methods of flood protection.
e. If flood control is feasible by construction of reservoirs and levees, selection of suitable
sites and their physical characteristics.
f. Design details of the flood control structures proposed and preparation of cost estimates.
g. For a combination of flood control measures, selection of a flood peak that offers the
desired protection at minimum cost.
h. Making the cost-benefit analysis of the project and its economic justification
i. Development of a scientific flood forecasting and warning system
j. Preparation of a detailed project report, indicating the alternative flood control measures
explored, the combination finally selected with the economic justification for the same,
and the degree of flood protection offered.
k. Construction of the project proposed after approval and sanction of the budget from the
authority concerned.
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Self-Help:
LET’S CHECK
Activity 1: Choose the correct statement/s in the following:
1. The methods of estimating high flood discharge are

a. by applying PMP on the design unit hydrograph for the basin.
b. By empirical formulae developed for the regions
c. By applying rational formula
d. By flood frequency studies
e. By stochastic methods.
f. From the percent flood risk that can be allowed in the project.
2. The methods of mitigating floods are
a. by construction of reservoirs across tributaries
b. by construction of a large reservoir across the main stream
c. by construction of a retarding basin across a large river with a tributary joining the river
downstream
d. by construction of levees, flood banks and dykes
e. by channel improvement
f. by land management
g. by temporary evacuation of low-lying areas and flood warnings
LET’S ANALYZE
1. A channel has a bottom width of 300 m, depth 8 m and side slopes 1:1.5. If the depth is
increased to 12 m by dredging, determine the percentage increase in velocity of flow in
the channel. For the same increase in cross sectional area, if the channel is widened
(instead of deepening), what is the percentage increase in the velocity of flow.
2. A channel has a bottom width of 350 m, depth 9 m and side slopes 1:2. If the depth is
increased to 12 m by dredging, determine the percentage increase in velocity of flow in
the channel. For the same increase in cross sectional area, if the channel is widened
(instead of deepening), what is the percentage increase in the velocity of flow.

AND SOLUTION (50%)
ANALYZING (30%)
THE PROBLEM
(20%)
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ways and think
of procedure to
solve them.
student. accurate
student.
identify and
analyze the
student
IN A NUTSHELL
Activity 1: Explain the following statement.
1. Explain “design flood”. Is this the same as “maximum probable flood”.

2. What are the methods of estimating maximum flood discharge? Give three formulae for
maximum flood estimation.
RUBRICS FOR ESSAY

(20%) (20%) (20%) (20%) (20%)
tone
appropriate
to audience
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of task create
writer’s
voice and
tone
appropriate
to audience
the voice
and tone
sentence formation
structures
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-4c. Familiarize and appreciate the role of hydrology in
water resources planning and management in the Philippines
Metalanguage
1. Water Resources. are sources of water that are useful or potentially useful to humans. It is
important because it is needed for life to exist.
2. Planning. is the process of thinking about the activities required to achieve a desired goal.
3. Management. is the process of planning, developing, and managing water resources, in
terms of both water quantity and quality, across all water uses.
Essential Knowledge
The importance of hydrology is increasing because of the global growth of water needs and the
rise of water scarcity, which together cause greater risk and unreliability in water resources
management. The basic task of hydrology, which is fundamental for water resources
management, is the accurate definition and control of the water balance for different space
and time increments. The water balance equation is simple, but until now there are many
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unsolved problems surrounding it, such as: the definition of catchment boundaries and areas,
the accuracy of point precipitation measurement and the assessment of areal precipitation, the
accuracy of actual areal evapotranspiration etc.
ROLE IN HYDROLOGY IN WATER RESOURCES PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
According to (Bonacci, 2004), the hydrological cycle is a central concept of hydrology. Water
within it is continually flowing, but the problem is that the flux through the hydrological cycle
is not distributed evenly in time and space. This uneven distribution is one of the main
concerns of hydrology and of water resources management, linking one to the other with
strong bonds. The basic role of hydrology, which is fundamental for water resources
management, is the accurate definition and understanding of the water balance for different
space and time increments. The water balance equation is, of course, simple. The problem is in
its application, because it has a number of aspects which are not fully understood and because
some basic variables and parameters are poorly measured and/or not estimated accurately.
The improvement of this situation is a critical task for hydrologists and, at the same time, for
water resources managers. Three matters demand attention in particular.
The determination of the catchment boundaries and the catchment area is the starting point in
many hydrological analyses. These are among the essential data which serve as a basis for
many calculations for hydrological and water resources management purposes (Bonacci,
1987). In many landscapes, for example in karst and flatlands, this is a difficult and complex
task, which is very often unsolved. Without this information it is not possible, efficiently and
exactly, to make a water balance, to protect water from pollution, to manage the water
resources, to use hydrological models etc. Generally speaking, the catchment area defined
from surface morphology, i.e. the topographic catchment, rarely corresponds exactly to the
hydrological drainage basin. The differences between the topographic and hydrological
catchments in karst terrain, are, as a rule, so large that data about the topographic catchment
cannot be used without some explanation. A similar situation exists for flatlands and for some
mountain streams. It should be stressed that human interventions, especially the construction
of dams and reservoirs, can introduce definite and hardly determined changes of catchment
boundaries. Natural and man-made processes cause changes of catchment area at different
time and space scales. The catchment area forms the best planning units for land, water, and
ecosystem management. Most catchment areas incorporate state and local government
boundaries, and these different administrative units make policy forming for water resources
management extremely difficult.
The starting point for most hydrological determinations related to the water balance is
knowledge of the amount and distribution of precipitation with respect to time and space.
Precipitation is routinely measured throughout the world, but obtaining error-free knowledge
of its spatial and temporal distribution is hampered by the diversity of observing standards
and the erratic pattern of observing networks (National Research Council, 1991). Sevruk
(1986) stresses that for physical reasons, current precipitation assessments are inadequate
for the estimation of the water balance, since they are subject to various sources of error. Most
important is the systematic error of point precipitation measurement and it is astonishing that
this systematic error is not taken into account by most meteorological services. For the
purposes of the Hydrological Atlas of Switzerland, precipitation depths were corrected across
the country. On average precipitation values were increased by up to 14%. The corrections
range from 4% for flatlands, to 30% for alpine areas with a significant amount of snow. Where
water balances are still computed with uncorrected precipitation values, neither
evapotranspiration nor groundwater volumes can be properly assessed (Sevruk, 1986).
Evapotranspiration is the combined consumptive-evaporative process by which water is

