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CHAPTER 3

CURVES
Section I. SIMPLE HORIZONTAL CURVES
TYPES OF
HORIZONTAL CURVES

CURVE POINTS
By studying TM 5-232, the surveyor learns to
locate points using angles and distances. In
construction surveying, the surveyor must
often establish the line of a curve for road
layout or some other construction.

A curve may be simple, compound, reverse, or

spiral (figure 3-l). Compound and reverse
curves are treated as a combination of two or
more simple curves, whereas the spiral curve
is based on a varying radius.

The surveyor can establish curves of short

radius, usually less than one tape length, by
holding one end of the tape at the center of the
circle and swinging the tape in an arc,
marking as many points as desired.

Simple
The simple curve is an arc of a circle. It is the
most commonly used. The radius of the circle
determines the sharpness or flatness of
the curve. The larger the radius, the flatter
the curve.

As the radius and length of curve increases,

the tape becomes impractical, and the
surveyor must use other methods. Measured
angles and straight line distances are usually
picked to locate selected points, known as
stations, on the circumference of the arc.

Compound
Surveyors often have to use a compound
curve because of the terrain. This curve normally consists of two simple curves curving
in the same direction and joined together.

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Reverse
A reverse curve consists of two simple curves
joined together but curving in opposite
directions. For safety reasons, the surveyor
should not use this curve unless absolutely
necessary.

Spiral
The spiral is a curve with varying radius used
on railroads and somemodern highways. It
provides a transition from the tangent to a
simple curve or between simple curves in a
compound curve.

STATIONING
On route surveys, the surveyor numbers the
stations forward from the beginning of the
project. For example, 0+00 indicates the
beginning of the project. The 15+52.96 would
indicate a point 1,552,96 feet from the
beginning. A full station is 100 feet or 30
meters, making 15+00 and 16+00 full stations.
A plus station indicates a point between full
stations. (15+52.96 is a plus station.) When
using the metric system, the surveyor does
not use the plus system of numbering stations.
The station number simply becomes the
distance from the beginning of the project.

ELEMENTS OF A
SIMPLE CURVE
Figure 3-2 shows the elements of a simple
curve. They are described as follows, and
their abbreviations are given in parentheses.
Point of Intersection (PI)
The point of intersection marks the point
where the back and forward tangents

intersect. The surveyor indicates it one of the

stations on the preliminary traverse.
Intersecting Angle (I)
The intersecting angle is the deflection angle
at the PI. The surveyor either computes its
value from the preliminary traverse station
angles or measures it in the field.
Radius (R)
The radius is the radius of the circle of which
the curve is an arc.
Point of Curvature (PC)
The point of curvature is the point where the
circular curve begins. The back tangent is
tangent to the curve at this point.
Point of Tangency (PT)
The point of tangency is the end of the curve.
The forward tangent is tangent to the curve
at this point.

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Length of Curve (L)

The length of curve is the distance from the
PC to the PT measured along the curve.

Long Chord (LC)

The long chord is the chord from the PC to the
PT.

Tangent Distance (T)

The tangent distance is the distance along
the tangents from the PI to the PC or PT.
These distances are equal on a simple curve.

External Distance (E)

The external distance is the distance from the
PI to the midpoint of the curve. The external
distance bisects the interior angle at the PI.

Central Angle
The central angle is the angle formed by two
radii drawn from the center of the circle (0) to
the PC and PT. The central angle is equal in
value to the I angle.

Middle Ordinate (M)

The middle ordinate is the distance from the
midpoint of the curve to the midpoint of the
long chord. The extension of the middle
ordinate bisects the central angle.

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Degree of Curve (D)
The degree of curve defines the sharpness
or flatness of the curve (figure 3-3). There
are two definitions commonly in use for
degree of curve, the arc definition and the
chord definition.

As the degree of curve increases, the radius

decreases. It should be noted that for a given
intersecting angle or central angle, when
using the arc definition, all the elements of
the curve are inversely proportioned to the
degree of curve. This definition is primarily
used by civilian engineers in highway
construction.
0

English system. Substituting D = 1 and

length of arc = 100 feet, we obtain

Therefore,

R = 36,000 divided by
6.283185308
R = 5,729.58 ft

Metric system. In the metric system, using a

30.48-meter length of arc and substituting D =
1, we obtain

Arc definition. The arc definition states

that the degree of curve (D) is the angle
formed by two radii drawn from the center of
the circle (point O, figure 3-3) to the ends of an
arc 100 feet or 30.48 meters long. In this
definition, the degree of curve and radius are
inversely proportional using the following
formula:

Therefore,

R = 10,972.8 divided by
6.283185308
R = 1,746.38 m

Chord definition. The chord definition

states that the degree of curve is the angle
formed by two radii drawn from the center of
the circle (point O, figure 3-3) to the ends of a
chord 100 feet or 30.48 meters long. The
radius is computed by the following formula:

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The radius and the degree of curve are not
inversely proportional even though, as in the
arc definition, the larger the degree of curve
the sharper the curve and the shorter the
radius. The chord definition is used primarily
on railroads in civilian practice and for both
roads and railroads by the military.

Substituting D = 1 and given Sin 1 =

0.0087265335, solve for R as follows:

English system. Substituting D = 1 and

given Sin 1 = 0.0087265355.
50
R = 50ft or
Sin D
0.0087265355
R = 5,729.65 ft
Metric system. Using a chord 30.48 meters
long, the surveyor computes R by the formula
R=

15.24 m
0.0087265355

Chords
On curves with long radii, it is impractical to
stake the curve by locating the center of the
circle and swinging the arc with a tape. The
surveyor lays these curves out by staking the
ends of a series of chords (figure 3-4). Since
the ends of the chords lie on the circumference
of the curve, the surveyor defines the arc in
the field. The length of the chords varies with
the degree of curve. To reduce the discrepancy
between the arc distance and chord distance,
the surveyor uses the following chord lengths:

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SIMPLE CURVE FORMULAS

The following formulas are used in the
computation of a simple curve. All of the
formulas, except those noted, apply to both
the arc and chord definitions.

M= R (l-COs I)
LC = 2 R (Sin I)
In the following formulas, C equals the chord
length and d equals the deflection angle. All
the formulas are exact for the arc definition
and approximate for the chord definition.

This formula gives an answer in degrees.

,3048
in the metric system. The answer will be in
minutes.

SOLUTION OF A
SIMPLE CURVE

L is the distance around the arc for the arc

definition, or the distance along the chords
for the chord definition.

