Using the MF-Tyre Model

Overview
The Magic-Formula (MF-Tyre) tire model is developed by
TNO Automotive. MF-Tyre is the premier handling model
available in ADAMS/Tire.
This chapter includes the following sections:
■ About MF-Tyre, 2

■ Tire-Road Interaction, 4

■ Axis Systems and Definitions, 6

■ The Magic Formula Tire Model (MF-Tyre), 15

■ Standard Tire Interface (STI), 44

■ Definitions, 47

■ References, 51

This chapter contains proprietary information of TNO. The contents of this

chapter may not be disclosed to other parties, copied, nor duplicated for
commercial use without the prior written permission of TNO.

Portions of the MF-Tyre User Manual Version 5.2, © Copyright 2001,

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Using the MF-Tyre Model

About MF-Tyre
The MF-Tyre model uses a method known as the Magic Formula to calculate the
steady-state behavior of a tire. The Magic Formula is actually a set of mathematical
formula based on the physical background of the tire, road, and the tire-to-road contact.
The Magic Formula tyre model aims at an accurate description of the steady-state
behaviour of a tyre by providing a set of mathematical formulae, which are partly based
on a physical background. The Magic Formula calculates the forces (Fx, Fy) and moments
(Mx, My, Mz) acting on the tyre under pure and combined slip conditions, using
longitudinal and lateral slip (κ, α), wheel camber (γ) and the vertical force (Fz) as input
quantities. In addition to the Magic Formula description, a set of differential equations is
defined, representing the transient behaviour of the tyre with respect to handling at
frequencies up to 8 Hz.
Further information can be found on the internet site: www.delft-tyre.com.

MF-Tyre Version 5.2

Compared to MF-Tyre 5.1, following items have been changed or introduced:
■ The scaling factors for the shifts have been defined such that conicity and
plysteer effects can be easily switched off.
■ Into the modelling of combined cornering and braking/traction E factors have
been introduced, making the modelling more accurate.
■ The rolling resistance torque has become a function of forward speed.
■ The influence of the camber on the peak Fx has been introduced.
Figure 1 lists the additional parameters.
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Using the MF-Tyre Model

Table 1. New Parameters Introduced in MF-Tyre 5.2

Name used in
Default
Name: tire property Explanation:
Value:
file:

λγx LGAX Scale factor of camber for Fx 1

λγy LGAY Scale factor of camber force stiffness 1
λVmx LVMX Scale factor of Mx vertical shift 1
pDx3 PDX3 Variation of friction Mux with camber 0
rEx1 REX1 Curvature factor of combined Fx 0
rEx2 REX2 Curvature factor of combined Fx with load 0
rHy2 RHY2 Shift factor for combined Fy reduction with load 0
rEy1 REY1 Curvature factor of combined Fy 0
rEy2 REY2 Curvature factor of combined Fy with load 0
qsy3 QSY3 Rolling resistance torque depending on speed 0
qsy4 QSY4 Rolling resistance torque depending on speed^4 0

Furthermore, LONGVL should be defined and have a positive value. When the default
values are used or omitted, the tire model is fully backward compatible with MF-Tyre
version 5.1.
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Using the MF-Tyre Model

Tire-Road Interaction
The tire-road contact forces are mainly dependent of the tire mechanical properties (that
is, stiffness and damping), the road condition (that is, the friction coefficient between tire
and road, the road structure), and the motion of the tire relative to the road (that is, the
amount and direction of slip).
The major control and disturbance forces on a vehicle arise from the contact of the tires
with the road. The vertical loads transfer the weight of the vehicle to the road. Due to the
compliance of the tires, a vehicle is cushioned against disturbances by small road
irregularities. The traction and braking forces arise from the longitudinal tire forces.
Lateral forces are required to control the direction of travel of the vehicle. The lateral
behaviour of tires is therefore dominant in vehicle handling. Proper description of the
dynamic behaviour of a vehicle requires an accurate model of the tire-road contact forces
and moments generating properties under all of these different conditions.
Figure 1. Tire Factors

Tyre factors

(Quasi) steady state Vibratory state

in- load carrying capacity radial deflection cushioning capacity

plane braking/driving performance longitudinal slip and dynamic coupling
rolling resistance distortion
out- cornering performance lateral slip and phase shifts and
of- lateral shift of Fz distortion destabilisation
plane
primary effects interactions between
secondary effects in- and out-of-plane behaviour

Tire behaviour results from a combination of several aspects. Factors may be

distinguished which concern the primary tasks of the tire which involve (often important)
secondary effects. In Figure 1 these factors have been brought in matrix form. A
distinction has been made between (quasi) steady-state and vibratory behaviour and
besides between in-plane and out-of-plane aspects. The primary task factors are shaded in
green. The remaining secondary factors are not shaded.
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Using the MF-Tyre Model

The requirements to transmit forces in the three perpendicular directions (Fx, Fy and Fz)
and to cushion the vehicle against road irregularities involve secondary factors like radial,
lateral and longitudinal distortions and slip.
Although considered as secondary factors, some of the quantities involved have to be
treated as input variables into the system which generate the forces. Figure 2 presents the
input and output vectors. In this diagram the tire is assumed to be uniform and to move
over a flat road surface. The input vector results from motions of the wheel relative to the
road. It is advantageous to recognize the fact that, for small deviations from the
straight-ahead motion, in-plane and out-of-plane motions of the assumedly symmetric
wheel-tire system are uncoupled.
The forces and moments are considered as output quantities of the tire model. They are
assumed to act on a rigid disc with inertial properties equal to those of the undeflected tire.
The forces may differ from the corresponding forces acting on the road due to the
vibrations of the tire relative to the wheel rim. Braking and traction torques are
considered as acting on the rotating disc.
Figure 2. Input and Output Variables of the Magic Formula Tire Model

Input Output

α Fx

κ Magic Fy

γ Formula Mx
Fz My
Mz
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Using the MF-Tyre Model

Axis Systems and Definitions

W-Axis System
MF-Tyre conforms to the TYDEX STI conventions described in the
TYDEX-Format [1] and the Standard Tire Interface [2]. Two TYDEX coordinate systems
with ISO orientation are particularly important, the C- and W-axis systems as detailed in
Figure 3.