released to the atmosphere through vegetation, soil and from a free water surface. It is the
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concurrent occurrence of evaporation and transpiration that influences each other; e.g. soil
evaporation is reduced by the occurrence of transpiration. Actual evapotranspiration can be
defined as the evapotranspiration from a vegetative cover under natural or given conditions
for the catchment or region when the supply of water to plants is limited by the availability of
moisture. Engineers and/or hydrologist are generally interested in the water-mass balance
and not in the consumption of an individual plant. As evapotranspiration is a complicated
process there are several approaches to its assessment. According to the sphere of interest and
the related discipline it can be analyzed through: (a) Plant physiology (transpiration ratios and
pot tests); (b) Hydrology (water budget applied to catchments or regions); (c) Climatology
(use of atmometers and pans); (d) Physics (energy budget); (e) Dynamic meteorology (mass
transfer methods); and (f) Statistics (empirical correlation with meteorological factors). Actual
evapotranspiration can be estimated from: (a) Soil moisture depletion studies on small plots;
(b) Tanks and lysimeter experiments; (c) Groundwater fluctuations and other mass balance
techniques; (d) By means of relationships to pan evaporation; (e) Soil moisture budgets; and
(f) Energy budgets. A number of evapotranspiration equations are available for application.
Some of them are developed for the potential evapotranspiration determination and they
cannot be used directly for the estimation of a catchment or regional water balance. The
determination of the exact values of the potential and actual evapotranspiration is essential
for the water balance calculation. The different methods, approaches and equations give very
different and, for engineering practice, unreliable results. The problem is especially complex
for the flatland areas. There is general agreement that evapotranspiration is the most
unreliably assessed variable in determining the catchment and/or regional water balance.
AGENCIES THAT ARE INVOLVED IN COLLECTING HYDROLOGIC DATA
Water is one of our most important natural resources. Without it, there would be no life on
earth. Supply may be available, but it is not always in the right place at the right time and of
the right quality, that’s why hydrological data is important. The ultimate goal of data collection
in hydrology is to provide a set of sufficient good quality data that can be used in decision-
making in all aspects of water resources management, in the wide range of operational
applications as well as in research.
1. PAGASA – Philippines Atmospheric Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration is

the major agency in the Philippines that the work is collecting of hydrologic data, and these data
will be used for weather and flood forecasting and various research projects of the agency.
2. NIA – National Irrigation Administration is the agency of the government responsible in

