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A. Breakdown of glucose by (Glycolysis, Link reaction, Krebs cycle)

1. Glycolysis

3. Krebs Cycle

2. Link Reaction

Concept Content

Aerobic Respiration
1. Glycolysis
1 Hydrolysis (1) Breakdown of glucose to triose phosphate;
of ATP (2) In this process, energy is required to activate glucose for subsequent reactions;
(3) This energy is released from the hydrolysis of ATP
2 Formation (1) Each triose phosphate is subsequently oxidised to pyruvate (3-C) by losing hydrogen;
of ATP (2) The hydrogen is accepted by a oxidizing agent called NAD
(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) to form NADH (reduced NAD);
(3) During oxidation, the energy released is trapped by ADP and Pi to form ATP molecules.
3 Summary (1) One glucose is oxidized to two pyruvates;
(2) NADH and ATP molecules are also formed;
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(3) Glycolysis takes place in cytoplasm of the cell;
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Concept Content
2. Link Reaction
1 NO breakdown or (a) Carbon removed from pyruvate is converted into carbon dioxide;
formation of ATP (b) Hydrogen removed from pyruvate is accepted by NAD to form NADH.
Formation of ATP (c) The remaining 2-C part is then combined with coenzyme A to form acetyl-CoA.
2 Summary (1) Acetyl-CoA is formed which then enters the Krebs cycle;
(2) NADH is formed;
(3) Carbon dioxide formed is a kind of waste;
(4) It takes place in matrix of mitochondrion;
3. Krebs Cycle
2 ATP formation (a) 6-C compound is oxidized and finally regeneration of 4-C compound occurs;
(b) During the oxidation,
(1) Two carbon atoms are removed and released as carbon dioxide, and
(2) Hydrogens are removed by NAD to form NADH
(3) energy released is trapped by used to form ATP molecule;
3 Summary (1) ATP and NADH are formed;
(2) Carbon dioxide is formed;
(3) It takes place in matrix of mitochondrion;
4. Oxidative phosphorylation
1 Regeneration of (1) The NADH move to the inner membrane of mitochondria and
NAD (2) then lose their hydrogen, and NAD is regenerated and FAD respectively.
(3) This regenerates NAD and FAD that can be used to accept hydrogen in
Glycolysis, link reaction and Krebs cycle again.
2 Oxidative (1) Hydrogen released from NADH then split into hydrogen ions (H+) and
phosphorylation electrons (e-);
(2) The electrons pass through a series of electron carriers
(electron transport chain) located in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion;
(3) Finally, the electrons and hydrogen ions are accepted by oxygen to form water;
(4) As electrons pass from ETC, energy released in a step-wise manner
and is trapped by ADP and Pi to form ATP, oxidative phosphorylation;
3 Summary (1) ATP is formed;
(2) NAD is regenerated;
(3) It occurs in the
inner membrane of
mitochondrion;

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Concept Content

Anaerobic Respiration
Lactic Acid Fermentation
1 In the (A) If there is no oxygen
absence of (1) There is no final electron acceptor
oxygen to keep the electrons passing along the electron transport chain,
resulting in no formation of ATP
(2) There is no further regeneration of NAD from NADH;
(3) Glycolysis, link reaction and Krebs cycle will stop because of no supply of NAD;
(B) However, anaerobic pathways of respiration will start
(1) pyruvate is reduced by NADH into lactic acid;
(2) After the reduction of pyruvate, NAD is regenerated and
goes back glycolysis which then occurs continuously
(3) If glycolysis continuously occur, ATP is formed as glycolysis is taking place;
(4) All processes occur in the cytoplasm;
2 (A) Muscle cells are able to respire anaerobically for a short period
when the supply of oxygen is not fast enough to sustain high metabolic activities;
(B) Some other organisms (e.g yeast) can survive on anaerobic respiration when the supply of oxygen is low.
3 Vigorous (1) During vigorous exercise,
Exercise & oxygen may not be supplied fast enough for aerobic respiration to meet the energy demand;
extra energy (2) The muscle cells can then carry out aerobic respiration to have and
required lactic acid fermentation at the same time;
(3) From the lactic acid fermentation, this provides additional energy for muscle contraction.
Side effect (4) However, lactic acid is toxic and will make muscles fatigue;
of anaerobic (5) Lactic acid also lowers the pH of the body which can reduce the activities of enzymes;
respiration
Just after (6) Lactic acid is transported in the blood to the liver and converted back to pyruvate
exercise & (7) Just after vigorous exercise, the extra amount of oxygen is required
Oxygen debt to oxidize pyruvate to carbon dioxide and water;
(8) The extra amount of oxygen required to remove all the lactic acid
from anaerobic respiration is called the oxygen debt.