Figure 3. TYDEX C- and W-Axis Systems Used in MF-Tyre, According to TYDEX

Z
nr

nr
X
Zc Y
Zw Zc
Vx
Zw
Vc
Xc
Xc
O Xw
Xw Yc
-γ
Yc
Yw
Yw
C
C

The C-axis system is fixed to the wheel carrier with the longitudinal xc-axis parallel to the
road and in the wheel plane (xc-zc-plane). The origin O of the C-axis system is the wheel
center.
The origin of the W-axis system is the road contact-point (or point of intersection ) C
defined by the intersection of the wheel plane, the plane through the wheel spindle and the
road tangent plane. The orientation of the W-axis system agrees to ISO. The forces and
torques calculated by MF-MCTyre, which depend on the vertical wheel load Fz along the
zw-axis and the slip quantities, are projected in the W-axis system. The xw-yw-plane is the
tangent plane of the road in the contact point C.
The camber angle is defined by the inclination angle between the wheel plane and the
normal nr to the road plane (xw-yw-plane).
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Using the MF-Tyre Model

Units
Next to the convention to the TYDEX W-axis system, all units of the parameters and
variables used in MF-Tyre agree to the SI units. In Table 2 provides an overview of the
most important parameters and variables, see also Definitions on page 47.
Table 2. SI Units Used in MF-Tyre

Variable Type: Name: Abbreviation: Unit:

angle slip angle α radians

camber angle γ

force longitudinal force Fx Newton

lateral force Fy
vertical load Fz

moment overturning moment Mx Newton.meter

rolling resistance My
moment Mz
self aligning moment

speed longitudinal speed Vx meters per second

lateral speed Vy
longitudinal slip speed Vsx
lateral slip speed Vsy

rotational speed tire rolling speed Ω radians per second

The Contact-Point C and the Normal Load

The radius of curvature of the road profile is considered large as compared to the radius of
the tire. The tire is assumed to have only a single contact point (C) with the road profile.
Furthermore, for calculating the motion of the tire relative to the road, the road is
approximated by its tangent plane at the point on the road below the wheel centre (see
Figure 4). The tangent plane is an accurate approximation of the road, as long as the road
radius of curvature is not too small (that is, not smaller than 2 meters).
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Using the MF-Tyre Model

Figure 4. Contact Point C (Intersection Between

Normal-to-Road Tangent and Wheel Plane)
Z
nr

X
Zc Y
Zw
Vx

Xc

Xw
Yc

Yw
C

The normal load Fz of the tire is calculated with:

Fz = Cz ρ + K z ⋅ ρ̇ (1)
with ρ the tire deflection and ρ̇ the deflection velocity of the tire.
Table 3. Normal Load

Name: Name Used in Tire Property File: Explanation:

Ro UNLOADED_RADIUS Free tire radius

Cz VERTICAL_STIFFNESS Tire vertical stiffness

Kz VERTICAL_DAMPING Tire vertical damping

The Effective Tire Rolling Radius

The loaded tire radius R which is defined by the distance of the wheel centre to the centre
of tire contact (see Figure 5).
The effective rolling radius Re (at free rolling of the tire) is defined by:
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Using the MF-Tyre Model

V
R e = ------x (2)
Ω

For radial tires the effective rolling radius decreases with increasing vertical load at low
loads, but around its nominal load the influence of the vertical load is small, see Figure 6.
When assuming a constant vertical tire stiffness Cz, the radial tire deflection ρ can be
calculated with:

F
ρ = -----z- (3)
Cz

Figure 5. Effective Rolling Radius and Longitudinal Slip

R
Ro
Ω Vx

C
Fx

Vsx
Re S ρ
Fz
My
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Using the MF-Tyre Model

For the estimation of the effective rolling radius Re a Magic Formula approach is chosen.
The equation of the effective rolling radius Re reads:

d d
R e = R 0 – ρ Fz0 ( Darc tan ( Bρ ) + Fρ ) (4)

in which R0 is the unloaded radius and the nominal tire deflection ρFz0 is defined by:

F z0
ρ Fz0 = -------
- (5)
Cz

and the dimensionless radial tire deflection ρd can be calculated with:

d ρ
ρ = --------- (6)
ρ Fz0

For a large range of tires, appropriate coefficient values are:

■ 3,...,B,...,12
stretches the ordinate of the arctangent function, a large value of B means a high
slope at Fz=0 ;
■ 0.2,...,D,...0.4
defines the shift from the asymptote at high wheel loads;
■ 0.03,...,F,...,0.25
defines the ratio between tire radial deformation r and effective tire
deformation. Low values are obtained for extremely stiff tires.
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Using the MF-Tyre Model

Figure 6. The Tire Effective Rolling Radius as a Function of the Vertical Load
(B=8.4, D=0.27 and F=0.045)
0.320
0.315
0.310
0.305
0.300
0.295
0.290
0.285 R
0.280 Re