gathering and reporting water discharge data for the purpose of irrigation.
3. NPC – National Power Corporation task to collect stream flow data for the hydroelectric
power plant.
4. NAMRIA - National Mapping and Resource Information Authority is responsible for providing
the public with mapmaking services and acting as the central mapping agency, depository, and
distribution facility of natural resources data in the form of maps, charts, texts, and statistics.
5. NWRB - National Water Resources Board is responsible for ensuring the optimum
exploitation, utilization, development, conservation and providing methods and standards for
data collection, project investigation, formulation, planning design and feasibility evaluation,
and rules and regulations for the exploitation and optimum utilization of water resources
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STATUS OF WATER RESOURCES IN THE PHILIPPINES
According to (Lapong and Fujihara, 2008), Philippines is a country richly endowed with natural
resources, including abundant surface and groundwater resources. Its total internal water
resource is estimated at 130 km^3/year. However, despite the vastness of this potential supply,
the country has a low freshwater availability per capita and experiences water-related
problems. Analyzed holistically, the problems will redound to institutional and management
failures. The water governance sector is fragmented and the institutional framework is weak, as
it is also given less priority by the government. Though there is already the consciousness of
solving the seemingly worsening problem and several moves were already undertaken, much
has to be done for the country to attain "water supply and demand balance", as there are a lot of
things to do to conserve one of the nature's very important resource- water.
Water stress is the available amount of water during a certain period is no longer sufficient to
supply the need of the community. Water stress occurs when the demand for water exceeds
the available amount during a certain period or when poor quality restricts its use. Water
stress causes deterioration of fresh water resources in terms of quantity (aquifer over-
exploitation, dry rivers, etc.) and quality. Physical water stress is the ratio between water
withdrawn over available water resources.
Water Stress Index Parameters is typically assessing scarcity by looking at the population-
water equation over the total water resources available per population of a region.
Type Water Availability per Person per Year
Water Stress 1700 m3 per person per year
Water Scarcity 1000 m3 to 1700 m3 per person per year
Absolute Water Scarcity Less than 1000 m3 per person per year
As of 2019, The region of the Philippines was assessed by NWRB.
Water-Stress Region Water Availability (cu. Remarks

m/person)
NCR 0-500 Absolute Scarcity
Region IV-A 0-500 Absolute Scarcity
Region I 500-1000 Scarcity
Region III 500-1000 Scarcity
Region V 500-1000 Scarcity
Region IV-B 1000-1700 Stress
Region VII 1000-1700 Stress
Philippines (National 1,446 Stress
Average)
CLASSIFICATION OF BODIES OF WATER IN THE PHILIPPINES
The Environmental Management Bureau projected a classification of one thousand nineteen

(1,019) water bodies in the country according to beneficial use by CY 2019. Seven hundred
ninety-one of these are already classified according to beneficial use and two hundred twenty-
eight (228) are targeted to be classified until CY 2019. The identification of these one
thousand nineteen (1,019) water bodies is listed according to regional distribution and
location by province. The classification according to beneficial use of seven hundred ninety-
one (791) water bodies from the identified one thousand nineteen (1,019) water bodies as
well as the identified Water Quality Management Areas (WQMAs) and its respective
classifications are integrated in the aforementioned information. Classification means the
categorization of all water bodies taking into account the existing quality of the body of water
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and most beneficial existing and future use of said bodies of water and lands bordering them,
such as for residential, agricultural, aqua cultural, commercial, industrial, navigational,
recreational, wildlife conservation and aesthetic purposes, among others.
Water Body Classification and Usage of Freshwater

Class AA Public Water Supply Class I – Intended
primarily for waters having watersheds,
which are uninhabited and/or otherwise
declared as protected areas, and which
require only approved disinfection to meet
the latest PNSDW
Class A Public Water Supply Class II – Intended as a
sources of water supply requiring
conventional treatment (coagulation,
sedimentation, filtration and disinfection)
to meet the latest PNSDW
Class B Recreational Water Class I – Intended for
primary contact recreation (bathing,
swimming, etc.)
Class C 1. Fishery Water for propagation and
growth of fish and other aquatic
resources
2. Recreational Water Class II – For boating,
fishing or similar activities
3.For agriculture, irrigation and livestock
watering
Class D Navigable waters
Water Body Classification and Usage of Marine Waters

Class SA 1.Protected Waters – Waters designated as
national or local marine parks, reserves,
sanctuaries and other areas established by
law (Presidential Proclamation 1801 and
other existing laws), and/or declared as such
by appropriate government agency, LGUs,
etc.
2.Fishery Water Class I – Suitable for

shellfish harvesting for direct human
consumption
Class SB 1. Fishery Water Class II – Waters suitable for

commercial propagation of shellfish and
intended as spawning areas for milkfish and
similar species
2.Tourist Zones – For ecotourism and
recreational activities
3.Recreational Water Class I – Intended for
primary contact recreation (bathing,
swimming, skin diving, etc.)
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Class SC 1.Fishery Water Class III – For the

propagation and growth of fish and other
aquatic resources and intended for
commercial and sustenance fishing
2.Recreational Water Class II – For boating,

