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ABRAHAM LINCOLN’S WORLD
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WORLD uj'uJttfl/n o/ru$ iMm-taafcuJ Vsj

CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS

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 Copyright, 1944, by

GENEVIEVE FOSTEk

Printed in the United States o£ America

All rights reserved. No part of this book

may be reproduced in any form without

the permission of Charles Scribner’s Sons

 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This book is but a rearrangement of well-known historical facts.

It is based for the most part on material from encyclopedias, standard
textbooks on history and literature, autobiographies, letters, diaries, and
the numerous biographies of the principal characters to be found on the
shelves of almost any large library. In a few instances, however, I have
used the account as given by a single author, and I wish here to ac¬
knowledge my indebtedness. The ’'Story of Brazil” is adapted from
Amazon Throne by Bertita Harding, published by Bobbs Merrill. "A
Boy of China” was inspired by the Memoirs of Li Hung Chang by Wil¬
liam F. Mannix, a book which, though later found to be fictitious, was
highly praised by scholars as being a true reflection of Chinese life and
of the spirit of the Chinese statesman. Quotations are used by permission

of Constable and Company, Ltd., London. Queen Victoria’s story I be¬

lieved was best told in her own words; the excerpts from her journal are
used by permission from The Letters of Queen Victoria , published by
John Murray.
Admiral Perry has described in detail his expedition to Japan,

but the amusing term "Lord of the Forbidden Interior” I have borrowed
from Edward M. Barrows, who uses it in his biography, The Great Com¬
modore. I am sorry that out of the several hundred books I consulted,
there is not space to list even the ones I most enjoyed. They contain so
many fascinating incidents which had to be omitted, in order that all
of the many characters might be fitted together to form a picture of
their world. However, it is my hope that many readers may wish to fill
in this pattern or framework with further details, and so discover for
themselves some of the original stories and colorful old records.
G. F.
Evanston, Illinois.

V
 1
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.

• ■ .

•
 CONTENTS

PART I
PAGE

WHEN ABRAHAM LINCOLN WAS BORN IN KENTUCKY i

Telling how Napoleon, the "ogre” of Europe, married a princess, and

became the proud father of a son • Young Simon Bolivar vowed to
free his native land • "Old Hickory” fought the Indians • Moscow
went up in flames • Dolly Madison rescued George Washington’s por¬
trait • The Constitution became "Old Ironsides” • Napoleon was
banished • etc.
PART II

WHEN ABRAHAM LINCOLN WAS A BOY IN INDIANA 61

Telling how old Daniel Boone was crowded out by pioneers • Kit
Carson ran away to Santa Fe • La Fayette visited old friends in
America • Baby Victoria was named by her uncle, George IV • little

Charles Dickens worked in a blacking factory • Grant’s family drew

the name Ulysses out of a hat • Robert Lee grew up to love Vir¬
ginia • etc.
PART III

WHEN ABRAHAM LINCOLN KEPT STORE IN ILLINOIS 135

Telling how a young Frenchman served macaroni to an Egyptian

prince • David Livingstone set out for Africa • a wagon rattled over
the Rocky Mountains • Li Hung Chang went to school in China • Vic¬
toria became Queen of England • steamships raced across the Atlantic
Ocean • Texans were to "remember the Alamo” • gold was found
in California • etc.

vii
 PART IV

PAGE
WHEN ABRAHAM LINCOLN WAS A LAWYER FROM ILLINOIS 209

Telling how Prince Albert planned a Crystal Palace • Uncle Tom’s

Cabin was written • Bismarck plotted the downfall of Austria • Japa¬
nese first visited the United States • the Light Brigade made their

famous charge • Buffalo Bill rode the Pony Express • the "Devil’s
Wind” blew in India • Chicago built a "wigwam” • etc.

PART V

WHEN ABRAHAM LINCOLN WAS PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED

STATES 2S5

Telling how Fort Sumter was fired upon • an Emperor was forced
upon Mexico by Napoleon and Eugenie • Victoria became the widow
of Windsor • The Monitor battled the Merrimac • the President read
funny stories to his Cabinet • Hans Andersen became too sad to write
his wonder tales • the Civil War and Lincoln’s life ended together.

Vlll
 I 809

brFe uary,1809, just nine years after George Washington s life was
day
over, Abraham Lincoln’s life began. He was born on a Sun
. The
morning, the twelfth day of the month. A lonely day it was
h strange
cloud-swept sky was cold, and the forest trees spoke wit
lace, made of mud-
voices in the wind. A one-room cabin was his birthp
ng cut, not so long
plastered logs, standing stark and solitary on a cleari
before, into the wilderness of western Kentucky.
of its single
Only a film of daylight filtered through the oiled paper
stretched long waver¬
windowpane. Cold shadows filled the corners and
fire and dropped.
ing fingers toward the hearth. A log snapped in the
turned and drew the
Nancy Lincoln on her bed of saplings wakened,
IX
little son only a few hours old closer within the warm circle of her arm.
She saw now that he was thin and angular, not round and comforting as
his sister Sarah had been, but as she watched his even breathing, her
smile was tender, and when she lifted her eyes to the shadows, they were
warm and dark and full of dreams for him.
A sudden gust of wind spiraled down the chimney. The bear skin
flapped in the doorway, and with a whirl of snow in upon the hard dirt
floor came Dennis Hanks, nine years old, and completely breathless.
Tom had told them, he gasped. Aunt Betsy Sparrow was now on her
way, fetching a linsey shirt for the boy and a yeller petticoat, while he —
he’d run the whole two miles to see his new-born cousin! Where was
he? Who’d he look like and what was goin’ to be his name?
"Abraham, we flgur to call him, after his gran’pappy Linkorn.”
Nancy’s slow words were touched with pride as she lifted a corner of
the homespun coverlet to display the new arrival. One look left the
eager young visitor speechless with dismay.
"He’ll not come to much, I reckon,” he said finally, and, as if that
settled the matter, went over to the fire and sat down.
So it was that Abraham Lincoln came into the world — much the
same world that George Washington had known — the old slow-moving
one of sails and horses. But nine years of a new century had then passed
into history and a new age had begun.
Abraham Lincoln and people who were young when he was were
to see the modern world come into being. They would see new nations
formed, new lands opened up, new struggles for freedom won. And they
would see the first of those marvelous inventions that were to change

man’s life completely. They would see first the steamboat, then the rail¬
road, then the telegraph and cable so shorten time and distance as to
weave more closely together than ever before the lives of people and
nations into a single story.
This book tells the story of that changing world. It weaves together
again the dreams and deeds and adventures of people in every land
during those years that measured the life of Abraham Lincoln.

x
 PART ONE :WHEN

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 NAPOLEON

The world’s most famous man, the most loved and the most
hated, most extravagantly admired and most fearfully despised
was Napoleon, self-made Emperor of France, master of all
Europe and most powerful ruler in the world in the year 1809.
Far in the backwoods of America, even people who could scarcely read
or write like Tom and Nancy Lincoln must have heard his name, for it
was echoed everywhere — Napoleon — Napoleon — no longer Napoleon
Bonaparte — but now in the fashion of all monarchs, simply Napoleon,
Emperor of the French.
For years past, like a human volcano, he had been turning Europe
upside down in a terrible upheaval that had shaken the whole world.
5
 the conti-
Slashing right and left with his sword, he had tramped about
wiped out
nent, winning one lightning battle after another. He had
borderlines, made new nations out of old, sent kings tumbling from
their thrones, or scooting from their kingdoms, and then set their empty
crowns upon the heads of his own brothers. Still he was not satisfied.
"I cannot stand still,” he said. "A king, however stupid, who comes
of royal blood, may fail and still be king — but I, whom they call a
usurper, I must pile one success upon another if I am to last!
Other nations he had thrown into panic, but in France Napoleon
had turned his energy and his brilliant mind to bringing order out of
chaos. He had straightened out the laws, and replaced an old incompre¬
hensible muddle with an orderly system, known as the Code Napoleon,
which secured to the people of France the equality they had fought for
in the Revolution. He founded a National Bank, improved schools, en¬
couraged trade and factories. The prestige of France, the fame and
fortune of her emperor were at the peak. Still Napoleon was not satis¬
fied. The passionate desire of his heart had so far been denied him.
Back and forth he paced in his shining black boots across the throne
room of the Tuileries, on the last morning in November. Back and forth,
crossing a shaft of sunlight and the square of brighter green it marked
upon the emerald carpet. One hand was in the opening of his blue coat,
the other held behind him, his head thrust forward and his mind intent
upon the realization of his great desire.
Marie Louise of Austria was his proper choice — no doubt of that!
Austria! He spoke the name aloud. Proud Austria, once so powerful,
how he had defeated her! Four times had he humbled her proud emperor.
And again Austria had risen — just this past spring of 1809. Again he
had beaten her to her knees. Again Francis I, proud Hapsburg that he
was, had had to sue for peace — and Austria was once more subdued. But
for how long? How long would Austria remain subdued and France
supreme? How long would anything he had accomplished last if he had
no heir to follow him as Napoleon II? Therein lay his great desire.
His own future — the future of France — demanded that he have a
6
son! And that son, if he were to be secure upon the throne, must come of
a royal mother, and who more royal or more promising or more wholly
suitable could there be than seventeen-year-old Marie Louise, princess
of the oldest and haughtiest royal house in Europe? Marie Louise, then,
should be his bride. Her Papa Francis would not dare refuse.
The difficulty lay elsewhere. To marry Marie Louise meant that he,
Napoleon, must divorce his Empress Josephine. That thought brought
him to a stop abruptly. Then he turned sharply on his heel. This was a
business of the head, he told himself, and not the heart. Josephine, how¬
ever much he cared for her, in thirteen years of marriage had given him
no son. What if she was still glamorous and beautiful, she was no longer
young. She had been a widow with two children when he married her,
and now she was old — six years older than he was. She would not have
another child, and if she should, it would not be of royal blood, for
Josephine was not a princess. Imperative it was, therefore, that Josephine
should be divorced. Unfortunate, truly, but imperative. The decision
made, Napoleon dismissed it from his mind, flung himself upon a sofa,
and, as he had trained himself to do, fell instantly asleep.
Josephine wept and fainted, but two weeks later on December the
sixteenth, the decree was final, and by early spring, Napoleon was look¬
ing forward eagerly to the arrival of her successor.
Marie Louise wept also when she heard her fate, the dreadful fate

of a princess who had to marry an ogre, for was she not to marry Napo¬
leon, the enemy of her country, the ogre of Corsica, the very devil him¬
self! There was nothing for her to do, however, but dutifully accept her

papa’s choice. So eventually, after being married to him in a magnificent

ceremony, in which his part was acted by her uncle, Marie Louise set
out from Vienna bound for Paris to become Napoleon’s bride.
It was spring, the same time of year that, forty years before, her
great Aunt Marie Antoinette had set out upon the self-same journey. In
the same woods outside of Paris she too was to meet her bridegroom.
Meanwhile an eager and excited forty-year-old bridegroom had
been making most elaborate preparations for the welcome and the wed-
7
ding. Growing with each hour more impatient, when the actual day
arrived, he would stand no more on royal etiquette. Jumping into a plain

two-wheeled carriage, he drove off at top speed and met the bridal pro¬
cession on the highway, in a perfect downpour of rain.

Dripping wet, he burst open the door of his lady’s carriage, stepped
in, seated himself beside her, kissed her hand, her cheeks, her mouth,

her throat. Then he held her at arm’s length and looked at her. What he
saw was a pink-and-white girl with round blue eyes, plump cheeks, and
a full red mouth, which he kissed again. She gasped, and giggled, and
then looked well at this most amazing person — this most irresistible
lover. She touched the miniature which hung about her neck, and smiled.

'Aour portrait does not do you justice, Sire,” she said.

One year later, on the twentieth of March, 1811, the Emperor’s son
was born. Napoleon was beside himself with joy. Plans were begun at
once for the formal christening and when it was held in June in Notre
Dame Cathedral it was a gorgeous spectacle, and a masterpiece of perfect
timing. Astronomers had calculated exactly when the sun would reach a
certain window. Exactly at that moment Napoleon, splendid in royal
purple, held the infant high in his arms before the altar. To the amazement
of the people, like a blessing from heaven, the sun streamed in, and, span-
ning the nave of the great cathedral, fell directly upon the Emperor and

his child! That ray of sunlight marked the peak of Napoleon’s self made
glory but it also cast the shadow of his downfall. It was the last of his
calculations that did not go astray.
In due time the baby cut a tooth, to the delight and amazement of his
father, for Napoleon was a fond and doting papa. He idolized his little
son and finally could not resist having him taken secretly to Josephine,
that she too might see the wonderful child who was to be the next emperor
of France. It was indeed a very beautiful baby boy that Josephine saw,

one who would be called by his father’s name for a few years, but who
would never rule as Napoleon II.

Strangely enough, it was not Napoleon’s son, but the grandson of

Josephine who was to become the next Emperor of France. . . .
8
 THE NEXT EMPEROR

C> Napoleon loved his grandmama Josephine. She was soft and
beautiful and smelled of violets. On every visit he threw his arms
about her neck and covered her face with kisses. Then she would
give him a sugar cane to suck, let him pick all the flowers he
wanted in the conservatory, and choose sweet biscuits from the box. And
when the visit was over she always said,

"Bring this pet of mine to see me oftener, Hortense.”

Hortense was his mother. She was beautiful, too. Her skin was even
smoother, and Louis could hardly tell which one he loved to kiss the
most. He could never make up his mind to choose between other nice

things, either. He couldn’t tell whether he liked violets or roses best, or

what he wanted to do when he grew up — sell violets like the boy who
stood on the corner by the Tuileries, or become a soldier. Flowers made

you quiver inside, but soldiers made you tingle outside. Especially sol¬
diers of the imperial guard. Two of them always stood by the grand

staircase in grandmama Josephine’s palace. One day Louis tiptoed out

of the drawing room and walked boldly up to them.

"I can do that too,” he said. "I have a little gun.”

9
 One guard laughed. "The commands, can you give them also?”
"Present arms, shoulder arms, carry arms,” said Louis proudly,
while to his great delight the soldiers went through the motions with
sweet bis¬
exaggerated gravity. Louis ran quickly to the box where the
cuits were kept and brought one to reward each guard.
"Merci, Monseigneur,” they said. . . . Thank you, your high¬
well, thought Louis Napoleon, that his mother had not
ness! It was
heard them. She never let the servants call him by that title, and so she
might also have corrected the guards. He should not want those fine
soldiers to think they had made any mistake. Besides, he wondered, why
shouldn’t they call him that? His uncle Napoleon was the Emperor. His
grandmother was an Empress, his mother was a queen. So why should
to be just plain Louis ?— nobody better than anyone else. Who was he,
anyway, he wondered. This much was all he knew about it:
When his mother, Hortense, was a little girl, her father had died
and her mother (his grandmama Josephine) had married his uncle
Napoleon and become the Empress. When his mother Hortense had

grown up she had married Napoleon’s brother Louis and become a

queen, because Uncle Napoleon had then made his brother Louis King
of Holland. King Louis (his, Louis Napoleon’s papa) had not ruled
Holland to suit his brother Napoleon, so he had had to give back his
crown, and had gone somewhere else to live ... far away from Paris.
Grandmama Josephine must also have done something to displease
his uncle, the small boy believed. She could not live in Paris either. One
day it looked to Louis Napoleon as though she had been weeping. He
ran to her, and that day she hugged and kissed him more than usual,
told him never to forget that his uncle was the great emperor Napoleon.
She hoped, she said, that her little Louis would never know anything
but good fortune, and so be always happy.

"You would spoil him, mama dear,” his mother said. "Far better to
teach him to be able to meet either good or evil fortune with high spirit.

That is worth more than a crown.”

Josephine sighed. Little Louis Napoleon had stopped listening.
io
* ★

BECAUSE OF ENGLAND AND NAPOLEON

homas Jefferson was still President of the United States when

Abraham Lincoln was born, but he was tired and worn and
utterly discouraged over a problem he had failed to solve. March
it- 9, 1809, his last day in office, found him seated at his desk, an
important document before him waiting for his signature. His Embargo
had failed. It had to be repealed. He dipped his pen, then hesitated and
sat gazing out of the window. His lean, bent figure in its slate blue coat
and his sandy grey hair were outlined against small panes of glass upon
which a wailing March wind blew thin slanting needles of rain.
Troubled thoughts swept him back over his eight years as President,
eight years in which Napoleon had shaken the United States and
changed its future both for good and evil. In 1803, needing money to
start war on England, Napoleon had been willing to sell the great tract
of land known as the Louisiana Purchase, and Thomas Jefferson had
thus been able to double the territory of the United States. Satisfaction
over that bargain, however, had been completely overshadowed, after
the war had started, by the damage done to the ships of the United States
by both France and England. A terrific problem had arisen of how to
protect the rights of the United States and yet keep the country out of
war. In March, 1809, the problem was still unsolved and the future looked
black to Thomas Jefferson. Sadly discouraged, he turned at last from the
11
 come
window, dipped his pen again and signed his name. What would
next, he wondered. . . . Would it be war with England? . . .

War with the United States, if it came, could be but a minor issue to
England, already engaged in a battle for her life. Napoleon for years
had been determined in one way or another to conquer England, and
England, equally determined, had managed so far to stand against him.
People said it was like a battle between an elephant and a whale.

For while Napoleon’s strength lay in his army, England’s was in her
navy. Napoleon was master of the continent, but England was mistress
of the sea. And a channel of water lay between them.

"Let me be master of that channel for six hours only,” said Napo¬
leon, "and England is ended!”
In 1803-1804 therefore, Napoleon spent his Louisiana money on
ships. He gathered fifteen hundred of them and twice as many men at
Dunquerque and Boulogne, and made plans to cross the channel. The
plans were fantastic. So too was his confidence in carrying them out.
He even had Victory medals for his soldiers made in Paris ready to be
12
given out in London. Meanwhile, the English people, terribly alarmed,
kept up their courage by poking fun at Napoleon and the whole idea.
"Y)u’re coming? \ou be damned!” John Bull is seen shouting in
the old cartoon. "Yes, damnye, Little Boney, why don’t ye come out?”
Finally "Boney” did come out — that is he ordered his fleet to sail
for England, but the English fleet, on the alert, forced the French ships
back into a Spanish harbor. When they ventured forth again, it was to
be defeated in the famous battle off Cape Trafalgar, in October, 1805.
Admiral Lord Nelson was commander of the English. From his

flagship he had flown the words "England expects every man to do his
duty.” Then the four-hour battle began. Nelson died before it was over,
but not before he knew that victory was won, the danger of invasion
past, and England was still mistress of the sea.

After that battle, it was a different story, and a new kind of war.
Napoleon talked no more about invading England. Instead he deter¬
mined to defeat her by starvation. He struck at her commerce, and Eng¬
land struck back in the same way. It was then 1806. Napoleon declared
a blockade of Europe from the Baltic Sea to the Mediterranean. All
trade with England was forbidden. No ship from England was to be

admitted to any port of France or any country under Napoleon’s control.

"Blockade, indeed,” retorted England. "Then it shall be a complete
blockade. Any ship, of any nation, caught carrying goods to any port

in Napoleon’s Empire will be seized by the British as a prize of war.”

Trade was crippled. Every country in Europe suffered. So did the
United States. All during the war, up to this time, American ships had
been active in the prosperous business of carrying supplies to Europe.
Then suddenly ship after ship was seized by England. (England more
than France, because England, of course, had the ships to do it.) Not
 were seized and
only United States ships, but also United States sailors
to
forced into the British service. England had always claimed the right
g
search American ships to find deserters from her navy, and, nevei havin
mistake!
enough sailors, it was very easy to take along a few extra— by
nd,
A cry of indignation rose from the United States, but Engla
a cry for war. "Not
fighting for her life, gave no heed to it. So there rose
a remedy. It was a last
war,” pleaded Thomas Jefferson. War was never
So
resort. Let them try to secure justice by other methods first, he urged.
. . . other methods were tried.
One was the embargo. That was an act passed by Congress in 1807
which said that all ships of the United States must stay home and keep
out of trouble. Not a ship engaged in foreign trade was to leave any port
France
for any reason whatsoever. That did not work. England and
no
managed to get along somehow without American goods and paid
attention. The merchants of Boston and other American seaport towns
the
were frantic. There in the harbors stood the ships, with barrels over
masts, and sails gathering dust and cobwebs, while they, the owners,
went bankrupt. Counting houses shut up, clerks were out of work, grass
could barely
was growing on the wharves. Even small fishing smacks
s were held
get permission to go out for mackerel. Indignation meeting
to be
in the town halls, and rebellion was mentioned. At last it had
the ills
admitted by even those who had been most hopeful that to cure
of the United States by that method was likely to kill the patient.
That last dismal day in office, therefore, found Thomas Jefferson
signing his name to the repeal of the Embargo.

14

What would the United States do now to protect her ships and seamen?
Would war be the answer? That was not for Thomas Jefferson to say. It
was now up to the new Congress and the new President, James Madison.
 YOUNG CREOLES OF VENEZUELA

. nd now, in the first year of Abraham Lincoln’s life, Spain’s

/X colonies in the New World, jarred into action by Napoleon
and the upheaval that he caused in Spain, began their fight for
J \ independence. Since the daysthanof anyColumbus, Spain had ruled
/—

more of the two American continents other nation, always with

the policy that the most profitable way to rule her colonies was to keep
the people ignorant and oppressed. Native Indians and Negroes brought
from Africa were slaves; Spaniards, no matter how high their rank, if
American-born, were allowed to hold no important office in the govern¬
ment and were disdainfully spoken of as Creoles by the Governors sent
out from Spain to rule over them. The situation had become unbearable
to some of the younger men of South America. Fired by the success of
15
the North American Revolution, they plotted secretly and continually
for the day when their country, too, might gain its independence.
Young men of Caracas, the capital city of Venezuela, often met at the
estate of their friend, young Simon Bolivar, now that he had returned
from Europe. There they would lounge in the cool of the patio until the
sun had set and the slaves had left the coffee and indigo fields. Going in

at twilight, they would draw their dark, carved, high-backed Spanish

chairs about the dinner table, lit by many candles, and talk on through
the night.
Like the others, Simon Bolivar had been born in Venezuela, but in
1800 when he was seventeen, his uncle had sent him to visit Europe.
There young Simon had done and seen everything that there was for a
handsome, charming, carefree, fabulously wealthy young nobleman to do
in the gay world of Paris or Madrid. At last, after almost ten years of
playing, he had grown completely bored with his useless life. He was
eager for something to do, something that would bring him glory!
It was then that Humboldt turned the attention of the young South
American back to his native country. The great German scientist had
just returned to Paris from an exploring trip in Venezuela.
"Ach,” said he, "what possibilities lie in that wonderful land of
yours! If it only could be freed from the yoke of Spain! But ah, the

leader, the man who will do it— where is he?’’

Some weeks later to that question that had been ringing in his ears,
Simon Bolivar spoke the answer — not to Humboldt, but to his old tutor,
Rodriguez, the man who had first pointed out to him the injustice with
which Spain ruled her colonies. Simon had been but ten when Rodriguez
had become his tutor. As they tramped the mountain paths of Venezuela

together, the boy had been taught by him about man’s age-long fight for
freedom, and of his right to liberty, equality and justice. Memories of

those teachings flooded Simon Bolivar’s mind when there in Europe, ten
years later, he met old Rodriguez again, and went with him on a walking
trip to Italy.
Late one afternoon they sat on the Aventine hill, looking down on
the ruins of old Rome — that city of great conquerors and emperors—
but also city of slaves, oppressed by tyrants! Suddenly it became clear to
Simon Bolivar what he wanted to do with his life. He rose to his feet and
faced the red clouds of the western sky.

"Rodriguez,” he said, "I swear before you that I shall never allow

j6
my hands to be idle or my soul to rest, until I have broken the chains

which bind my fatherland to Spain.”

So Simon Bolivar had returned to Venezuela — to that land where
a few young aristocrats talked of freedom, where most of the people,
Indian, Negro and halfbreed, had not the vaguest idea what the word
meant, and where the older Spaniards still believed as they had been

taught to believe that "next to God they must honor the King of Spain.”
It was by expressing this old loyalty to the King, and not by rebel¬
ling against him, that the war for South America’s freedom began.
One day about a year after Simon Bolivar had returned from
Europe, the startling news reached Caracas that Napoleon had invaded
Spain. He had forced the old king Carlos IV to abdicate in favor of his
son Fernando VII, and then tricked Fernando into giving up the crown,
and had put his own brother Joseph Bonaparte on the throne as King.
At that outrage the people of Spain had rebelled. They had driven
out Joseph Bonaparte, and formed a Junta or Congress, to govern until
their rightful King Fernando was restored to them. The people of
Venezuela were also loyal and also infuriated at the insult.

"Down with the tyrant Napoleon!” they cried, "Long live Fer¬
nando!” they cheered, marching the streets with flags and images.
The young liberal leaders had no use for Fernando, nor any wish to
take orders from any Junta in Spain. What they wanted was independ¬
ence, but, undecided how to gain it, they merely talked and waited.

Months passed. Then came news that Napoleon had crushed the rebel¬
lion in Spain, put Joseph back as King, and wiped out the Junta.
"That means,” cried the young radicals, "that, if there is no longer

a Spanish government, Venezuela is free!”

'
17 d of them, in a meet¬
They spent an exciting night, about one hundre
ing in Caracas. No more need now for the governor from Spain, was
their decision. A Junta of their own citizens should now make the laws
for them! Next day, just before High Mass in the cathedral, they
marched to the Governor’s residence, escorted him to the harbor, put
him aboard a vessel and shipped him back to Spain. That day was Holy
Thursday, the highest, most solemn church festival of the year, the
Thursday before Easter, 1810. It was a day the people of Venezuela were
to have more than one reason to remember.

SHIPS AND TRIPS AND BUSINESSMEN

N ew York was a town of 60,0 0 people in the year 1809, and

although it was growing, no one believed it would ever be
as large as Philadelphia — almost no one, that is, except one
sharp-eyed tight-fisted little man who had a hunch that it
would keep on spreading up the island, and had just purchased another
piece of property beyond the outskirts, a farm near the place where
Broadway now crosses 52nd Street. This shrewd investor with the taste
for real estate was John Jacob Astor, the first poor immigrant boy to
land in America, start with a pack on his back and become a millionaire.
 John Jacob Astor had made his money selling furs. In the beginning
he had tramped the forest trails himself. Every summer he left home with
a huge pack on his back filled with gunpowder, hatchets, knives, snuff,
blue beads, tobacco, petticoats, rum and all kinds of cheap trinkets that
he could trade to the Indians for far more than they were worth. By fall
his pack would be full of glossy skins: mink, raccoon, muskrat, fox and,
most desirable of all, the beaver.

Twenty years had passed since then. His American Fur Company
was now a big concern. Other men tramped the trails, beat the furs for
John Jacob Astor and sailed his ships to China. The Chinese wanted
furs, the Americans wanted tea. So furs went to China and tea came
back and there was profit, big wonderful profit at both ends of the trip.

On one voyage alone Mr. Astor’s ship the beaver made $200,000 for
him. It was the year of the Embargo. Just because other merchants let
their ships be tied up at the dock to gather dust was no reason why he too
should be a dummkopf. So a trick played on the United States govern¬
ment got the beaver off for China. Now that the Embargo had been re¬
pealed, and all ships could go freely back and forth to the Orient, times
were very good for Mr. Astor.
A new law had now been passed by Congress, which said that ships
from the United States might trade with any country except France or

England. Troubles therefore were not over for merchants like Washing¬
ton Irving’s brothers, whose business was importing English hardware.
They were much concerned about the future, and in the winter of 1811
decided to send their young brother Washington to report first hand on
what new regulations, if any, were being made by Congress under
President Madison.