0.275
0 2000 4000 6000 8000

In Figure 7 an example of the effective rolling radius is shown for a passenger car tire.
The approximation of Re is made with the proposed formula with: B = 8.4, D = 0.27 and F
= 0.045.
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Using the MF-Tyre Model

Table 4. Effective Rolling Radius Parameters

Name: Name used in tire property file: Explanation:

Fz0 FNOMIN Nominal wheel load

B BREFF Low load stiffness eff. rolling radius

D DREFF Peak value of effective rolling radius

F FREFF High load stiffness effective rolling

radius

Tire Slip Quantities

Figure 7. Slip Quantities at Combined Cornering and Braking/Traction

Vx Vsx

Vy α

V Vr Vs Vsy

The longitudinal slip speed is defined as:

V sx = V x – ΩR e (7)

and the lateral slip speed:

V sy = V y (8)

The practical slip quantities κ and α are defined as:

V sx
κ = – --------
- (9)
Vx
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Using the MF-Tyre Model

V sy
tan α = --------- (10)
Vx

with Vsx and Vsy the components of the slip speed which may be defined as the velocity of
point S in the W-axis system (see Figure 7).

With Ω denoting the rotational speed of the tire, the linear rolling speed becomes:

Vr = Re Ω (11)
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Using the MF-Tyre Model

The Magic Formula Tire Model (MF-Tyre)

Introduction
For a given pneumatic tire and road condition, the tire forces due to slip follow a typical
characteristic. The characteristics can be accurately approximated by a special
mathematical function which is known as the "Magic Formula". The parameters in the
Magic Formula depend on the type of the tire and the road conditions. These parameters
can be derived from experimental data obtained from tests. The tire is rolled over a road
at various loads, orientations and motion conditions.
The Magic Formula tire model is mainly of an empirical nature and contains a set of
mathematical formula, which are partly based on a physical background. The Magic
Formula calculates the forces (Fx, Fy) and moments (Mx, My, Mz) acting on the tire at pure
and combined slip conditions, using longitudinal and/or lateral slip (κ, α), wheel camber
γ and the vertical force Fz as input quantities. The model takes into account plysteer and
conicity. An extension has been provided that describes transient and oscillatory tire
behaviour for limited frequencies smaller than 8 Hz and wavelengths larger than the tire
circumference.

History of the Magic Formula

Through the initiative of Volvo Car Corp. a cooperate effort was started in the
mid-eighties with the Delft University of Technology to develop a tire model that
accurately describes the tire's ability to have horizontal forces generated between road and
tire.
The first Magic Formula version was presented in 1987 [3]. The basic idea of using the
sine and arcsine functions was described for mainly pure slip conditions. Further
'prototype' formula were proposed for combined slip conditions.
In the second version [4], presented in 1989 the formula for combined cornering
conditions, based on physical background, were improved and tire relaxations lengths
were introduced in order to have a first order approach of the transient tire behaviour. This
model was improved on the description for combined slip calculations in 1993 [5].
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Using the MF-Tyre Model

Bayle e.o. [6] proposed to have a more empirical approach, reducing the complexity of the
force calculations under combined slip conditions and yielding a considerably higher
calculation speed. Their method improved the calculation speed during the calculation of
the Magic Formula parameters and during simulation calculations.
The latest version [7] combines the advantage of the previous versions and has been
modified for the following aspects:
■ The self aligning torque has been made dependent on the side force by a new
approach using the pneumatic trail in pure and combined slip conditions;
■ The forces under combined slip conditions are calculated according to the
proposal of Bayle [6];
■ Formulae describing overturning moment have been introduced;
■ The transient tire behaviour has been improved to enable zero speed;
■ Loading variations to tire lift off situations;
■ The parameters used in formulae are dimensionless improving manipulations
with tire characteristics and parameter calculations ("fitting");
■ Scaling factors are introduced for vehicle-tire optimization purposes.

Learning the Basics of the Magic Formula

The general form (sine version) of the formula reads:

Y ( x ) = D sin [ Carc tan { Bx – E ( Bx – arc tan ( Bx ) ) } ] (12)

where Y(x) is either, Fx or Fy.
The self aligning moment Mz is calculated by using the lateral force Fy and the
pneumatic trail t, which is based on a cosine type of Magic Formula:

Y ( x ) = D cos [ Carc tan { Bx – E ( Bx – arc tan ( Bx ) ) } ] (13)

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Using the MF-Tyre Model

Figure 8. Curves Produced by the Sine and Cosine Versions of the Magic Formula
Y 2 y Bxm-tan(π/2C)
y C = π arcsin a C= (C>1)
D Bxm-arctan (Bxm)
Sh

D arctan (BCD) ya
x

Sv X
xm

Y y y Bxo-tan(π/2C)
C = 2 arcsin a C= (C>1)
-Sh π D Bxo-arctan (Bxo)

√2 xo X, x
BC

When the formula is used to calculate the forces generated by the tire, the following
variables should serve as input for the Magic Formula:

Input Variables

Longitudinal slip κ [-]

Slip angle α [rad]

Camber angle γ [rad]

Normal wheel load Fz [N]

In case the complete model including transient properties is used, the transient tire
quantities are employed instead of the wheel slip quantities κ and α.
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Using the MF-Tyre Model

Output Variables (in contact point C)

Longitudinal force Fx [N]

Lateral force Fy [N]

Overturning couple Mx [Nm]

Rolling resistance torque My [Nm]

Aligning torque Mz [Nm]

Basic Tire Parameters

Nominal (rated) load Fz0 [N]