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1. Explain how the lack of mitochondria benefits the functioning of red blood cells. (3 marks)
Concept Content
1 No (1) A lack of mitochondria implies
mitochondria a lack of Krebs cycle and
in RBC oxidative phosphorylation;
2 No oxygen (2) No oxygen will be consumed; &
consumption (3) Red blood cell acts as
the oxygen carrier for oxygen transport;

2. Which method, sitting down or slow jogging, is more effective in removing lactic acid from the blood after
exercise? Based on your biological knowledge, explain why this method is more effective. (4 marks)
Concept Content
1 Keep a relative (1) Slow jogging; because
high rate of blood flow (2) slow jogging can maintain a relatively high rate of blood flow;
just after (3) which increases the rate of oxygen supply to the body;
a vigorous exercise (4) thus enhances the breakdown of lactic acid;

3. The average running speed in a marathon is usually much lower than that in a 100m race. Explain why it is not
possible fur marathon runners to run at the same average speed as a 100m runner throughout a marathon. (6)
Ans:
Concept Content
1 Reason for (1) because marathon runners have to run a long distance than 100 m runners,
running at their muscles need to sustain contractions for a longer time;
a lower speed (2) it is better to produce less lactic acid or less accumulation of lactic acid;
(3) Thus, when running a marathon, the relative percentage of aerobic respiration
should be higher than that of anaerobic respiration;
(4) resulting in less extra energy to support the high speed running in a marathon;
2 Reason for On the other hand,
running not (5) if they run at the speed of 100 m race,
at a high speed the oxygen supply to muscles will be insufficient;
(6) muscles will carry out anaerobic respiration to produce lactic acid;

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4. He planned to run at full strength for the first 1 hour. After 45 minutes, he felt dizzy and muscles started to
have cramping. Explain this phenomenon. (3 marks)
Ans:
Concept Content
1 Vigorous Ex. (1) Untense muscular contractions,
and anaerobic extra energy should be provided by anaerobic respiration;
respiration
2 Accumulation (2) lots of lactic acid is produced, which exceeds rate of removal of them from muscles;
of lactic acid (3) Net amount of lactic acid builds up in the muscles causing them to cramp;

5. He decided to join the marathon again with better preparation next time. In terms of the diet prior to the
competition and on the day of competition, what is your advice to him? (6 marks)
Ans:
Concept Content
1 Before (1) A week prior to competition, he should eat more starch-rich foods like bread;
competition, (2) This helps to build up glycogen stored in the liver
increase the as insulin stimulates the conversion of excess glucose into glycogen stored in the liver;
storage (3) During long-time exercise, the glycogen is converted into glucose to sustain the supply;
2 During (4) While on the day of competition, he should have foods and drinks with rich glucose;
competition (5) which is readily to be absorbed into bloodstream;
(6) to raise the blood glucose level rapidly for the use during the competition;

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6. (a) Explain the role of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in cellular metabolism. (3 marks)
(b) Describe how ATP is produced in three biochemical processes in mesophyll cells. (9 marks)
(c) List two animal cell types and one plant cell type where abundant ATP is required.
How is the ATP requirement related to the functions of these cells? (3 marks)