To solve a simple curve, the surveyor must

know three elements. The first two are the PI
station value and the I angle. The third is the
degree of curve, which is given in the project
specifications or computed using one of the
elements limited by the terrain (see section
II). The surveyor normally determines the PI
and I angle on the preliminary traverse for
the road. This may also be done by triangulation when the PI is inaccessible.
Chord Definition
The six-place natural trigonometric functions
from table A-1 were used in the example.
When a calculator is used to obtain the
trigonometric functions, the results may vary
slightly. Assume that the following is known:
PI = 18+00, I = 45, and D = 15.

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Chord Definition (Feet)

arc definitions are not exact for the chord
definition. However, when a one-minute
instrument is used to stake the curve, the
surveyor may use them for either definition.
The deflection angles are
d

0.3

CD

d std = 0.3 x 25 x 15 = 112.5 or 152.5

d1 = 0.3X 8.67X 15 = 039.015
d2 = 0.3 x 16.33 x 15 = 73.485 or 113.485
The number of full chords is computed by
subtracting the first plus station divisible by
the chord length from the last plus station
divisible by the chord length and dividing the
difference by the standard (std) chord length.
Thus, we have (19+25 - 16+50)-25 equals 11
full chords. Since there are 11 chords of 25
feet, the sum of the deflection angles for 25foot chords is 11 x 152.5 = 2037.5.
Chords. Since the degree of curve is 15
degrees, the chord length is 25 feet. The
surveyor customarily places the first stake
after the PC at a plus station divisible by the
chord length. The surveyor stakes the
centerline of the road at intervals of 10,25,50
or 100 feet between curves. Thus, the level
party is not confused when profile levels are
run on the centerline. The first stake after the
PC for this curve will be at station 16+50.
Therefore, the first chord length or subchord
is 8.67 feet. Similarly, there will be a subchord
at the end of the curve from station 19+25 to
the PT. This subchord will be 16,33 feet. The
surveyor designates the subchord at the
beginning, C1 , an d at the end, C2 (figure 3-2).
Deflection Angles. After the subchords
have been determined, the surveyor computes
the deflection angles using the formulas on
page 3-6. Technically, the formulas for the

The sum of d1, d2, and the deflections for the

full chords is
d1 = 039.015
d2 = 113.485
d std = 2037.500
Total 2230.000
The surveyor should note that the total of the
deflection angles is equal to one half of the I
angle. If the total deflection does not equal
one half of I, a mistake has been made in the
calculations. After the total deflection has
been decided, the surveyor determines the
angles for each station on the curve. In this
step, they are rounded off to the smallest
reading of the instrument to be used in the
field. For this problem, the surveyor must
assume that a one-minute instrument is to be
used. The curve station deflection angles are
listed on page 3-8.

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Special Cases. The curve that was just

solved had an I angle and degree of curve
whose values were whole degrees. When the I
angle and degree of curve consist of degrees
and minutes, the procedure in solving the
curve does not change, but the surveyor must
take care in substituting these values into the
formulas for length and deflection angles.
For example, if I = 42 15 and D = 5 37, the

surveyor must change the minutes in each

angle to a decimal part of a degree, or D =
42.25000, I = 5.61667. To obtain the required
accuracy, the surveyor should convert values
to five decimal places.
An alternate method for computing the length
is to convert the I angle and degree of curve to

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minutes; thus, 42 15 = 2,535 minutes and 5

37 = 337 minutes. Substituting into the length
formula gives

correction of 0.83 feet is obtained for the

tangent distance and for the external
distance, 0.29 feet.

L = 2,535 x 100 = 752.23 feet.

337

The surveyor adds the corrections to the

tangent distance and external distance
obtained from table A-5. This gives a tangent
distance of 293.94 feet and an external
distance of 99.79 feet for the chord definition.

This method gives an exact result. If the

surveyor converts the minutes to a decimal
part of a degree to the nearest five places, the
same result is obtained.
Since the total of the deflection angles should
be one half of the I angle, a problem arises
when the I angle contains an odd number of
minutes and the instrument used is a oneminute instrument. Since the surveyor
normally stakes the PT prior to running the
curve, the total deflection will be a check on
the PT. Therefore, the surveyor should
compute to the nearest 0.5 degree. If the total
deflection checks to the nearest minute in the
field, it can be considered correct.
Curve Tables
The surveyor can simplify the computation
of simple curves by using tables. Table A-5
lists long chords, middle ordinates, externals,
and tangents for a l-degree curve with a
radius of 5,730 feet for various angles of
intersection. Table A-6 lists the tangent,
external distance corrections (chord definition) for various angles of intersection and
degrees of curve.
Arc Definition. Since the degree of curve by
arc definition is inversely proportional to the
other functions of the curve, the values for a
one-degree curve are divided by the degree of
curve to obtain the element desired. For
example, table A-5 lists the tangent distance
and external distance for an I angle of 75
degrees to be 4,396.7 feet and 1,492,5 feet,
respectively. Dividing by 15 degrees, the
degree of curve, the surveyor obtains a
tangent distance of 293.11 feet and an
external distance of 99.50 feet.
Chord Definition. To convert these values
to the chord definition, the surveyor uses the
values in table A-5. From table A-6, a

After the tangent and external distances are

extracted from the tables, the surveyor
computes the remainder of the curve.

COMPARISON OF ARC
AND CHORD DEFINITIONS
Misunderstandings occur between surveyors
in the field concerning the arc and chord
definitions. It must be remembered that one
definition is no better than the other.
Different Elements
Two different circles are involved in
comparing two curves with the same degree
of curve. The difference is that one is computed by the arc definition and the other by
the chord definition. Since the two curves
have different radii, the other elements are
also different.
5,730-Foot Definition
Some engineers prefer to use a value of 5,730
feet for the radius of a l-degree curve, and the
arc definition formulas. When compared with
the pure arc method using 5,729.58, the 5,730
method produces discrepancies of less than
one part in 10,000 parts. This is much better
than the accuracy of the measurements made
in the field and is acceptable in all but the
most extreme cases. Table A-5 is based on
this definition.

CURVE LAYOUT
The following is the procedure to lay out a
curve using a one-minute instrument with a
horizontal circle that reads to the right. The
values are the same as those used to
demonstrate the solution of a simple curve
(pages 3-6 through 3-8).