Unloaded tire radius R0 [m]

Tire belt mass mbelt [kg]

Furthermore, the normalized vertical load increment dfz is defined:

′
F z – F z0
df z = ------------------- [– ] (14)
F′ z0

with the possibly adapted nominal load (using the user scaling factor λFz0 ):

′
F z0 = F z0 ⋅ λ Fz0 (15)
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Using the MF-Tyre Model

Tire Model Parameters

In the subsequent sections, formulae are given with non-dimensional parameters aijk with
the following values and connections:
Table 5. Tire Model Parameters

Parameter: Definition:

a= p Force at pure slip

q Moment at pure slip

r Force at combined slip

s Moment at combined slip

i= B Stiffness factor

C Shape factor

D Peak value

E Curvature factor

K Slip stiffness = BCD

H Horizontal shift

V Vertical shift

s Moment at combined slip

t Transient tire behavior

j= x Along the longitudinal axis

y Along the lateral axis

z About the vertical axis

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Using the MF-Tyre Model

Table 5. Tire Model Parameters (continued)

Parameter: Definition:

k= 1, 2, ...

User Scaling Factors

For the user convenience a set of scaling factors is available to examine the influence of
changing a number of important overall parameters. The default value of these factors is
one. The following factors have been defined:
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Using the MF-Tyre Model

Table 6. Scaling Coefficient, Pure Slip

Name used in tire

Name: Explanation:
property file:

λFzo LFZO Scale factor of nominal (rated) load

λCx LCX Scale factor of Fx shape factor
λµx LMUX Scale factor of Fx peak friction coefficient
λEx LEX Scale factor of Fx curvature factor
λKx LKX Scale factor of Fx slip stiffness
λHx LHX Scale factor of Fx horizontal shift
λVx LVX Scale factor of Fx vertical shift
λγx LGAX Scale factor of camber for Fx
λCy LCY Scale factor of Fy shape factor
λµy LMUY Scale factor of Fy peak friction coefficient
λEy LEY Scale factor of Fy curvature factor
λKy LKY Scale factor of Fy cornering stiffness
λHy LHY Scale factor of Fy horizontal shift
λVy LVY Scale factor of Fy vertical shift
λγy LGAY Scale factor of camber for Fy
λt LTR Scale factor of Peak of pneumatic trail
λMr LRES Scale factor for offset of residual torque
λγz LGAZ Scale factor of camber for Mz
λMx LMX Scale factor of overturning couple
λvMx LVMX Scale factor of Mx vertical shift
λMy LMY Scale factor of rolling resistance torque
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Using the MF-Tyre Model

Table 7. Scaling Coefficients, Combined Slip

Name used in tire

Name: Explanation:
property file:

λxα LXAL Scale factor of alpha influence on Fx

λyκ LYKA Scale factor of alpha influence on Fx
λVyκ LVYKA Scale factor of kappa induced Fy
λs LS Scale factor of Moment arm of Fx

Table 8. Scaling Coefficinets, Transient Response

Name used in tire

Name: Explanation:
property file:

λσκ LSGKP Scale factor of Relaxation length of Fx

λσα LSGAL Scale factor of Relaxation length of Fy
λgyr LGYR Scale factor of gyroscopic torque
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Using the MF-Tyre Model

Steady-State: Magic Formula

Steady-State Pure Slip

Formula: Longitudinal Slip (Pure Slip)

Figure 9. Longitudinal Slip Condition (Pure Braking/Traction)

V
x
V
sx

-F
x

F x = F x0 ( κ, F z ) (16)

F x0 = D x sin [ C x arc tan { B x κ x – E x ( B x κ x – arc tan ( B x κ x ) ) } ] + S Vx (17)

κ x = κ + S Hx (18)

γ x = γ ⋅ λ γx (19)
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Using the MF-Tyre Model

with coefficients:

C x = p Cx1 ⋅ λ Cx (20)

Dx = µx ⋅ Fz (21)

2
µ x = ( p Dx1 + p Dx2 df z ) ⋅ ( 1 – p Dx3 ⋅ γ x )λ µx (22)

2
E x = ( p Ex1 + p Ex2 df z + p Ex3 df z ) ⋅ { 1 – p Ex4 sgn ( κ x ) } ⋅ λ Ex ( ≤ 1 ) ) (23)

K x = F z ⋅ ( p Kx1 + p Kx2 df z ) ⋅ exp ( p Kx3 df z ) ⋅ λ Kx (24)

 K = B C D = ∂F x0
----------- at κ x = 0
 x x x x ∂κ x 

Bx = Kx ⁄ ( Cx Dx ) (25)

S Hx = ( p Hx1 + p Hx2 ⋅ df z )λ Hx (26)

S Vx = F z ⋅ ( p Vx1 + p Vx2 df z ) ⋅ λ Vx ⋅ λ µx (27)

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Using the MF-Tyre Model

Table 9. Longitudinal Coefficients, Pure Slip

Name used in tire

Name: Explanation:
property file:

pCx1 PCX1 Shape faxtor Cfx for longitudinal force

pDx1 PDX1 Longitudinal friction Mux at Fznom
pDx2 PDX2 Variation of friction Mux with load
pDx3 PDX3 Variation of friction Mux with camber
pEx1 PEX1 Longitudinal curvature Efx at Fznom
pEx2 PEX2 Variation of curvature Efx with load
pEx3 PEX3 Variation of curvature Efx with load squared
pEx4 PEX4 Factor in curvature Efx while driving
pKx1 PKX1 Longitudinal slip stiffness Kfx/Fz at Fznom
pKx2 PKX2 Variation of slip stiffness Kfx/Fz with load
pKx3 PKX3 Exponent in slip stiffness Kfx/Fz with load
PHX1 Horizontal shift Shx at Fznom
pHx1
PHX2 Variation of shift Shx with load
pHx2
PVX1 Vertical shift Svx/Fz at Fznom
pVx1 Variation of shift Svx/Fz with load
pVx2 PVX2