fishing or similar activities
3.Marshy and/or mangrove areas declared as

fish and wildlife sanctuaries
Class SD Navigable Waters
Self-Help:
You can also refer to the websites below to help you further understand the lesson:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308044429_Water_Resources_in_the_Philippines_An_
Overview_of_its_Uses_Management_Problems_and_Prospects#:~:text=Philippines%20is%20a%20
country%20richly,abundant%20surface%20and%20groundwater%20resources.&text=However%2
C%20despite%20the%20vastness%20of,and%20experiences%20water%2Drelated%20problems.
https://prezi.com/vud0_91cyhwc/agencies-involved-in-the-collection-of-hydrologic-
data/?frame=c41e6ce7df87885112e52b15d2845b1e80cf3552
https://www.greenfacts.org/glossary/wxyz/water-
stress.htm#:~:text=Water%20stress%20occurs%20when%20the,%2C%20dry%20rivers%2C%20etc.
)
LET’S CHECK
Activity 1. Identify the word that defines in the statement.
1. Are sources of water that are useful or potentially useful to humans. It is important
because it is needed for life to exist.
2. Is the available amount of water during a certain period is no longer sufficient to
supply the need of the community.
3. Is typically assessing scarcity by looking at the population-water equation over the
total water resources available per population of a region.
4. Is the ratio between water withdrawn over available water resources.
5. The major agency in the Philippines that the work is collecting of hydrologic data, and
these data will be used for weather and flood forecasting and various research projects
of the agency.
IN A NUTSHELL
Activity 1. Explain the following statement/question.
1. How can we help to avoid water scarcity in our society and country?
2. Explain the sayings that “Water is Life”.
3. Based on the parameters that NCR and Region IV-A are in an absolute scarcity. What are the
factors that affected in their water supply that we all know Philippines has an abundant
water.
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RUBRICS FOR ESSAY

(20%) (20%) (20%) (20%) (20%)
tone
appropriate
to audience
of task create
writer’s
voice and
tone
appropriate
to audience
the voice
and tone
sentence formation
structures
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UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO

College of Engineering Education

Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged

Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for

Course/Subject: BCE 313: HYDROLOGY

MEASURES TO REDUCE LAKE EVAPORATION ................................................................................................35

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INFILTRATION AND PERCOLATION ................................................................77

IN A NUTSHELL ............................................................................................................................................................. 114

Course Outline: BCE 313 - Hydrology

Course Coordinator: ENGR. SHOWNA LEE T. SALES

Course Outline Policy

Areas of Concern Details

If the assessment task is done in real time through the

means that if your paper goes beyond 30%, the

Please note that academic dishonesty such as cheating

However, if the late submission of assessment paper

For group assessment tasks, the course coordinator

If disapproved by the course coordinator, you can

All culled from on-campus/onsite sessions (TBA):

Submission of the final grades shall follow the usual

You can also meet the course coordinator in person

For students who have not created their student email,

Course Information- see/download course syllabus in the BlackBoard LMS

CO: Upon completion of the course, you are expected to:

CO 1: Develop a good understanding of processes which water cycle between the

a. Describe the phases of hydrologic cycle and relation to meteorology

Figure 1: Hydrological Cycle (Source: britannica.com)

THE IMPACT OF HYDROLOGIC CYCLE IN HUMAN LIFE

Figure 2: Parts of the Atmosphere (Source: vtaide.com)

NUCLEATION AND PARTICLE GROWTH

HOW CLOUDS ARE FORMED?

WHY CLOUDS HAVE DIFFERENT COLORS?

Mid-Level Clouds are composed of altocumulus, altostratus and nimbostratus. It has an

Figure 3: Types of Clouds (Source: zmescience.com)

WATERSHED AND ITS PARTS

Figure 4: Watershed and its Parts (Source: howstuffworks.com)

INSTRUMENTS IN MEASURING PRECIPITATION

Rain Gauges measure precipitation amounts at a given location. Oftentimes, measurements

Earth-observing satellites can provide frequent estimates of precipitation at a global scale. To

DIMENSION OF RAIN GAUGE

SET-UP FOR RAIN GAUGE

ESTIMATING THE MISSING DATA AND ADJUSTMENT OF RECORDS

1. STATION YEAR METHOD

2. NORMAL RATIO METHOD

3. DOUBLE MASS ANALYSIS

MEAN AREAL PRECIPITATION

1. ARITHMETIC MEAN METHOD

2. THIESSEN POLYGON METHOD

STATION RAINFALL RECORDED

Solution: Using Arithmetic Mean Method:

Using Thiessen Polygon Method:

Using Isohyetal Method

Steps in drawing a DAD Curves:

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF RAINFALL

The variation of rainfall with respect to time may be shown graphically by

RUBRICS FOR ESSAY

single strong structures and sentence

RUBRICS FOR PERFORMACE TASK

a. Characterize the importance of evapotranspiration and interception in the