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Setting PC and PT
With the instrument at the PI, the instrumentman sights on the preceding PI and
keeps the head tapeman on line while the
tangent distance is measured. A stake is set
on line and marked to show the PC and its
station value.
The instrumentman now points the instrument on the forward PI, and the tangent
distance is measured to set and mark a stake
for the PT.
Laying Out Curve from PC
The procedure for laying out a curve from the
PC is described as follows. Note that the
procedure varies depending on whether the
road curves to the left or to the right.
Road Curves to Right. The instrument is
set up at the PC with the horizontal circle at
000 on the PI.
(1) The angle to the PT is measured if the PT
can be seen. This angle will equal one half
of the I angle if the PC and PT are located
properly.
(2)Without touching the lower motion, the
first deflection angle, d1 (0 39), is set on
the horizontal circle. The instrumentman
keeps the head tapeman on line while the
first subchord distance, C1 (8.67 feet), is
measured from the PC to set and mark
station 16+50.
(3) The instrumentman now sets the second
deflection angle, d1 + dstd (2 32), on the
horizontal circle. The tapemen measure
the standard chord (25 feet) from the
previously set station (16+50) while the
instrument man keeps the head tapeman
on line to set station 16+75.
(4) The succeeding stations are staked out in
the same manner. If the work is done
correctly, the last deflection angle will
point on the PT, and the last distance will
be the subchord length, C2 (16.33 feet), to
the PT.

Road Curves to Left. As in the procedures

noted, the instrument occupies the PC and is
set at 000 pointing on the PI.
(1) The angle is measured to the PT, if
possible, and subtracted from 360 degrees.
The result will equal one half the I angle if
the PC and PT are positioned properly.
(2) The first deflection, dl (0 39), is
subtracted from 360 degrees, and the
remainder is set on the horizontal circle.
The first subchord, Cl (8.67 feet), is
measured from the PC, and a stake is set
on line and marked for station 16+50.
(3)The remaining stations are set by
continuing to subtract their deflection
angles from 360 degrees and setting the
results on the horizontal circles. The chord
distances are measured from the previously set station.
(4)The last station set before the PT should
be C2 (16.33 feet from the PT), and its
deflection should equal the angle measured in (1) above plus the last deflection,
d2 (1 14).
Laying Out Curve from
Intermediate Setup
When it is impossible to stake the entire curve
from the PC, the surveyor must use an
adaptation of the above procedure.
(1) Stake out as many stations from the PC
as possible.
(2) Move the instrument forward to any
station on the curve.
(3) Pick another station already in place, and
set the deflection angle for that station on
the horizontal circle. Sight that station
with the instruments telescope in the
reverse position.
(4)Plunge the telescope, and set the remaining stations as if the instrument was
set over the PC.

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Laying Out Curve from PT

If a setup on the curve has been made and it is
still impossible to set all the remaining
stations due to some obstruction, the surveyor
can back in the remainder of the curve
from the PT. Although this procedure has
been set up as a method to avoid obstructions,
it is widely used for laying out curves. When
using the backing in method, the surveyor
sets approximately one half the curve stations
from the PC and the remainder from the PT.
With this method, any error in the curve is in
its center where it is less noticeable.
Road Curves to Right. Occupy the PT, and
sight the PI with one half of the I angle on the
horizontal circle. The instrument is now
oriented so that if the PC is sighted, the
instrument will read 000.
The remaining stations can be set by using
their deflections and chord distances from
the PC or in their reverse order from the PT.
Road Curves to Left. Occupy the PT and
sight the PI with 360 degrees minus one half
of the I angle on the horizontal circle. The
instrument should read 0 00 if the PC is
sighted.
Set the remaining stations by using their
deflections and chord distances as if
computed from the PC or by computing the
deflections in reverse order from the PT.

CHORD CORRECTIONS
Frequently, the surveyor must lay out curves
more precisely than is possible by using the
chord lengths previously described.
To eliminate the discrepancy between chord
and arc lengths, the chords must be corrected
using the values taken from the nomography
in table A-11. This gives the corrections to be
applied if the curve was computed by the arc
definition.
Table A-10 gives the corrections to be applied
if the curve was computed by the chord
definition. The surveyor should recall that
the length of a curve computed by the chord
definition was the length along the chords.
Figure 3-5 illustrates the example given in
table A-9. The chord distance from station
18+00 to station 19+00 is 100 feet. The nominal
length of the subchords is 50 feet.

INTERMEDIATE STAKE
If the surveyor desires to place a stake at
station 18+50, a correction must be applied to
the chords, since the distance from 18+00
through 18+50 to 19+00 is greater than the
chord from 18+00 to 19+00. Therefore, a
correction must be applied to the subchords
to keep station 19+00 100 feet from 18+00. In
figure 3-5, if the chord length is nominally 50
feet, then the correction is 0.19 feet. The chord
distance from 18+00 to 18+50 and 18+50 to
19+00 would be 50.19.

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Section II. OBSTACLES TO CURVE LOCATION

TERRAIN RESTRICTIONS
To solve a simple curve, the surveyor must
know three parts. Normally, these will be the
PI, I angle, and degree of curve. Sometimes,
however, the terrain features limit the size of
various elements of the curve. If this happens,
the surveyor must determine the degree of
curve from the limiting factor.
Inaccessible PI
Under certain conditions, it may be impossible or impractical to occupy the PI. In
this case, the surveyor locates the curve
elements by using the following steps (figure
3-6).

(1) Mark two intervisible points A and B, one

on each of the tangents, so that line AB (a
random line connecting the tangents)
will clear the obstruction.
(2) Measure angles a and b by setting up at
both A and B.
(3) Measure the distance AB.
(4) Compute inaccessible distances AV and
BV as follows:
I=a+b

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(5) Determine the tangent distance from the
PI to the PC on the basis of the degree of
curve or other given limiting factor.
(6) Locate the PC at a distance T minus AV
from the point A and the PT at distance T
minus BV from point B.
(7) Proceed with the curve computation and
layout.
Inaccessible PC
When the PC is inaccessible, as illustrated in
figure 3-7, and both the PI and PT are set and
readily accessible, the surveyor must
establish the location of an offset station at
the PC.
(1)Place the instrument on the PT and back
the curve in as far as possible.

(2) Select one of the stations (for example,

P) on the curve, so that a line PQ,

parallel to the tangent line AV, will clear
the obstacle at the PC.

(3) Compute and record the length of line PW

so that point W is on the tangent line AV

and line PW is perpendicular to the
tangent. The length of line PW = R (l - Cos
dp), where dp is that portion of the central
angle subtended by AP and equal to two
times the deflection angle of P.
(4) Establish point W on the tangent line by
setting the instrument at the PI and
laying off angle V (V = 180 - I). This
sights the instrument along the tangent

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AV. Swing a tape using the computed
length of line PW and the line of sight to
set point W.
(5) Measure and record the length of line VW
along the tangent.
(6) Place the instrument at point P. Backsight
point W and lay off a 90-degree angle to
sight along line PQ, parallel to AV.
(7) Measure along this line of sight to a point
Q beyond the obstacle. Set point Q, and
record the distance PQ.
(8) Place the instrument at point Q, backsight
P, and lay off a 90-degree angle to sight
along line QS. Measure, along this line of
sight, a distance QS equals PW, and set
point S. Note that the station number of
point S = PI - (line VW + line PQ).