Concept Content
Role of ATP
1 The role of ATP ATP is energy carrier.
Since it is directly hydrolysed to release energy and
It is directly for ADP and Pi to trap energy to form ATP;
Ways for ATP formation
1 Glycolysis Glycolvsis, during the conversion of trios phosphate to pyruvate,
energy is released and is trapped by ADP and Pi to form ATP;
2 Oxidative In the presence of oxygen, oxidative phosphorylation occurs;
phosphorylation electrons from NADH will be transferred along the electron transport chain;
During this process, there is a step-wise release of energy;
energy is released and is trapped by ADP and Pi to form ATP;
3 Photo- During photo-phosphorylation;
phosphorylation chlorophyll absorbs light energy and the electron in the chlorophyll to be excited;
which then passes through a chain of electron carries;
There is a step-wise release of energy;
energy is released and is trapped by ADP and Pi to form ATP;
Uses of ATP
Cell Uses
1 Liver cell ATP is required for various metabolic processes, e.g. deamination
2 Muscle cell ATP is required for muscle contraction
3 Sperm ATP is required for the motility of the sperm
4 Meristematic ATP is required for anabolic processes that accompanies cell division
cell

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7. Both the chloroplast and the mitochondrion are involved in ATP production. In what ways are their ATP
production processes similar to each other and how do they differ? (12 marks)
ANS:
The chloroplast and the mitochondrion are involved in ATP production.
(A) Similarities
(1) ATP is produced when the electrons pass through the electron transport chain;
(2) The electron carriers participating in these reactions are located
at some internal membrane structures of the organelles,
namely the thylakoid membrane in chloroplast, and the cristae of the mitochondrion.

(B) Differences

Mitochondrion Chloroplast

Source of Chemical energy in food Light energy captured by chlorophyll

energy

Name; Oxidative phosphorylation Photophosphorylation

(1) NADH is produced from (1) Chlorophyll absorbs sunlight;
link reaction and Krebs cycle;

Source of (2) NADH is oxidized to release electrons (2) Then chlorophyll releases electrons
electrons; which then pass along which then pass along
the electron transport chain the electron transport chain;
ATP (3) During the electron transport, (3) During the electron transport,
formation
energy is released energy is released
which is trapped by ADP and Pi to form ATP which is trapped by ADP and Pi to form ATP

Substrate level phosphorylation:

While Krebs cycle is taking place,
the energy is released and
trapped by ADP and Pi to form ATP;

Electron NADH or FADH Water

donor

Final Oxygen NADP

electron
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acceptor
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8. Photosynthesis and respiration are two fundamental processes in controlling energy flow. Compare and contrast
them in terms of their energy transformation processes. (20 marks)
ANS:
Photosynthesis Respiration
1 Energy Light energy is transformed into Chemical energy in organic food
transformation chemical energy in organic food, is transformed into chemical energy in ATP,
e.g. glucose;
2 Reactions involved in energy transformation
a Activation Both involve an activation step
process and (1) Chlorophyll absorbs light energy; & (1) Glucose is activated by ATP;
product(s) (2) then high-energy electrons (2) The activated glucose will be oxidized
formed are activated and released; * to release energy which is used to form ATP;
* to generate reducing power NADH;
b Electron (1) both involve an electron transport system for the transfer of electrons
transport which are found on the membranes of organelles;
system and (2) during the electron transport, energy of the electrons is stepped down and released,
ATP synthesis this is coupled to synthesis of ATP from ADP and Pi.
(1) Electrons released (1) Electrons released
from chlorophyll from NADH and FADH
through a system of electron carriers and through a system of electron carriers and
eventually accepted by NADP eventually accepted by oxygen
to form NADPH; to form water;

(2) during this transport, ATP is (2) during the electron transport, ATP is
formed in the photophosphorylation formed in the oxidative phosphorylation;
c Further (1) Energy in ATP and NADPH is then
transformation used to assimilate carbon dioxide to form
of energy triose phosphate in the Calvin cycle;
from ATP and (2) Triose phosphate is then used to form
NADPH in hexose phosphate and subsequently
photosynthesis sucrose and starch;
(3) ATP is also used in RuBP
regeneration