Formula: Lateral Slip (Pure Slip)

Figure 10. Lateral Slip Condition Excluding Aligning Torque (Pure Cornering)

V
x
α
V
-F y

V
sy
 25
Using the MF-Tyre Model

F y = F y0 ( α, γ , F z ) (28)

F y0 = D y sin [ C y arc tan { B y α y – E y ( B y α y – arc tan ( B y α y ) ) } ] + S Vy (29)

α y = α + S Hy (30)

the scaled camber angle:

γ y = γ ⋅ λ γy (31)

with coefficients:

C y = p Cy1 ⋅ λ Cy (32)

Dy = µy ⋅ Fz (33)

2
µ y = ( p Dy1 + p Dy2 df z ) ⋅ ( 1 – p Dy3 γ y ) ⋅ λ µy (34)

E y = ( p Ey1 + p Ey2 df z ) ⋅ { 1 – ( p Ey3 + p Ey4 γ y ) sgn ( α y ) } ⋅ λ Ey ( ≤ 1 ) (35)

K y = p Ky1 F z0 sin [ 2arc tan { F z ⁄ ( p ky2 F z0 λ Fz0 ) } ] ⋅ ( 1 – p Ky3 γ y ) ⋅ λ Fz0 ⋅ λ Ky

∂F y0
( ( = B y C y D y = ----------- at α y = 0 )
∂α y
(36)

By = Ky ⁄ ( Cy Dy ) (37)

S Hy = ( P Hy1 + P Hy2 df z ) ⋅ λ Hy + P Hy3 γ y (38)

S Vy = F z ⋅ { ( p Vy1 + p Vy2 df z ) ⋅ λ Vy + ( p Vy3 + p vy4 ⋅ df z ) ⋅ γ y } ⋅ λ µy (39)

26
Using the MF-Tyre Model

Table 10. Lateral Coefficients, Pure Slip

Name used in tire

Name: Explanation:
property file:

pCy1 PCY1 Shape factor Cfy for lateral forces

pDy1 PDY1 Lateral friction Muy
pDy2 PDY2 Variation of friction Muy with load
pDy3 PDY3 Variation of friction Muy with squared camber
pEy1 PEY1 Lateral curvature Efy at Fznom
pEy2 PEY2 Variation of curvature Efy with load
pEy3 PEY3 Zero order camber dependency of curvature Efy
pEy4 PEY4 Variation of curvature Efy with camber
pKy1 PKY1 Maximum value of stiffness Kfy/Fznom
pKy2 PKY2 Load at which Kfy reaches maximum value
pKy3 PKY3 Variation of Kfy/Fznom with camber
pHy1 PHY1 Horizontal shift Shy at Fznom
pHy2 PHY2 Variation of shift Shy with load
pHy3 PHY3 Variation of shift Shy with camber
pVy1 PVY1 Vertical shift in Svy/Fz at Fznom
pVy2 PVY2 Variation of shift Svy/Fz with load
pVy3 PVY3 Variation of shift Svy/Fz with camber
pVy4 PVY4 Variation of shift Svy/Fz with camber and load
 27
Using the MF-Tyre Model

Formula: Aligning Torque (Pure Slip)

Figure 11. Lateral Slip Condition Including Aligning Torque (Pure Cornering)

M
z

V
x
α
V

-F y
V
sy

′
M z = M z0 ( α, γ , F z ) (40)

M z0 = – t ⋅ F y0 + M zr (41)

with the pneumatic trail:

t ( α t ) = D t cos [ C t arc tan { B t α t – E t ( B t α t – arc tan ( B t α t ) ) } ] cos ( α ) (42)

α t = α + S Ht (43)

the residual torque:

M zr ( α r ) = D r cos [ arc tan ( B r α r ) ] cos ( α ) (44)

α r = α + S Hr (45)

S Hf = S Hy + S Vy ⁄ K y (46)
28
Using the MF-Tyre Model

the scaled camber angle:

γ z = γ ⋅ λ γz (47)

with coefficients:

2
B t = ( q Bz1 + q Bz2 df z + q Bz3 df z ) ⋅ ( 1 + q Bz4 γ z + q Bz5 γ z ) ⋅ λ Ky ⁄ λ µy (48)

C t = q Cz1 (49)

2
D t = F z ⋅ ( q Dz1 + q Dz2 df z ) ⋅ ( 1 + q Dz3 γ z + q Dz4 γ z ) ⋅ ( R 0 ⁄ F z0 ) ⋅ λ t (50)

2
E t = ( q Ez1 + q Ez2 df z + q Ez3 df z ) (51)

  2 
 1 + ( q Ez4 + q Ez5 γ z ) ⋅  --π- ⋅ arc tan ( B t ⋅ C t ⋅ α t )  ≤1
 

S Ht = q Hz1 + q Hz2 df z + ( q Hz3 + q Hz4 ⋅ df z )γ z (52)

B r = q Bz9 ⋅ λ Ky ⁄ λ µy + q Bz10 ⋅ B y ⋅ C y (53)

D r = F z ⋅ ( ( q Dz6 + q Dz7 ⋅ df z ) ⋅ λ r + ( q Dz8 + q Dz9 ⋅ df z ) ⋅ γ z ) ⋅ R o ⋅ λ µγ (54)