(9) Set an offset PC at point Y by measuring

from point Q toward point P a distance
equal to the station of the PC minus
station S. To set the PC after the obstacle
has been removed, place the instrument
at point Y, backsight point Q, lay off a
90-degree angle and a distance from Y to
the PC equal to line PW and QS. Carefully
set reference points for points Q, S, Y, and
W to insure points are available to set the
PC after clearing and construction have
begun.
Inaccessible PT
When the PT is inaccessible, as illustrated in
figure 3-8, and both the PI and PC are readily
accessible, the surveyor must establish an

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offset station at the PT using the method for
inaccessible PC with the following exceptions.
(1) Letter the curve so that point A is at the
PT instead of the PC (see figure 3-8).
(2)Lay the curve in as far as possible from
the PC instead of the PT.
(3) Angle dp is the angle at the center of the
curve between point P and the PT, which
is equal to two times the difference
between the deflection at P and one half
of I. Follow the steps for inaccessible PC
to set lines PQ and QS. Note that the
station at point S equals the computed
station value of PT plus YQ.
(4)Use station S to number the stations of
the alignment ahead.

Obstacle on Curve
Some curves have obstacles large enough to
interfere with the line of sight and taping.
Normally, only a few stations are affected.
The surveyor should not waste too much time
on preliminary work. Figure 3-9 illustrates a
method of bypassing an obstacle on a curve.
(1) Set the instrument over the PC with the
0
horizontal circle at 0 00, and sight on the
PI.
Check I/2 from the PI to the PT, if
possible.
(2)Set as many stations on the curve as
possible before the obstacle, point b.
(3) Set the instrument over the PT with the
plates at the value of I/2. Sight on the PI.

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(4)Back in as many stations as possible
beyond the obstacle, point e.

(2) Measure line y, the distance from the PI to

the fixed point.

(5) After the obstacle is removed, the

obstructed stations c and d can be set.

(3) Compute angles c, b, and a in triangle

COP.
c = 90 - (d + I/2)

CURVE THROUGH
FIXED POINT
Because of topographic features or other
obstacles, the surveyor may find it necessary
to determine the radius of a curve which will
pass through or avoid a fixed point and
connect two given tangents. This may be
accomplished as follows (figure 3-10):
(1)Given the PI and the I angle from the
preliminary traverse, place the instrument on the PI and measure angle d,
so that angle d is the angle between the
fixed point and the tangent line that lies
on the same side of the curve as the fixed
point.

To find angle b, first solve for angle e

Sin e = Sin c
Cos I/2
Angle b = 180- angle e
a = 180 - (b + c)
(4)Compute the radius of the desired curve
using the formula

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(5) Compute the degree of curve to five
decimal places, using the following
formulas:
(arc method) D = 5,729.58 ft/R
D = 1,746.385 meters/R
(chord method) Sin D = 2 (50 feet/R)
Sin D = 2 (15.24 meters/R)
(6) Compute the remaining elements of the
curve and the deflection angles, and stake
the curve.

LIMITING FACTORS
In some cases, the surveyor may have to use
elements other than the radius as the limiting
factor in determining the size of the curve.
These are usually the tangent T, external E,
or middle ordinate M. When any limiting
factor is given, it will usually be presented in
the form of T equals some value x,
x. In any case, the first step is to determine
the radius using one of the following
formulas:
Given: Tangent; then R = T/(Tan I)
External; then R =
E/[(l/Cos I) - 1]
Middle Ordinate; then R =
M/(l - Cos I)

The surveyor next determines D. If the

limiting factor is presented in the form T
equals some value x, the surveyor must
compute D, hold to five decimal places, and
compute the remainder of the curve. If the
then D is
limiting factor is presented as
rounded down to the nearest degree. For
example, if E 50 feet, the surveyor would
round down to the nearest degree, recompute E, and compute the rest of the curve
data using the rounded value of D, The new
value of E will be equal to or greater than 50
feet.
If the limiting factor is the D is rounded is
to the nearest degree. For example, if M
45 feet, then D would be rounded up to the
nearest degree, M would be recomputed,
and the rest of the curve data computed using
the rounded value of D. The new value of M
will be equal to or less than 45 feet.
The surveyor may also use the values from
table B-5 to compute the value of D. This is
done by dividing the tabulated value of
tangent, external, or middle ordinate for a
l-degree curve by the given value of the
limiting factor. For example, given a limiting
tangent T 45 feet and I = 2020, the T for a
l-degree curve from table B-5 is 1,027.6 and D
= 1,027.6/45.00 = 22.836. Rounded up to the
nearest half degree, D = 23. Use this rounded
value to recompute D, T and the rest of the
curve data.

Section III.
COMPOUND AND REVERSE CURVES
COMPOUND CURVES
A compound curve is two or more simple
curves which have different centers, bend in
the same direction, lie on the same side of
their common tangent, and connect to form a
continuous arc. The point where the two
curves connect (namely, the point at which
the PT of the first curve equals the PC of the
second curve) is referred to as the point of
compound curvature (PCC).

Since their tangent lengths vary, compound

curves fit the topography much better than
simple curves. These curves easily adapt to
mountainous terrain or areas cut by large,
winding rivers. However, since compound
curves are more hazardous than simple
curves, they should never be used where a
simple curve will do.

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Compound Curve Data
The computation of compound curves presents two basic problems. The first is where
the compound curve is to be laid out between
two successive PIs on the preliminary
traverse. The second is where the curve is to
be laid in between two successive tangents on
the preliminary traverse. (See figure 3-11.)
Compound Curve between Successive
PIs. The calculations and procedure for
laying out a compound curve between
successive PIs are outlined in the following
steps. This procedure is illustrated in figure
3-11a.
(1) Determine the PI of the first curve at
point A from field data or previous
computations.

the tangent for the second curve must be

held exact, the value of D2 must be carried
to five decimal places.
(9) Compare D1 and D2. They should not
differ by more than 3 degrees, If they vary
by more than 3 degrees, the surveyor
should consider changing the configuration of the curve.
(l0) If the two Ds are acceptable, then compute
the remaining data and deflection angles
for the first curve.
(11) Compute the PI of the second curve. Since
the PCC is at the same station as the PT
of the first curve, then PI2 = PT1 + T2.

(2) Obtain I1, I2, and distance AB from the

field data.

(12) Compute the remaining data and deflection angles for the second curve, and
lay in the curves.

(3) Determine the value of D1 , the D for the

first curve. This may be computed from a
limiting factor based on a scaled value
from the road plan or furnished by the
project engineer.