Washington Irving shared an apartment 19with a young man who was

te
also to be sent in the near future on a business trip, but in the opposi
direction. He was employed, as it happened, by Mr. John Jacob Astor,
Great Lakes
and was to make a tour of the fur-trading posts along the
rivals, the North¬
to report any trouble that might have arisen with their
Indian traders.
west Fur Company of Canada, or with some of the
 Washington Irving left first, writing his friends
about his trip, which he managed to enjoy from
start to finish. Others might worry about business,
but young Irving gave no thought to it whatsoever
after he boarded the stagecoach. He was twenty-six
years old, light-hearted and clever, but with no taste
for business, so why think about it? A four-day jour¬
ney by stagecoach in the dead of winter was none too agreeable either,
if one’s mind was on it.

"So I made up my mind,” he said later, "to be pleased with every¬

thing, or if not pleased to be amused.”
As good humor is contagious, the fellow passengers found one
another surprisingly agreeable, and the journey not at all unbearable.
A very pleasant stopover was made at Baltimore, where a French¬
man was delighted to meet the author of that most amusing book,

Knickerbocker’ 's History of New York which he had recently translated

into French.

"My first book,” said Irving, also delighted, "published as you

know about Christmas, 1809.”
Two days out of Baltimore, the charming traveler, successful young
author though very indifferent businessman, arrived in Washington. It
was about dusk when the coach rolled into the muddy unpaved streets
of the little town of only two or three thousand people, and drew up
before the Inn. Too late it was for business, but not too late to attend the

reception of Dolly Madison, America’s most popular hostess, and wife

of the President.

"I put on my pease blossoms and silk stockings,” Irving wrote, "and
in a few minutes emerged into the blazing splendour of Mrs. Madison’s
drawing room, and inside of ten minutes found myself hand in glove
with half the people in the assemblage. Mrs. Madison is a fine portly
buxom dame, who has a pleasant word for everybody — but as to Jemmy
Madison — Ah! Poor Jemmy he is but a withered little applejohn.”
Poor James Madison, indeed! He was in a tight spot those days. A
20
man of peace, faced with declaring or not declaring war, and either
way antagonizing one section of the country. For the country was
divided. The south and west were for war, the northeast against it.
Washington Irving heard both sides of the question, as he went about
the Capital, met and dined with new and old friends in both parties.

"Let us keep peace,” he heard the old Federalists of New England

say, "we’ve our business to look after. What would we gain by war?”
"Just what we are losing by peace,” retorted the young Republican-
Democrats of the south and west. "Our commerce, our character — our
honor! For those we must fight!”
"In both parties,” wrote Irving, "I find worthy and intelligent men
with honest hearts, enlightened minds and bitter prejudices.” As the
weeks went on he saw the bitterness increase.
Toung men of the west accused the men of New England of being
white-livered and cowardly. A New Englander called the young men of
the west a pack of screeching war hawks. That was what they were, War
Hawks, war hawks was a name that stuck.

Two of the leading war hawks, young men about Washington Irv¬
ing’s age, had entered the House of Representatives that year and were
to play important parts in American politics for the next forty years.
JOHN c. calhoun of North Carolina and henry clay of Ken¬

tucky. Both were over six feet tall, otherwise not at all alike. John Cal¬
houn, someone said, was a cast-iron man who looked as if he had never
been born! He was deadly serious, never saw anything funny. His words
were hard, flat and exact like footsteps on stone.

Henry Clay was loose jointed and flex¬

ible in body and spirit, with a curved mouth

like a jack-o’-lantern and a voice that had all

the charm of a pied piper’s flute. In his first
speech in Congress he made it ring through
the hall with an almost irresistible call to arms!

War feeling kept rising and by summer it looked as though Madi¬

son, although a man of peace, might be swept along with the tide.
21
 By summer Washington Irving had returned to New York, to find
his brother’s business no better, his apartment empty and his friend gone
on the trip west.
Letters from him soon came from Mackinac, telling how the Indians
were suffering because the goods to which they were accustomed were
no longer allowed to be imported from England.

"I am surrounded by a score of Indian Traders,” he wrote, "who,

cut off from their accustomed supplies from the Company, are as desper¬
ate as so many famished wolves. The whole blame will be thrown
upon the Am. Govt. The British Government have a regular Indian
department & distribute cloathing to upwards of Ten Thousand Indians
annually. You may form an opinion of the popularity of the two govern¬
ments and how easy it is to overrun the cup of bitterness.

"This letter will be accompanied by two genuine Indian Orations

that convey a faithful picture of their present distress. Show old Astor

the speeches if he wants to see them.”

Old Astor now had his mind on another venture . . . another

trading post much farther away than Mackinac was from New York City,
but much nearer to China. A post from which his ships could go directly
back and forth across the Pacific. The new post, named astoria, was
founded that year, 1811, near the mouth of the Columbia River in the far

northwest. It was not to remain long in Astor’s possession, but by this

one and only business venture of his that failed, John Jacob Astor quite
unintentionally was to render his country a service.
When the time came, the fact that Astoria had been founded by one
of its citizens was to strengthen the claim of the United States to the
territory known as Oregon.

22
 I

7^ r"!' 7^
TECUMSEH — THE FALLING STAR

The smel of dying campfires hung in the night air. The haze of
Indian summer folded the sleeping village of Tippecanoe, the
last Indian village to be built in Indiana. Tecumseh, Shawnee
chieftain, sat with his brother the Prophet on a high bank above
the Wabash. As they watched the great orange circle of the harvest moon
rise above the willows, they planned the future of their people.
23
"When day comes, I shall go,” said Tecumseh, "on my journey. To
the Cherokees I go, to the brave Creeks in Alabama, to all the tribes east
of the Great River. Let us council together, I shall say to them, stand

together — fight together against the treacherous white man.”

"Also urge upon them the old wisdom of our fathers,” said the
Prophet huskily. Gold hoops quivered in his ears, and his one eye glit¬
tered in the moonlight. "Urge them to forsake the White Man’s evil way
of living, to go back to the good way of the Red Man. Dress again in
skins and hunt once more with bow and arrow, that the Great Spirit may
smile again upon his chosen people. For out of his brain did he not make

the Red Man, and out of his hand and legs the lowly White Man?”
"Lowly man — man of lying tongue is the White Man,” said
Tecumseh. "False promises they make — people of the white nation. With
smooth talk they cheat us of our land. Our lone tribe against them can do

nothing. Therefore until I return, keep peace with them, my brother.”

As the moon slipped into the wide spaces of the sky, Tecumseh
repeated the solemn words of warning, and the Prophet promised to risk
no quarrel with Governor Harrison, the white chief of Indiana.
It was midwinter when, the long journey over, Tecumseh was hope¬
fully returning from the Council Fire of the Creeks to the village on the
Wabash. Near the Illinois he learned that he need go no farther. The
village was gone. Tippecanoe had been burned to ashes.
The Prophet, his brother, told him the tale of misunderstanding and
disaster. He told how Governor Harrison at Ft. Vincennes had sent for
more soldiers — how he, the Prophet, had gone to assure the Governor
that the Indians were friendly. How when he had left Vincennes, white
settlers told the Governor that the Indians had stolen their horses, and
when they rode after them with rifles, the Indians had fired back. How
Governor Harrison had then marched on Tippecanoe with drums and
many thousand soldiers, defeated the braves and burned their village.
And so when the next harvest moon rose above the Wabash, the high
bank was deserted. No smoke from campfires mingled with the haze.
No heads raised their dark hatchet shadows 24against the sky. Traveling
north Tecumseh had found welcome in Canada, and offered his services
to the British, hoping to gain a permanent homeland for his people.
It was not to be. The brave Indian’s fate was forecast in his Shawnee
name, Tecumseh, which meant "Falling Star.” White men, from now
on, not Indian braves, would sleep beneath the moon in Indiana.
 SAM HOUSTON BECOMES "THE RAVEN”

The gre n corn was planted, fish were plentiful in the river, (
peace and prosperity rested with the Cherokees in eastern
Tennessee. Chief Oo*loo-te-ka also saw order in his Council
House. Still his mind was troubled. Like shadows of clouds
drifting over the foothills of the Smoky Mountains, he felt shadows of
fear drifting over his contentment. Fear for the future of his people.
The Cherokees, his people, were a peaceful nation. They had no wish
to join Tecumseh in war against the white man, nor did they believe with
the Prophet that the old Indian ways were best. The Cherokees tried to
learn all that the white man could teach them, and live in peace with the
white nation. When the white nation was young and weak, it had made
^solemn agreements to respect the rights and boundaries of the Cherokee
nation. Now that it was strong, the white man had forgotten his
promises. White settlers were trying to crowd and drive the Cherokees
from their mountain home. Oo-loo-te-kas brother had lost faith com¬

pletely. He had gone, taking "the Trail of Tears” across the Mississippi,
to the far valley of the Arkansas, that the lodges of his people might be

35
 when he,
out of the white man’s reach forever. The day might come
sun shone
Oo-loo-te-ka, must do likewise. But not today. Today the
the evening the
warm, as he sat before his wigwam, and in the cool of
dance.
young braves would dance for him the green corn
That evening, while the braves were dancing, a white boy carrying
the stars
a book came walking into the Cherokee village, and when
him.
came out he slept in Oo-loo-te-ka s wigwam, with his book beside
The book was The Iliad , and the boy was Sam Houston.
Sam had first read the wonderful book in the paneled library of the
Houston homestead in Virginia. That was before his father the Major
had died, and his mother had brought her family of nine out to Mary¬
ville, Tennessee. Sam had been reading the great poem again, just that
morning in the village store when he decided that a storekeeper s life
was no life for him, and made up his mind to run away.

"Fellows in arms whose deeds are known to fame

And you whose ardour hopes an equal name!

Behold a day when each may act his part. ...”

Those were the brave words he had been reading when — what did
he have to do but come back from the Trojan War to pour out a jug of
molasses and measure three yards of tape! It was unbearable! Without
further ado, he marched out of the stuffy store, and down the grubby
street to the edge of the town. Then off he went with a wide free stride
in the tingling air, and keeping in step with the rhythm of

"Fellows in arms- whose deeds-are known-to fame-/’

he disappeared over the brow of a hill and was gone.

It was not the first time that young Sam Houston had disappeared
from home for a day or two, but this time when weeks went by his
mother was worried. Two of his older brothers, who believed young Sam
ought to be working the farm if not tending store, set out to look for him.
Paddling down the river near the Cherokee village they spied at some
distance a young Indian stretched on a shady bank beneath a tree.
26
 *'No sir, it’s Sam, b’gosh,” they said as they came nearer. Holding
their dripping paddles, they yelled at him and told him to come home.

"Never!” quoth Sam rising to his feet dramatically. "Never — for I

prefer measuring deer tracks to tape, and the freedom of the Indian to

the tyranny of my own brothers.” This said, he resumed his reading.

The brothers paddled off home again and Sam stayed on with the
Cherokees. Chief Oo-loo-te-ka adopted him as a son, and gave him the
name of Co-lon-neh, meaning the Raven. John and James, sons of the
half- white counsellor, became like new brothers to Sam. He taught them
to speak and read in English and they taught him the Cherokee tongue.
Only occasionally, during the three years that he lived as the son of

Oo-loo-te-ka, did Sam "The Raven” return to Maryville, and then only
to buy presents for his Indian friends and family. He piled up a debt that
way of nearly a hundred dollars, and he was finally forced to go back
and earn the money. He decided to open a school, and teach from corn¬
planting time in May to corn-husking in November.
That was the May of 1812, and Sam Houston, school teacher, was
then nineteen years of age. One dull day in June, in the middle of Long

Division, he heard horse’s hooves come pounding down the road. Dash¬
ing by like greased lightning went a dusty rider, his hair and his horse’s
tail streaming behind him in the wind.
"War!” cried the rider. "War’s been declared! Volunteers! Volun¬

teers! Volunteers for war against England!”

Sam Houston finished his school term. Then he enlisted and

marched off to camp with the company from eastern Tennessee. They
went to put down an uprising of the Creeks in Alabama who, like
Tecumseh, had taken the warpath for the British.
The Cherokees, on the other hand, were loyal to the United States.

Sam’s friends, John and James, and a band of Cherokee warriors also
*7 be rewarded makes theirs the
enlisted. That this loyalty was never to
saddest of the Indian stories. The Cherokee nation was also to lose its

homeland. All would be sent westward over the "Trail of Tears.”

 THE YEAR l8l2 — IN NORTH AMERICA

T WAS true. War had been declared. On the eighteenth of June, James
Madison had reluctantly put his timid signature to the declaration.
The "war hawks" were triumphant. They talked of a glorious victory
in which all America’s difficulties would be immediately settled.
Seamen’s rights and free trade upon the sea would be established, the fur
trading posts along the Great Lakes forever freed of rival traders from
Canada. They even spoke of invading Canada and possibly annexing the
country. The south and west, indeed, were solidly for war!
A storm of protest, on the contrary, blew bitterly down from the
northeast. The country was not ready for war, said people of New Eng¬
land. With a navy of not more than a dozen frigates, it was suicide to
declare war on a nation that had a thousand warships. All over New
England people gave voice to the most dismal forebodings. In the town
squares they lowered the flags to half mast and tolled the meeting house
bells as if for a funeral.
Young men of the south and west, however, who had grown up since
the Revolution and didn’t know what war was like, were full of enthu¬
siasm and aglow with confidence.
"Let us not listen to counsels of timidity and despair," cried Henry
Clay. "In such a cause as ours, with the aid of Providence, we are certain
to come out crowned at once with victory!" . , .
28
 The war opened with disaster. Hardly had it been declared than
dismal reports began to trickle back from the northwest, where, some
months before, a general had been sent on to be ready for the invasion
of Canada. Now it seemed that, after cutting a road two hundred miles
through the forests to reach Detroit, he had no sooner arrived than he
had surrendered the fort to the British without firing a shot. It was
incredible! Henry Clay, however, soon received a letter confirming the
bad news and adding more. The letter came from General William
Henry Harrison, who was then stationed in Ohio. It read:

Cincinnati, Aug. 29, 1812.

"I write you, my dear sir, amid a thousand interruptions. The

rumored disasters upon our northwestern frontier are now ascertained to
be correct. The important point of Mackinac was surrendered without
an effort and an army captured Detroit after three shots; a fort (Chi¬
cago) in the midst of hostile tribes of Indians was evacuated and the
garrison slaughtered; the numerous northwestern tribes of Indians in

arms against us — is the distressing picture in this part of the country.”

Fortunately there was better news from the east coast. There, three
29
days after Detroit surrendered, the navy had a remarkable victory to
report, one that was to become famous in American history. August 19,
1812, off the coast of Nova Scotia, the Constitution , one of the few good
ships owned by the United States, met the Guerriere, a British ship. As
this was recognized as one that had been very active in searching Amer-
ican ships, the battle between the two began at once. After twenty min¬
utes of shrieking shells and smoke and crashing timber, the Guerriere
was a shattered wreck without a spar standing, while the sturdy Consti¬
tution was almost unhurt. The shots had so bounded from the tough oak
planks of which her hull was made, that from then on the sailors spoke
of her fondly as "Old Ironsides.” Oliver Wendell Holmes was only
three years old when the battle took place, but years later when it was
proposed to wreck the famous old ship, he wrote his poem which begins

with the words "Aye, tear her tattered ensign down” and whose last
verse begs for the ship a better fate than the wrecker’s hammer.
"Nail to her mast her holy flag, —
Set every threadbare sail
And give her to the god of storms,

The lightning and the gale!”

Old Ironsides still stands today in the Boston Navy Yard.
The victory, hailed with delight by the Americans, was a shock to
the British, and there were similar shocks to follow. That year five more
English frigates were captured by the small but active American navy.
A wave of enthusiasm swept the country. Henry Clay toured the states
inspiring volunteers and raising money. He was the man of the hour,
the pride of Kentucky. Even backwoods people like the Hankses and
Lincolns felt right proud to belong to the same state as Mr. Clay.

Thomas Lincoln didn’t enlist in the war of 1812. Some men from
around those parts did, but Tom had a family to support. And a hard

time doing it. The farm was no good: soil so poor he was figurin’ on
movin’ that year. Before time to put in the crops he did move to another
farm fifteen miles away. Same kind of land; same kind of a cabin, only
the creek had a different name.
 Abe was past three now and steady enough to wade in the creek.
Sometimes Nancy, his mother, sat on the bank with her knitting. Some¬
times he sat beside her, and she folded her hands and recited the Bible.

"Blessed are the peacemakers,” she would say, "for they shall inherit
the earth.

"Blessed are they that mourn, for they shall be comforted.”

The boy listened, for his mother’s voice was husky and low and the
strange, incomprehensible words had a wonderful rhythm.

Massachusetts, meanwhile, decreed a day of fast, to pray the Al¬

mighty’s forgiveness for going to war with England. All New England
was as much opposed to the war as ever, opposed to the war and to the
way it was being run. Until 1812, however, there was no strong New
England man in Congress, but that year the Federalists elected a man
who was to state the views of New England in no uncertain terms, and
represent that part of the country in politics for forty years to come.
Daniel Webster was his name. All Eyes, Black Dan,

Indian Dan — those were some of the nicknames he had had

at college. Huge solemn black eyes he had, set in deep
7 caverns beneath a dome-shaped brow, and he had a huge

chest like a drum, and when he spoke his eyes flashed and
his voice came out like thunder rolling over the hills.

John C. Calhoun and Henry Clay saw at once in Daniel Webster

either a powerful friend or an equally strong opponent. And so they
were to look upon him for forty years to come. For they were to be
together, those three— Webster, Clay and Calhoun, struggling with and
against one another for the next forty years over the problems and gov¬
ernment of the United States. Now in this, their first year together, it was
Daniel Webster against Henry Clay and John Calhoun.
Republican-Democrats from south and west, Clay and Calhoun were
enthusiastic over the war.
Daniel Webster, Federalist from New England, was dead set
against it.

3i
 1812 IN SOUTH AMERICA

ON Holy Thursday in the year 1812 a ter ific earthquake

struck South America. It shook half of Venezuela, cracked
open the streets of Caracas and swallowed one-fourth of the
inhabitants into the earth. Panic-stricken, the natives who
still were alive fell on their knees beside their shattered dwellings, and
amid groans of the dying, prayed for mercy.

"Sodom and Gomorrah," cried a monk, holding aloft his cross.

"Pray for forgiveness! Two years ago this very day you banished your
governor, the King’s anointed. Behold this holy day, God sends your
punishment! To your knees, then, and pray for His forgiveness!”
"No,” cried Simon Bolivar, brushing the priest aside. Mounting a
pile of rubbish, he swung his sword high in the air. "To your feet! I say
if nature has joined forces with the tyrants, we will force her to obey.

She stands in our way — but we will go forward!”

Simon Bolivar and the liberal leaders had reason to be bold. They
had now a Republic to defend, for in the two years between Holy Thurs¬
day, 1810, and Holy Thursday, 1812, much had happened.
First of all, miranda had returned to Venezuela. After years abroad,
Miranda, the old soldier, the man who had dreamed and plotted longer
than anyone else for South American freedom, had again set foot on his
native land.

In January, 1811, he arrived. An English ship brought him from

London, where for years Miranda’s home had been the secret meeting
place for young South Americans plotting for independence.
Simon Bolivar, slim and handsome, with a large gray hat shading
his dark eyes, was at the harbor to meet Miranda. At first sight of the
old soldier standing in the prow of the boat, he saw that he was wear¬
ing a cocked hat on his powdered hair, and his old French uniform of
1793, for Miranda had fought in the French Revolution. He had also
been in the American Revolution of 1776, and for forty years had fought
with armies here, there and everywhere. A lover of liberty he was indeed,
but above all Miranda was a soldier.

"Where are the troops?” were almost the first words with which
he greeted Bolivar. "Where is your army — the army that you wish me
to command?”
Presented with the undisciplined group of volunteers, he snorted
impatiently, then set to work relentlessly to whip them into shape.
The Junta meanwhile debated. Uncertain what attitude to take
towards Spain, or what attitude Spain was going to take towards them,
they continued to debate until it came to a torrid midsummer day, when
they met in the ancient cathedral. That day, July 5, 1811, persuaded by

the eloquence of Simon Bolivar and also frightened by Miranda’s pre¬

diction that Napoleon might soon land an army on their shores, the
delegates signed the Act of Independence.
33
 Independence Day,
July 5, 1811, is still celebrated as Venezuela’s
but a short life.
although the First Republic then formed was to have
. In the con¬
The following spring came the dreadful earthquake
al. By
fusion that followed, Miranda was made dictator as well as gener
red and help¬
some mistake in judgment, or believing himself outnumbe
crush the new
less against the Spanish soldiers that had been sent to
Republic, Miranda surrendered to Spain’s general.
"Traitor! Traitor!” cried Bolivar, who was in charge of a small fort

some miles away. "Miranda is a traitor!”

"Miranda has betrayed our cause and our republic,” echoed the

young rebels. Late one night, led bymanBolivar, they went to Miranda’s
room, awakened and arrested the old and threw him into a dungeon.

Next morning Spain’s general moved into Caracas and took over
the city. Simon Bolivar, made penniless, was banished to an island in
the Caribbean. The First Republic of Venezuela was dead.

May 25, 1810, was Argentina’s independence day, and in 1812

Argentina, unlike Venezuela, was still independent. There was no royal
Spanish army in the capital of Buenos Aires.
In March, 1812, just before the great earthquake struck Venezuela,
an English ship was sailing down the east coast of South America headed
for the harbor of Buenos Aires. On board, in a sunny corner of the deck
away from the wind, might have been seen a young man quietly playing
checkers, or perhaps just moving the men and thinking. Had he been
asked, he would have given his name as San Martin, just Jose de San
Martin. And if anyone could have told him that he was to become

Argentina’s hero, he would probably not have been particularly im¬

pressed, for San Martin was not looking for glory. He was coming home,
not to become a hero, but because there was work that he wanted
to do.

San Martin, thirty-four years old, had been born in Buenos Aires,
but when only a boy of eight had been sent to military school in Spain
to be trained in the profession of his father. Since he was fourteen he had
served in the Spanish army. When Napoleon had invaded Spain and

34
made his brother Joseph king, San Martin had fought with the Spaniards
in their rebellion against the invader.
Realizing then that the time had come for the Spanish Americas to
strike for freedom, San Martin had felt that he must return and help
gain independence for his native country. And by his native country
he meant not merely Argentina, but all of South America.
"Toda la America es mi patria,” San Martin often said.
All of South America was his fatherland. . . . Considering there¬

fore South America as a whole, San Martin’s thoughts naturally turned

to the city of Lima in Peru, which had always been the headquarters of

the Viceroy from Spain. Quite obviously, until Spain’s government and
royal troops could be driven from Peru, none of the other countries
which had declared their independence would be entirely safe.
Take, for instance, Chile, which had also declared for freedom. Chile
had already been invaded by Spanish troops, sent south from Peru, and
was about to fall back into the hands of Spain. The high mountain
ranges of the Andes separated Chile from the grassy pampas of the
Argentine. Still San Martin planned to cross them and believed that
the plan was possible and could be carried out.
Officials in Buenos Aires, he knew, would consider such a gigantic
undertaking as he contemplated mad and impossible, so when he arrived
he kept his plans secret and quietly thought out his moves.
He first asked to be made governor of a remote province just this
side of the Andes from Santiago, the capital of Chile. There, driven out
by the royalist army, came exiles from Chile, chief among them San

Martin’s good friend Bernardo O’Higgins. There in that remote province

San Martin in his patient, practical manner set about raising and equip¬
ping an army of four thousand men, made up of all kinds of volunteers,
from Chilean exiles to freed Negro slaves and wild gauchos, the cowboys
of the pampas.
When all was ready to the last careful detail, San Martin was to
attempt and carry out exactly according to schedule one of the great
feats in South American history.
35
 TO MOSCOW AND RETURN

Moscow was burning! In September, 1812, a month after the

Constitution had destroyed the Guerriere, and Simon Bolivar

had been banished from Caracas, Moscow, Russia’s ancient

> city, was in flames. It had been set afire by the Russians them¬
selves, to save it from falling into the hands of Napoleon, for that sum¬
mer Napoleon had invaded Russia.
The Czar of Russia had refused any longer to maintain the block¬
ade against England. Russia needed the English market for her wheat
and flax and timber, and suffered from the loss of it. Napoleon could
afford no leak to weaken the trade wall against England. He demanded
that the Czar hold to his agreement, but got no satisfactory answer.

"Soldiers!” cried Napoleon, "Russia swore everlasting allianc

France. Today she confronts us with dishonor or war. There can e bewith
no
doubt about our choice. Forward!”
And forward they went, half a million soldiers. Carrying the im¬
perial gold eagles, they crossed the Niemen River into Russia towards
the end of June, 1812. And the Russian army lured them on. Instead of
halting to confront the French in battle, the Russians kept retreating
before them, destroying the crops, burning the villages and supplies.
Five days of marching into Russia, and the huge invading army had no
food. The supply wagons could not keep up with the marching men.
But on they went. Nine hundred from one regiment died in a single day.
The horses ate rank grass from the marshes and thatch from the roofs,
and thousands of them died.
Napoleon grew nervous. It was seven hundred miles from the Nie¬
men River to Moscow. He increased the speed of the advance. No sign
of the Russian army on the burning steppes. No food in the charred
wreckage of the villages.
Napoleon grew more nervous. Pacing up and down before his tent,
he dictated letters to the Czar demanding an immediate settlement.
Finally, at Borodino, not far from Moscow, the Russians stopped
and there was a most bloody battle. Seventy thousand men were killed.
The Russians retreated again, and Napoleon entered Moscow, expecting
to dictate a peace, but there was no one there to meet him. No one was
there at all.
Moscow was a deserted city. Moscow, city of 250,000 people, was
like a city of the dead. The houses were empty. The echoing streets were
empty. Riding through the ghastly silence, Napoleon approached the
white walls of the Kremlin, ancient palace of the Moscovy Czars. In
through the open gates he went, and with resounding footsteps down
the arched corridors and into the vast throne room. It too was empty.
Then came the fire! Only a red tongue here and there at first — then

37
a few flames— then palace after palace caught fire and, whipped by the
and
raging wind, it became an inferno of smoke, flames, blazing roofs
flaring timbers. At the end of four days most of the city was gone, and

"beautiful magical Moscow,” as Napoleon put it, "was no more.”

"Everything has been destroyed,” he wrote Marie Louise. "Enough
is left, however, for the army. Much wealth of every kind to plunder .”
To Alexander, the Czar of Russia, Napole on wrote letter after letter

pleading, no longer demanding, but almost begging him to arrange for

peace. The Czar did not answer.

"I want peace,” wrote Napoleon. "I must have peace. I absolutely
insist upon it.” Still no answer.
Week after week Napoleon waited, until there was no reason to
wait any longer. With wagons, coaches and carts heaped high with
plunder, topped by the gold cross from the Grand Ivan Church, the army
trailed slowly out of Moscow. Less than one-fifth of the original number,
they were, and only a small part of that number was ever to reach home.
Napoleon had waited too long. Earlier he might have saved his
good soldiers, but now, in October, it was too late. The icy jaws of
winter had snapped. Whirling blizzards caught them. Blinded by snow,
the ragged troops, dressed for summer, were shot down by wandering
bands of Cossacks or dropped to be swallowed in the drifts. Thousands,
hurled through a broken bridge into an icy river, heaped it high with
their dead bodies. Some were frozen sitting upright on their horses.
It was a journey of horror. Until December fifth, Napoleon, the
man responsible for it, dragged along with the army. Then a despatch
came from Paris. He, Napoleon, was reported dead! A new ruler was
about to be elected!