An approximation for the aligning stiffness reads:

∂M z
 ≈ – ----------
Kz = –t ⋅ Ky at α = 0 ) (55)
 ∂α 
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Using the MF-Tyre Model

Table 11. Aligning Coefficients, Pure Slip

Name used in tire

Name: Explanation:
property file:

qBz1 QBZ1 Trail slope factor for trail Bpt at Fznom

qBz2 QBZ2 Variation of slope Bpt with load
qBz3 QBZ3 Variation of slope Bpt with load squared
qBz4 QBZ4 Variation of slope Bpt with camber
qBz5 QBZ5 Variation of slope Bpt with absolute camber
qBz9 QBZ9 Slope factor Br of residual torque Mzr
qBz10 QBZ10 Slope factor Br of residual torque Mzr
qCz1 QCZ1 Shape factor Cpt for pneumatic trail
qDz1 QDZ1 Peak trail Dpt = Dpt*(Fz/Fznom*R0)
qDz2 QDZ2 Variation of peak Dpt with load
qDz3 QDZ3 Variation of peak Dpt with camber
qDz4 QDZ4 Variaion of peak Dpt with camber squared.
qDz6 QDZ6 Peak residual torque Dmr = Dmr/ (Fz*R0)
qDz7 QDZ7 Variation of peak factor Dmr with load
qDz8 QDZ8 Variation of peak factor Dmr with camber
qDz9 QDZ9 Variation of peak factor Dmr with camber and load
qEz1 QEZ1 Trail curvature Ept at Fznom
qEz2 QEZ2 Variation of curvature Ept with load
qEz3 QEZ3 Variation of curvature Ept with load squared
qEz4 QEZ4 Variation of curvature Ept with sign of Alpha-t
qEz5 QEZ5 Variation of Ept with camber and sign Alpha-t
qHz1 QHZ1 Trail horizontal shift Sht at Fznom
qHz2 QHZ2 Variation of shift Sht with load
qHz3 QHZ3 Variation of shift Sht with camber
qHz4 QHZ4 Variation of shift Sht with camber and load
30
Using the MF-Tyre Model

Magic Formula Steady-State Combined Slip

Figure 12. Combined Slip Condition (Combined Braking/Traction and Cornering)

M
z

V
x
α V
sx -F
V y
V
r
V
s
-F

V
sy

-F
x

Formula: Longitudinal Slip (Combined Slip)

F x = F x0 ⋅ G xα ( α, κ, F z ) (56)

with Gxα a weighting function.

We write:

F x = D xα cos [ C xα arc tan { B xα α s – E xα ( B xα α s – arc tan ( B xα α s ) ) } ] (57)

α s = α + S Hxα (58)
 31
Using the MF-Tyre Model

with coefficients:

B xα = r Bx1 cos [ arc tan { r Bx2 κ } ] ⋅ λ xα (59)

C xα = r Cx1 (60)

F xo
D xα = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
- (61)
cos [ C xα arc tan { B xα S Hxα – E xα ( B xα S Hxα – arc tan ( B xα S Hxα ) ) } ]

E xα = r Ex1 + r Ex2 df z (62)

S Hxα = r Hx1 (63)

The weighting function follows as:

cos [ C xα arc tan { B xα α s – E xα ( B xα α s – arc tan ( B xα α s ) ) } ]

G xα = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
- (64)
cos [ C xα arc tan [ B xα S Hxa – E xα ( B xα S Hxα – arc tan ( B xα S Hxα ) ) ] ]

Table 12. Longitudinal Coefficients, Combined Slip

Name used in tire

Name: Explanation:
property file:

rBx1 RBX1 Slope factor for combined slip Fx reduction

rBx2 RBX2 Variation of slope Fx reduction with kappa
rCx1 RCX1 Shape factor for combined slip Fx reduction
rEx1 REX1 Curvature factor of combined Fx
rEx2 REX2 Curvature factor of combined Fx with load
rHx1 RHX1 Shift factor for combined slip Fx reduction
32
Using the MF-Tyre Model

Formula: Lateral Slip (Combined Slip)

F y = F y0 ⋅ G yκ ( α, κ, γ , F z ) + S Vyκ (65)

with Gyk a weighting function and SVyk the 'κ-induced' side force can be written:

F y = D yκ cos [ C yκ arc tan { B yκ κ s – E yκ ( B yκ κ s – arc tan ( B yκ κ s ) ) } ] + S Vyκ (66)

κ s = κ + S Hyκ (67)

with coefficients:

B yκ = r By1 cos [ arc tan { r By2 ( α – r By3 ) } ] ⋅ λ yκ (68)

C yκ = r Cy1 (69)

F yo
D yκ = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
- (70)
cos [ C yκ arc tan { B yκ S Hyκ – E yk ( B yκ S Hyκ – arc tan ( B yκ S Hyκ ) ) } ]

E yκ = r Ey1 + r Ey2 df z (71)

S Hyκ = r Hy1 + r Hy2 df z (72)

S Vyκ = D Vyκ sin [ r Vy5 arc tan ( r Vy6 κ ) ] ⋅ λ Vyκ (73)

D Vyκ = µ y F z ⋅ ( r Vy1 + r Vy2 df z + r Vy3 γ ) ⋅ cos [ arc tan ( r Vy4 α ) ] (74)

The weighting function appears to read:

cos [ C yκ arc tan { B yκ κ s – E yκ ( B yκ κ s – arc tan ( B yκ κ s ) ) } ]