Compound Curve between Successive

Tangents. The following steps explain the
laying out of a compound curve between
successive tangents. This procedure is
illustrated in figure 3-llb.

(4) Compute R1, the radius of the first curve

as shown on pages 3-6 through 3-8.

(1) Determine the PI and I angle from the

field data and/or previous computations.

(5) Compute T1, the tangent of the first curve.

(2) Determine the value of I1 and distance

AB. The surveyor may do this by field
measurements or by scaling the distance
and angle from the plan and profile sheet.

T1 = R1 (Tan I)
(6) Compute T2, the tangent of the second
curve.
T2= AB - T1
(7) Compute R2, the radius of the second
curve.
R2

= T2
Tan I

(8) Compute D2 for the second curve. Since

(3) Compute angle C.

C = 180 - I
(4) Compute I2.
I2=180-(I l+C)
(5) Compute line AC.
AC = AB Sin I2
Sin C

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( 6 ) Compute line BC.
BC = AB Sin I1
Sin C
(7) Compute the station of PI1.
PI1 = PI - AC
(8) Determine D1 and compute R1 and T1 for
the first curve as described on pages 3-6
through 3-8.
(9) Compute T2 and R2 as described on
pages 3-6 through 3-8.
(l0) Compute D2 according to the formulas on
pages 3-6 through 3-8.
(11) Compute the station at PC.
PC1 = PI - (AC + T1)
(12) Compute the remaining curve data and
deflection angles for the first curve.
(13) Compute PI2.

Compound Curve between Successive

Tangents. Place the instrument at the PI
and sight along the back tangent.
(1) Lay out a distance AC from the PI along
the back tangent, and set PI1.
(2) Continue along the back tangent from PI2
a distance T1, and set PC1.
(3) Sight along the forward tangent with the
instrument still at the PI.
(4) Lay out a distance BC from the PI along
the forward tangent, and set PI2.
(5) Continue along the forward tangent from
PI a distance T2, and set PT2.
(6) Check the location of PI1 and PI2 by either
measuring the distance between the two
PIs and comparing the measured distance
to the computed length of line AB, or by
placing the instrument at PI1, sighting
the PI, and laying off I1. The resulting
line-of-sight should intercept PI2.
(7) Stake the curves as outlined on pages 3-10

(14) Compute the remaining curve data and

deflection angles for the second curve,
and stake out the curves.
Staking Compound Curves
Care must be taken when staking a curve in
the field. Two procedures for staking
compound curves are described.
Compound Curve between Successive
PIs. Stake the first curve as described on
pages 3-10 and 3-11.
(1) Verify the PCC and PT2 by placing the
instrument on the PCC, sighting on PI2,
and laying off I2/2. The resulting line-ofsight should intercept PT2.
(2) Stake the second curve in the same
manner as the first.

and 3-11.

REVERSE CURVES

A reverse curve is composed of two or more

simple curves turning in opposite directions.
Their points of intersection lie on opposite
ends of a common tangent, and the PT of the
first curve is coincident with the PC of the
second. This point is called the point of
reverse curvature (PRC).
Reverse curves are useful when laying out
such things as pipelines, flumes, and levees.
The surveyor may also use them on low-speed
roads and railroads. They cannot be used on
high-speed roads or railroads since they
cannot be properly superelevated at the PRC.
They are sometimes used on canals, but only
with extreme caution, since they make the

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canal difficult to navigate and contribute to
erosion.
Reverse Curve Data
The computation of reverse curves presents
three basic problems. The first is where the
reverse curve is to be laid out between two
successive PIs. (See figure 3-12.) In this case,
the surveyor performs the computations in
exactly the same manner as a compound
curve between successive PIs. The second is
where the curve is to be laid out so it connects
two parallel tangents (figure 3-13). The third
problem is where the reverse curve is to be
laid out so that it connects diverging tangents
(figure 3-14).

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Connecting Parallel Tangents
Figure 3-13 illustrates a reverse curve
connecting two parallel tangents. The PC
and PT are located as follows.
(1) Measure p, the perpendicular distance
between tangents.
(2)Locate the PRC and measure m1 and m2.
(If conditions permit, the PRC can be at
the midpoint between the two tangents.
This will reduce computation, since both
arcs will be identical.)
(3) Determine R1.
(4) Compute I1.

(5)
R 2,I 2,andL 2 are determined in the same
way as R1, I1, and L1. If the PRC is to be
the midpoint, the values for arc 2 will be
the same as for arc 1.
(6) Stake each of the arcs the same as a
simple curve. If necessary, the surveyor
can easily determine other curve
components. For example, the surveyor
needs a reverse curve to connect two
parallel tangents. No obstructions exist
so it can be made up of two equal arcs. The
degree of curve for both must be 5. The
surveyor measures the distance p and
finds it to be 225.00 feet.
m 1 = m 2 a n d L1 = L 2
R 1=

R2 a n d I 1 = I2

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R1 and R2, which are computed from the
specified degree of curve for each arc.
(1) Measure I at the PI.
(2) Measure Ts to locate the PT as the point
where the curve is to join the forward
tangent. In some cases, the PT position
will be specified, but Ts must still be
measured for the computations.

(7) The PC and PT are located by measuring

off L1 and L2.
Connecting Diverging Tangents
The connection of two diverging tangents by
a reverse curve is illustrated in figure 3-14.
Due to possible obstruction or topographic
consideration, one simple curve could not be
used between the tangents. The PT has been
moved back beyond the PI. However, the I
angle still exists as in a simple curve. The
controlling dimensions in this curve are the
distance Ts to locate the PT and the values of

(3) Perform the following calculations:

Determine R1 and R2. If practical, have R1
equal R2.
Angle s = 180-(90+I)=90-I
m = Ts (Tan I)
L = Ts
Cos I
angle e = I1 (by similar triangles)

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FM 5-233
angle f = I1 (by similar triangles)
therefore, I2 = I + I1

degrees. The PT location is specified and the

Ts is measured as 550 feet.

n = (R2 - m) Sin e
p = (R2 - m) Cos e
Determine g by establishing the value of
I 1.

Knowing Cos I1, determine Sin I1.

(4) Measure TL from the PI to locate the PC.

(5) Stake arc 1 to PRC from PC.
(6) Set instrument at the PT and verify the
PRC (invert the telescope, sight on PI,
plunge, and turn angle I2/2).
(7) Stake arc 2 to the PRC from PT.
For example, in figure 3-14, a reverse curve is
to connect two diverging tangents with both
arcs having a 5-degree curve. The surveyor
locates the PI and measures the I angle as 41

The PC is located by measuring TL. The curve

is staked using 5-degree curve computations.