What? thought Napoleon, aghast. What of his son? What of his

empire? What of the dynasty he had founded? Conspirators were at
work, he told his officers. He must leave for Paris at once. Under cover
of night, huddled in a single sleigh, with a vial of poison tied about his

neck in case of capture, he sped away . . . but "I shall be back again,”
he promised, "I shall be back in Russia in the spring!”
 ✓

"don’t give up the ship"

A ll that winter, on the shore of Lake Erie, young Oliver Hazard

Perry, oldest of four Perry brothers in the United States Navy,

had been busy building ships. The snow was deep, the winter
1 U, was cold, Lake Erie was far from any supplies. Iron, rope, rig¬
ging, all had to be hauled on sledges miles through the forest. It was a
terrific job, but one that had to be done . . . that is, if the United States
ever expected to regain Detroit.
Soon after Detroit had fallen, General Harrison had attempted to

recapture it, but it was impossible, obviously impossible, unless the

United States could control Lake Erie. The British had ships on the

lake; the United States had none. Therefore a gang of ship’s carpenters
began felling oak trees, sawing planks, and pegging the green lumber
had
together, and by summer had turned out five boats. As soon as Perry
towards
enough men to man them, the boats were launched and sailed
the western end of the lake.

39
 A month later the Battle of Lake Erie took place. Just before it
began, Commodore Perry called his crew together. And it was a motley
crew, all kinds and ages of men, from old gunners stripped to the waist
who had served on the Constitution , to Kentuckians in their fringed
buckskin pants who had never been on a ship before.
Standing on a gun where all could see him, Commodore Perry
spread open a blue flag, on which were painted in white letters five
words: don’t give up the ship.
"My brave lads,” he said, "on this flag are the last words of gallant
Captain Lawrence, who died in battle, and after whom this vessel, the

Lawrence, is named. Shall I hoist it?”

"Aye, aye, sir,” shouted the crew. And the flag was run up.
When that blue flag came down, the Lawrence was fairly battered
to pieces, and most of the crew were dead or dying. For a moment the
British thought the battle was over. Then they saw the Stars and Stripes
still flying, and caught sight of a rowboat from the Lawrence making for
the Niagara , another of the American fleet. Though they reopened fire,
the small boat reached its goal, the blue flag was hoisted again, and in
fifteen minutes more the battle was won.
When the last British ship had struck her colors, Oliver Perry
seated himself on a dismounted cannon, took an old dirty envelope from
his pocket and, using his round sailor cap for a table, wrote this brief
report to William Henry Harrison:

"Dear Gen’l: We have met the enemy and they are ours; two ships,
two brigs, one schooner and one sloop. Yours with great respect and
esteem.” o. H. perry.
It was an absolute victory. Fort Detroit was recaptured and a battle
or two won over the border in Canada. A wave of enthusiasm spread
over the country . . . everywhere except New England.
Oliver Perry returned to his home state, Connecticut. There though
he personally was lauded as a hero, he found that even the victories won
had brought no change in the feeling of New England. People of New
England were as bitterly opposed to the war as they had ever been.
 ANDREW JACKSON THE INDIAN FIGHTER

Old Hickory was in bed with a bul et in his left arm and
a wound in his shoulder, recovering from a duel, when he
first heard that the Creeks were on the warpath. The Gov¬
ernor of Tennessee, who had ridden out from Nashville to

Andrew Jackson’s home, the Hermitage, found the general of his state
militia haggard and yellow, and too sick to even enjoy a pipe of tobacco
with his wife.

When he heard, however, the bloody story of how the Creeks had
murdered or scalped or brained four hundred unprotected white people

in Alabama, he was ready to be "up and at ’em!”

"Damned red-skinned villains,” he said. "Give me a week, and by

the etarnal, we’ll blow those consarned scoundrels into etarnity.”

41
 Rachel Jackson, who knew her husband’s pluck and loved him for
it, made no annoying protest. When the day came she helped him onto
his feet, into his boots and uniform and out upon the veranda, where
two slaves lifted him into the saddle. He bent down and kissed her, then

put spurs to his horse and was off, his left arm helpless in a sling but his
thin body held erect as far as she could see him.
Andrew Jackson was headed for a meeting with his troops on the
border of Alabama, but his plans carried him much farther. He planned
a highway from Tennessee to the Gulf of Mexico. He wanted to see the
Spanish colony of Florida invaded, and the British supply base at Pen¬
sacola captured. He wanted New Orleans made safe against attack. All
this could be accomplished, once the Creeks were defeated and their
towns wiped out. That ought not to take long, in his opinion, after he
got supplies sufficient for his soldiers.

"Send me provisions,” he wrote to his Governor, "and I will end

this war in a month.”
He got only a week’s supply, but he started. Through the woods
they went and over the Raccoon Mountains.
Already his Cherokee scouts had been threading their way through
the Indian country, to see in which towns the crimson war club dangled
and how many in number were the braves. Word that the Creeks were
about to attack a white settlement, and discovery of a large band of
painted warriors hiding in a ravine brought on the first real battle, which
ended with the death of every brave.

"We shot ’em down like dogs,” boasted Davy Crockett, after the
battle was over.

The squaws and children of the dead braves were then lined up in

front of the white "Tiger Man” (that was their name for Andrew Jack-
son) . A soldier came up carrying one last papoose who had been found
alive in the arms of his dead mother. The squaws shook their heads.

"Kill him, too,” they said. They would not take him. Ugh-ugh. It
would bring the Evil Spirit upon them.
The little round-faced fellow looked solemnly at the squaws with
his bright black eyes, and then at the big general. Only a few minutes
and he was sitting on the big knee drinking warm brown sugar water.
That night he went to sleep curled up on an army overcoat, while the
big general bent over a candle scratching out letters to any and everyone
back in Tennessee who might possibly send supplies of food to his starv¬
ing soldiers. He besought them to hurry.
Still the supplies did not come, and did not come until the soldiers,
reduced to eating acorns, declared they would go no farther.

"Drink a jug of water with the akerns, that’s what I do,” advised
the general, "and,” added the old fire-eater, "the first one of you that
takes a step back, I’ll blow into etarnity!” And he meant it!
That night he wrote Rachel these discouraged words: "Pressed with
mutiny of the volunteer army. Whether we have men enough to progress

with the campaign I cannot say.”

The campaign did go forward. Cattle and supplies and also re¬
inforcements of regular soldiers finally reached them.
To-he-peka was the scene of the last battle. It was a village which
stood on a Horse-Shoe bend in the Tallapoosa River, well protected by a
log barricade. Second over the barricade was young Sam Houston. A
barbed arrow struck him and sank deep into his thigh. Other arrows flew
about him. Arrows, spears, balls, flying swords, gleaming tomahawks,
Indians black with paint and red with blood, screaming medicine men.
Then silence — with five hundred and fifty Indians dead upon the
ground and more floating in the river.
Chief of the Creeks, a friend of Tecumseh, arrived a few days later
and surrendered himself to Andrew Jackson.

"I have done you much injury,” he said. "I should have done you
the dead.
more, but my warriors are dead. I cannot bring life to
r
Nor could the Creek Nation ever come to life again. The frontie
war
of Tennessee and Georgia would never again be terrified by their
blood.”
cry, nor ever again be "soaked by them in
turned home¬
The war over, feeling their job well done, the soldiers
back to the
ward. Andrew Jackson, now the hero of Tennessee, went

43
Hermitage and Rachel. As a reward for his service he was commissioned
Major General in the United States Army.
So came the spring days of 1814. While the new Major General was
being measured for a full-dress uniform by the Nashville tailor, and little
Andrew was playing with a warrior’s bow his uncle had brought him
from the battlefield, Rachel was making a place in the family circle for
its newest member, a little brown-faced Indian boy.

Tom Lincoln’s cabin by Knob Cre k was on the main highway

leading north from Nashville, Tennessee, to Louisville, Ken¬
tucky. Soldiers often passed that way. One day, not far from the
creek, a soldier met a small boy coming down the road carrying
a fish. The boy looked at the man with a face as solemn as that of an
Indian, and then handed him the fish. When the soldier thanked the
boy and asked him what his name might be, he said it was Abe Linkum.

44
^'Lovn, om. o(J Sruj&iit cantoo*.

NAPOLEON DEFEATED

Napoleon’s disaster in Rus ia had banded his enemies to¬

gether. It had given them hope that now, since the almost
magic spell of his success was broken, this hitherto invincible
superman could and would be defeated. And so he was. In
the spring of 1814, surrounded by a ring of enemies, deserted by his
trusted generals, betrayed by his tricky minister, Napoleon, the world’s
most famous man, "destroyer of the peace of Europe,’’ finally fell.
Only, however, after a most brilliant campaign of defense. For two
months by quick thinking, lightning swift action, striking here, there,
right and left, Napoleon held back his enemies who came pouring over
the boundaries, invading France from all directions.
Over the Pyrenees from Spain came Wellington leading 100,000
English, who several years before had been sent to help the Spaniards.
Over the Rhine from the north and east came the army of Russia, and
the army of Prussia under General Bliicher. From the east came soldiers
of Austria, all told 1,000,000 fighting men. Closing in upon Napoleon
from all sides, the allies came marching towards him and towards Paris.
At the approach of the allied armies, Empress Marie Louise fled,

45
 his father was
taking with her the little son, now three years old, whom
never to see again.
entered
Napoleon himself had not yet reached Paris when the allies
the road.
the city. Hastening to its defense he met troops of cavalry on
"Halt,” he cried. "Why are you here? Where is the enemy? Where

is the army? Where is the Empress? Who is guarding Paris?"

an¬
"The army? The troops? They have left the capital,” was the
swer. "The enemy is there."
his
It was too late, then. His most trusted general had delivered
crashed! He
army to the allies. The capital had fallen. The empire had
himself was ruined! He retired to the Palace of Fontainebleau.

There on April 4, 1814, after a night of deepest depression, Napo¬

leon signed the abdication. Those who placed the paper before him saw
a pitiable figure in a dressing gown crouched before the fire.
Napoleon — he scratched the name. The men silently took the paper
and left. . . .

Napoleon stayed on a few more days. Once he asked for his pistols
and found them unloaded. "To kill oneself,” he said to his valet, "is the
death for a gambler. I am condemned to live.”
The island of Elba, he learned, was to be his future home, his mini¬
ature kingdom. Four commissioners arrived to escort him there, a Rus¬
sian, an Austrian, a Prussian and an Englishman. There was nothing left
to do then but bid farewell to the faithful soldiers who had remained
with him to the end. Officers had deserted him, but many troops were
faithful — soldiers of the Old Guard were there who had been with him

in sixty victories or more, and wide-eyed boys of fifteen who had been
drafted for this last campaign.

"Soldiers,” he said. "Soldiers who have remained faithful to the

end, receive my thanks. I cannot embrace you all, but I will embrace

your general. Farewell, my children. Farewell, my friends.”

Nothing but sobbing was heard as through their tears the soldiers
watched him kiss the flag and leave the courtyard. Their beloved leader
—their "Little Corporal” of old — their Emperor of yesterday was gone.
The journey to the coast was a different story, one of curses instead
of sobs. The women of France had paid with the lives of their husbands

and sons the terrific cost of Napoleon’s glory.

"Kill the tyrant,” they screamed. "Down with the fiend!” They
stoned the carriage and tried to catch sight of him slumped down in a
corner of the seat. "Kill the murderer!” was their cry.
The horses pressed on at full speed. Finally they reached the sea¬
port. There Napoleon, disguised in the strange array of an Austrian uni¬
form, a Prussian officer’s cap, and the long green coat of the Russian
army slung about his shoulders, left the great Empire of France for the
tiny island of Elba. . . . And Louis XVIII became king of France.

ing
His uncle gone, little Louis Napoleon found life more confus
than before. First he had been hurried out of Paris in the dead of night
for fear of the dreadful allies. Then, suddenly, like the best of friends,
two of those foreign kings came on a visit to his mother.
47
 Louis Napoleon wondered who they were at first. "Are they some
more of my uncles?” he asked his governess while she brushed his hair.
"No,” said she. "One is the King of Prussia, the other the Emperor
of Russia. The emperor is a generous enemy who wishes to help you and

your mamma in your misfortune. Except for him you would have noth¬

ing in the world, and the fate of your uncle would be much worse.”
"Then I ought to love him,” said Louis. So later, when no one was
looking, he tiptoed up to the good Czar and gave him a little present.
The King of Prussia had with him his two sons. Wilhelm, the
younger, seventeen, looked very big and handsome to little Louis Na¬
poleon who was only six. Fifty-seven years later, that big Wilhelm would
be back to be crowned in France as the first Emperor of Germany. While
little Louis, as Napoleon III, would be held by him as prisoner of war.

THE VERY YOUNG WILLIAM GLADSTONE

Quite natural y the English, who had fought so long

against Napoleon, were overjoyed when at last he was de¬
feated and the war was over. Bells rang, guns were fired,
towns illuminated with fireworks. All England celebrated.
William Gladstone, who was not yet five years old, missed seeing
the fireworks at home in Liverpool, because that spring he was with his
mother, visiting her old home in Scotland. There in Edinburgh the vie-
tory had been announced by the boom and roar of the castle guns. And
it was a wonderful booming that William heard. When he got home
he stood out for guns as most exciting, while his older brothers argued
that fireworks made a more thrilling celebration. No one could say just
who won the argument, but it was a lively debate, and that was fun.
The Gladstone family, all of them, loved to argue and debate. At
dinner they nearly always debated about some topic, great or small. As
they were all very clever at it, each one had to think most logically

what he was to say and how to say it, if he weren’t to be caught up and
made ridiculous.

"They would debate about everything,” said a friend of the family,

"whether the trout should be boiled or broiled, whether the window
should be opened, and whether it was likely to be fine or wet next day.

It was all perfectly good-humored, but curious to a stranger.”

The only subject that was not open to debate that spring of 1814
was the victory over Napoleon. That they agreed upon as the finest thing
that could have happened.
Mr. Gladstone looked for an immediate increase in trade, which

was his great interest, for Mr. John Gladstone, William’s father, was a
very successful businessman. He was one of the wealthiest grain mer¬
chants in Liverpool. Ships of his loaded with cargo sailed back and forth
from Liverpool to India, to the West Indies and to harbors everywhere.
During the war his business had naturally suffered. One of his ships
bringing back Russian wheat from the harbor of Riga on the Baltic Sea
had been captured by French privateers.
Mr. Gladstone had been definitely opposed at first to the English
orders which enforced the blockade against Europe, and had also in¬
directly injured American shipping, but as the war went on, he changed
his mind and felt that the blockade was a necessary evil.
He also changed his mind about his political party. Believing firmly

that a man’s property should be safeguarded, he left the liberal Whigs

who, he felt, were indifferent towards the matter, and became a Tory.
,So the Whigs took occasion to make up this squib about him:
49
 “John Gladstone was as fine a man
As ever graced commercial story
Till all at once he changed his plan

And from a Whig became a Tory.”

This may or may not have brought up the question at dinner as to

whether it was not far better and more courageous for a man to change
his mind, when he felt he was in the wrong, than to stick with stubborn
pride to an opinion he had outgrown, or no longer held. Mr. Gladstone
was very positive that it was, and this belief was most strongly impressed
upon little William when he was old enough to understand it.
Mr. Gladstone had gone into business when he was quite young,
and his education, like his fortune, he had been obliged to acquire him¬
self. He was, therefore, especially eager to see his boys have the best
schooling that the country afforded. As soon as they were ready, the older
boys were sent to Eton. William wanted to go, too, when he was old

enough. First, though, he must learn to read and write and "be prepared.”
After they moved from Liverpool to a new home down the shore
at Seaforth, the vicar of the church there became his tutor. William did
very well with his Latin and English composition, but made such hard
work of figuring that the good vicar almost despaired of teaching him
arithmetic. After a most painstaking explanation, the boy would look
up with an expression in his great brown eyes that showed he still had
not the vaguest idea how to solve the problem.
Yet, strangely enough, this boy who had such difficulty learning to
add and multiply and divide, was to become the greatest Chancellor of
the Exchequer (Secretary of the Treasury) that England ever had.
Four times, also, he was to be Prime Minister and so virtually the
ruler of the British Empire.
And, during his long career of over sixty years, William Gladstone
was never to lack the courage to change his mind. Though he began life
as a Tory, he was to end it as the great leader of the Liberal Party.
 JUST BEFORE AND AFTER THE END

Napoleon’s defeat left England fre to pay more at ention to

war against the United States. Troops no longer needed in

Europe were sent at once to America. At the same time com¬

missioners were sent to the city of Ghent in Holland to dis¬
cuss peace terms with commissioners from the United States. Since peace,
however, was only to be discussed and war was actually going on, Eng¬
land intended to turn the tables now and invade the United States. An
attack on Washington, D. C., came first.
One hot August day a post rider covered with dust dashed into the
little city with news that the British fleet was in Chesapeake Bay ! Wash¬
ington, wholly unprotected, was thrown into wild confusion.
People scurried hither and yon to hide their valuables. A force of
volunteer troops were hustled off to a village four miles away to try to

i
 was
protect the city, while Janies Madison turned this way and that. It
Tuesday when he left to inspect the defenses and assured his wife, though
with a trembling voice, that there could be no immediate danger.
dim
Wednesday morning, expecting him back, Mrs. Dolly had ordered
ner to be served at three in the afternoon as usual.

"I set the table myself,” said one of the servants later. "All of the
Cabinet and several military gentlemen were expected.”
"I was lookin’ out the chamber window,” said Sukey the housemaid,
Mjes’ ’bout three o’clock it was when up the road come a man awavin
his hat. 'Clear out,’ he cry, 'clear out!’ ”
Mrs. Madison ordered her carriage without delay and while waiting
for it she jotted down a note to her sister.

"Wednesday 3 o’clock. Will you believe it, my sister, we have had a

battle or skirmish — Two messengers bid me fly. I insist upon waiting
until the large picture of General Washington is unscrewed from the
wall. The process was found too tedious for these perilous moments. I
have ordered the frame to be broken and the canvas taken out. It is done!

And now my dear sister I must leave this house — Where I shall be to¬
morrow I cannot tell! "Dolly.”

She left not a moment too soon. As the galloping horses drew the
swaying coach out of the town by one road, the enemy, entering by
another, made straight for the "President’s Palace.” Drinking a toast to
the absent host at the dinner table, they piled up the chairs, put a live
coal to the pile, and so set the house afire. The fire spread through the
town, till the sky was bright with flames.
Next day a hurricane added to the damage done by the fire, but
when the storm of two days was over, the British had left. President
and Mrs. Madison were able to return and find a new place to live. The

walls of the President’s Palace were still standing, but the sandstone
was so streaked with water and smoke that it seemed best to paint it
white. That done, it began to be called the "white house.” One hundred
years later "White House” became its official name.

Baltimore came next. From Washington the British fleet moved

north up Chesapeake Bay to Baltimore, which, fortunately, was pro¬
tected by a fort. All night of September 13 British guns bombarded the
fort. All night citizens of Baltimore wondered anxiously if the fort
could or could not hold out. All night also, from a British warship in
the harbor, a young American who had gone aboard to see about an
exchange of prisoners, listened to the noise of the booming cannon. So

hopeful was he that in the dawn’s early light he still might see the
Star-Spangled Banner waving, that on a scrap of paper Francis Scott
Key wrote the famous words of the song that years later was to become

his nation’s national anthem. The next night, in Baltimore, it was sung
for the first time.

Attack on New Orleans was expected next

"Hasten your militia to New Orleans,” James Monroe, Secretary of

State, wrote to the governors of all the southern states.
General Andrew Jackson, the man who was to save New Orleans,
was one who didn’t wait for orders. He was already on the way. He had
reached the Gulf of Mexico in August, and driven the British from the
harbor base in Florida which the Spanish governor had loaned them.

53
 and in ten days
Then in late November he had turned his horse westward
about.
arrived with his men in New Orleans. He took one look
"What,” he swore, "no arms? . . . No soldiers? . . . No sup¬
plies? Nothing done to defend the city! . . .
Then here and there he went, in a fever of activity, storming, per¬
alike, pirates
suading, threatening — getting things done. Whites, blacks
a
from the harbor, convicts from the jails, anybody who could carry
mas the British
musket was put into line. Two days before Christ
away, be¬
landed, 1,600 of them, seven miles below the city. One mile
his stand. A
tween a cypress swamp and the river, Andrew Jackson took
barricade was made of cotton bales.

On Christmas day in the cold foggy delta land the two armies faced
¬
each other, ready for battle, not knowing that the day before, Decem
were no
ber 24, the peace treaty had been signed in Holland and they
g
longer at war. News could travel over the ocean no faster than a sailin
a. In
ship could carry it, so it took three weeks or more to reach Americ
three weeks many men can die unnecessarily in war.
Many men fell at New Orleans on January 8, 1815.

"Give it to them, boys!” cried Jackson as his sharpshooting back¬

woodsmen loaded their rifles behind the cotton bales. Let s finish the

business in one day.”

And they did. The Americans, crack shots with their rifles, mowed
down the British who came towards them as if on parade. Frightful
bloody heaps lay on the field when the battle had been won.
New Orleans went wild with joy over the victory. So, too, did
Washington when the news reached the eastern coast, but as news could
travel over land no faster than horses could run, it was one month before
they learned of the victory in Washington. Or in New England.
New Englanders had come to the conviction that it was high time
for them to take a positive stand about this despicable war.
Therefore they had held a convention at Hartford, Connecticut, and
actually proposed withdrawing from the United States, seceding from
the Union. Delegates from five states, Connecticut, Massachusetts,

54
Rhode Island, Vermont and New Hampshire, drew up the resolution.

"A sentiment prevails,” it stated, "that the time for a change is at

hand. Events may prove that the causes of our calamities are deep and
permanent. If so a permanent separation will be preferable to an alliance

among (so-called) friends but real enemies.”

Three New Englanders were on their way to Washington to lay the
sentiments of their Convention before Congress when they were met

with the glorious news of Jackson’s victory in New Orleans. Ten days
later came the even more welcome news from Europe that the treaty had
been signed and there was peace. That news made the New England
delegation unnecessary, and thus saved the Union.

So the war of 1812 was at an end. The grievances which had caused
it were also ended — not because seizing American ships and seamen was

mentioned in the treaty (for it wasn’t) but simply because Napoleon

had been defeated, and England had no more need to continue the un¬

pleasant practices. The treaty didn’t settle much. Mr. John Jacob Astor
was disappointed that no settlement had been made regarding Oregon,
where, during the war, his new trading post Astoria had been taken by
the British.

A few years later, however, the agreement was made. Oregon was
to be held and occupied by England and the United States together for
ten years to come. At the same time it was agreed that neither nation
should ever again build any fleets on the Great Lakes nor forts along the
boundary (which was then marked out as far west as the Rockies) .
Today that borderline, still unprotected, is pointed to with pride
by both nations as the longest unfortified boundary in the world.
55
 BACK TO THE KINGS AGAIN

Now AT last had come the glorious moment, so long awaited

by the kings of Europe, when they could put back the con¬
tinent the way they wanted it. Napoleon, destroyer of their
peace, was safely stowed away on the island of Elba. Lou
XVIII, fat and lazy and almost sixty, brother of the Louis who
is
had been
beheaded in the revolution, had been brought back from twenty years of

exile to be king of France. Now had come the glorious moment to redi¬
vide the continent of Europe and give each king his share.
It was in Vienna, Austria’s capital city, that the kings, invited by the
Emperor Francis, met to perform the pleasant duty. There they came;
of
emperors, kings, archdukes and princes, attended by such a following
as had
celebrities, diplomats, representatives, guards, and musicians
so
never before been seen in a single city. Never had there been seen
at
much gold braid, so many sparkling jewels or waving plumes as

56
that congress of Vienna. The populace stood agape at the spectacle.
One man there was, however, in Vienna, that September of 1814,
who was not dazzled by the glitter of royalty, nor humbled by it.

"Kings must give way to us — not we to them,” he had once told the
poet Goethe. And truly. Today when the names of kings and princes who
met at that famous Congress of Vienna are all but forgotten, his name
lives on — Ludwig van Beethoven.
A short, swarthy, homely, unkempt man, he was living that year
next door to the herring-seller and up three flights of stairs. His neigh¬
bors called him the "Mad Musician.” They told how he had been known
to hurl eggs at his housekeeper when he was angry. When he was writing
music, they said, he would often sit and pour water over his head until
it ran through the floor onto the people below.
By the Emperor Francis, however, and the kings who were his
guests and by all the celebrities attending the Congress, the herring-
seller’s Narrischer Musiker was recognized as a genius.
Since 1809, when his Fifth great Symphony had been published,

Beethoven’s fame had been steadily growing. His Videlio was the first
opera performed for the royal visitors at the Congress. Two concert
halls were furnished him by the government that the royal guests might
hear his symphonies performed, and also enjoy the Cantata, composed

especially for the occasion, entitled "The Glorious Moment.”

Concerts, dinners, banquets, dances and fireworks filled the eve¬
nings. The days were less glorious. Greed and envy sat with the sover¬
eigns at the conference table. Polite discussions soon turned into dis¬
agreeable arguments, and before long had degenerated into downright
squabbling. Austria and England were actually talking of going to war
with Russia and Prussia . . . when suddenly, like a bomb shell, came
the news that napoleon had escaped from elba!
The squabbling among the allies had led Napoleon to attempt this
boldest and most exciting adventure of his life. The escape had been
carefully planned. He landed on the coast of France on the first day of
March, and appealed to his still loyal soldiers.
57
 "Soldiers,” he cried, "we are

not conquered! . . . We were be¬

trayed. Soldiers, come! For your
interests, your glory. Come!
S March to victory!” Marching,
they met a regiment sent by the
royalists to stop him.

"Stop me! Here I am,” Na-

is a soldier among
coat he stood before them. "You know me. If there
you who wishes to shoot his Emperor, let him do it!
soldiers
Dead silence. Then "Vive l’Empereur!” came the cry. The
the
rushed towards him. Tearing off the royal colors, they put on again
in, town after
red, white and blue cockade. Regiment after regiment fell
that
town met them with cheers until it became a triumphal procession
march from the seacoast to Paris.
the
The night before Napoleon arrived, Louis XVIII fled from
next day
Tuileries, escaped from the city in a small black carriage. The
of the ogre
the newspaper, which had begun by talking about the escape
from Elba” announced that "His Majesty the Emperor made his public
entry and arrived at the Tuileries amid universal joy.
uni¬
True, Napoleon had entered Paris, but the joy was far from
versal. There was faint cheering in the streets. Many faces he had hoped
to see were not there to greet him. Alarie Louise and his littie son were
gone. His brothers were scattered. The Empress Josephine was dead.
it
But her grandson, little Louis Napoleon, was still there, and since
was spring, the boy who sold violets was also standing on the corner.
"Uncle Napoleon came back with the violets,” thought little Louis
as he went with his mother to the Tuileries. That was a great day for
him, standing on the balcony beside the Emperor and looking down
to
upon the people. But it was a sad day when he went again in June
bid his uncle goodbye before he went to war.
"Don’t go. Don’t go to war!” sobbed Louis, hiding his face on his
uncle’s knees. "The naughty allies will kill you.”
That day Napoleon started on his last campaign. The English army,
commanded by the Duke of Wellington and the Prussian army under
General Bliicher were in Belgium. Hoping to prevent their meeting and
to defeat each army separately before the Russians and Austrians also
took the field, Napoleon entered Belgium. On June 18, 1815, he met his
final and complete defeat at Waterloo.
Victor Hugo was only thirteen then. Many years later in his great
novel Les Miserables he was to describe that terrific battle, in which

the English stood firm with desperate courage, until the Prussians rein¬
forced them and made possible the utter annihilation of the French.
Three days after the tragic news reached Paris, the boy Victor
Hugo wrote in his school book this bitter verse against Napoleon:

"Tremble thou despot, the avenging hand of fate

Down to its doom thine odious empire shakes;
But now alas! thy fall for France

Still costs her blood, still makes her tears to flow!”

While the boy was writing, not far off, in the Chamber of Deputies,

patriotic Frenchmen were demanding Napoleon’s abdication. Among

them was General La Fayette, one of the great leaders in the early days
of the French Revolution, who for twenty-five years had remained faith¬
ful to his belief in liberty of the people. Now it was his firm conviction
that Napoleon must abdicate.