G yκ = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
- (75)
cos [ C yκ arc tan { B yκ S Hyκ – E yκ ( B yκ S Hyκ – arc tan ( B yκ S Hyκ ) ) } ]
 33
Using the MF-Tyre Model

Table 13. Lateral Coefficients, Combined Slip

Name used in tire

Name: Explanation:
property file:

rBy1 RBY1 Slope factor for combined Fy reduction

rBy2 RBY2 Variation of slope Fy reduction with alpha
rBy3 RBY3 Shift term for alpha in slope Fy reduction
rCy1 RCY1 Shape factor for combined Fy reduction
rEy1 REY1 Curvature factor of combined Fy
rEy2 REY2 Curvature factor of combined Fy with load
rHy1 RHY1 Shift factor for combined Fy reduction
rHy2 RHY2 Shift factor for combined Fy reduction with load
rVy1 RVY1 Kappa induced side force Svyk/Muy*Fz at Fznom
rVy2 RVY2 Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with load
rVy3 RVY3 Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with camber
rVy4 RVY4 Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with alpha
rVy5 RVY5 Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with kappa
rVy6 RVY6 Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with atan (kappa)

Formula: Aligning Torque (Combined Slip)

′ ′
M z = – t ⋅ F y + M zr + s ⋅ F x (76)

with:

t = t ( α t, eq ) (77)

= D t cos [ C t arc tan { B t α t, eq – E t ( B t α t, eq – arc tan ( B t α t, eq ) ) } ] cos ( α )

′
F y, γ =0 = F y – S Vyκ (78)

M zr = M zr ( α r, eq ) = D r cos [ arc tan ( B r α r, eq ) ] cos ( α ) (79)

34
Using the MF-Tyre Model

s = { s sz1 + s sz2 ( F y ⁄ F z0 ) + ( s sz3 + s sz4 df z )γ } ⋅ R 0 ⋅ λ s (80)

with the arguments:

Kx 2 2
α t, eq = arc tan tan 2 α t +  ------ κ ⋅ sgn ( α t ) (81)
 K y

Kx 2 2
α r, eq = arc tan tan 2 α r +  ------ κ ⋅ sgn ( α r ) (82)
 K y

Table 14. Aligning Torque, Combined Slip

Name used in tire

Name: Explanation:
property file:

ssz1 SSZ1 Nominal value of s/R0 effect of Fx on Mz

ssz2 SSZ2 Variation of distance s/R0 with Fy/Fznom
ssz3 SSZ3 Variation of distance s/R0 with camber
ssz4 SSZ4 Variation of distance s/R0 with load and camber

Formula: Overturning Moment

M x = R o ⋅ F z ⋅ { q Sx1 ⋅ λ Vmx + ( – q Sx2 ⋅ γ + q Sx3 ⋅ F y ⁄ F z0 ) ⋅ λ Mx } (83)

Table 15. Overturning Coefficients

Name used in tire

Name: Explanation:
property file:

qsx1 QSX1 Lateral force induced overturning couple

qsx2 QSX2 Camber induced overturning couple
qsx3 QSX3 Fy induced overturning couple
 35
Using the MF-Tyre Model

Formula: Rolling Resistance Torque

4
M y = R o ⋅ F z ⋅ { q Syl + q Sy2 F x ⁄ F z0 + q Sy3 V x ⁄ V ref + q Sy4 ( V x ⁄ V ref ) } (84)

If qsy1 and qsy2 are both zero, then the following is true (as in MF-Tyre 5.0):

M y = R 0 ( S Vx + K x ⋅ S Hx ) (85)

Table 16. Rolling Coefficients

Name used in tire

Name: Explanation:
property file:

qsy1 QSY1 Rolling resistance torque coefficient

qsy2 QSY2 Rolling resistance torque depending on Fx
qsy3 QSY3 Rolling resistance torque depending on speed
qsy4 QSY4 Rolling resistance torque depending on speed^4
Vref LONGVL Measurement speed

Transient Behavior
Figure 13. Stretched String Model for Transient Tire Behavior
φ V
elastic foundation
a α
a
σ
v2 v1
path of
contact points stretched string

Mz

Fy

Transient Model Equations

The present version, using slip speeds instead of α and κ, allows starting from stand-still.
First-order lag of tire longitudinal and lateral deformations u and v are introduced through
relaxation lengths σk and σa, see Figures 13:
36
Using the MF-Tyre Model

du
σ κ ------ + V x u = – σ κ V sx (86)
dt

dν
σ α ------ + V x ν = σ α V sy (87)
dt

These differential equations are based on the assumption that the contact points near the
leading edge remain in the adhesion with the road surface (no sliding). The relaxation
lengths (in this version not considered to decrease with increasing composite deformation
slip) are functions of the vertical load and camber angle represented in a similar way as
the slip stiffnesses Kx (Eq. 12) and Ky (Eq. 23).

σ κ = F z ⋅ ( p Tx1 + p Tx2 df z ) ⋅ exp ( – p Tx3 df z ) ⋅ ( R 0 ⁄ F z0 ) ⋅ λ σκ (88)

σ α = p Ty1 sin [ 2arc tan { F z ⁄ ( p Ty2 F z0 λ Fz0 ) } ] ⋅ ( 1 – p Ky3 γ ) ⋅ R 0 λ Fz0 λ σα (89)

The practical tire deformation slip quantities are defined as:

u
κ′ = ------ ⋅ sign ( V x ) (90)
σκ

ν
tan α′ = ------ (91)
σα

Equations (56), (65), (76), (83), and (84) are subsequently used with arguments κ’ and α’
from Equations (90) and (91) instead of the longitudinal and lateral wheel slip quantities
κ and α (Equations (9) and (10)).