Section IV. TRANSITION SPIRALS

SPIRAL CURVES
In engineering construction, the surveyor
often inserts a transition curve, also known
as a spiral curve, between a circular curve
and the tangent to that curve. The spiral is a
curve of varying radius used to gradually
increase the curvature of a road or railroad.
Spiral curves are used primarily to reduce
skidding and steering difficulties by gradual
transition between straight-line and turning
motion, and/or to provide a method for
adequately superelevating curves.

The spiral curve is designed to provide for a

gradual superelevation of the outer pavement
edge of the road to counteract the centrifugal
force of vehicles as they pass. The best spiral
curve is one in which the superelevation
increases uniformly with the length of the
spiral from the TS or the point where the
spiral curve leaves the tangent.
The curvature of a spiral must increase
uniformly from its beginning to its end. At

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the beginning, where it leaves the tangent, its

curvature is zero; at the end, where it joins the
circular curve, it has the same degree of
curvature as the circular curve it intercepts.
Theory of A.R.E.A.
10-Chord Spiral
The spiral of the American Railway
Engineering Association, known as the
A.R.E.A. spiral, retains nearly all the
characteristics of the cubic spiral. In the
cubic spiral, the lengths have been considered
as measured along the spiral curve itself, but
measurements in the field must be taken by
chords. Recognizing this fact, in the A.R.E.A.
spiral the length of spiral is measured by 10

equal chords, so that the theoretical curve is

brought into harmony with field practice.
This 10-chord spiral closely approximates
the cubic spiral. Basically, the two curves
degrees.
coincide up to the point where
The exact formulas for this A.R.E.A. 10chord spiral, when does not exeed 45
degrees, are given on pages 3-27 and 3-28.
Spiral Elements
Figures 3-15 and 3-16 show the notations
applied to elements of a simple circular curve
with spirals connecting it to the tangents.
TS = the point of change from tangent to
spiral

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SC = the point of change from spiral to

circular curve

L = the length of the spiral in feet from the TS

to any given point on the spiral

CS = the point of change from circular curve

to spiral

Ls = the length of the spiral in feet from the TS

to the SC, measured in 10 equal chords

ST = the point of change from spiral to

tangent

o = the ordinate of the offsetted PC; the

distance between the tangent and a parallel
tangent to the offsetted curve

SS = the point of change from one spiral to

another (not shown in figure 3-15 or figure
3-16)

r = the radius of the osculating circle at any

given point of the spiral

The symbols PC and PT, TS and ST, and SC

and CS become transposed when the direction
of stationing is changed.

R = the radius of the central circular curve

s = the length of the spiral in stations from the
TS to any given point

a = the angle between the tangent at the TS

and the chord from the TS to any point on the
spiral

S = the length of the spiral in stations from

the TS to the SC

A = the angle between the tangent at the TS

and the chord from the TS to the SC

u = the distance on the tangent from the TS to

the intersection with a tangent through any
given point on the spiral

b = the angle at any point on the spiral

between the tangent at that point and the
chord from the TS
B = the angle at the SC between the chord
from the TS and the tangent at the SC
c = the chord from any point on the spiral to
the TS
C = the chord from the TS to the SC
d = the degree of curve at any point on the
spiral
D = the degree of curve of the circular arc
f = the angle between any chord of the spiral
(calculated when necessary) and the tangent
through the TS
I = the angle of the deflection between initial
and final tangents; the total central angle of
the circular curve and spirals
k = the increase in degree of curve per station
on the spiral

U = the distance on the tangent from the TS to

the intersection with a tangent through the
SC; the longer spiral tangent
v = the distance on the tangent through any
given point from that point to the intersection
with the tangent through the TS
V = the distance on the tangent through the
SC from the SC to the intersection with the
tangent through the TS; the shorter spiral
tangent
x = the tangent distance from the TS to any
point on the spiral
X = the tangent distance from the TS to the
SC
y = the tangent offset of any point on the
spiral
Y = the tangent offset of the SC
Z = the tangent distance from the TS to the
offsetted PC (Z = X/2, approximately)

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Ts = the tangent distance of the spiraled
curve; distance from TS to PI, the point of
intersection of tangents
Es = the external distance of the offsetted
curve

Spiral Formulas
The following formulas are for the exact
determination of the functions of the 10does
chord spiral when the central angle
not exceed 45 degrees. These are suitable for
the compilation of tables and for accurate
fieldwork.

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any degree of curvature and design speed is
obtained
from the the relationship Ls =
3
1.6V /R, in which Ls is the minimum spiral
length in feet, V is the design speed in miles
per hour, and R is the radius of curvature of
the simple curve. This equation is not
mathematically exact but an approximation
based on years of observation and road tests.
Table 3-1 is compiled from the above equation
for multiples of 50 feet. When spirals are
inserted between the3 arcs of a compound
curve, use Ls = 1.6V /Ra. Ra represents the
radius of a curve of a degree equal to the
difference in degrees of curvature of the
circular arcs.
Railroads Spirals applied to railroad layout
must be long enough to permit an increase in
superelevation not exceeding 1 inches per
second for the maximum speed of train
operation. The minimum length is determined
from the equation Ls = 1.17 EV. E is the full
theoretical superelevation of the curve in
inches, V is the speed in miles per hour, and
Ls is the spiral length in feet.
Empirical Formulas
For use in the field, the following formulas
are sufficiently accurate for practical
purposes when does not exceed 15 degrees.
a=
A=

(degrees)
(degrees)
2

a = 10 ks (minutes)
2

S = 10 kS (minutes)
Spiral Lengths
Different factors must be taken into account
when calculating spiral lengths for highway
and railroad layout.
Highways. Spirals applied to highway
layout must be long enough to permit the
effects of centrifugal force to be adequately
compensated for by proper superelevation.
The minimum transition spiral length for

This length of spiral provides the best riding

conditions by maintaining the desired
relationship between the amount of
superelevation and the degree of curvature.
The degree of curvature increases uniformly
throughout the length of the spiral. The same
equation is used to compute the length of a
spiral between the arcs of a compound curve.
In such a case, E is the difference between the
superelevations of the two circular arcs.

SPIRAL CALCULATIONS
Spiral elements are readily computed from
the formulas given on pages 3-25 and 3-26. To
use these formulas, certain data must be
known. These data are normally obtained
from location plans or by field measurements.
The following computations are for a spiral
when D, V, PI station, and I are known.
D = 4
I = 2410

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Determining L s
(1) Assuming that this is a highway spiral,
use either the equation on page 3-28 or
table 3-1.