"In ten years, three million Frenchmen have perished for that man,”
he cried. "It is enough. Our duty now is to save France, to rally around
the old tricolor flag of 1789, the flag of liberty and equality.”
Napoleon abdicated. Undecided where to go, he boarded a British
ship and from Portsmouth harbor sent this appeal to the English king:

"Your Royal Highness ... I have closed my political career, and

I come to throw myself upon the hospitality of the British people . . .
and beg Your Royal Highness, as the most powerful, the most persistent,

the most generous of my enemies, to grant me this protection.”

59
 erous enemy.
It was a dignified appeal, but it came from a dang
was sent to a rock
England could afford to take no chances. Napoleon
constantly
in the South Atlantic, the island of St. Helena, there to be kept
.
under guard for six, black, barren years until his death
"I have
"No one but myself can be blamed for my fall,” he said.
disast rous fate.
been my own greatest enemy, the cause of my own
France
Napoleon on St. Helena, Louis XVIII back again as King of
come
_ and the Glorious Moment after one hundred days’ delay had
they
again for the kings of Europe. More determined now than ever,
whereby
were, to reestablish the good old substantial order of things
kings ruled and people obeyed and peace was maintained.
''To that end let us as brother monarchs form a Holy Alliance,”
guided
suggested Czar Alexander of Russia. Let us as Christians be
look upon our
wholly by the principles of justice and mildness. Let us
subjects as children, and in the spirit of brotherhood help one another
on all occasions and so maintain a lasting peace.”
Alexander was the grandson of Catherine the Great, and a well-
meaning man of high ideals, but as it worked out his Holy Alliance was
holy only in name. In actual practice the members— Russia, Prussia, and
Austria— were guided not by justice and mercy, but by the cold-blooded
ideas of Prince Metternich, chief adviser to the Emperor of Austria, and
one who admitted that he had never made a mistake in his life.
Metternich believed in monarchy absolute and infallible. He hated
parliaments, constitutions or anything that suggested self government by
the people. Dangerous movements towards freedom anywhere he would
see stamped out like a contagious disease. Likewise all change — all dis¬
turbing new ideas. Thus he advised the kings, and the kings were all
quite ready to follow his advice.

Europe, therefore, in 1815 entered the "Era of Metternich,” an age

when liberty, education, free speech, all things taught Europe by the
French Revolution were to be suppressed. For the next forty years the
kings would be supreme, Europe would lie in the shadow of the Austrian
crown, and Liberty would live only in the hearts of the people.
60
PART TWO : WHEN

lS A BOY®

Sndiana
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1
JAMES MONROE Mo
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JOHN ADAMS U. 8. GRANT

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^<THEY FOLLOWED THE RIVERS»
 TRAILS TO THE WEST

On July 4, 1816, the United States was to celebrate its fortieth

Independence Day. It was then, with the second war for
independence from England fairly won, that people of the
young nation turned their faces to the west and the era of
the pioneer, the frontiersman, the common people of America began.
Daniel Boone, famous old pioneer of early days, was still alive. He
was eighty years old, and living in the Missouri Territory, which was as
far west as settlers had ventured so long as hostile Indians were still
65
powerful east of the Mississippi. Now, however, with the defeat of the
Creeks by Andrew Jackson, all the eastern half of the Mississippi’s broad
fertile valley was safe for white settlers and their families.
So by hundreds and thousands from all parts of the country people
began moving westward, and it looked to old Daniel Boone very much
as though civilization was catching up with him again. Every spring
when he took his furs down the Missouri River to St. Louis and saw a
town of eighteen hundred people he thought he should be moving on.
Usually, though, as he sat mending his fur traps or scraping away
on a new powder horn, his thoughts carried him not into the future, but
over trails that led into the past. He recollected the days when he was
young, and the Allegheny Mountains, not the Mississippi River, had
been the western frontier. The United States was
just a colony of England then, and Kentucky was
Indian battle ground. The King had forbidden
settlers to go over the mountains, but by the time
war came in 1776, there were several log forts in
Kentucky like the one at Boonesborough.
1776
In 1783 when the war was over, all the land
east of the Mississippi belonged to the United
States and more settlers began to find homes be¬
yond the mountains. So he, Daniel Boone, had
moved on to where there was "more elbow
room”— out to this Louisiana territory that then
1783 belonged to Spain. Spain had turned it over to
France. In 1803 the United States had bought it.
The next year, as Daniel Boone remembered, two
young men, Lewis and Clark, had be^n sent by
President Jefferson to explore the new territory.
They had paddled up the Missouri River, past his
home. Old as he was, he would like to have gone

1803 with them— out to Oregon. Some day he’d also

like to see that Spanish colony, California. . . .
But here halfway across the continent was to be for Daniel Boone the

journey’s end.
Other pioneers would now pick up the trail. Settlers would follow
tlie trappers and traders across the desert and over the Rocky Mountains
until they had carried the United States to the Pacific Ocean and spread
the Stars and Stripes across the continent.
66
 ABE GOES TO INDIANA

The Lincolns moved from Kentucky to Indiana the winter that

Abe was seven. Just a mite older, Thomas Lincoln said, than he
was himself when his paw, Abe’s grandpappy Abraham, had
brought the family from Virginia to Kentucky, following after
his friend Daniel Boone. Kentucky was full of Indians then. One of
them had killed his father, Tom said, and would have killed him too, if

it hadn’t been for his big brother Mordecai, who shot the Indian just in
time. Hadn’t been Indians to bother folks in Kentucky for a long time
67
now, but there were other worries, these days.
Times were hard, and crops were poorly, and too many folks were
moving in who had slaves to do the work. That made it hard for plain
folks who worked their own land to get along. Besides that Thomas Lin¬

coln couldn’t get the deed to his farm straightened out, so as soon as he
got his money back, he made up his mind to move from Kentucky.
Indiana, he figured, was the place to go. Folks said there was rich
land not so far north of the Ohio River. The Indians had been cleared
out and Indiana had enough settlers to be made into a state that year
instead of a territory. It was going to be a free state, with no slaves.

Every man was to vote, and it looked like there’ d be a chance for a poor
man to make a real home for himself in Indiana.

Abe wished his mother didn’t feel so sad about going when the
time came. She didn’t say much, just brushed her hair out of her eyes
with the back of her hand and kept on getting ready. His father said that
the place he had picked out near Pidgeon Creek was a hundred miles

and if they wanted to be there before snow fell they’d have to

away, some.
hustle

There wasn’t much to take, just some kiverlids for the bed, a few
pots and pans, the axe and hoe, his father’s carpenter tools, and such
like — no more than the two horses could carry with Abe and his father
on one and Sarah and his mother riding the other.
When they finally reached the place in the deep woods where the
log house was to be, it took the rest of the winter to build it. Abe
helped. He hacked the branches off the logs and cut the notches in them.
When it was up at last, it seemed so fine after the three-sided open-faced
shed in which they had been living all winter, that they moved right in,
and Tom never did get around to laying a floor or making a window.

He didn’t trouble to tear down the pole shed either, so when Uncle Tom
and Aunt Betsy Sparrow and Dennis Hanks came the next fall they had
it to live in, too, till their cabin was built.
The next year how his mother had grieved when Tom and Aunt

Betsy had died of the "milk sick” that was going the rounds! Before
long she, too, had flushed cheeks and a burning tongue. Abe did what
he could, bringing her cups of water, but one day he saw his mother lie
still, quite still forever. With tears streaming down his face he went
outside, and while he helped his father make a long box for her to lie in,
he thought of words she used to say to him:

68
 "Blessed are they that mourn, for they shall be comforted.”

He wished that there had been a preacher to say those words above her
grave the day when they laid her away in that lonely spot by the salt lick,
where the deer came down.

Abe couldn’t eat anything when they came back to the cabin that
night, just the four of them, his father and Dennis Hanks and he and

Sarah. He couldn’t sleep much, either, when he climbed up the pegs and
lay down on his pile of cornhusks in the loft. Wide-eyed for hours, he
watched the stars pass by an opening in the logs.
The next winter Thomas Lincoln went back to Kentucky. He didn’t
say why he was going or when he was coming back. It was pretty bad
for them, then, but they managed. Abe was ten, Sarah was twelve, but
Dennis was nineteen and could shoot all the food they needed. It was
dreary, though, terribly dreary . . . until one morning Abe thought he
heard the creak of a wagon. They ran to the door, he and Dennis and
Sarah, and listened again. Then they saw it— a great big wagon, piled
high with furniture, drawn by four shaggy-footed horses, come round a
clump of sycamore trees. On top sat two girls and a boy, and on the
driver’s seat beside Tom Lincoln sat a woman.
"This is your new mammy,” said Thomas Lincoln to his children.
"And these are your new sisters and brother, John and Sarah and
Matilda Johnston,” the woman added. As she spoke she smiled.
So Abe smiled a little, too. Then the new mother looked deep into
the eyes of the dirty neglected little boy, and drew him to her. Abe had
only to feel her warm arm about his shoulders to know that it would not
be lonely in the cabin any more.
That night, because Sarah Bush Lincoln had come to be his mother,
Abe slept for the first time on a feather 6bed
9 instead of a pile of corn-
husks. And he went to bed washed and clean, with no { ;it Tn his black
hair. Before long he was even learning to read and write T is is a piece
torn from his homemade copy book, written with a [ :n that Dennis

Hanks made for him out of a wild turkey buzzard’s quilt:

 The good stepmother couldn’t read herself, but whenever a teacher
kept school for a few months nearby, she saw that her children went. Abe

was so eager to learn that even going to school "by littles” he soon
learned to read and write and cipher and spell.
Less than a year in all he spent in school, but every day of his life he
worked, the way poor boys in the backwoods had to work, first for his
father, and then as "hired boy” for some neighboring farmer. Clearing

brush, chopping trees, plowing, pulling fodder, husking corn — it didn’t

matter to him what work he did so long as he had a book tucked in his
shirt, time to snatch a page of it now and then, and a chance to read it
all by the fire at night when he got home.
And here, too, Sarah Lincoln saw that he had a chance. His father
complained he was wasting his time, but she liked to watch him. Things
he wanted to memorize she saw him writing down on the back of a
wooden shovel. Sometimes he laughed out loud at what he was reading

— Also p’s Fables, perhaps. Then he might turn and share it with her.
Years later, looking back, she would often say, "His mind and mine,
what little I had, seemed to run together.”
A life of George Washington was the first book Abe ever owned. It
was a borrowed book, but when at night the rain came through the logs

and spoiled the covers, he shucked corn three days to pay for it. It -was
well worth it ‘o him. It was a book that made him think.

"I’m not always goin’ to grub and shuck corn and split logs and
such like to er n my livin’,” he said one day.
And Sara Lincoln, his stepmother, the "best friend he had in this
world,” believed in him. 70
 ROBERT LEE OF VIRGINIA

RobertE. Le was eight years old in 1815 and of course, because

he was a Lee, he was living in Virginia. At Stratford, the old
Lee plantation, in the room where Robert was born, three gen-
» erations of his family had been born before him. Two had
signed the Declaration of Independence — their portraits hung in the
great hall. Families without position or property might move from
Virginia, but to the Lees, Virginia was home and mother country.
Robert E. was not living on the plantation when the war of 1812
was over but with his mother in a small house in Alexandria. By that
time dreadful misfortune had befallen his father. He had lost his money
and his health and been obliged to leave the country. With his two older
brothers away at college, Robert felt that his mother needed him, so
nearly every afternoon he hurried home to go driving with her. As he
ran up the steps of the red brick house, and opened the white door, he
would call to her from the hall:

"Mother, I’m here. I’m here, Mother. Are you ready?” Then as he
laid his school books on the table, he listened for her answer.

"I’m ready.” The words were always the same, but Robert could tell
from their tone whether she felt better or not so well that day. If her

7i
 tell her that
voice held a quiver of sadness, he thought up something to
,
would make her smile, while he held her coat and bonnet. And always
Ann Carter
as she saw him standing there so courteous and so handsome,
from the Lees
Lee was thankful that the fire and charm he had inherited
was balanced by the sterling qualities of the Carters.
matched
Then, as she rested her slim hand lightly on his arm, he
path between
his step to hers, and they walked slowly down the short
man in his
the snowball bushes to the carriage. There old Nat the coach
g,
green uniform threadbare at the seams, but with his black face shinin
stood beside the door. When they were seated he would close it gently,
ed
climb to his seat and start the horses at a leisurely trot down the cobbl
stone street.

Sometimes they chose to turn eastward towards the Potomac, ride

along the river and look across to Washington, where the government
buildings destroyed by fire were now being rebuilt.
If the day was pleasant they might go as far as Arlington, where
.
little Mary Custis lived in a home that looked like a Greek temple
There her father George Washington Parke Custis, the adopted son of
George Washington, welcomed all guests with an elaborate hospitality.
Other afternoons they took the road leading towards Mount Ver¬

non. As they rode, Ann Carter told her son how his father, "Light Horse
Harry,” had been one of George Washington’s favorite generals in the
Revolution — how he had been in Congress when the great commander
died, and how in a memorial speech he had spoken of Washington as

"First in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen.”
Only the good qualities of his charming father did Ann Carter
want Robert to remember, so she said nothing of the foolish extrava¬
gance and speculation by which Light Horse Harry had squandered all
his fortune. Robert, with understanding, did not question her. So the
two shared happy days until Robert was eighteen and ready for college.
"How can I ever live without him?” said his mother, trembling at

the thought of parting. "He has been both son and daughter to me!”
However, when he was ready for West Point, and Mr. John C. Cal-
houn had secured the appointment for him, Ann Carter Lee bade her son
a brave farewell. Robert had always been a splendid student, and
she
felt sure that he would also make a faithful and courageous soldier.
At West Point, four years later, he was graduated, ranking second
in his class, and with a record that "failed to show a single demerit
against Cadet Lee. That summer, back in Virginia just before his
mother s death, Robert was at her bedside with his Lieutenant s commis¬
sion in his hand and wearing his new blue uniform.
In that uniform of his country Robert E. Lee was to serve faithfully
for more than thirty years. He would lay it aside for one of gray
only
when the broader loyalty to the United States challenged that narrower
but more personal loyalty to his mother state, that deep love of Virginia,
which was born with him in his heart.

HARRIET BEECHER, THE PREACHER’S CHILD

• rT WAS a Sabbath morning in Connecticut, about 1820. The last church

bell was tolling in the village of Litchfield as the Beecher family, ten
or so of them, hustled along the elm-bordered streets and up the
. meeting-house steps. Then gasping for breath in the vestibule, they
73
 et was next to
filed sedately down the aisle to their regular pew. Harri
but he
the littlest, so she went in first. Henry Ward was younger,
s could keep a
wiggled so that he had to sit where one of the older sister
hand on him.

Meanwhile father Beecher, who had caused all this regular Sunday
place behind the
panic, quite calm now and collected, was taking his
tearing down from
pulpit. Only ten minutes ago they had seen him come
ear and a bunch
his study, with his hair on end, his necktie behind his
of notes for the morning’s sermon pinned to his coat lapel.
Harriet’s cheeks were still pink from the rush, and her soft brown
it. There
curls were moist beneath her bonnet as she peeked from under
pleased
were three more empty pews this week. Her father would not be
west
with that, she thought. It meant that three more families had gone
to live. Her father "deplored” the fact that so many Connecticut people
were "willing”— that was the way he said it— "willing to leave towns of
culture and refinement for the wild lands of the west and the still wilder
society.” He feared for the good of their souls.
Harriet wondered about her own soul, too, sometimes. She was
if she
especially worried when her father preached about Hell. What
should be one of those sinners whose souls were not saved and would
e
burn forever? She sincerely hoped her father would not preach a hell-fir
sermon that morning, because if he did she could not help but listen to
talked about
every horribly fascinating detail. Tet if he didn’t, if he
"Predestination” and words like that, she would not be able to keep
her sinful mind from sailing off on a magic carpet to the laqd of Aladdin.
That would be dreadful on the Sabbath. Tomorrow, though, just as soon
as she finished the stint on her sampler, she would run right up to her
father’s study and see what was going to happen on the next page when
Aladdin rubbed the lamp.

Many days little Harriet Beecher spent in that study of her father’s
at the top of the "old windy castle” of a parsonage. "Lined from floor
to ceiling with the friendly faces of books” it was her favorite retreat.
There she would curl up in a corner, quietly reading, while her father
74
sat in his great writing chair at work on his sermons. She was a tiny thing
and as quiet as a mouse. She never disturbed him with any questions,
so he liked to have her there.
He liked to have her around, too, when there was work to be done.
Then she dew about like a busy little wren. One day when they were
all out carrying in wood, he praised her and also spurred on her brothers
by saying how much faster she worked than they did. Father Beecher was
a genius at making the family work together and enjoy it. At apple¬
paring time, when a barrel of applesauce had to be made for the winter’s
use, there was work for everyone in the kitchen.

"Tell you what we’ll do,” he’d say, "to make the evening go off.
Let’s take turns and see who can tell the most out of Scott’s novels.”
That pleased Harriet. One summer she and one of her brothers read
Ivanhoe through seven times, and could recite many scenes from mem¬
ory. Some day Harriet planned to write a novel of her own.

"The main thing,” her teacher at the Academy told their English
class, "is to have something you really want to say.”
The year that Harriet was twelve, the three best compositions of the
term were read at the school exhibition. Harriet watched her father’s face
while hers was being read. Then she heard him ask the principal who

was the author, and when the principal answered, "Your daughter, sir,”
and she saw his face light up, it was the proudest moment of her life.

It made up a little for the days when she felt that she "was fit for
nothing and wished she could die young and let her faults perish in the

grave.” Stories of the Pilgrim fathers, however, filled her with courage.
Wonderful words like the Declaration of Independence made her long

to "fight for her country, or make some declaration on her own ac¬
count . . .’’do something — she didn’t know what . . .
As nothing seemed to need her help at once, she decided wisely that
perhaps people cannot plan ahead too far or too precisely. Perhaps all
that was expected of her now was to make the most of the talents God
had given her and the time and place would come for her to use them.

75
 WHAT ABOUT MISSOURI?

ames Monroe was elected President of the United States in 1817.

The vote was almost unanimous. After the war, differences of opin¬
ion between the sections of the country had melted away into a

7 period of peace and harmony later known as the Era of itGood Feel¬
was gone.
ing. Everyone hoped that it would last forever, but suddenly
In 1819, a question came up that roused the country from one end of it
to the other. "Like a fire bell in the night” it sounded to Thomas
Jefferson at Monticello, and dismal too "like the death knell of the
union.” It was the ugly question of slavery and it had come up in connec¬
tion with Missouri.

Missouri Territory wanted to become a state. It had now the neces¬

sary 65,000 settlers. The question was: Should Missouri be a state where
only free men might live, or one where slavery was to be allowed?
Indiana had entered as a free state, the year the Lincolns moved

there, because it was north of the Ohio River. As far west as the Mis-
sissippi, the Ohio acted as a continuation of the Mason and Dixon line
dividing the free states to the north from slave states to the south.
That line should be extended across the river,” said the north¬
erners. Missouri lies north of the Ohio and therefore should be free.”

"Missouri should be a slave state,” said people of the south. "Most

of the settlers are slave owners from Kentucky and Tennessee. They
want a slave state. They should be allowed to have it.”
"Besides,” they added, "if Missouri should come in a free state it
would destroy the balance between the slave states and the free.”
From the map it is easy to see what they were talking about. Of the
twenty-two states in 1819, eleven were slave and eleven were free. Each
state was allowed two senators, so there was a deadlock when the ques¬
tion of Missouri was first brought up in Congress. Before the next vote,
all over the country, people were discussing the question.
At a meeting held in Boston, Daniel Webster protested earnestly
against allowing the evil of slavery to spread. Little Harriet Beecher
heard her father preach a sermon against it that moved even the men in
the meeting house to tears.
Never before in the history of the country had there been such ex¬
citement over slavery. Petitions poured into Congress. The debate raged
for two years, until the gentleman from Georgia shook his fist at the

gentleman from Illinois and threatened that "if he persisted the Union
would be dissolved!” Some of the southern members threatened to with¬
draw from Congress. Daniel Webster was alarmed, forgetting how re¬
cently New England had been making the same threat.
Henry Clay was distressed. He saw that something must be done
at once to satisfy both sides, for Henry Clay saw both sides. He con¬
sidered slavery "the deepest stain on the character of our country.” He
was a leader in the movement to give freed Negroes a home in Liberia,
but he owned slaves himself, and realized that slaves were valuable
property to their owners. Therefore, when a compromise was suggested
that he thought might settle the matter harmoniously, Henry Clay
begged, schemed and pleaded until finally the Compromise was made.

77
 BUT from then on slav¬
Missouri was to be admitted as a slave state,
of its southern boundary
ery was to be barred from all territory north
e was to be admitted as
line, as far west as the Rocky Mountains. Main
s equal again. The coun¬
a new free state, thus making free and slave state
saved. The dangerous
try heaved a sigh of relief. The Union had been
ed forever.
question of slavery, they hoped, had been hush
Jefferson dis¬
"Hushed it is, indeed, for the moment,” said Thomas
reckoning, he
mally, "but this is not the final sentence.” The day of
knew, would come.
The Missouri Compromise had but postponed that evil day.

And now to the United States, growing like a young giant in popu¬
added.
lation and land, not only new states but a new territory had been
belonged
The peninsula of Florida. That land of sun and flowers which
to Spain had become in recent years a breeding ground for trouble.
des.
Pirates, robbers, runaway slaves, hid in its swamps and evergla
Joined with the Seminoles, the native wandering Indians, they contin¬
their
ually made raids on the people of Georgia, killing the planters and
families and stealing their property.

Andrew Jackson finally was called upon to put a stop to this out¬
rage, and in his usual fashion "Old Hickory” made quick work of his
assignment. Within three months he had beaten the Seminoles, hanged a
few troublemakers, and practically taken possession of the country and
again made himself a hero!
Spain protested, naturally.
John Quincy Adams, Secretary of Foreign Affairs, replied that
Spain must either keep order in Florida — or sell it.
It seemed better to sell than lose it, especially as it was lost already.
So Spain took $5,000,000 and the United States took Florida.
' rN the year 1817, the first shovelful of dirt was dug for the Erie
Canal. That year Cornelius Vanderbilt changed his mind about
steamboats, and so began to build up his tremendous fortune. What
. was more important, he brought to light a bad situation, which, if it
had not been stopped by law, might well have split apart the fast grow¬
ing United States, and destroyed the Union.
Ten years before, in 1807, when Robert Fulton had first launched

his steamboat on the Hudson River, "Corneel” Van der Bilt was just a
thirteen year old tow-headed kid, who lived on a farm on Staten Island.
By the time he was sixteen, he was rough and tough and as able to fight
for his rights as any man in New Tork harbor, and he was in business for
himself. He had a sailboat of his own, and ferried passengers across from
Staten Island to the city for eighteen cents apiece. Every day he went
sailing back and forth like mad, crowding in as many trips as possible,
proud of his profits and his sailboat.

"Who in heck’d want to ride on one of them rattletraps,” he’d say

79
as one of the eight new steamboats of the Fulton Livingstone Company
went chugging and shaking along, belching a cloud of smoke and a
shower of sparks and cinders. True, sailing with the wind his boat was
faster and smoother, but sailing against the wind was a different story.
No matter how hard he worked, the steamers passed him by.

"Let ’em get there, damn ’em,” he’d say. "Who cares?” But he did.
He cared. That was why one day in 1817 Corneel paid seven dollars
and took a ride on the steamship Fulton up the Hudson River to Albany
(where they were starting to dig the Erie Canal) . Up and back he looked
the boat over from stem to stern, and did some figuring. He had the
ferryboat business, three ocean-going schooners, and $9,000. He was
doing well — but not well enough.
"Goin’ to sell all my sailboats and go into steamboatin’,” he said
one day. "The big money’s goin’ to be made in steamboats.” And big
money was what he wanted. Wanted to be as rich as "Old Astor” was.
So he packed up the wife and kids and moved to New Jersey. There
he went to work for a man named Gibbons, running his steamboat ferry

between New Jersey and New 'iork. Now if Corneel had left the cranky
little boat the way he found it, probably nothing would have happened,
but Corneel was a worker. He got the boat in good shape, running on
regular schedule and paying a profit. Then a warrant was issued in New
\brk for his arrest! For what? He knew for what — for operating a steam¬
boat to New \brk harbor without paying for the privilege.
Fulton and Livingstone Company had the sole right to run steam¬
boats on the waters of New ’iork State. Anyone else who wanted to start
up for himself had to pay them for the right — or be arrested.
''Arrested?” said Cornelius. "Let ’em try.”
They did try. Again and again. But the warrant officers couldn’t
arrest him because they couldn’t find him. He always managed to be
under the gangplank, or down in the hold, somewhere out of sight when
they came aboard. Finally in desperation to get rid of the Gibbons com¬
petition, the monopoly tried to bribe this impudent fellow who had
been able to make it a paying business. Ogden offered him a good salary
80
and command of his largest steamer. Corneel refused. He was no quitter.
This man Ogden had formerly been a partner of Gibbons, but had
gone over to the monopoly, and helped it bring suit against him. It was
called the Ogden-Gibbons or Gibbons-Ogden case.
Before long the State of New Jersey took up the fight, and forbade
any officer of New York to arrest any citizen of New Jersey for not hav-
ing a license. Connecticut was incensed also, and forbade any vessel
owned by the monopoly to come into her harbors. The idea of one state
making laws against another spread. Out on the Ohio River, Kentucky
made a law against Indiana, and Abraham Lincoln was arrested.
Abe then had a job as a ferryman. He took passengers on a flatboat
from the Indiana shore out to steamers going up or down the Ohio River.
One day two brothers who ran a similar ferry from the Kentucky shore
had him arrested and taken before the Justice of the Peace. Abe testified
that he had taken passengers out to the middle of the river, but not to
the Kentucky shore. The case was dismissed.

"Mighty handy to know the law about any business you’re in,”
thought Abe. After that he hunted up law books to read, and sat up half
the night. Days when the Justice of the Peace held court he went, when¬
ever he could, to listen. In the Louisville newspaper he liked to read
what new laws were made by Congress, and what decisions had been
handed down by the Supreme Court of the United States.
So in time he must have read of the famous Gibbons-Ogden case,
for in 1824 (just the year before the Erie Canal was finished) that law¬
suit, tried and retried, had finally reached the Supreme Court. Gibbons
was defended by the young lawyer of New England, Daniel Webster.
John Marshall, the great Chief Justice, handed down this decision
that abolished the monopoly: all that any man needed was a fed¬
eral LICENSE AND HE WAS FREE TO USE ANY RIVER OR LAKE OR HARBOR

in the united states. This was one nation — not twenty-four. John
Marshall made many important interpretations of the Constitution, but
none more important than this, in helping cement the states into one
united nation, guaranteeing justice and equal rights to all of its citizens.

81
Daniel Bo ne died in 1820, and not many years later, a reward
I of one cent was offered for the return of a boy, a distant kin of
his, who was to become the great guide west of the Mississippi,
and whose father had followed Daniel Boone into Missouri.
On October 6, 1826, this advertisement appeared in print:

notice: Christopher Carson, a boy about 1 6 years old,

small of his age but thickset, light hair, ran away from the

subscriber, to whom he had been bound to learn the saddler’s

trade, on or about the first day of September last. One cent
reward will be given to any person who will bring back said
boy. (Signed) David Workman, Franklin, Missouri.