F x = F x ( α′, κ′, F z ) (92)

F y = F y ( α′, κ′, γ , F z ) (93)

′ ′
M z = M z ( α′, κ′, γ , F z ) (94)
 37
Using the MF-Tyre Model

The Gyroscopic Couple

This moment due to tire inertia acting about the vertical axis reads:

dν
M z, gyr = c gyr m belt V rl ------ cos [ arc tan ( B r α r, eq ) ] (95)
dt

with parameter (in addition to the basic tire parameter mbelt):

c gyr = q Tzl ⋅ λ gyr (96)

and

cos [ arc tan ( B r α r, eq ) ] = 1 (97)

for pure cornering conditions.

The total aligning torque now becomes:

′
M z = M z + M z, gyr (98)
38
Using the MF-Tyre Model

Table 17. Coefficients, Transient Response

Name used in
Name: Explanation:
tire property file:

pTx1 PTX1 Relaxation length SigKap0/Fz at Fznom

pTx2 PTX2 Variation of SigKap0/Fz with load
pTx3 PTX3 Variation of SigKap0/Fz with exponent of load
pTy1 PTY1 Peak value of relaxation length Sig_alpha
pTy2 PTY2 Shape factor for Sig_alpha
qTz1 QTZ1 Gyroscopic torque constant
Mbelt MBELT Belt mass of the wheel

Switching from a Simple to a Complex Tire Model

MF-Tyre enables the user to switch from a simple tire model (for example only
calculations for steady state pure cornering slip conditions) to tire model for transient
combined slip situations. The parameter USE_MODE of the MF-Dataset determines the
type of use of the tire model. In the Table 18 the possible options of USE_MODE are
indicated. Note that the maximum valid USE_MODE depends on the tire test data used to
determine the MF-Dataset parameters (that is, if only tire test data for pure cornering is fit-
ted, the calculation of the contact forces under combined cornering and braking/traction
slip is not possible unless the user adds the required additional parameters).
 39
Using the MF-Tyre Model

Table 18. The Different USE_MODE Values of MF-Tyre.

USE MF-Tyre output

State: Slip conditions
MODE: (forces and torques)

0 spring - 0, 0, Fz, 0, 0, 0

1 steady pure longitudinal Fx, 0, Fz, 0, My, 0

state

2 steady pure lateral 0, Fy, Fz, Mx, 0, Mz

state

3 steady longitudinal and lateral (not Fx, Fy, Fz, Mx, My, Mz
state combined)

4 steady combined slip forces Fx, Fy, Fz, Mx, My, Mz

state

11 transient pure longitudinal Fx, 0, Fz, 0, My, 0

12 transient pure lateral 0, Fy, Fz, Mx, 0, Mz

13 transient longitudinal and lateral (not Fx, Fy, Fz, Mx, My, Mz
combined)

14 transient combined slip forces Fx, Fy, Fz, Mx, My, Mz

Some Practical Aspects

Rolling Resistance Torque

For a free rolling wheel at a constant forward velocity without camber and slip angle a
drag force (rolling resistance) is generated. Passenger car tires usually have a rolling
resistance coefficient between 0.7-1.2%; for truck tires the rolling resistance force is
usually around 0.5% to 0.7% of the vertical load. Note that the parameter qsy1 in equation
(80) determines the rolling resistance factor. According to the ISO sign convention this
drag force as well as the rolling resistance torque My have negative signs (qsy1 > 0).
40
Using the MF-Tyre Model

In order to reach equilibrium between the force and the torque on the wheel, in general a
small negative value for the longitudinal slip is obtained.

Typical Tire Characteristics

For pure slip conditions (either longitudinal or lateral) three typical graphs can be made:
1. Fx as a function of the longitudinal slip κ;
2. Fy as a function of the slip angle α;
3. Mz as a function of the slip angle α.
In Figures 14 and 15, examples of these characteristics valid for the W-axis system are
shown.
Figure 14. Longitudinal Force as a Function of Longitudinal Slip

8000
6000
4000

Fx 2000
0
-1.00 -0.50 0.00 0.50 1.00
-2000
-4000
-6000
-8000
κ

Figure 15. The Lateral Force and Self-Aligning Torque as a Function of the Slip Angle

8000 200
Fy (N)
6000 150
Mz (Nm)
4000 100
2000 50
Fy 0 0 Mz
-0.50 -0.30 -0.10 0.10 0.30 0.50
-2000 -50
-4000 -100
-6000 -150
-8000 -200
α
 41
Using the MF-Tyre Model

Effect of Camber Angle

According to the W-axis system, an increase of the camber angle causes a decrease of the
lateral force, as shown in Figure 16.
Figure 16. Tire Camber Angle and the Positive Direction of the Lateral Force
According to the W-Axis System (Rear View)

-Fy

Tire Model Output at Extreme Input Values

At extreme large input values, like a vertical load more than 3 times the nominal tire load,
a real physical tire might puncture or go to pieces. In the tire model measures have been
taken to avoid calculation errors or a computer simulation break down. Depending on your
simulation software the tire model warns the user when the input exceeds the validity
range of the MF-Dataset.
The tire property files, generated by MF-Tool, contain maxima and minima values for the
tire model input, defining the validity range of the MF-Dataset:
■ Fzmin and Fzmax for the vertical load Fz
■ Alpmin and Alpmax for the slip angle a
■ Cammin and Cammax for the camber angle g
■ Kpumin and Kpumax for the longitundinal slip k.