(2) From page 3-28,

(2) From table 3-1, when D = 4 and V = 60

mph, the value for Ls is 250 feet.
Determining

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(2) I = 24 10= 24.16667

A=5
D=4
(3) L, = 24.16667- 10 x 100 = 354.17 ft
4
Determining Chord Length
(1) Chord length =Ls
10

Determining Z

(2) Chord length=250 ft

10
Determining Station Values
With the data above, the curve points are
calculated as follows:

(l) Z = X - (R Sin A)
(2) From table A-9 we see that
X = .999243 x Ls
X = .999243 x 250
X = 249.81 ft
R = 1,432.69 ft

Station PI
Station TS
Station TS

Sin 5 = 0.08716

Station SC

(3) Z = 249.81- (1,432.69X 0.08716)

Station CS
Z = 124.94 ft
Determining T s

Station ST

(l) Ts= (R + o) Tan( I) + Z

(2) From the previous steps, R = 1,432.69 feet,
o = 1.81 feet, and Z = 124.94 feet.
0

(3) Tan 1 .Tan 24 10= Tan 12 05'=0.21408

2
2
(4) Ts = (1,432.69 + 1.81) (0.21408) + 124.94

= 42 + 61.70
= -4 + 32.04
= 38+ 29.66
+2 + 50.()()
= 40 + 79.66
+3 + 54.17
= 44+ 33.83
+2 + 50.()()
= 46+ 83,83

= Ts
= L,
= La
= Ls

Determining Deflection Angles

One of the principal characteristics of the
spiral is that the deflection angles vary as the
square of the distance along the curve.
2
a... . L 2
Ls
A
From this equation, the following relationships are obtained:
2

Ts = 432.04 ft
Determining Length of
the Circular Arc (La)

a 1 =(1) 2 A, a2 = 4 a1 , a3 = 9a,=16a 1 ,...a 9 =

(l0)
81a1, and a10 = 100a1 = A. The deflection
angles to the various points on the spiral
from the TS or ST are a1, a2, a3 . . . a9 and a10.
Using these relationships, the deflection
angles for the spirals and the circular arc are

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computed for the example spiral curve.

Page 3-27 states that

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SPIRAL CURVE LAYOUT

The following is the procedure to lay out a
spiral curve, using a one-minute instrument
with a horizontal circle that reads to the
right. Figure 3-17 illustrates this procedure.

Setting TS and ST
With the instrument at the PI, the instrumentman sights along the back tangent
and keeps the head tapeman on line while the
tangent distance (Ts) is measured. A stake is

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set on line and marked to show the TS and its

station value.
The instrumentman now sights along the
forward tangent to measure and set the ST.

(3) The remaining circular arc stations are

set by subtracting their deflection angles
from 360 degrees and measuring the
corresponding chord distance from the
previously set station.

Laying Out First Spiral from TS

to SC
Set up the instrument at the TS, pointing on
the PI, with 000 on the horizontal circle.

Laying Out Second Spiral from

ST to CS
Set up the instrument at the ST, pointing on
the PI, with 000 on the horizontal circle.

(1) Check the angle to the ST, if possible. The

angle should equal one half of the I angle
if the TS and ST are located properly.

(1) Check the angle to the CS. The angle

should equal 1 40 if the CS is located
properly.

(2) The first deflection (a 1 / 0 01) is

subtracted from 360 degrees, and the
remainder is set on the horizontal circle.
Measure the standard spiral chord length
(25 feet) from the TS, and set the first
spiral station (38 + 54.66) on line.
(3) The remaining spiral stations are set by
subtracting their deflection angles from
360 degrees and measuring 25 feet from
the previously set station.
Laying Out Circular Arc from SC
to CS
Set up the instrument at the SC with a value
of A minus A (5 00- 140 = 3 20) on the
horizontal circle. Sight the TS with the
instrument telescope in the reverse position.
(1) Plunge the telescope. Rotate the telescope
until 000 is read on the horizontal circle.
The instrument is now sighted along the
tangent to the circular arc at the SC.
(2) The first deflection (dl /0 24) is
subtracted from 360 degrees, and the
remainder is set on the horizontal circle.
The first subchord (c1 / 20.34 feet) is
measured from the SC, and a stake is set
on line and marked for station 41+00.

(2) Set the spiral stations using their

deflection angles in reverse order and the
standard spiral chord length (25 feet).
Correct any error encountered by adjusting
the circular arc chords from the SC to the CS.
Intermediate Setup
When the instrument must be moved to an
intermediate point on the spiral, the deflection
angles computed from the TS cannot be used
for the remainder of the spiral. In this respect,
a spiral differs from a circular curve.
Calculating Deflection Angles Following
are the procedures for calculating the
deflection angles and staking the spiral.
Example: D = 4
Ls = 250 ft (for highways)
V =60 mph
I = 2410
Point 5 = intermediate point
(1) Calculate the deflection angles for the
first five 0points These
angles are: a1 = 0
0
01, a2 =0 04, a3 =0 09, a4 =0 16, and a5
= 025.
(2) The deflection angles for points 6, 7,8,9,
and 10, with the instrument at point 5, are

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FM 5-233
calculated with the use of table 3-2. Table
3-2 is read as follows: with the instrument
at any point, coefficients are obtained
which, when multiplied by a1, give the
deflection angles to the other points of the
spiral. Therefore, with the instrument at
point 5, the coefficients for points 6,7,8,9,
and 10 are 16, 34, 54, 76, and 100,
respectively.
Multiply these coefficients by a1 to obtain
the deflection angles. These angles are a6
= 16a1 =0 16, a7 = 34a1 =0034, a8 = 54a1 =
054,
a9 = 76a1 = 116, and a10 = 100a1 =
0
1 40.
(3) Table 3-2 is also used to orient the
instrument over point 5 with a backsight

on the TS. The angular value from point 5

to point zero (TS) equals the coefficient
from table 3-2 times a1. This angle equals
50a1= 0 50.
Staking. Stake the first five points according
to the procedure shown on page 3-33. Check
point 5 by repetition to insure accuracy.
Set up the instrument over point 5. Set the
horizontal circle at the angular value
determined above. With the telescope inverted, sight on the TS (point zero).
Plunge the telescope, and stake the remainder
of the curve (points 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10) by
subtracting the deflection angles from 360
degrees.

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Field Notes for Spirals. Figure 3-18 shows
a typical page of data recorded for the layout

of a spiral. The data were obtained from the

calculations shown on page 3-31.