And where was Kit Carson when that reward was offered? He was on
the trail to Santa Fe. He had to go. The hankering of the pioneer was in
his blood. Besides, how could any boy sit at a bench boring holes in
leather and stitching harness when the very air was full of tales of the
two great paths that led beyond the sunset?
Back from the northwest came trappers and traders with bundles of
furs and tales of rivers and mountains. Back from the southwest came
men in broadbrimmed hats with gold dust and silver nuggets. Even
more fascinating were their tales of desert and prairie, of buffalos and
Comanche Indians — of Caballeros and senoritas who danced the fan-

82
dango, in a far off Mexican city called Santy Fe! So when the next wagon
train left for the west by south, Christopher Carson was on it.
There he was, riding along at the end of a string of extra mules and
horses, while on ahead, swaying and creaking, rumbled the long line of
covered wagons, heavily loaded with goods to trade. Like ships through
a sea of grass they crossed the prairies of Kansas. They forded the Arkan¬
sas River and trailed through the sun and dust of the Cimarron desert.
Fifty nights or more they stood wheel to wheel beneath the sky, before
the trail began to climb, and finally brought them out one fine day onto
the edge of a red rock eight hundred miles from home.
There the old-timers threw their hats in the air and shouted,
"Thar she be! Thar’s old Santy Fee!”
And there in the valley below the red violet mountains on the oppo¬
site sky line, Kit saw for the first time the low Fat-roofed adobe houses
of the old Spanish city. Down then into the town they went, past the
market full of red peppers and melons and grapes, past the church with
its gold cross and ancient bell, on into the open plaza. And everywhere
were the dark-haired, dark-eyed people, in gold-embroidered coats and
broad sombreros, in bright striped blankets, brilliant skirts and shawls.
It was a strange sight for the yellow-headed boy. And he was a strange
sight to them. A boy. "Un muchacho!’
83
"Un muchacho Americano ” they cried and pointed.
It was always a great day for Santa Fe when the caravan arrived.
Only four years had the trail been open. Before that Mexico had be¬
longed to Spain and strangers who ventured over the border soon found
themselves in jail. Now they were welcome. Mexico was free.
 BENITO JUAREZ, A BOY OF MEXICO

Yes, Mexico was fre in 1826 and a Republic. Vit oria, the first
President, was serving his second year. He was an upright man
abiding by the Constitution and enforcing its laws, one of
which provided for free education. That was why in the city
of Oaxaca, so full of monasteries and cathedrals, a new school of Arts
and Science had now been opened, free to all — including the Indians.
Benito Juarez could go at last to a school where he was welcome.
All five years in the old Seminary, although the kind Senor had paid for
his tuition, he had been jeered at by the white pupils and slighted by the
teachers. Often he had overheard visitors say:

"An Indio here? Indians cannot be educated. They have no sense.”

Fortunately Fra Antonio had not agreed84 with them. Good Fra
Antonio! To him Benito Juarez owed everything. A poor waif, unable
even to speak the Spanish language, Fra Antonio had taken him in and
given him a home. He had taught him to repair and clean the books for
the monastery and then to read in them. Fra Antonio was much feebler
now. Benito often watched him nodding over his prayer book, and
thought of his first days with the kindly old man in this little booksh
op.
How like a feast those first meals of tortillas and fruit and beans had
tasted after years of not having had enough to eat! He remembered how
hungry he was the day he arrived in the city of Oaxaca, hungry and tired,
for he had walked a long way from the home village in the mountains.
Since that day he had not seen his uncle, but he could never forget his
cruelty. His dead parents? They were a dimmer memory. After the old
grandmother too was dead, there had been no one left but the uncle.
That was why Josepha, his sister, had gone to find work in Oaxaca and
why when he was twelve he had followed her. He remembered well the
day he left. How cool the mountain air was. How red and beautiful in
the sunrise had been the ruins of the old Zapotec temple. How clear the
reflections in the mirror-like surface of the enchanted lake. He had
thrown a stone into it and watched the ripples follow one another in ever-
widening circles until they died away.
That was the way sound traveled, he thought, coming back to the
present. It was wonderful to study physics now and the other sciences,
and to learn of the great laws which ruled the universe.
In a year or so, the instructors told him, he might begin the study
of Social Laws, the laws by which men try in their feeble way to keep
order in their lives with one another. Ancient laws and modern laws
he would study. The laws of Spain, the laws of the United States and
its Constitution, after which Mexico had now patterned her own. All
the laws of this new republic he would study, laws which were now to
insure justice and equality to all the people. His people, too, the Indios,
he hoped, after three hundred years of oppression might now take their
rightful place in their homeland. Had not the Republic chosen for its
flag an ancient Indian symbol ? The eagle with the serpent in its mouth,
85 the Aztec Indians to found
according to legend, was the sign which led
their first capital on the site of Mexico City. Now old Mexico City was
the capital of the new republic.
Benito Juarez had been but four years old in 1810 when the first
cry for freedom from the rule of Spain had been raised in Mexico by the
 creole priest, Hidalgo. Now the famous cry, called El
Grito de Dolores , and the story of Hidalgo were part of
Mexican history. Hidalgo was a poor parish priest who
had been made to feel humiliated because he was a

creole, for in Mexico, as in all Spain’s colonies, Spaniards

born in the new world were oppressed by their overlords

who had been born in Spain. So it was "Down with the

Spaniards!” "Down with those who wear the spurs!” Hidalgo cried.
Rousing the Indians of his parish, he marched with them from village
to village adding to his forces, carrying as their standard a painting of
the Indian virgin, "Our Lady of Guadalupe.” Hidalgo was no general.
His army was soon overpowered by the royal forces, and he was shot.
morelos, another poor parish priest, took up the cry
and bravely carried on the light for freedom, but he too
was captured, carried to Mexico City and shot. Within the
next few years all the other rebel leaders were either
killed, imprisoned or driven into hiding in the mountains.
By the time Benito Juarez came to live with Fra Antonio,
the first rebellion was over, and Spain again was in control.
Soon, however, rebellion was begun again, and this time not by
poor parish priests and Indians, but by the wealthy creoles. They were
alarmed for the safety of their wealth and property by news from Spain
of certain liberties that the king had been forced to grant the people.
Fearing similar liberties might be given the poorer classes in Mexico,
the wealthy creoles determined to separate from Spain, to set up a king¬
dom of their own over which they would have control.
iturbide, General Augustin Iturbide, was their
leader. He united the rebel forces, and by September,
1821, had entered the capital and declared Mexico inde¬
pendent. Gathering courage, the following year he had
"pronounced” himself the Emperor, Augustin I. His em¬
pire had but a short life. In six months he found himself
9 f % \ "pronounced” against by one of his former officers, and
a year later exiled.
86
 As for Mexico. Mexico was then a republic

— declared so in 1822 by the same officer who

had "pronounced” against the Emperor — a wiry,
sallow-faced, clever little man with a tricky
tongue and a gaudy uniform, whose ambition

was to seize the power in Mexico and make himself "the Napoleon of
the 'West.” His name was Santa Anna.
Benito Juarez could not have seen Santa Anna before 1828. That
year President Vittoria had finished his four-year term, and another
election had been held. The candidate backed by Santa Anna had been
defeated. It was the same candidate for whom Benito Juarez, now twenty-
two years old, had voted. He also was disappointed, but he respected the
law and so he respected the verdict. Not so Santa Anna.

In defiance of the law, Santa Anna attempted to "pronounce”

against the newly elected candidate, in favor of his friend. This time he
spoke up too soon, and things got so hot for him in the capital that he
had to scuttle out of Mexico City. He turned up in Oaxaca. There he
barricaded himself and his soldiers in one of the monasteries, until the
pursuing army of the opposite party gave up the chase and left.
Then he appeared again. And Juarez saw him, the center of a spell¬
bound crowd, dazzling their eyes with his red and gold uniform, while
he filled their ears with oratory, highly spiced and as colorful as his dress.
Somber young Benito Juarez, garbed in the solid black considered
suitable for a lawyer, was the exact opposite of the highly colored orator
in character as well as appearance. To him it was treasonable, that idea
of trying to overturn by force the president who had been elected accord¬
ing to the law. The law? Santa Anna cared nothing for the law, or
Mexico either, except as Mexico or its laws could be of use to him. That
was the man who was to hold Mexico in his ruinous power for more than
twenty years. Yes. Mexico was free, in 1828 . . . free from Spain, but
not free, alas, from Santa Anna.
 FtoRlDA
RoutU. eq C^O&AHUV

7 / ocmi /

TODA AMERICA ES MI PATRIA

Spainhad now lost al her colonies in the New World — Florida,

Mexico and also South America, for on December 8, 1824, Peru,

| that last stronghold of the Spanish forces, had fallen. Neither

Simon Bolivar nor San Martin took part in the final battle, al¬
though for twelve years both men had been working towards that
victory. Twelve years it was since the spring of 1812 when San Martin
had returned to Argentina, the earthquake had struck Venezuela, and
Simon Bolivar had been banished to an island in the Caribbean.
From that island, penniless but hopeful still, Bolivar had returned
to accomplish wonders. Like a bandit chief he had raised an army of
ragged volunteers against the forces of Spain. Down dark rivers he had
led them, through steaming jungles, up rocky and freezing mountain
heights and down again into the tropic plains, fighting battle after battle
until he had won through to success and his well-earned glory.
Then under arches of flowers and flags, beautiful girls of Venezuela
had drawn him in a chariot into Caracas, the capital city. Later in flowery
triumph he had also entered the capitals of New Granada and Ecuador.
Those three countries he had then united into a republic, which he
named Colombia, in honor, of course, of the first explorer.
88
 Simon Bolivar himself had been hailed as the "Liberator of Vene¬
zuela, New Granada, and Ecuador," and was the President of Colombia.
Meanwhile San Martin had become known as the "Liberator of
Chile” and "Protector of Peru,” for while Simon Bolivar had been set¬
ting free the northern parts of the continent, San Martin had been work¬
ing up the west coast from the south. In his quiet manner San Martin had
also accomplished what he set out to do. Back in the secluded province
of Argentina he had raised and equipped his army. In 1817, in January,
which is the middle of summer, when the mountain passes are free of
snow, he took his army, cannons and all up over the tortuous heights
of the Andes Mountains and down into Chile. There, with the help of

Bernardo O’Higgins, he defeated the royal army of Spain, entered

Santiago and established Chile’s independence.
San Martin had then sailed to Peru. There he again defeated the
royal forces, besieged and entered the city of Lima, and declared Peru

independent. Peru’s independence had been only declared, however, in

1822, not entirely won. The Spanish forces had left Lima, but were still
strong in the highlands to the east. So, very sensibly, San Martin looked
to the great leader of the north, Bolivar, hoping that they might plan to
join forces and complete the work together.
A meeting was arranged. And so, on a day in July, 1821, a ship sailed
into a harbor in Ecuador, with a quiet man aboard watching the shore¬

line eagerly for his first glimpse of the "great Liberator.” On shore
watching the ship approach stood a graceful man in full dress uniform,
with fluttering ribbons and a helmet topped with plumes. He was sur¬
rounded by an excited crowd, glad of an excuse to celebrate.
San Martin, therefore, as he walked modestly and rather shyly

down the gangplank, found himself caught up at once in a public em¬

8
brace, and showered with flowers, huzzahs, 9 laurel wreaths and lavish
compliments to the point of embarrassment. Riding to headquarters he
kept his eyes on his boots, while Bolivar, on the contrary, flashed his
charming smile to right and left in gracious recognition of the applause.
The interview between the two men was secret. They were two very
different men. At the end of the conference, Bolivar escorted San Martin
n
to the harbor and he sailed away. Rather than make a division betwee
to with¬
the patriots before the fight for freedom was won, he preferred
draw and resign his command to Bolivar.
So Bolivar, without having to share either the glory or the responsi¬
bility, finished the fight in Peru, although it was his general, Jose de
on a
Sucre, who led the troops at the final battle. High in the Andes
of
plateau surrounded by snow-capped peaks, the last representative
Spain in the New World surrendered. The victorious commander sent
this report to Bolivar — "Generali The war is over and liberty of Peru
assured. The only reward I ask is to retain your friendship.

The Battlefield of Ayacucho Antonio Jose de Sucre.”

Dec. 8, 1824.

Meanwhile the United States and England had been watching with
h
great sympathy the fight for liberty in the Spanish colonies. Metternic
and the Holy Allies, Russia, Prussia and Austria, had watched it with
alarm. To them liberty of the people was a dangerous fire to be stamped
out, whenever or wherever it put in an appearance. They had stamped
it out in Spain. When the Spanish people had demanded a Constitution
from Fernando VII, they had sent an army into Spain and restored
Fernando at once as an absolute monarch. Well pleased with that suc¬
cess, the Holy Allies now thought to set things completely back in order,
by restoring to the King of Spain his rebellious colonies in America.
Here they met with opposition.
"Hands off,” said England firmly.
"Hands off,” said the United States even more firmly, and so came
into being one of the famous documents in American history.
On the advice of John Quincy Adams, President Monroe, in his
message to Congress in December, 1823, declared that, just as the United
States did not intend to meddle in European affairs, they did not intend
to allow any European nation to meddle in the affairs of the Americas.

"Any attempt on their part to extend their system to any portion of

this hemisphere,” so read the words, "we should consider as dangerous
to our peace and safety and as the manifestation of an unfriendly disposi¬
tion towards the United States.”
America for Americans, that was the monroe doctrine.

To da America es mi P atria was what San Martin always said. A

united South America had also been Simon Bolivar’s dream. The first
Pan American Congress was his idea and undertaking. In his mind were
principally the countries of South America, but, because of the Monroe
Doctrine, the United States had also been invited.

"The day when our representatives meet will begin an immortal

epoch in the politics of America,” were his enthusiastic words.
The Congress of 1826 was a dismal failure. At the opening meet¬
ing, of all the nations invited only four were represented, Colombia,

Peru, Guatemala and Mexico. Some didn’t even answer the invitation.
One of the delegates from the United States died on the way, and the

other arrived after the Congress had been adjourned. Bolivar’s great
hopes were dashed. He was bitterly disappointed.

"Life is a torment,” he moaned. "I have ploughed the sea.”

Such moods, however, alternated with joy such as he felt one day on
opening a small package from the United States. It was accompanied by
a letter from the French general La Fayette, a man who had fought for
freedom in America before Bolivar had been born. He was sending
Simon Bolivar, he said, this miniature of George Washington.

"And I believe,” he wrote, "that there is no one to whom my pater¬

nal friend would have preferred offering it than to the great citizen

whom South America has greeted with the name of Liberator.”

 CITIZENS OF THE WORLD

Gien er al L a F a y e t e w a s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w h
miniature to Simon Bolivar. It was his first visit to Ame

[ since he had bidden farewell to his beloved fri

l Washington the year after the American Revolutio
end George
n. La

Fayette was now in his late sixties, but hale and ruddy and with a hea
asion. He was
e n
rica

rt
h e s e n t t h e
young enough to enjoy every moment of this very gala occ
coming as an especially invited guest of the United States.
Bunker
On June 15, 1825, the fiftieth anniversary of the Battle of
Hill was to be celebrated, and Congress had felt that it would be most
had
fitting to have present the generous and beloved Frenchman who
given so largely in money and service to the American Revolution.
From the day he arrived in August, 1824, to the day he left in Sep¬
tember of the following year he was feasted and feted in such a round of
dinners, receptions, balls and speeches as would have been the death of
a less hardy guest. La Fayette enjoyed it all, traveled in all the twenty-
four states, had a smile for the thousands who wanted to shake his hand
and went out of his way to visit old friends.
John Adams, now almost ninety, he found very feeble and bearing
up with difficulty under the suspense of the coming presidential election
in which his son was running against Andrew Jackson and Henry Clay.
La Fayette was glad for the old gentleman’s sake when Henry Clay with¬
drew and secured to John Quincy Adams his election as the sixth presi¬
dent of the United States.
Early in the fall La Fayette had visited Mount Vernon, and had
spent a few sunny autumn days with Thomas Jefferson at Monticello,
recalling old days spent together in France.
James Madison also received a visit and interested La Fayette by
saying that he thought his plantation failed to pay because of the diffi¬
culties of slave labor. Slavery was a great evil, in his opinion, but how,
pray tell, could it ever be done away with? More slaves were being used
each year, because of the great cotton plantations that were now spread¬
ing over the south.

For La Fayette’s visit to the western states, the rivers were used as
much as possible. From New Orleans America’s guest went by steamboat
up the Mississippi, spending one night at the house of the leading fur
trader of St. Louis. After turning aside to visit Andrew Jackson at the
Hermitage just outside of Nashville, La Fayette went on up the Ohio to
Pittsburgh. Completing the circle by coach, he was back in Boston in
time to lay the cornerstone of the Bunker Hill Monument.
Daniel Webster was the orator of the occasion, and in his booming
voice made a great address, long remembered by all those who heard
it.

Memorable, too, was the toast proposed by La Fayette at the banquet

that followed. It was a toast that showed his unwavering faith in the
future — a faith that all must have whose hearts stay young.
“To Bunker Hill,” he said, raising his glass, "and to the holy resist¬
ance to oppression which has already freed the American hemisphere.

May the next half century’s toast be to a liberated Europe.”

There in free America, La Fayette thought sadly of France and of
all Europe, where liberty for the time being was crushed.
While La Fayette was visiting old friends and making new ones in
America, an unofficial ambassador of good will from the United States
was making friends for himself and his country in Europe. It was that

93
happy traveler and now well-known author of Rip Van Winkle and
many other popular stories. It was Washington Irving.
Washington Irving had gone to Europe directly after the war. The
very day he landed in Liverpool in 1815, mail coaches had just dashed
in with the news that Napoleon had been defeated at Waterloo.
Six years later, after a visit in Paris, he was back in London just in
time to see the coronation procession of the new King of England,
George IV. George IV, although not crowned, had been acting as King
or Regent for many years, because his father, George III, had been

insane. At last in 1820, after sixty years of stubbornly "being King,”

old George III had passed away.
Washington Irving stood with the crowd watching the new King
arrive and leave Westminster Abbey, but he did not enter the church. He
modestly hesitated to ask permission.

"Hoot, mon,” exclaimed Sir Walter Scott, the following day, "you
should have told them who you were; you’d have got in anywhere.”
Washington Irving laughed. So did Sir Walter Scott. They liked

each other immensely. Irving had paid a visit to Abbotsford, Scott’s

famous home in Scotland, where he said that "the golden-hearted old
worthy had completely won his heart.”
In 1825, the year of the Bunker Hill celebration, Washington Irving
was in Spain, hunting material for a life of Columbus. There he met a
handsome young American about half his age who had just arrived in
Europe to complete his education. His name was Henry Wadsworth
Longfellow. He was delighted to meet the favorite author of his boyhood.
The English students also loved Washington Irving’s books, and
made the halls ring with their cheers for him when, a few years later,
he was at Oxford to receive the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws.
The first American author to win recognition abroad, Washington
Irving and his books helped to make a better understanding and friend¬
lier feeling between the United States and England.
Like La Fayette, Irving had that generous tolerant spirit that makes
the native of any country a citizen of the world.

94
 o

JMiY 24, 1819, almost a year before her uncle George IV, not
VICTORIA IS BORN

at all a pleasant person, became King of England, Victoria

was born. That her father died the following year caused the
king no sorrow. George IV had never had any use for his
brother, the Duke of Kent, nor for his brother’s wife whom he consid¬
ered a disagreeable and meddlesome woman. When the baby daughter
was born to them, therefore, George took great pains to be present at
the baptism and to see that she got a name her father would not like.
The Archbishop of Canterbury, holding the pink-and-white baby
girl before the font, inquired what he should name the child.

' 'Alexandria!” spoke up the Prince Regent in a loud tone.

"Elizabeth,” said the baby’s father, glaring at his brother.
"Alexandria, I say,” repeated the Regent in a still louder tone.
‘'She’s to be named for her godfather Czar Alexander of Russia, and
for a second name let her have her mother’s name, Victoria.”
So while her father grumbled under his breath that it sounded too
foreign for a future Queen of England, Alexandrina Victoria became

the baby’s name. Never daunted by difficulties, her mother said later:
"It iss a long name, yes, but ve vill call her ’Drina,”
95
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HARD TIMES AND BAD KINGS

vyette so loved freedom that when he left the United States a

chest filled with its earth went with him. It was his wish that
when his last sleep came, he might be laid to rest beneath the
"sacred soil of liberty.” He was returning, he knew, to find con¬
ditions worse in France than when he left.

Louis XVIII had died during the year, and his brother, Charles X,

had been crowned King. There was no doubt in La Fayette’s mind as to

what Charles X would try to do, and no doubt in the mind of Charles X
as to La Fayette’s opinion. The two old men, now nearing seventy, were
old acquaintances. They had known each other since they were little

boys in riding school, and as Charles X himself said, they "had had
many a fight.” As firmly as La Fayette believed in liberty of the people,
Charles X believed in the divine and absolute right of kings. As far as
possible he intended to turn the calendar back fifty years or more and
rule as his grandfather, Louis XV, had ruled, in those good days before
the Revolution.

His coronation, at which he was anointed on seven parts of his

body with sacred oil to show his divine descent, was like a spectacle
of the Middle Ages. It was disgusting to the people of France. They had
beheaded his brother in their fight for freedom.
How long, La Fayette wondered, would they tolerate Charles X?
Conditions were bad in France and they were also bad in England.

George IV, the king, was a waster and a good-for-nothing. "A bloated
old sensualist” was what Washington Irving called him, and that was
no exaggeration. His debts were enormous, and alas for the poor tax¬
payers, Parliament was obliged to keep on paying them until he should
do England the favor of dying. Aside from that, no more about George
need be said, for happily England was not an absolute monarchy —
happily, that is, for one-tenth of the people, those who held the power.
England was not under the rule of an absolute king, but neither
was it a democracy. The government was in the hands of the Lords and
a few wealthy businessmen, who controlled Parliament and so ruled the
country. Tories and conservatives, they had been so alarmed at what had
happened in France during the Revolution, when the common people
had seized the power and beheaded aristocrats by the wholesale, that
they were determined to let nothing of the kind occur in England. A
government by aristocrats and property owners was the best of all gov¬
ernments for them and for the country. There must be no change.

Under this upper crust were nine-tenths of the people. They had
no voice at all in the government. Even lawyers, doctors, teachers, small

97
 allowed to vote, to
businessmen— people of the middle class— were not
far from right.
say nothing of the very poor, for whom life was
ren, half-starved,
Factory workers were paid starvation wages. Child ve hours a day
were hired for even less and made to work ten and twel
and hanged
in the cotton mills. Men could be thrown into jail for debt
al offenses.
for stealing a fish, and some two hundred other trivi
"You have no idea of the distress and misery that prevails in Eng¬
"It is beyond description.”
land,” Washington Irving wrote home. matter
Peace after the war had made bad s worse. Munitions factories
were also
were closed, men no longer needed in the army and navy
e
thrown out of work. Taxation for the war was terrific. Meetings of peopl
to discuss their troubles were broken up by troops. They were desperate,
but what could they do ?

"Get the right to vote!” answered William Cobbett, who was a bold
leader of the masses, and published for them a weekly paper. If you
want better conditions,” he kept telling them, you must get the vote.
those who
Get the vote! That was far easier said than done, when
Lords, but also
opposed any change controlled not only the House of
a most
the House of Commons, where representation had now reached
e the
peculiar state. Six hundred years ago when the council that becam
had
House of Commons had been formed, each town then in existence
the
been given the right to send two members. Now, though many of
old towns had disappeared, the arrangement still held good. There might
be not one house left where once had been a town; nevertheless, the Lord
.
who owned the land could still send two representatives to Parliament
Cities, on the other hand, might have 20,000 inhabitants, but if less than
six hundred years old would not be represented.
The Whigs, or Liberal Party, had long realized the need of reform
but had been powerless, because for many years the Tory Party, who were
afraid of change, had been in power. But reform, revolution, change and
adjustment to it were bound to come. Life does not stand still.
"The great cause of the world will go on,” wrote Washington Irving.
"What a stirring moment it is to be alive!”
 VICTORIA — WHO WAS SHE?

Drina had no idea when she was five that she would ever be
i Queen of England. She had never been to visit her Uncle King,
and knew very little about the world outside of Kensington
Palace. She didn’t know, of course, that there were any chil¬
dren in England who were starving. If she had, it would have made her

very unhappy, for ’Drina loved so to eat. She loved strawberries and
cream and tarts and cakes, but Mamma never let her have anything but

the plainest food. Mamma was very strict. So ’Drina had troubles every
day. Sometimes she had to stamp her foot, they made her so angry.
One morning in bright October, she opened her blue eyes, and
closed them tight again when she saw her governess, Lehzen, moving
about the room. She buried her round pink cheek in the pillow and pre¬
tended she wasn’t awake. It was just another day, she thought, of having
to learn her lessons or listen to Mamma scold. Then she remembered!
This was no ordinary day. This was a wonderful day. This was the
day they were going to visit dear Uncle Leopold, Mamma’s brother, and
99
see Grossmutter who was coming from Europe. At that thought she sat
up her small round self in a hurry and jumped out of bed.
"Lehzen,” she said, "vy didn’t you call me? Ve vill be late.”
But they were not late. Lehzen never allowed anyone to be late,
and although it seemed long after breakfast before they were on their

way, they reached Claremont, Uncle Leopold’s home, before those who
had gone to meet Grossmutter had returned. ’Drina was in her fresh
white dress and blue sash when she heard the wheels of the carriages
on the gravel, and ran on tiptoe to meet the travelers at the door. There
was dear Uncle Leopold, whom she loved so well, and there was darling
Grossmutter, whose face folded into charming little wrinkles when she

smiled. There was Mamma, of course, who hoped as usual that "her
’Drina had been a good little girl.” And Feodore. Feodore was her
precious sister who was seventeen and so beautiful, but for some reason
not treated by people with half so much honor as she was herself. Lehzen
had told her that that was because Feodore was a half-sister only, and
not a niece of the King, but still she wondered about it.
With so many uncles and aunts and relatives, it was hard at times
for ’Drina to keep them straight, but she remembered all she had heard
about her cousins Ernest and Albert, who lived with Grossmutter in

Germany. Their father, like Uncle Leopold, was a brother of Mamma’s.

Ernest was older, but Albert was just her age, and looked like her too,
Grossmutter said. He kept a diary and had a new goat. Three goats, those
boys had, Grossmutter said, and a wagon to ride in.

"Oh please, please,” Victoria begged, "couldn’t Albert and Ernest

come to visit me too, some day, and bring the goats?”
Victoria. That was the name by which she was going to call herself
now instead of ’Drina. That’s what Grossmutter called her and she liked
it. So after that visit the little girl was called Victoria by all who knew
her, except Uncle King!
George IV would persist in calling her Alexandria, as she found
out on her first visit to him.
That unexpected invitation to visit the King came about two years

ioo
after the visit to Claremont. The idea of going to Windsor at last threw
the little family at Kensington into a flurry. Though Mamma had little
money to spend, Feodore must have a new bonnet, and Victoria had
fresh rosebuds put under the brim of her last year’s hat. And it was a
new white organdy dress that she was wearing, a new blue sash and new
stockings without even the tiniest darn when the King first saw her
and she first saw him.
An enormously fat old man he was, wearing a greasy brown wig,
a wrinkled dressing gown, and nursing a gouty foot.

"Come, give me your little paw,” he growled. Then he called for

a box and presented her with a miniature of himself encircled with dia¬
monds, which made him look far handsomer indeed than he did that day.
Uncle King was looking much better the next afternoon, too, when
Victoria, riding with Mamma and Feodore, met his phaeton in the park.