Section V. VERTICAL CURVES

FUNCTION AND TYPES
COMPUTATIONS
When two grade lines intersect, there is a
vertical change of direction. To insure safe
and comfortable travel, the surveyor rounds
off the intersection by inserting a vertical
parabolic curve. The parabolic curve provides
a gradual direction change from one grade to
the next.
A vertical curve connecting a descending
grade with an ascending grade, or with one
descending less sharply, is called a sag or
invert curve. An ascending grade followed by
a descending grade, or one ascending less
sharply, is joined by a summit or overt curve.

In order to achieve a smooth change of

direction when laying out vertical curves, the
grade must be brought up through a series of
elevations. The surveyor normally determines
elevation for vertical curves for the beginning
(point of vertical curvature or PVC), the end
(point of vertical tangency or PVT), and all
full stations. At times, the surveyor may
desire additional points, but this will depend
on construction requirements.
Length of Curve
The elevations are vertical offsets to the
tangent (straightline design grade)

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FM 5-233
elevations. Grades G1 and G2 are given as
percentages of rise for 100 feet of horizontal
distance. The surveyor identifies grades as
plus or minus, depending on whether they
are ascending or descending in the direction
of the survey. The length of the vertical curve
(L) is the horizontal distance (in 100-foot
stations) from PVC to PVT. Usually, the
curve extends L stations on each side of the
point of vertical intersection (PVI) and is
most conveniently divided into full station
increments.

is the terrain. The rougher the terrain, the

smaller the station interval. The second
consideration is to select an interval which
will place a station at the center of the curve
with the same number of stations on both
sides of the curve. For example, a 300-foot
curve could not be staked at 100-foot intervals
but could be staked at 10-, 25-, 30-, 50-, or
75-foot intervals. The surveyor often uses the
same intervals as those recommended for
horizontal curves, that is 10, 25, 50, and 100
feet.

A sag curve is illustrated in figure 3-20. The

surveyor can derive the curve data as follows
(with BV and CV being the grade lines to be
connected).

Since the PVI is the only fixed station, the

next step is to compute the station value of
the PVC, PVT, and all stations on the curve.

Determine values of G1 and G2, the original

grades. To arrive at the minimum curve
length (L) in stations, divide the algebraic
difference of G1 and G2 (AG) by the rate of
change (r), which is normally included in the
design criteria. When the rate of change (r) is
not given, use the following formulas to
compute L:
(Summit Curve)

PVC = PVI - L/2

PVT = PVI + L/2
Other stations are determined by starting at
the PVI, adding the SI, and continuing until
the PVT is reached.
Tangent Elevations
Compute tangent elevations PVC, PVT, and
all stations along the curve. Since the PVI is
the fixed point on the tangents, the surveyor
computes the station elevations as follows:
Elev PVC = Elev PVI + (-1 x L/2 x G1)
Elev PVT = Elev PVI + (L/2 x G2)
The surveyor may find the elevation of the
stations along the back tangent as follows:

If L does not come out to a whole number of

stations from this formula, it is usually
extended to the nearest whole number. Note
that this reduces the rate of change. Thus, L =
4.8 stations would be extended to 5 stations,
and the value of r computed from r =
These formulas are for road design only. The
surveyor must use different formulas for
railroad and airfield design.

Elev of sta = Elev of PVC + (distance from the

PVC x G1).

Station Interval
Once the length of curve is determined, the
surveyor selects an appropriate station
interval (SI). The first factor to be considered

Vertical Maximum
The parabola bisects a line joining the PVI
and the midpoint of the chord drawn between
the PVC and PVT. In figure 3-19, line VE =

The elevation of the stations along the

forward tangent is found as follows:
Elev of sta = Elev of PVI + (distance from the
PVI x G2)

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DE and is referred to as the vertical maximum

(Vm). The value of Vm is computed as follows:
(L= length in 100-foot stations. In a 600-foot
curve, L = 6.)
Vm = L/8 (G2 - G1) or

Station Elevation. Next, the surveyor

computes the elevation of the road grade at
each of the stations along the curve. The
elevation of the curve at any station is equal
to the tangent elevation at that station plus
or minus the vertical offset for that station,
The sign of the offset depends upon the sign
of Vm (plus for a sag curve and minus for a
summit curve).

Vertical Offset = (Distance) x Vm

First and Second Differences. As a final

step, the surveyor determines the values of
the first and second differences. The first
differences are the differences in elevation
between successive stations along the curve,
namely, the elevation of the second station
minus the elevation of the first station, the
elevation of the third station minus the
elevation of the second, and so on. The second
differences are the differences between the
differences in elevation (the first differences),
and they are computed in the same sequence
as the first differences.

A parabolic curve presents a mirror image.

This means that the second half of the curve
is identical to the first half, and the offsets
are the same for both sides of the curve.

The surveyor must take great care to observe

and record the algebraic sign of both the first
and second differences. The second differences provide a check on the rate of change

In practice, the surveyor should compute the

value of Vm using both formulas, since
working both provides a check on the Vm, the
elevation of the PVC, and the elevation of the
PVT.
Vertical Offset. The value of the vertical
offset is the distance between the tangent line
and the road grade. This value varies as the
square of the distance from the PVC or PVT
and is computed using the formula:
2

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FM 5-233
per station along the curve and a check on the
computations. The second differences should
all be equal. However, they may vary by one
or two in the last decimal place due to
rounding off in the computations. When this
happens, they should form a pattern. If they
vary too much and/or do not form a pattern,
the surveyor has made an error in the
computation.
Example: A vertical curve connects grade
lines G1 and G2 (figure 3-19). The maximum
allowable slope (r) is 2.5 percent. Grades G1
and G2 are found to be -10 and +5.

The vertical offsets for each station are

computed as in figure 3-20. The first and
second differences are determined as a check.
Figure 3-21 illustrates the solution of a
summit curve with offsets for 50-foot intervals.
High and Low Points
The surveyor uses the high or low point of a
vertical curve to determine the direction and
amount of runoff, in the case of summit
curves, and to locate the low point for
drainage.
When the tangent grades are equal, the high
or low point will be at the center of the curve.
When the tangent grades are both plus, the
low point is at the PVC and the high point at
the PVT. When both tangent grades are
minus, the high point is at the PVC and the
low point at the PVT. When unequal plus and

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FM 5-233
minus tangent grades are encountered, the
high or low point will fall on the side of the
curve that has the flatter gradient.
Horizontal Distance. The surveyor
determines the distance (x, expressed in
stations) between the PVC or PVT and the
high or low point by the following formula:

Example: From the curve in figure 3-21, G1 = +

3.2%, G2 = - 1.6% L = 4 (400). Since G2 is the
flatter gradient, the high point will fall
between the PVI and the PVT.

G is the flatter of the two gradients and L is

the number of curve stations.
Vertical Distance. The surveyor computes
the difference in elevation (y) between the
PVC or PVT and the high or low point by the
formula

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