"Pop her in,” said he, pointing to his small niece, and to her delight
she was removed from Mamma’s side and popped in beside her uncle.
Off they dashed towards the lake where the band was playing.
"What is your favorite tune?” he asked. "The band shall play it.”
"God Save the King,” said Victoria quickly and also honestly.
George IV laughed and raised his eyebrows. The minx has tact, he

thought. Well, she’ll have need of it. At that moment some of the people,
recognizing his small companion, cheered: "God save Her Royal High¬
ness!” Victoria smiled and waved to them. Once again she wondered.
No one actually answered that question in her mind, until she was
eleven. Then perhaps it was Lehzen, perhaps it was Mamma, or perhaps
it was Dr. Davys, her tutor. Only the day before he had asked her to
make a list of the kings and queens of England, and she had left the last
line blank, though she supposed her own name should be written there.
For a long time she had suspected it, but when they told her, when
she actually heard it said in words, that she, little Victoria, would be¬
come the Queen of England, it was almost overwhelming.
"I will be good,” she managed to say bravely, but that night in the
small bed beside her mother’s there was a pillow wet with tears.
ioi
 CHARLES DICKENS — OR DAVID COPPERFIELD

' l*T was a foggy London morning in April, 1824, the year Victoria was
five. Far from Kensington Palace, down by the slums and warehouses
where the tide washed up the Thames, the smoky air was pierced with
the acid smell of dye. It was sharp in the delicate nostrils of a small
boy of twelve who was descending slowly step by step a flight of narrow
crooked stairs that led to a tumble-down old blacking factory. A gray
rat slid from a hole in the wall and down the stairs ahead of him. The
boy shivered, and choked back his tears.
It was all horrible. He was completely miserable and forlorn. Even
the characters from books who used to keep him company had deserted
him. Going down these slimy stairs, he could not even imagine he was
a brave Knight descending into a castle dungeon, much less Aladdin
about to enter a magic cave. No. Here he was nobody but himself,
Charles Dickens, the most miserable, forlorn and utterly wretched boy
in London, whose father had been put into prison for debt, whose books
had gone to the pawnshop, and whose heart was broken.
To think that he, Charles Dickens, a gentleman’s son, who had once
lived in a decent house in Camden Town, with a little garden, and had
102
gone to school and was planning, when he grew rich and famous, to buy
the big house on Gads Hill — to think that he had come down to this!
But gentleman’s son he was and he intended to act the part. And no one,
no one should <„ver know where his father was! He turned into the dingy
room, with a crowd of boys from the neighboring slums, to begin the

long day’s drudgery.

" ’Ere comes our little gent,” said one of them — the one who was
proud of being a fireman’s son. "Wot was it ye said your gentleman father
worked at now — or didn’t ye say?” he queried.
Charles did not answer, only reached for another bottle and label.
"Nothin’ eh?” jeered the boy. "D’ye hear that, guys? He says
nothin’. Maybe ’is old man’s such a swell ’e don’t ’ave to work.”
"Shut up, will ye,” said Bob Fagin, a boy whose heart was as big
as his fist. "Might be a sleight o’ hand artist judgin’ from the quick way
his son ’ere’s learned to tie paper on these ’ere bottles.”
For Charles had learned. Much as he hated the job, he hated more
not to excel at whatever he did. So hour after hungry hour during the
long day his slim deft fingers flew rapidly amid the bottles and paper
and string.
One day, taken ill, he crumpled down limp and white on his bench.
Bob Fagin made him a bed of straw in the corner, filled empty blacking
bottles with hot water to put at his side, and when closing time came
insisted on helping him home to his family.
"No, no!” protested Charles. For nothing on earth would he have
Bob find out that the family lived with his father in prison, while he slept
in an attic near by. After trying in vain to get rid of the good-hearted
boy, he finally shook hands with him on the steps of a strange house,
making believe he lived there. Then, with Bob fairly out of sight, he
crept down the dark streets to his attic.
Early next morning, as usual, he was waiting outside the tall gates
of the prison until they were opened and he could go in for breakfast.
Waiting as usual, too, was the orphan girl who came in to cook for the
family over the open grate in their room. And while they waited Charles
made up wonderful fairy tales to tell her about the towers and buildings,
which still looked mysterious in the pink-gray mist through which the
early morning sun was breaking.
A strange life went on inside the prison. Ashamed as he was to be

part of it, Charles couldn’t help enjoying with a sharp relish all the
peculiar characters who were there. Prisoners in for debt were allowed
to move about and associate with one another, and with their wives and
children they made a noisy, motley company. Some laughed unnaturally
to hide their shame, some drowned their tears and sorrows in the bad
ale sold for a few pence by the turnkeys. Others were hopefully waiting
for "something to turn up” — none more optimistically than John
Dickens, Esq., whose spirits were uncrushable. Expanding in a lordly
manner, he enjoyed fully his place of honor among the inmates, as orator,
literary man and scribe. As president of a committee, he took particular
pride in one flowery petition he drew up, begging His Majesty the King
for extra bounty that "His unfortunate subjects in prison might drink
to His Majesty’s health on His Majesty’s birthday.”
Before His Majesty’s birthday came, however, a small legacy turned
up that enabled Mr. Dickens and family to move from the prison. Not
immediately, alas, but in due time, with an elegant gesture on the part
of his father, Charles was also removed from the blacking factory and
sent to school. There as merry as he had been miserable, he was soon
doing his lessons, directing the plays and dodging the blows of the head¬
master, all as part of a glorious game. A year only, and he was at work
again — this time as office boy for a firm of lawyers.
Tears later, Charles Dickens’s books would bring to life again all
the queer characters he had known, and by arousing sympathy for them,
help to better the lives of the overworked, hungry children of the poor.
It was then that his father (who was the model for the improvident

but lordly Mr. Micawber, in David Copperfield') was to be often asked

what had been the education of his famous son.

"Well, in a manner of speaking,” he would reply, clearing his throat

104.
impressively, "he may be said to — ah — to have educated himself!”
 WILD TURKEYS AND WASTE TIME

This is the wild turkey as John James Audubon painted it,

when wild turkeys were a common sight in the backwoods of
America. One day, when little Abe Lincoln was about eight years

old, he had propped his father’s rifle in a crack in the log house
and shot his first wild turkey. When he felt its warm brown feathers, he
never wanted to kill anything again. His father saw no sense in a boy
who wouldn’t go hunting but wasted his time reading books.
Neighbors in Kentucky saw no sense either, in a man wasting time

painting birds, when he’d better be tendin’ store and lookin’ after his
business. But Lucy thought the drawings were beautiful. Lucy Audubon
had married John James and come down the Ohio River from Pennsyl¬
vania to a new home in Kentucky two years or so before Abraham Lin¬
coln was born. They were still there when the Lincolns moved to Indiana,

but a few years later that “crazy Frenchman,

105 the bird painter,’’ had come
to grief just as the neighbors knew he would, and had been put in jail
for debt. Then, the debts paid somehow, John James Audubon had gone
down the Mississippi to New Orleans, taking his drawings with him.
 In the spring of his nineteenth year Abe Lincoln made that same
trip down the Mississippi River to the great southern market. They
floated down on a flatboat, he and another young fellow, a boat that
they had made themselves and loaded with bacon, ham, corn, flour,
apples to be sold. Abe managed the forward oar, and kept the blunt
nose of the sixty-foot barge squarely in the current and free of rocks,
snags and treacherous sandbars. It took about three weeks to go the
thousand miles, floating along through bright days and misty days, and
days when the coppery gray water was dappled with warm summer rain.
They watched the familiar trees of oak and sycamore give way to fields
of sugar cane and cotton, to cypress swamps, and live oaks hung with
silvery moss.
Then came New Orleans, the first city the tall boy from the back-
woods had ever seen. Old New Orleans with its signs in French, and its
strange foreign houses with their shaded courtyards and balconies of
iron lace. The levee piled with cotton bales — the ships anchored in the
harbor, three-masted schooners and frigates from all over the world — the
Negroes in the slave market where they were being sold — all these gave
that boy from the backwoods a great deal to think about as he rode on
the steamboat up the river home again to Indiana.
John James Audubon had never gone back to live in the wilderness
again. Instead he had sailed one day for Liverpool on a schooner loaded
with cotton for the mills in England. Under his arm he carried the draw¬
ings of his birds, and Lucy had slipped into his pocket gold pieces she
had saved from teaching. He had been gone more than two years when
Abe Lincoln reached New Orleans, but Lucy was still living there, and
teaching, and very happy now.
Every packet from England was likely to bring her another letter
telling more of the great enthusiasm with which her John’s bird draw¬
ings were being received in Europe. Lucy had always known how beau¬
tiful they were. Now her faith in them was more than justified. One letter
told how they had been exhibited in Liverpool and the hall was crowded.
Another, how the crowds more than filled the rooms at the Royal Society
— how John had gone to Scotland and Sir Walter Scott had asked to meet
106
him. And the wild turkey? It was to be Plate I in a book, birds of
AMERICA, and was valued by experts at ioo guineas, more than $500!

One December night in 1826 Audubon was speaking in Edinburgh,

Scotland, about the American wild turkey and its habits. In the audience,
listening with rapt attention, was a seventeen-year-old English lad who
was also interested in stuffing birds. He was Charles Darwin, and because
he could observe carefully and think clearly he was destined to become
one of the world’s great scientists. But then, if anyone had told him so,
he would have thought it "as ridiculous and impossible as if he had been
told that he would be elected King of England.”
So, too, would the old headmaster of the school back home in
Shrewsbury. He had rebuked the boy publicly for wasting time collecting
bugs and beetles and rocks and minerals or making strange smells in his
chemistry laboratory, when he should be learning his Greek and Latin.
Dr. Darwin, therefore, trying to find a suitable school for his son,
had sent Charles to Edinburgh to study medicine, but that didn’t suit the
boy either. He couldn’t bear to watch operations done in those days of
no chloroform or ether. So he made friends with the zoology professor
and busied himself collecting sea animals and stuffing birds.

""You can’t just waste your time that way,” said Dr. Darwin. "Why
not leave here for Cambridge and become a clergyman?”
So Charles, willingly enough, brushed up on his Greek and Latin,
and went to Cambridge for three years, all the time adding to his speci¬
mens and taking geology and botany excursions during the holidays.
Then one August came the thrilling invitation that was to make

good all the time that he had "wasted” and determine his career. It was
an invitation to go as the naturalist of a party that the English Govern¬
ment was sending to chart the coast of South America!
Back in Indiana a tall boy, born 10on7 the same day of the same year,
was still splitting logs to earn his living, but still reading and studying at
night and hoping maybe some day his chance would come. . . .
 THE STORY OF BRAZIL

The ship on which young Charles Darwin sailed to South America

in the autumn of 1831 headed directly for Brazil, and in due
time passed under the shadow of the Sugar Loaf Mountain and
into one of the most beautiful harbors in the world — the harbor
of Rio de Janeiro. Only six months before, from another English ship
anchored there, and awaiting orders to sail, Dom Pedro, former Emperor
of Brazil, was looking for the last time at that beautiful harbor.
Across the sparkling water, above the rich green tropical foliage, he
could see among the white buildings of the city, flags and festoons of
yellow and green flying in the breeze. There the crowds were cheering
their next Emperor-to-be, Dom Pedro’s own son, five-year-old "Ped-
rinho” who was now to become Emperor Pedro II of Brazil.
The little boy looking out across the water, from the palace balcony,

could see the top spars of his father’s ship. Dressed in his best white satin
suit he was standing on a chair, bowing and smiling at the cheering
people as he was told to do. But he was wishing that he could go
108
m see his father or be down in the courtyard playing with
his sisters.
The sisters with their black eyes and dark curls resembled
their
handsome Portuguese father, Dorn Pedro. Pedrinho had fair
hair, pink
cheeks and big, blue eyes, like his Aunt Marie Louise. She had been the
Empress of France, the wife of Napoleon, and a sister of Pedrinho’s
mother. So the Emperor Francis of Austria was his grandfather.
Pedrinho could not remember his mother, for she had died when he
was only a year old. Now he had also lost his father, though for many,
many days he could still see his father’s ship standing in the harbor.
With the help of his nurse, the little boy wrote his father a letter, and in
reply received one that he was to cherish all his life:

"My beloved Son and Emperor:

I deeply prize the letter you have written me. I had trouble reading
it, because of the tears in my eyes. As long as there is life in me, my
concern for your welfare and happiness will not end. Now the time has
come for me to retire to Europe; this is necessary if Brazil is to have
peace so as to work out God permitting the degree of progress and pros¬
perity of which she is capable.
Goodbye my dear son! Receive an embrace from your father who
leaves in sorrow and without hope of ever seeing you again.
Dom Pedro de Alcantara

April 12, 1831 On board the ship Warspzte.”

Dom Pedro was thirty-three years old. Though he had been born in
Portugal, he had come to Brazil when he was only nine. Since then it
had been home to him, and he had seen Brazil change from a colony of
Portugal into an independent Empire.
Like the independence of the Spanish colonies in South America,
the independence of Brazil had also been brought about by the actions
of Napoleon. Back in the days when 1Napoleon
09 had tried to hold Europe
blockaded against England, he had not been able to control the coast
of Portugal. Portugal had always been friendly towards England, and
through her harbors a continual stream of goods from spices to war
supplies leaked out. So Napoleon decided to invade Portugal and whip
that troublesome little country into line.

At word of the proposed invasion the Portuguese royal family had

been terror-stricken. Not knowing what else to do, Dom Pedro’s father,
Dom Joao, as Regent of Portugal, decided to take the whole court to
America, and establish the seat of government in tiny Portugal’s giant
colony, Brazil. Crown jewels, therefore, state papers, family archives,
chamberlains, ladies-in-waiting, valets, secretaries, priests — all people
and things attached to the court, including the horses from the royal
stables, were prepared for the journey. When the ships left the rocky
coast of Portugal behind, there were 15,000 people headed for America.

The voyage was "a nightmare.” There were not enough beds,
blankets, food or water. And by some mistake the trunks filled with
clothing had all been left behind, so the same clothes had to do for eight
weeks. At the end of the journey no one was fit to go ashore until clean
garments had been borrowed from the people of the town. In addition
the ladies had all had to have their hair shaved off to get rid of lice.
Dom Pedro could never forget how funny they looked nor how furious
it made his ill-tempered mother, who never was to forgive her husband
for bringing her out to what she considered a God-forsaken jungle.
Dom Joao, on the other hand, grateful for the enthusiastic welcome
given him by the good people of Brazil, took genuine interest in the
country, and did all he could for its improvement. Seven years passed
and though Napoleon was defeated, Dom Joao stayed on in Brazil. Five
more years, and the people of Portugal concluded that they might as
well have no king at all, and become a republic. Far off in Brazil warn¬
ings of this reached Dom Joao. One was put in verse:

Se tu depressa nao vais If you do not speed

Para oteu pais natal To your native land
Joao alha que perdes
John, you will lose
Both Brazil and Portugal.
O Brazil, e Portugal.”

no
 So in the spring of 1821, Dom Joao prepared to return to
Portugal. Not Portugal, however, but Brazil was home to young Dom
Pedro, and he had chosen to remain. The last day Dom Joao spoke to his
son of the future of the country!
"The day is not far off, Pedro,” said he, "when I believe Brazil will
refuse to be governed by Portugal. When that time comes, my son, throw
yourself with the revolutionary movement, declare Brazil an Empire and
make yourself emperor. I would prefer to see you, of whose respect I am
certain, take it rather than some unknown adventurer.”
A little over a year and, as his father foresaw, independence of
Brazil had to be granted, and Dom Pedro became the first emperor. It
was an imperial democracy, an Empire with a constitution and a
Parliament. Members of the Parliament, however, were appointed by the
Emperor, and four years later the liberal leaders were again dissatisfied.
"Down with the aristocrats appointed by the King,” they cried. "We
want a Parliament made up of the people.”
One night Dom Pedro tried to speak to them from the balcony of
the palace, but they jeered at him and, carried along with excitement,
cried, "Down with the Empire. Long live the Republic.”
Dom Pedro went inside, then sat down at his desk, and signed the
abdication in favor of his very beloved and honored son the Senhor Dom
Pedro de Alcantara Braganza — five-year-old Pedrinho.
The people, sorry that they had pressed him so far, after begging
him in vain to reconsider, gladly accepted his child as Emperor.
That was why on that April day of 1831, Dom Pedro on board ship
in the harbor was gazing intently towards the city, and the little boy
Pedrinho, standing on the palace balcony, was being cheered by the
people as the next emperor of Brazil.
No country was ever to have a more honorable or democratic ruler.
Pedro II was to be emperor for fifty-seven years, for not until 1888
would Brazil, the largest country in South America, cease to be an
empire. Then Pedro II would also abdicate, and more sadly than either
his father or his grandfather he too would sail away.
 THE DRAMA OF GREECE

During the 1820’s, when Brazil, Mexico and South America were
gaining their independence, Greece, the oldest civilized nation
in Europe, was also fighting for freedom — from the rule of
Turkey. The struggle was watched with keen sympathy and
interest by all the people of Europe, especially the English.
Greece began the struggle the year that William Gladstone, twelve
years old, entered the fourth form at Eton. Schoolboys of Eton studied
Greek and so they were interested, because to them Greece was the great
land of Ulysses, Menelaus, and the heroes of the Trojan War. Lord Elgin,
too, the father of one of the boys, had traveled in Greece, and had
brought back to England many very beautiful marble statues from old
Greek temples that were lying in ruins. They had been purchased by the
British Museum and visitors who saw them there also imagined Greece
as being still the nation of Pericles and the Golden Age.
Three English poets living in Italy were particularly in love with all

112
things Greek. Keats, who had written the beautiful Ode on a Grecian
Urn; Shelley, who retold in verse the myth of Prometheus, and Byron,
who sang of Marathon, lying between the mountains and the sea:

"... And musing there an hour alone,

I dreamed that Greece might still be free. ...”

Lord Byron did more than muse and dream. He entered the bloody
desperate struggle and lost his life in the fight.
The Greeks of 1821 were far from being the people they had been
in ancient times. They were mostly rough sailors and mountain herds¬
men. Oppressed and downtrodden for four hundred years under the rule
of Turkey, thev had sunk to a sad state. Few of them could speak or even
understand the pure Greek which the boys at Eton were learning.
Since the French Revolution, however, the Greeks had begun to
take a pride in their glorious past. Poets retold the stories of the Trojan
War, and of the famous victory at Marathon. Parents named their chil¬
dren after the old heroes, and wealthy merchants founded schools in
which pure Greek was to be taught again. Before 1800, a Greek
poet, exiled in Vienna, wrote a national hymn for his country, beginning

"Rise, Sons of Hellas, the day of deliverance is nigh.” He was seized by

the Austrian police, and drowned by the Turks in the Danube. But

"I have sown the seed,” he said, "and the day will come” . . .
"Rise, Sons of Hellas” — that was the opening chorus of the bloody,
tragic drama between Turkey and Greece with the world as audience.
Act I began with the first revolt led by Prince Ypsilanti, another
Greek exile, who was a major general in the Russian army. As Russia
had always been the enemy of Turkey, he had written to the Czar, hop¬
ing that Czar Alexander would help Greece. Metternich, however,
would have none of it. He persuaded the Czar that it should be none of

his affair. When Ypsilanti’s feeble army was defeated by the Turks and
he fled to Austria, Metternich threw him into prison and smiled.
Act II saw a wild uprising of the Greeks all over the peninsula of
Morea. '‘Not one Turk shall remain in Morea!” was their cry, and 12,000
Turkish inhabitants, men, women and children, were slain in cold blood.
The rest fled the country. In January, 1822, in an ancient open-air theater,
a "National Assembly” met and declared Greece independent.
Act III. In Constantinople, the Turks returned murder for murder.
Innocent Greeks were strangled. On Easter Sunday, the Greek patriot
priest Gregorious was hanged in his sacred robes before the door of
the cathedral, and then dragged through the streets.
Then came the atrocious massacre of some 20,000 Greeks on the
Island of Chios and the violent revenge taken by others who managed
to set fire to the Turkish fleet anchored off the island and blow the
villain who had started the massacre and the rest of his Turks to bloody
bits. The audience shuddered.
Then came a short intermission, while Turkey gasped for breath,
and the Greeks began to fight among themselves. Turkey was weak. No
longer the empire that had once terrified Europe, it was sick and decay¬
ing. The Sultan was obliged to call upon the ruler of Egypt, another part
of the Turkish Empire, for help. So Mehemet Ali sent his powerful fleet
and well-trained soldiers under his son Ibrahim, to Greece.”
Act IV. The Egyptians recaptured town after town in Morea. They
captured Athens. They besieged and captured Missolonghi, at which
siege Lord Byron died. And the audience was shocked . . . sufficiently
shocked at last to rise from their seats and run to the rescue.
England, France and Russia sent their fleets to the Bay of Navarino,
where they attacked, destroyed the Turkish-Egyptian ships and left them
mere wrecks floating on the bay. That since famous battle of Navarino
was the last ever to be fought by sailing vessels. The next year the Rus¬
sians marched on Constantinople, the French drove the Egyptians out
of Morea, and in 1829 the Sultan was obliged to recognize the inde¬
pendence of Greece. So in 1829, the drama ended.

The poor little country now invited Victoria’s Uncle Leopold to be

their king, but he refused. So in 1833, seventeen-year-old Prince Otto of
Bavaria became the first king of modern Greece.
 ULYSSES GRANT, NAMED AND RENAMED

Sympathy for Gre ce and interest in its strug le had spread

through the United States as well as Europe. Money and volun-
|teers had been raised to help, Greek study clubs formed, new
towns given Greek names like Athens, Ithaca and Ypsilanti, and
even children named for the Greek heroes.

Mr. and Mrs. Jesse Grant’s first boy got his Greek name by chance.
He was born in the spring of 1822, the year that Greece declared itself
an independent nation, and he was six weeks old before they picked a
name for him. Then they drew it out of a hat. The relatives gathered for
the lottery in the kitchen of their small frame house, in Point Pleasant,
Ohio, a village fifteen miles up the river from Cincinnati.
All winter Grandmaw Simpson had been deep in a fine story about
the Greek hero Ulysses and his son, so it was the hero’s high-sounding
name that she wrote hopefully on her slip of paper. When it was the first
to be drawn from the hat, she beamed with satisfaction, but Grandpaw
ii5
snorted. He had written down the good plain commonsense name of
Hiram. What was the matter with that? It happened to be the next name
drawn — so they put the two together and the boy was named!
 "hiram ulysses grant!" exclaimed the proud father. "Fine smart
name for a smart baby. Look at him smile at his paw, would you.
"That’s no smile," said the mother flatly, "just a bubble of wind in
his stomach." Boasting of any kind embarrassed Hannah.
But Jesse was proud of his son, and boasted about him continually.
He moved to Georgetown soon and started a new tannery there. Every
farmer who sold him hides and every merchant who came to buy leather
had to hear about Ulysses and how smart he was. Soon he had turned the
son of whom he was so proud into the town’s standing joke.
"D’ye hear the latest tale Grant’s telling about that boy of his?"
grown people would ask each other over the supper table. The young
ones listening in would snicker and then tell how stupid they thought

Ulysses was and how they had nicknamed him "Useless.”

That undue mixture of praise and ridicule was torture to the boy
who was neither "smart” nor stupid, just slow-going and shy. He would
have been utterly miserable, if it hadn’t been for horses.
Horses were his friends. Almost as soon as he could walk he was

playing around a horse’s feet or swinging by its tail. When only eight
years old he was the teamster on the wagon, hauling bark to the tannery.
He was no more than ten when he drove a team all alone forty miles to
Cincinnati and back with a load of passengers.
One summer a circus came to town, and he managed to ride a trick
pony that had thrown every other boy who tried. Round and round the
ring he went, clinging on tight until he won the prize. Everybody had to

admit that it was "a wonder how Lys Grant could hang on.”
Hang on — that was one thing that Ulysses Grant could always do —
stick to whatever job he tackled until it was finished. Years later, to
Robert E. Lee, that quality was to spell surrender.
Lee was fifteen years older than Ulysses. In June of 1831, the sum¬
mer before Lys rode the circus pony, Robert E. Lee was married to Mary
Custis, daughter of George Washington Parke Custis. The wedding was
at Arlington in the house that always looked to Robert like a Greek
temple, when he used to drive there with his mother. He was Lieutenant
116
 Lee now, for two years before he had been graduated from West
Point.
Hiram Ulysses Grant was also to enter ^Xfest Point when he
was
seventeen, only under a changed name. He made the first change
him¬
self, when he saw the letters H.U.G. in brass nails on his trunk. Shudde
r¬
ing for fear he might be nicknamed "Hug,” he reversed the names and
became Ulysses Hiram. The Congressman who sent his applic
ation to
the War Department made another change. He was in a hurry
when he
wrote it, couldn t recall the boy s middle name, guessed it was
Simpson
after his mother s family and wrote it that way: Ulysses simpson
Grant,
quite unaware that he had rechristened a future President.

Ulysses Grant going to West Point!” exclaimed the Georgetown

people when they heard of the appointment. "Why on earth didn’t they
appoint somebody with brains enough to do credit to our district!”
Poor Ulysses felt about as they did. Aboard the steamboat, when the
whistle blew and the wheels began to turn, he was positively ill with
fear
of failure. If only something would happen, he thought, a collision,
any¬
thing to prevent his reaching the Academy! Nothing happened, and he
arrived, a short stubby country boy in a suit of homespun clothes dyed
with butternut juice, and rough round-toed shoes that squeaked as he
walked up to sign the register.
The Adjutant looked at the signature and scowled. The boy s ears
grew red and his hands grew cold. What was wrong now, he wondered.

"There’s some mistake,” said the Adjutant finally. "Our records call
for Ulysses simpson, not Ulysses hiram Grant. The papers will have to
be returned to Washington.”
"No use going to all that trouble,” thought Ulysses.
and wrote his name again, this time as short as oossible: He took the pen

U. S. Grant — U. S. — the cadets at West Point dubbed him Uncle

Sam. In the end, however, his ability to "hang on” was to translate those
initials into a final and suitable nickname of "Unconditional Surrender.”
 RAILROADS ARE HERE!

*N 1829, the year Victoria was ten, and Abraham Lincoln was twenty,

George Stephenson made his famous Watt engine, the "Rocket” and rail¬
roads were born. Ever since James had perfected the steam
ng that engine
. engine, sixty years before, men had dreamed of putti
by one
onto wheels. Many men had tried a hand at it, and gradually one
the difficulties that baffled them had been solved.
Richard trevithick, a superintendent who handled
en¬
the stationary engines used in mines, made the first
gine ever hitched to a carriage to draw passengers. It ran
on Christmas Eve, 1801, but it ran on the streets, and not
on rails. What he called a "tram wagon” that did run on
^ ^ rails, he built at the request of a Welsh mine owner who
had made a bet that he could haul ten tons of iron over
bet for
certain tracks then used for horse-drawn cars. The engine won the
what
him but it was too heavy for any practical use and no one knows
became of it.

george Stephenson, whose name and locomotive were to become

of
famous, also had charge of engines used in mines — coal mines north
Newcastle. His employer, wishing to keep abreast of other mine owners
whose engineers were experimenting with small locomotives, furnished
then
the money for Stephenson to build the one he had in mind. From
on for some fifteen years he worked on locomotives. Meanwhile a group

118
 of merchants had built a railroad between Liverpool
and Manchester, and having decided not to use
horse cars, advertised that in October, 1829, there

would be a competition held for the best steam loco¬

motive for that thirty-eight-mile line. It was a festive
day, with bands playing, ten thousand people
gathered at the course, the directors with white rib¬
bons fluttering in their buttonholes, and the Iron Horses which were to
compete painted in the brightest colors and puffing clouds of steam.

Stephenson’s entry, the Rocket, yellow and black with a "tall white
chimney” was the first to run. Back and forth it went over a mile and
three-quarters of track until it had covered the mileage between Liver¬
pool and Manchester. The others did the same. After a test of three
days the award was given. The Rocket was judged to combine all
features necessary to a successful locomotive. So it won the day and
made its maker famous.
The Tom Thumb, the first locomotive made in the United States,
was built by peter cooper of New York, for the first railroad in the
United States, the Baltimore & Ohio. He wanted to per¬
suade the directors who were in favor of horse cars that
steam engines such as were being made in England
were the thing to use. Tom T humb , only intended as a
model, was so small that it xooked like a toy when it
appeared on the track for the trial run in August, 1830.

People laughed and called it a "teakettle on a truck.” But it ran! And to

their amazement fourteen miles in an hour and a quarter! Yes, it had
speed, owners of the stage coach line agreed to that, but in the long run,
they said, it couldn’t stand up against one of their good horses. To prove
it, they drove a gray mare out to a place where there were parallel tracks,
and had a race. The horse got off first, then Tom Thumb forged ahead,
until snap! a belt broke connecting the wheels — the gray mare caught up,
passed and won. The directors of the Baltimore & Ohio, however, had
been won over to steam.
At first, as in the case of most inventions, opposition to the railroad
was furious, both in England and America. Some people of course op¬
pose changes of any kind. Some, like those interested in stage coaches,
for instance, were afraid the railroad would put them out of business.
Others were just afraid. They were appalled at the very idea of flying
through space at such a terrific speed.
"Twelve miles an hour!” exclaimed the editor of a London maga¬
zine. "As well trust oneself to be fired off on a rocket!”
To have engines dashing about the country, asserted others, would
scare sheep, stop hens from laying, poison the air with gas, kill the birds

and animals, and drive people mad with fright.”

"Suppose, Mr. Stephenson,” said a member of Parliament who
thought he had an unanswerable objection, "suppose a cow should get
on the track in front of your locomotive. What then? What about that?”
"That,” replied the inventor, "would be very bad for the cow!”
Directors of the Erie Canal raised the most strenuous objections
because they saw that the Baltimore & Ohio would rob them of some of
their passengers and freight. On the other hand, it was because the traffic
on the Erie Canal was making New York City grow larger than Balti¬
more that citizens of Baltimore had decided to build the railroad.

And the railroad was here to stay. In 1833 the Charleston-Hamburg,

built in South Carolina to carry cotton to market, had 137 miles of track
and was the longest railroad in the world owned by one company. By
1840 there would be 3,000 miles of track in the United States.
Nothing could stop the spread; of the railroad. Nothing — for never
can greed nor fear nor narrow self interest stop the spread of a new idea
that means progress in the world.
120
 A THREE-DAY REVOLUTION

A N explosion, the first railroad accident, occurred on the South

/)\ Carolina road, when a Negro fireman who didn’t like to hear
/ VL steam escaping tied down the safety valve and the boiler blew
1 up! About that same time Charles X, the King of France, had a
similar shock. He tried to clamp down on the French people’s freedom
of speech and their right to vote, and produced an explosion that blew
him off the throne.

Wednesday, Thursday, Friday of the last and hottest week in July

of 1830 there was a three-day revolution. It took place in the streets of
Paris. The people tore up the paving stones and built barricades of
wagons, barrels, boxes and furniture across the narrow crooked streets.
There they successfully defied, trapped and fought off the royal soldiers
until Charles X, seeing that his cause was lost, gave up the throne, left
France and fled to England.
Now what form of government? Empire — monarchy — republic?
J2I
 "A republic,” said those who had done the fighting.
"No,” said the wealthy bourgeoisie. "No more republics.” I hey A
remembered too well the Reign of Terror and anarchy of the last one.
X who
monarchy would be best, they said, not with a king like Charles
favored aristocrats and tried to become an absolute monarch. No. A king
who would observe the charter, and uphold the rights of the middle
classes, was what they wanted. Louis Philippe, a prince who was known
to be democratic and to hold liberal opinions, was suggested.
The final decision rested with La Fayette. All things considered, La
Fayette felt that a limited monarchy under a democratic king would most
nearly unite the many parties in France — Bonapartists, monarchists of
all kinds and republicans. So he favored Louis Philippe.
Louis Philippe, therefore, became King of France. For fifteen years
the Congress of Vienna had held good. Now revolution, so feared and
hated by the kings, had triumphed again. The royal family they had
restored to France had been driven out forever, and in Belgium more
work of the Congress of Vienna was undone, for the revolution spread.
In 1815, in rearranging the map, Belgium had been given to the
Kingdom of the Netherlands as a province, but the Belgians, who were
Catholics, were not happy under the rule of Protestant Holland, so now
in 1830 Belgium rose in rebellion and drove out the royal Dutch troops
and declared itself an independent kingdom.

Upon invitation of the people, Victoria’s Uncle Leopold left Eng¬

land in July, 1831, and went to Belgium to become the first king of the
new nation. The next year he married Louise, the daughter of Louis
Philippe, and so became son-in-law of the King of France.
Meanwhile what of Metternich ? Where were the Holy Allies ? Why
had they allowed these changes to take place? Not from choice, you may
be sure. Metternich had been opposed to recognizing either Louis
Philippe as king, or Belgium as a nation, but it had been unavoidable.
Sparks from France had started revolutions in still other countries, and
given the kings troubles nearer home to settle. Russia had to stamp out
an uprising in Poland. Austria was faced with rebellion in Italy.
122
 YOUNG PATRIOTS OF ITALY

A nd Italy? What was Italy in 1830? Nothing but a divided land.

/j\ "Nothing,” said Metternich, "but a geographical expression.”
j yL once the heart of the great Roman Empire, was only a
1 \\ name, forbidden, in some parts of the peninsula, to be spoken
aloud even by actors on the stage, a name that could be whispered only
in dark cellars and secret meeting places of those who loved their country
and planned for the day when it would be free.
Piedmont, or the Kingdom of Sardinia, was the only independent
state in 1830. The center of the peninsula belonged to the Pope, and the
rest was broken up into small states ruled over by foreign Archdukes
and Princes. Northern Italy belonged to Austria, and so was under the
1 3
despotic rule of the Emperor Francis 2and his henchman, Metternich.
Ten years before an Italian uprising against Austria had failed.
Now, in 1830, the rebellion was also quickly stamped out by Austria’s
 isoned, or driven into exile.
troops and the revolutionists killed, impr
Marseilles, France, one
The year after the uprising in a house in
earnestly over a desk piled
of the young Italians, driven into exile, bent
ing a letter— one that was to
high with books and papers. He was writ
name, mazzini. His slim,
become as famous in Italian history as his own
s the paper; otherwise his
sensitive fingers guiding the pen sped acros
a thing of spirit as his
slight figure was tense and motionless, almost
ows his beautiful face was
thoughts swept through it. Against the shad
ing black hair hung
outlined like a delicately carved Italian cameo. Curl
k in mourning for
to his shoulders, and he was dressed in black — all blac
his country, which was dead.
ed, for after death
Dead, yes, but not for long, Mazzini prophesi
to a new life. "Radiant,”
came resurrection! And Italy would rise again
angel of light
he visioned her, "and, purified by suffering, moving as an
that the patriots
among the nations that had thought her dead. All
leader who could
needed to bring that vision to life was faith and a
nization
unite them. Members of "Young Italy,” the great secret orga
the King
Mazzini had started, were not lacking in faith, he knew, and in
King of Sar¬
of Sardinia he hoped to find a leader for them. It was to the
dinia or Piedmont that he was writing that lette r:

"Sire,” he wrote, "there is a crown more brilliant and sublime than

his life to
that of Piedmont, a crown that awaits the man who dedicates
winning it. Sire, have you ever cast an eagle glance upon this Italy, girt
brave
round with barriers so strong that it needs but a firm will and a few
breasts to shelter it from foreign rule?

"Place yourself at the head of the nation, write on your flag Union,
under
Liberty, Independence, and we will bring the little states of Italy

your flag. Unite us, sire, and we shall conquer.”

The King of Piedmont hesitated, then crumpled the letter and threw
it into the fire. He, too, loved Italy. He, too, wished to see Italy free and
12
united, but he lacked self-confidence or4 the courage to try.
The King of Piedmont, however, had a young son, victor Em¬
who was now but a boy of eleven years, but who was not to
manuel,
 lack the courage when his time came to show it.
Besides the young king
and the idealist Mazzini, two other men from Piedmont
would take part
in that final liberation of Italy. One, the statesman cavo
ur, was now just
a young nobleman living the obscure life of a gentleman farmer on his
country estate. The other was an unknown sailor who was to beco
me the
most romantic hero of Italy, her William Tell, Robin Hood
, or knight of
the Holy Grail — bold, pure-hearted, lovable garibaldi.

It was on board ship, said he, returning from the Black Sea on one
of those transparent eastern nights beneath a sky all spangled
with
stars” that he, Giuseppe Garibaldi, first learned about Mazzini, about
\bung Italy,” and of the men who were working to free his country.
"His country!” Not Christopher Columbus, said he, could
have
been more overjoyed to hear the cry of "Land” than he had been to hear
those words. From that night on his life was dedicated to "his country.”
Garibaldi had been born in Nice in 1807, in a house by the sea.
He loved the water, swam like a fish when he was little more than a
bambino , and was long waiting for the day when he could become a
sailor like his father. Domenico Garibaldi, however, wishing for his son
a safer life than that of a mariner, spent much of his hard-earned money
on an education for the lad, hoping to make of him a lawyer, a doctor,

or, best of all, a priest. It was of no use. The boy’s heart had gone to sea.
So when he was fifteen Rosa, his mother, packed his outfit and, with
tears and prayers, saw him off on his first voyage — that big handsome
boy of hers with the sunlit hair.
He sailed that time to a Russian port on the Black Sea, and after
that made many voyages full of danger and excitement to the eastern
lands along the Mediterranean. On a day in 1832 the ship on which he
was returning from the East was sailing towards the harbor of Marseilles.
A few days later young Mazzini, seated at his desk, raised his dark
eyes from his writing, to see two men 12standing in the doorway. One was
5
an acquaintance, the other a stranger and a sailor with gold wind-blown
hair and eyes the color of the sea. His name was Garibaldi. He had come,
he told Mazzini, to join the asso ciation of "Young Italy,” and stood ready
ry.
to consecrate his life to the service of his count
next uprising against
Suiting action to his word, he took part in the
In 1834 Garibaldi was an
the Austrians, which like the others failed.
try. Escaping from
exile condemned to death and fleeing from the coun
way through the mountains
Genoa disguised as a peasant, he made his
s, living for days on chest¬
guided by the stars. Swimming swollen river
to escape pursuers, he
nuts, and once leaping fifteen feet from a balcony
later he sailed as second in
finally reached Marseilles. A few months
command on a ship leaving for South America.

to Marseilles in France,
Early in 1831, the year that Mazzini escaped
had joined in the Italian
another young man in his early twenties, who
s. To him Marseilles offered
uprising, was also fleeing from the Austrian
all of the Bonaparte
no refuge, for he was Louis Napoleon, and like
an exile.
family was forbidden to enter France. He was
living in Switzer¬
Fifteen years he and his mother Hortense had been
King, and had restored
land. Now, however, that Louis Philippe was
she and her son would
the tricolor flag in France, Hortense hoped that
to cross the border
be allowed the rights of French citizens again. Daring
aled to the King.
in disguise, they made their way to Paris and appe
ing to let them stay,
Louis Philippe, personally, would have been will
he did. So the
but dared not, with Louis Napoleon bearing the name
and.
two, mother and son, returned to exile in Switzerl
a, and
Soon they learned that Napoleon’s own son had died in Austri
heir to the
with his cousin’s death, Louis Napoleon considered himself
be able to
throne. Never doubting that one day the Bonapartists would
.
restore the Empire, he spoke of the future with surprising confidence
"On that day when I shall preside over the destinies of France, he
all my
promised the members of Toung Italy, I shall support with
strength the claims of Italy to become a nation.
to hasten
Even partially fulfilling that promise in years to come was
unexpected and overwhelming disaster upon himself and France.
126
The year that France got rid of Charles X, England was relieved
of her burden, George IV. He died in June, and Victoria’s uncle
William, a bluff old fellow who had spent his early life in the

navy, became king, and with a "heigho-my-hearties” manner

began to steer the ship of state.

The Duke of Wellington, England’s most popular hero since the

battle of Waterloo, was Prime Minister, but not for long. A new king
meant a new election to Parliament, and in that election the Tory party,
of which the Duke was head, and which had been in power for almost
fifty years, lost so many votes that the control of Parliament passed at
last into the hands of the Whigs.
Almost at once, Lord John Russell proposed his first Bill, for the
long-needed reform in electing members to Parliament. He proposed to
cross off names of the dead towns or "rotten boroughs” and divide the
representatives among the existing towns with some degree of fairness.
It was a most mild and reasonable proposal, but it opened a bitter
debate that resounded through the Halls of Parliament for fifteen months
and roused the most violent opposition from the Tories.
William Gladstone was twenty-one, in his fourth year at Oxford,
and an active member of the Debating Society which met in a room over
the shop of the pastry cook.
The earnest members held a three-night session over the Reform
Bill, and announced as their profound conclusion that the present
ministry was incompetent to conduct the government of the country!

"Moreover,” added young Gladstone, "they have unwisely and un¬

scrupulously introduced a measure which threatens not only to change
the form of our government but ultimately to break up the very founda¬
tions of the country. What is that — but a symptom that the chill and

damp of death are creeping over England’s glory? May God avert it.”
The Bill did not pass. The ministry was defeated, Parliament dis¬
solved and a new election called for.

"The Bill, the whole Bill, nothing but the Bill!” cried the people,
and the reformers were re-elected. Lord John Russell introduced the Re¬
form Bill for a second time in the House of Commons where, despite
stiff opposition, it was passed and sent on to the House of Lords. There
the Lords (who profited by the old arrangement) killed the Bill at once.
The country was enraged. Riots broke out in London. Members of
the House of Lords were booed and hooted at on the street. Stones were
thrown at the carriage of the Duke of Wellington, who had opposed the
Bill, and the windows of his town house were smashed. Ten thousand

workers besieged St. James’s Palace and the troops had to be called out.
At the next session of Parliament, Lord John Russell rose for the
third time and for the third time proposed the Reform Bill. After endless
speeches against it, it again passed in the House of Commons, but again
it appeared certain to be defeated in the House of Lords.
There was one way to force it through. The king could create new
noblemen — enough to pass the Bill and give them seats in the House of
Lords. At first William IV blustered about and refused to do it, but finally
gave in and made the threat. The threat alone was sufficient. The Lords
saw that the game was up and passed the Bill in June.
That Reform Bill of 1832 widened the circle of voters from less than
one out of every fifty to about one out of thirty.
Still, as in France, the workingmen and the poorer middle classes
were left out. They still had no share at all in the government. A great
revolution, however, had taken place, and the most important step
made in six hundred years towards making England a democracy.
128
 a ndrew Jackson — "Old Hickory,” the Indian fighter, hero of
/ vL New Orleans, sharp-tongued, hard-hitting, warm-hearted An-
/ Vk drew Jackson left Tennessee for Washington in 1829 to head
1 l\. the nation as its President, and also by his high-handed way of
going at the job to gain from his enemies the new nickname of "King
Andrew.” "Westerner, a man of the common people, he was the first Presi¬
dent who was not the son of well-to-do, cultured parents of either Massa¬
chusetts or Virginia.
During all of its early years the United States, like England, had
been governed entirely by its wealthy citizens. No man who did not own
a certain amount of property was allowed
129 to vote. Now, however, in
many old states and all new western ones, every man over twenty-one
had the right of voting and they had elected Andrew Jackson.
 see
On the day he was inaugurated, they thronged to Washington to
him. Into the White House they pushed, a scrambling mob of men,
in
women and children, jostling one another. Pioneers in their coonsk
caps went tramping in on the good carpets with muddy cowhide boots,
and even stood on the beautiful damask-covered furniture to catch a

glimpse of their hero. Cut-glass and china, severa l thousand dollars’

worth, were smashed as they pushe d for the ice cream and lemonade.
When all was over, it looked as though there had been a stampede of
cattle. It was disgraceful, and not surprising that cultured people of the

east were horrified and moaned that the country was "going to the dogs!”
Andrew Jackson himself did not approve, but he understood. The
people were rough, and had lost what manners they had in their excite¬
ment, but they were sound at heart, had their rights and were entitled to
them. In the first place he was going to see to it that the little man as
well as the big man who had voted for him was rewarded. So out went
hundreds of postmasters, deputies and clerks whether they had served

faithfully or not, and into their jobs went Jackson men. "To the victor
belong the spoils” was the famous excuse given for this wholesale sweep¬
ing in and out of government officials. It was a senator who gave that
answer — not the President.

"Old Hickory,” was no man to offer explanations for doing what he

thought was right. He was used to snapping out orders and taking no
back-talk. That was his way, and the way he intended to be President.
Also, no sooner was he in office than he started to veto one bill
after another passed by Congress. If, for one moment, he suspected a bill
of being unfair to the common people he vetoed it! Veto followed veto,
while his enemies gasped and his friends applauded.
"Good Old Hickory,” cheered his followers. "He’ll stand up for the
common people. He’ll see to it that we get our rights.” Every act of his
they upheld with a loyalty only equaled in vigor by the violence of his
enemies’ attacks.
"What does he think he is?” they stormed, "king of the United
States? Congress, not a king, is ruler of this country.”

130
 Joining together against the Democrats who stood staunchly behind
their leader, the opponents of Andrew Jackson formed a new politica
l
party and called themselves the whigs. The name whig they borrowed
appropriately from the party in England which stood for the rights of
Parliament against the power of the King.
So now, sharply divided were the people of the United States over
Andrew Jackson into Democrats and the ^CTiigs — but that did no harm.
There was no danger to the Union in having the Nation divided into two
parties, so long as each party was composed of people from all sections
of the country. Only a question that divided one section of states against
another could ever endanger or break up the Union.
But now such a question arose. And, as in 1814 New England threat¬
ened to secede because of the way the War of 1812 was being run, so now
in 1830 South Carolina threatened to secede because of the question
known as nullification, which in simple words was this:
Did any state have the right to disobey, declare null and void any
law passed by the national government of the United States?
South Carolina said "yes.”
New England said "no.”
South Carolina said "yes” and furthermore threatened to secede if
not allowed to set aside certain tax laws that, as it happened, had been
passed to benefit New England.

"Why should we Southern planters let ourselves be ruined,” they

argued, "just to help a few Northern factory owners?”
This is the story from the beginning:
During the War of 1812 when supplies of manufactured goods from
England had been cut off, people of New England had been encouraged
to start factories of their own. After the war when English goods could
be imported again the factories in New England were hurt by the com¬
petition, because English goods could be sold at lower prices. (Workers
in English factories were paid lower wages.) So a tax had been placed
on goods from England to make them as high in price as the same articles
manufactured in America. That was fine for the factory owners of New
131
 ern cotton growers
England who had goods to sell, but hard on the South
needed from steam
who had to buy every manufactured article they
engines and plows to calico and pins.
land was old
Times were especially hard in South Carolina. The
planters could
and worn out, and the crops comparatively small. Some
time John C.
scarcely afford to buy even the most necessary articles. Every
that many of the
Calhoun went back to his native state on a visit, he saw
grown shabby
fine old plantation homes he had admired as a boy had
sadly in need of
both inside and out, and their fences and stables were
repair and paint.
"That last
"It’s those taxes, Mr. Calhoun, sir,” the planters told him.
tax is outrageous, abominable! We should rebel at paying it.
himself.
That opinion was shared, it seemed, by John C. Calhoun
to investigate
He passed it on to a committee appointed by the Governor
over each
the matter of how much power the national government had
Caro¬
individual state. Into their report went the bold theory that South
national
lina or any state had a right to do away with any law of the
government that it did not like!
Which was ridiculous, of course. As Daniel Webster said, if every

state could set aside any law it wanted to, there would soon be twenty-
four little separate nations instead of one United States. He was speaking
about it before Congress on a winter afternoon in January, 1830, long
Sen¬
remembered as the beginning of the famous Webster-Hayne Debate.
held
ator Hayne had presented in his speech the theory of states’ rights
by South Carolina, to which Daniel Webster replied in one of his greatest
orations, coming to a climax in these closing words:

"liberty and union, now and forever, one and inseparable!”

Daniel Webster stood firmly for the power of the National Govern¬
ment. John C. Calhoun stood for the power of the state. Where did Presi¬
dent Jackson stand? Jackson had been born on the border between North
and South Carolina and was a cotton planter. Would he uphold the
South? That was the question every one was asking. Andrew Jackson
gave his answer at a banquet.
132
 Thomas Jefferson had now been dead four
years, but on April 13,
1830, a banquet was given by the Democrats to
celebrate what would
have been his eighty-seventh birthday. Man
y speeches had been made
favoring Nullification when, as a climax, Pres
ident Jackson was called
upon to propose a toast. All eyes were fastened
on him, while the guests
waited expectantly for him, as the President, as
a Southerner, as head of
the Democratic Party, to indicate his sentimen
ts. He rose, a tall thin
figure in the candlelight, raised his glass, paused
a moment, then cut the
silence with the positive words:

"our federal union, it must be preserved.”

That was all, but his meaning was unmistakable.
South Carolina, nevertheless, plunged madl
y ahead, refused to pay
the federal tax, and threatened to secede if the
government tried to put
through the law by force.

"Let ’em make threats to their hearts’

content,” said Jackson, "but
if one drop of blood be shed in defiance of the laws
of the United States
I’ll han£ the first m*n I get my hands on to the
first tree I can find.”
And he meant it. Immediately, with the permissi
on of Congress to
use force, Jackson sent units of the army and navy
to South Carolina to
be ready to act if action was necessary. It was not.
Just in the nick of time, just the very day befor
e the new tax law
was to take effect, Henry Clay again came to the rescu
e with a Com¬
promise. He proposed to gradually reduce the tax. South
Carolina was
satisfied, and gave up the idea of seceding. Once more
the country heaved
a sigh of relief over the grave danger so narrowly
escaped. They hoped
the question of states rights had been settled forever. But
again the final
settlement had only been postponed.

r33
"Liberty and Union, one and inseparable.” Those. were the words
that Daniel Webster had sent resounding through the
Hall or Congress
 ated, and reprinted in every
on that January afternoon in 1830. Repe
ss the country.
newspaper, they had gone echoing acro
t, lanky fellow who
And so they had reached the ears of the tall, gaun
ing
a wagon drawn by two yoke of oxen, head
was plodding along besideIndi
northwest from southern ana.
lns were moving
It was the middle of February, 1830, and the Linco
going into Illinois. Be¬
again. After fourteen years in Indiana they were
of Daniel Webster in the
fore they left home Abe had read the speech
ered on the meaning
Louisville paper, and as he walked along he pond
those words in whose
of the words, and said them over to himself—
e.
defence he should be called upon to lead the final battl
and hollows
Through the forests of Indiana they went, over its hills
Sangamon River
out onto the level prairies of Illinois, to a place on the
home.
that their relative John Hanks had picked out for their
to eat.
Sangamon was an Indian word meaning land of plenty
he was leaving
Tom Lincoln hoped it would be. In possessions and wealth
there from Ken¬
Indiana no richer than he had been when he had gone
tucky, fourteen years before.
they
It was much the same kind of cabin as the one from which
helped
came that they now built in Illinois — just a house of logs. Abe
to fence the
build it. He plowed the land, put in the crops and split rails
fields. Didn’t seem like too good a place, though, so when spring came
again Abe
they moved again — southeast to Goose Nest Prairie. There
helped to build another cabin, split rails and get the family settled.
Then he laid down his axe, and said goodbye to them, to his father,
of the
his stepbrother and sisters, to Dennis Hanks, who had married one
sisters, and, with a lump in his throat, to his mother. Then he turned,
picked up his little bundle of clothes and strode away. Off he went
through the tall grass of the prairie, that grew almost as high as his head.
He was twenty-two years old. He no longer owed his services to
13
his father. He was a man now — free to 4go and do with his life whatever
he would or could. The winter of 1831 found him keeping store in the
village of New Salem.
 m ill
H

PART THREE $r
: WHEN

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ROU» ES TO THE FAR EAST
 TIME MAKES AN OLD IDEA NEW

Trade routes to the East! Routes to India and China — overland

by camel-caravan, and down around the end of Africa by water.
For centuries, European traders had been traveling those old
routes to bring back the priceless treasures of the East. Now times
had changed. European traders still sailed the old routes to India and
China, but now they went in search of foreign markets. Their ships
Were loaded down with products of their own to sell.
Since the steam engine had been invented and machines made to
take the place of handwork, factories, especially in France and England,
13
were turning out more products than 9the people at home could use, and
gobbling up more raw materials than they could supply. So manufac-
turers had begun to send all over the world for the things they needed,
and were shipping out quantities of their machine-made products to be
sold in foreign lands — to India especially and to China.
Trade routes to the East, therefore, were more important to France
and England than they had ever been before, when Ferdinand de Lesseps
first thought of cutting a shorter route through the Isthmus of Suez.
Across the narrow ribbon of sand that then blocked the eastern

end of the Mediterranean, runs today one of the world’s most traveled
waterways, the Suez Canal.
And though it may seem ridiculous, a germ and a dish of macaroni
had a part in making it, according to the story.
In the spring of 1831, Ferdinand de Lesseps, a charming young
French diplomat, was sailing over the Mediterranean on his way to Egypt
to become vice-consul in Alexandria. He had heard much of Egypt and its
remarkable ruler, Mehemet Ali, from his father who had been consul in
Alexandria thirty years before. Mehemet Ali had then been but a colonel
in the Turkish Army. Now he had made himself practically independent
of the Sultan of Turkey, his former overlord, and was to be regarded by
coming generations as the founder of modern Egypt.

’bfoung De Lesseps was at last to meet Mehemet Ali, and as the light¬
house of Alexandria came into sight across the blue waters of the harbor,
eagerness to land was uppermost in his mind. Then he learned that no
one would be allowed to land! A germ had been at work. A case of
cholera had broken out on board, and the ship had to be held in quaran¬
tine for several weeks. So there he was — an impatient young man left
with nothing to do for all that time but lean on the rail and look at the
water. At least, so he was thinking one morning when a parcel arrived
for him, sent out by the thoughtful consul general . . .
books! What a relief! One of them caught his eye at once. The title?
A Canal of Two Seas. The author? An engineer who had been with
Napoleon on the campaign in Egypt thirty years before. Napoleon? Had
Napoleon thought of cutting a canal through the Isthmus of Suez?
So it seemed. This amazing book gave all the plans and measurements.

140
Fascinated, De Lesseps read on for days, absorbed by die
idea.
A canal across the isthmus! An outlet from the Mediterranean into
the Red Sea! What a marvelous help to commerce that would be. No
more would ships have to make the long, slow journey down around
the end of Africa to Asia. India and China would be five months nearer
to Europe. The whole world would be brought closer together.
Perhaps he, Ferdinand de Lesseps, was the one meant to revive and
carry out the plan for that wonderful man-made river. Rivers — how he
loved them! Years ago, when he was a small boy in Paris, he remembered
walking along the banks of the Seine with his father, and saying that he
wished some day God would let him help Him build a river. Here was
the answer to his wish! He would build this great international river,
that all the people of the world might use.
Three weeks later, when the quarantine was over and he was at
last established in Alexandria, De Lesseps spoke of the canal to Mehemet

Ali. Egypt’s ruler was interested, as he was interested in all public works,
but the canal, he said, was not a new idea, even with Napoleon. There
had been a canal there in the days of the Pharaohs. Traces of the ancient
banks were still visible in the sand. And as to a canal today — his country
might suffer from becoming an international highway. The nations of
Europe were apt to fight for control of the canal. There were many
things to be considered. At the moment he was concerned about his
favorite son, Mohammed Said.
Said was too fat. He ate too much. Punishment did no good. Each
week he was punished if he did not lose. Each week he gained a pound
or two. Monsieur de Lesseps was a splendid horseman. Would he as a
special favor be willing to teach fat Mohammed Said to ride?
De Lesseps was willing, but Mohammed Said was glum. Bumping
up and down on a horse’s back held no attraction for the fat boy, but
he had to try it. At the end of a week he weighed in a few pounds lighter
as a reward for his perspiring efforts. For additional reward De Lesseps,
as a friendly gesture, invited his reluctant pupil to dinner.
It was a delicious dinner, but the high spot of the meal in Moham-
 What a food was
med Said’s opinion was that dish of Italian macaroni.
round face shone as he
that! What a delicacy! What a flavor! How his
rous delight.
relished every savory mouthful with almost raptu
of macaroni that
Many dinners followed, but it was that first plate
Years later when De
marked the beginning of a lifelong friendship.
starting the canal,
Lesseps needed help for his long-cherished plans of
him.
Mohammed Said, the new ruler of Egypt, would not fail

Machines, factories, railroads — al of those inventions of the

last sixty years had brought a new way of living into Europe,
1 while life in the Far East had gone on unchanged. Gradually,
i-though, all the proud old lands of Asia were to be invaded
bv the new ideas of the west, and their leaders made to realize that they
must adjust their ancient ways to fit a changing world.
The Empire of Turkey, quite naturally, was the first in Asia to be
touched by the European ideas, for Turkey, circling the eastern end of
the Mediterranean, belonged both to Europe and to Asia. Constanti¬
nople, her capital city, lay like a jeweled link, joining the two continents.

142
 There in Constantinople, on an afternoon in December, 1830, while
outside pale winter sun shone on gold-topped mosques and minarets,
inside the Sultan's palace two men sat facing each other in the perfumed
shadows. One was clad in conventional English clothes, the other was
wearing a turban, blood-red shirt, fringed girdle, blue-striped trousers
and pointed crimson slippers. One was the Sultan, the other his guest, a

young author from England, who seemed quite at home in a Sultan’s

palace, although this was his first visit to the East.
A faint smile played about his lips as he raised to them the amber

tip of a Turkish water pipe, and watched the Sultan’s face through the
curling smoke that rose between them. He found the situation amusing
— as fantastic as a scene in a play in which the leading actors had

changed costume by mistake. ‘For it was he, Benjamin Disraeli from

London, England, who was wearing the turban, and the Sultan Mahmud
II who was dressed in English clothes! And both men, like this city in
which they met, were a blend of East and West.
Benjamin Disraeli, now on a pleasure trip around the Mediter¬
ranean, had been born in England, but his ancestors had come from the
Orient, by way of Spain and Italy. For he was of that oriental race which
is at home in nearly every country. He was of the people of Israel. That

was the meaning of his Italian name D’Israeli.

Mahmud II, though son of a Turkish Sultan, was half French. As a
young girl his mother had been captured by Algerian pirates. Sent as a
present to their overlord the Sultan, she had become the favorite of his
harem. From her Mahmud as a child had learned to speak good French.
From the time he had come to the throne in 1808, he had been trying to

graft European customs, and especially modern methods of warfare, onto

his backward country, but with little success. His Mohammedan subj ects

cursed him as a foreigner— a "Giaour” Sultan who was betraying them

with the teachings of unbelievers. From him, when they turned their
prayer rugs to the east, they prayed to Allah for deliverance.

Benjamin Disraeli knew this, and in spite of the Sultan’s cruelty, of

which he also knew, he felt a certain sympathy for the man beaten at
M3
every turn by stupid prejudice. Still vivid and sharp in his memory were
scenes in which he had first learned that such prejudice existed.
The first scene was in a schoolroom. A small, puzzled boy of five
on his first day at school was being made to stand alone while the other
pupils stared at him curiously as they knelt in opening prayer.
Scene two. The same schoolroom. A rabbi with his long beard was
standing in the doorway. The small boy was being singled out to take his
lesson in Hebrew while the other children nudged one another and

giggled.
Third scene. The library of a London home. A man with pink
cheeks, silver hair and a small black skull-cap sat at his desk surrounded
on all sides by books. Before him stood a boy and his sister who had
brought to their father the puzzling question as to why they should be
blamed and scoffed at for their race or their religion.

"Because of superstitions, my children,” answered their scholar

father in his gentle manner, "superstitions and prejudices which should
have died out long ago just as some practices and beliefs of our people
the Jews should also have long since been discarded. Both belong to a

by-gone age — not to the age of reason.”

The next scene. The Church of St. Andrew on a Sunday in 1817.
The boy, thirteen now, was being baptized into the Church of England.
Many careers were closed to all but members of that church by the Eng¬
lish law. Isaac D’Israeli therefore, believing that a man’s true religion is
tested by his life, not by his form of worship, had been persuaded that
it would be best for his children to conform to the established church.
So the young man who was visiting the Sultan that winter afternoon
was both a Christian and a Jew, as he was both an Oriental and a Euro¬
pean. To his natural sympathy this first visit was to add undying interest
in the mysterious East. Later as a great Prime Minister of England,

Disraeli’s chief concern was to be in foreign affairs, and in promoting

*44
England as a world power and an Empire.
It was he, Benjamin Disraeli, who would one day bestow upon his
Queen the additional title of Empress of India.
 INDIA

' r ndia belonged to England in the 1830’s, for England held Delhi, and

there is an old saying that "whoso holds Delhi holds India.” From
the beginning of history India’s conquerors one after another sweep-
. ing down from the north had taken possession of that ancient city.
Outside its sun-baked walls amid tangled weeds could be seen crumbling
back into the yellow dust the relics of six other Delhis. One upon another
they had risen and fallen into ruins there beside the Jumna River, before
a Moghul Emperor had built the present city.
The Moghul (or Mongol) Emperors who were Mohammedans

from Central Asia had been India’s last conquerors before the English.
More than three hundred years they had lived in lavish splendor in
Delhi, and for a time had been supreme over half of India.
In 1830 Shah Mohammed, last of the Moghul Emperors, an aged

man of seventy, was still permitted by the English to live in his rose-red
palace overlooking the river, but he was no longer powerful and no
longer rich. The old brown fingers Ttwisting
45 the end of his chalk-white
beard were loaded with jewels, but no longer had power to squeeze un¬
limited streams of gold from the Indian people.
 It was the white conqueror from the north who now collected the
taxes. Shah Mohammed lived on a pension from the English government,
which though far from meager, was not generous enough to supply the
wants of the 12,000 members of his family who filled the palace.
So resentment, hatred of the British, ate like green poison in the
seventy-year-old heart of Shah Mohammed and glittered in his eyes.
Two hundred fifty miles from Delhi on the river Ganges, river
sacred to the Hindus, there was also living at this time a seven-year-old
Hindu prince by the name of Nana, in whose hard little heart was like¬
wise instilled a hatred of the conqueror. Nana was but seven, but Nana
had strangely set, uneasy eyes that saw everything. . . .
Every day he saw worshippers bathing in the sacred river. Every
night he saw the smoke from funeral pyres burning on the sacred ghats.
Once he had seen a widow wail and beat her breast because she could

not throw herself upon her husband’s funeral pyre and burn with him.
The English conquerors had forbidden her to pay him that last honor.
The English! Ssss! Nana had seen them too. He had seen them come
riding down from Cawnpore — those foreign people, those animal-eaters,
who would eat even flesh of the sacred cow! And he had seen his

foster-father’s eyes grow hard at the sight of them and his nostrils tighten
when he thought of the wrong that they had done to him.
Twelve years before as leader of the native rajahs, he the proud
Peshwa of Poona had led a last desperate stand against the English. But
what were elephants and old-fashioned muskets against guns and can¬
non? Defeated, he had been ousted from his kingdom, stripped of
power, and left to live on a niggardly pension of 80,000 pounds a year!
That was twelve years ago. Still he nursed his grievance there in the
small town of Bithoor beside the sacred Ganges. And Nana watched
him. Nana, who was seven. Nana, who as his son would one day set the
torch to his funeral pyre and inherit his riches. Nana Sahib, with the
hard little heart and the strangely set uneasy eyes.
India. Oh, India belonged to England — if holding Delhi was all
there was to holding India!
146
 LI HUNG CHANG, A BOY OF CHINA

T was a fresh new morning in an old, old village in China. Small Li

Hung Chang, his round face washed and shining as the day itself,
was starting out for school. Starting out was he, to fill his fresh young
mind with the old, old lessons taught in the same old way that they
had always been taught in ancient China. Li Hung Chang was seven and
to him this was an autumn morning in the ninth year of the reign of the
Emperor Tao Kwang. To the western world it was the year 1830. But

Li Hung Chang, who was to become China’s great Minister of Foreign

Affairs, knew nothing of the western world, on this bright morning —
except that the barbarians lived there.
He was thinking, as he caught a branch of the peach tree by the
door and shook some shining drops of water on his tongue — he was
thinking that he would go to school by way of the splendid Water Lake
to see the goslings, but his mild mother was wise beyond compare.
147 boys," said she. "Go to school
"Lessons run away from loitering
the straight road by the fruit wall."
 e and hurried
Li Hung Chang heard. So he jumped a shining puddl
Kai was a sleepy
along the straight road to call for his friend Ho Kai. Ho
on their way
boy. He hadn’t quite finished his rice and when they were
cters for his
he confessed that he had forgotten how to draw the chara
name! Li Hung Chang remembered.
h
He drew them with a sharp stick in the smooth damp earth beneat
Ho Kai
a crooked pine tree. Then he drew his own name too, while
d. Li Hung
laughed and was proud to see how much his friend had learne

Chang, pleased with the praise, drew the word for sun Q and the

word for rain and the word for man A and the word for

woman
and kept on until he had filled up all the space. Then

he remembered! School does not wait for loitering boys. So they ran fast
— so fast that their two black pigtails stuck out straight behind them. Li
Hung Chang could run faster than Ho Kai, just as he could think faster
and memorize faster— faster and better than almost any boy in school. It

was not long before he could recite many verses of Confucius both for¬
ward and backward.

It was not long either before he learned more about the western
world. That was because of Ho Kai’s father who had promised one day to
make the boys a kite. But he was not there when they came home. They
waited for him beneath the crooked pine tree until the sun was low and
still he did not come. Ho Kai’s mother said he had gone to the high
village and turned her head away. There was something strange about it.

Next morning Li Hung Chang’s father said he would go to the high

village to look for his neighbor. Soon the boys at school were whispering
that Ho Kai’s father had learned to smoke the foreign drug.
foreign drug? What was that? Li Hung Chang asked his father.

And his wise parent told him that it was opium brought to China by the
barbarians. As they grew older, he warned his sons again and again not
to touch the ruinous drug which he said was being brought into the
country against the command of the Honorable Emperor, Tao Kwang.

"Why then does not the all-powerful Emperor put an end to it?”
asked Li Hung Chang, but to that question the noble and severe parent
could give that keen inquiring son of his no satisfactory answer.
Every day for many years Li Hung Chang and Ho Kai went to
school together. Then Li Hung Chang had grown tall, and gone far
along the straight road towards his Budding Genius Examinations,
while easy-going Ho Kai had followed the footsteps of his father.
It was on an evening many years later that Li Hung Chang was
supposed to have made this sad entry in his diary:

"This day though my Father has warned me strictly to avoid his

Company, I went into the high Village in search of my good Friend Ho
Kai. It was no trouble to find him, for the vile Place where he spends
most of his Time is now known to all the Neighborhood, since it is said
that more than two hundred in this District are users of the Foreign

Drug.” Later. "Ho Kai’s Father is dead; it is the Foreign Drug that
killed him. Ho Kai, himself, is no longer at his Home, but one of the
miserable Beggars of the Highway. His Eyes are nearly blind. When I
went along the Road yesterday he did not know me. . .
Spring had come again, and Li Hung Chang had won his Ready-
for-Office degree when he is said to have recorded his next milestone:
"There is bounding Happiness in my inmost Heart today for I have
been given a regular Place in the Office of Chin Fu and my start on the
way to Political Progress has been made! My noble and severe Parent
rejoices and my mild Mother is happy beyond compare. My Father has
gone in his chair to tell My Uncle and to Invite him to a Feast we will

enjoy tomorrow.” That night he was too happy to sleep. "It is impossible
for me to close an Eye and keep it closed so good do my Spirits feel over
the Fortunate Tidings. Even my Uncle in his Home on the Hong Road
heard the News before my Father arrived and had started for our House
with two fat Geese and a Fish.

' 'Tomorrow I shall fast well and read some of my Poetry to the Guests.
Someday I hope to be the m scholar) of China!
(f or em os t
"People would laugh at me perhaps,
149 but if a man has the education
and the love and the desire and the purpose, he car do work I know, that

will make his name live gloriously among his countrymen.”

 izzy, as his friends called young Disraeli, returned to London
from his visit to the Near East full of stories about Turkey and

Egypt, which he embroidered with his sparkling wit. Ex¬

tremely entertaining, he was much sought after in society, but
in politics, thus far, a failure. By 1833 he had tried three times to be
elected to Parliament and had been defeated.

On January 29, 1833, the first Parliament elected according to the

new reform law, held its opening meeting. A few nights later, Disraeli,
in a canary-colored waistcoat and white kid gloves, sauntered in to the
House of Commons to hear the speech of a more fortunate friend who
had just become a member. Not far away might have been seen a young
newspaper reporter by the name of Charles Dickens, scribbling notes in
shorthand. And down on the main floor, among the Tories, was a hand¬
some young Oxford graduate newly elected, who was to become the
fascinating Dizzy’s greatest rival, William Ewart Gladstone.
Not that night, but six months later on the third of June, William

Gladstone rose to make his "maiden speech.” His subject was slavery,
Negro Slavery, and it was very timely. There was a resolution before

the House to abolish slavery in all of England’s colonies, so it was the

most hotly debated topic of the day.

150
 \bung Gladstone believed that slavery should be abolished grad¬
ually and entirely, but it was not to express his views on it that he had
chosen the subject. He spoke primarily in defense of his father, who had
been publicly, and he felt, unjustly, accused of overworking his slaves,
for Mr. Gladstone, senior, was a slave owner.
About the time that William had entered Eton his father had
acquired a sugar plantation in the West Indies, and with it, of course,
slaves. There was even then a movement on foot in England to abolish
slavery. So a few years later when he heard that an uprising of the slaves
had occurred on his far-off island, Mr. Gladstone attributed it to the
meddling of the Abolitionists and their leader Mr. Wilberforce.
The Abolitionists claimed that the slaves had rebelled because of
the cruelty of the overseer. Whatever may have been the immediate
cause of it, the report of that uprising led slowly but surely to the resolu¬
tion now proposed for freeing all the slaves in all of England’s colonies.
In August 1833, two months after William Gladstone made his first

speech in Parliament, and ten years after the uprising on his father’s
estate, the bill freeing the slaves was passed. The government bought
them from their owners for $100,000,000 and gradually set them free.

The resolution had been hotly debated, however, before it was

finally passed. Many other speeches on slavery were made on that same
night in June when William Gladstone defended his father.
Seated in the gallery that night, peering down upon each speaker
with unblinking interest through his steel-rimmed spectacles, was a
youngish man from Boston, William Lloyd Garrison, by name. He had
come to England for the very purpose of investigating the slavery
problem.
Mr. Garrison was head of the movement for the abolition of slavery
in the United States, and he was in deadly earnest. He was determined
to free the American Negro, he said, even if he had to destroy the
 condemned
Union to do so. With words of fire and brimstone he had
tution
the Southern planters as sinners of the deepest dye, and the Consti
death and
of the United States in dealing with them as "a covenant with
an agreement with Hell!” the
Those were the words he had printed in his newspaper

Liberator, which had first appeared on New Year’s Day, 1831, and had
since stirred up the greatest agitation wherever it was read.
"The man must have lost his senses,” said the Southern planters.
"What does he want to do, incite the negroes to murder us?”
Many Northerners, also, though opposed to slavery, were shocked at
Mr. Garrison’s violent words. One Boston paper called him a lunatic,
and another urged people to "arm themselves with tar and feathers and
when he returned from England give the man what he deserved.”
Even the Reverend Mr. Beecher, strongly opposed as he was to the

evil of slavery, did not see eye to eye with \Cilliam Garrison. For a num¬
ber of years past Mr. Beecher had been pastor of the church in Boston
which William Lloyd Garrison attended. Just before the latter visited
England, however, Mr. Beecher had accepted a call to be President of a
Theological Seminary in Cincinnati, Ohio, and nine of the active Beecher
family, including wiry little Harriet, had packed their bags and boxes

and left by stage for the new home in the "West.”

That move of the Beecher family was to be of consequence to the
United States, for the town of Cincinnati was on the Ohio River, just
over the border line from the slave state of Kentucky.
What Harriet Beecher saw there and later recorded in her famous
story was to hasten the emancipation of the slaves.
Harriet was then twenty, and still not much bigger than a wren. She
had been teaching school for the past six years, and it was not long after
her arrival in Cincinnati, before she had tied on again her tidy black silk

teacher’s apron and was conducting classes, correcting papers, writing

geography, composing a story about New England, and taking an active
part in the Literary Society.
There she met a Professor Calvin Ellis Stowe, and a few years later

152
after the death of his wife, was joined to him in the holy bonds of matri¬
mony and so became Harriet Beecher Stowe.

It was during the first year after they were married, while Professor
Stowe was on a trip abroad, and before the twins were born, that a riot
over slavery occurred in Cincinnati.

"For a day or two,” Harriet wrote her husband, ’'we did not know
but there would actually be war to the knife.”
The trouble had started this way: One summer a student at the
Seminary, in order to earn his tuition, had lectured in the South, and
seeing the evils of slavery had become an abolitionist. He in turn had
converted a slave owner, who had freed his slaves and gone to Cincin¬
nati to start an anti-slavery newspaper like the Liberator.
Kentucky slave owners immediately got wind of it. Wasn’t one
abolition paper enough? they exclaimed. Why let another get started?
In an angry mob they came across the Ohio, marched to the newspaper
office, broke in, smashed the presses and threw the type in the river.
There was great commotion. Townspeople took sides at once.

"For my part,” Harriet wrote, "I can easily see how such proceed¬
ings may make converts to abolitionism. No one can have the system of
slavery brought before him without an irrepressible desire to do some¬
thing; and what is there to be done?”
What is there to be done? That was the question everyone was
asking all over the country.

Some years before, even before England set the example of purchas¬
ing the slaves, it had been proposed that the United States use the money
from the sale of western lands to buy the slaves and set them free. The
United States, however, deaf to suggestion,
153 and blind to example, was to

go on for years asking the question but avoiding the answer, until there
would be but one tragic answer left.
 ABE LINCOLN OF NEW SALEM

The spring of the year that the young Oxford graduate Wil iam
Gladstone was elected to Parliament, and the little schoolma’am
Harriet Beecher unpacked her black silk apron in Cincinnati,
Abe Lincoln, who had never been to school a whole year in his
life, announced that he would run for the State Legislature of Illinois.
His friends in the log-cabin village of New Salem urged him to. He had
been there less than a year, but everybody had taken a liking to the long,
gaunt fellow, and, on the first day he arrived, he had had a hand, as
you might say, in politics.
It had happened to be Election Day. Offut, his employer, had not yet
arrived to start the new store, so Abe went loafing along the street past
the Rutledge Tavern towards the voting place where the crowd was
gathered. The election clerk, needing someone to help him, spied the
*54 to write.
newcomer and asked him if he knew how

"I reckon I can make a few rabbit tracks on paper,” drawled Abe.
Folding his long legs under the table he took up the goose quill pen, and
spent the rest of the day recording the names of the voters and sizing up
their characters. James Rutledge was the man who owned the grist mill
and the tavern and it seemed had a daughter by the name of Ann. The
fattest, joiliest man in town was Squire Bowling Green, who was Justice
of the Peace, and who chuckled till he wheezed over the comical stories
Abe told that afternoon. He never did get over enjoying the one about
the green lizard that ran up the preacher’s pants.
After Election Day, still waiting for Offiit to turn up, Abe got better
acquainted. He saw Ann Rutledge, and though he didn’t go in much for
girls, she struck him as the sweetest thing he’d ever seen, with her blue
eyes and hair between the color of gold and copper.
Finally the little man he was waiting for blew into town, full of big
words and big ideas, ready to start his store. While Abe split logs and
built the cabin for it, Offut patted himself on the back over the smart
fellow he had hired. The last bolt of calico was hardly laid on the shelf,
and the barrels of molasses and whiskey rolled into place before the
storekeeper was promoting his clerk in extravagant terms.

"Abe Lincoln knows more,” he boasted, "than any man in the

United States. And strong! I bet you he can beat anyone in this country

in a wrestling match.”
"Not Jack Armstrong, I bet you,” retorted Bill Clary, one of a rough
rowdy gang known as the Clary Grove Boys who lived four miles away.
"He can’t beat Jack, I bet you ten.”
A match was arranged to prove it. Abe said he didn’t care much for
that kind of "wooling and pulling,” but he rolled up his sleeves and
went at it, laid Jack Armstrong flat on his back in the dust, and won the

lasting respect of the Clary gang. He was "the best feller,” they swore,
"that ever broke into the settlement.”
"And the most honest one too,” customers of the store were ready to
add. One woman told how he had walked three miles to her place with
J55 said he was at her house before
six cents he’d overcharged her. Another
breakfast one day with a fourth pound of tea he’d measured short.
Honest, funny, shrewd, strong — Abe Lincoln had easily become the
 1832, he had been
most popular man in New Salem, and so, by March,
ons were to be
persuaded to run for the legislature for which the electi
Rutledge
held in August. He was wondering what he could say to Ann
d.
if he won, when suddenly his political affairs were interrupte
in the
It was on a wet morning early in April. Abe stood leaning
on a muddy
doorway with an English grammar in his hand, when a man
to fight the
horse came splashing down the street, calling for volunteers
Indians! Black Hawk, he said, was back in Illinois!
No one needed to be told who Black Hawk was. Old Black Hawk,
his
as everyone knew, was chief of the Sacs who had supposedly sold
northwest corner of Illinois to the United States and gone across the
Come to
Mississippi River to live. Now he and his braves were back!
t kept
plant corn, they said, because the United States government hadn
to drive
its promise — but who cared what Indians said! The idea was
them out before they began to scalp and kill. So the governor was calling
for volunteers . . . volunteers for the Black Hawk War.

Abe enlisted; so did the Clary Grove Boys. They elected him Cap¬
tain. Didn’t do any fighting, he said later, except against mosquitoes. But
he tramped through fields of wild onions, saved the life of one old
bewildered Indian who had wandered into camp, helped bury five men
who had been scalped, told stories with the men around the campfire,
and rolled in his blanket to dream more nights than one of a girl with
blue eyes and coppery gold hair. Middle of July, when the war was over,
he was mustered out at Whitewater, Wisconsin, and returned to New
Salem to go on with his campaign.
It was at a county auction sale of bulls and hogs that he made his
first election speech.
"Gentlemen and fellow citizens,” he began. Then he stopped,
stepped down from the platform, made his way through the men, picked
up a trouble maker by the seat of the breeches and the scruff of the neck,
pitched him out of the crowd, returned to the platform, and continued:
"Gentlemen and fellow citizens: I presume you all know who I am.
I am humble Abraham Lincoln. I have been solicited by my friends to

156
become a candidate for the legislature. My politics are short and sweet
like the old woman’s dance. I am in favor of a national bank. I am in
favor of the internal-improvements system, and a high protective tariff.
These are my sentiments and political principles. If elected, I shall be
thankful; if not, it will be all the same.”
He was not elected. There weren’t enough people who knew him
outside of New Salem. It didn’t matter much. He was used to disappoint¬
ments. Only he would like to have been elected an account of Ann. And
by this time the store had failed. He was out of a job.

Didn’t know what else to do, so he tried keeping store again, in

partnership with a man named Berry. They paid for the store by giving
notes, expecting to get out of debt when the store began to pay. But it

didn’t pay. Berry spent too much time sampling the whiskey. Lincoln
spent too much time reading newspapers and the law. So the store

"winked out.” Abe was left with $1,100 worth of debts and no job again.
And a young man who was a good businessman was engaged to Ann.
Things looked black. Abe was doing odd jobs to pay for meals and
lodging when his friends got him the job of Postmaster in May, 1833.

After that the unexpected chance came to be a surveyor. He didn’t

know anything about surveying, but he got a book and studied day and
night till, with the help of the school teacher, he had mastered the mathe¬
matics and was ready to start out with his chain and instrument. It was
not long before the lanky surveyor, with his short trousers and comical
stories, had made friends all over the county. When he ran for the
legislature the next time, in 1834, Abe Lincoln was elected.
Ann looked pale and forlorn when he left for the state capital. The
young man she was to marry had been gone for months. She was con¬
vinced that he had deserted her. There was not much then that Abe
could say, but when he came back to New Salem in the spring, Ann
turned to him and said that she would marry him. He had never been
so happy. In August she was dead. Aber57sat for days, his head in his hands,
his clenched fingers in his coarse black hair, so deaf to all words, so
plunged in a dry tearless grief, that friends despaired of his reason.
 ''remember the alamo’’

Southwestfrom the Cherok e vil age on the Arkansas, in Novem¬

ber, 1832, went a lonely rider. Southwest from the wigwam of his

| Indian father old chief Oo-loo-te-ka, the man was riding, south¬
west through the dry grass of the windy prairies towards the Red
River and the border of Texas. On his legs he wore fringed buckskin
trousers, on his head a broad-brimmed white hat of beaver. Brass spurs
jingled on his boots, and the rhythm of an old verse was in his heart:

"Fellow in arms whose deeds are known to fame ...”

Sam Houston’s heart was light with hope again. Ahead lay Texas, a
new life for him — a new part to act. Behind him he was leaving the Sam
Houston whose good name as Governor of Tennessee had been tarnished
by slander. He was facing a new iife. A new Sam Houston, he would
redeem himself in the eyes of his great friend Andrew Jackson. He would

capture Texas from Mexico, and lay a new empire at his hero’s feet!
of "el Camino Real” west to
Confidently he rode the muddy trailThen
San Antonio and back east to the border. he wrote this letter:

15B
 "Gen. Jackson: Dear Sir: — Having been far in the province of
Texas I am in possession of some information touching the acquisition
of Texas by the United States. That such a measure is desired by nine¬
teen-twentieths of the population I cannot doubt. Mexico is involved in
civil war . . . powerless and penniless. Unless Mexico is soon restored
to order my opinion is that Texas will, by ist of April, declare all that
country (north of the Rio Grande) as Texas proper and form a State
Constitution. I expect to be present at the Convention and will apprise
you of the course adopted.

"\our friend and obedient servant.”

In this letter Sam Houston had
gone ahead of the story. There were
some at that time, but certainly not
19,000 Texans who wished to sepa¬
rate from Mexico.

Stephen Austin, Texas’ foremost

citizen, did not. Granted land in Texas when Mexico was first free from
Spain, Austin had been for ten years a loyal Mexican citizen. The
troubles that had recently arisen he was confident could be straightened
out. After the Convention of April first he left for Mexico City, with
the request that Texas be given a separate state government as granted
by Mexican laws and the Mexican Constitution. Laws and Constitution ?
What cared Santa Anna for laws and Constitutions? Not a snap of his
finger. And it was Santa Anna with whom Stephen Austin had to deal,
for on April 1, 1833, Santa Anna had pronounced himself President of
Mexico. Stephen Austin was thrown into prison. Instead of two months

it was two years before he was free to return to Texas. Then said he, “War
is our only recourse.”
Texas went wild. There was a cry for independence — a call for
volunteers. Santa Anna heard it. He sent hundreds of Mexican troops to
159
Texas to put down the rebellion. A large garrison of soldiers under his
brother-in-law fortified themselves in San Antonio. After some delay, the
volunteers attacked, and after four days’ fighting, forced the Mexican
general to surrender and drove out the Mexican troops. Texas people
went wild again. "The war is over! they cried. War is over!
"Over! The war has just begun,” said Sam Houston, trying to organ¬
ize and train a larger army, and also get Cherokee recruits enlisted before
spring when he was sure Santa Anna would send his soldiers back again.
But Santa Anna did not wait for spring. In January, 1836, the in¬
furiated little man himself was marching at the head of his soldiers over
the winter desert to avenge the defeat of his brother-in-law. Towards San
Antonio they were headed, and the mission fort in San Antonio known
as the alamo, the alamo! — It was held then by only a few ragged
Texans. By February 22 the Mexicans were outside its walls, and had
demanded its surrender. February 23 they laid siege to it. On February
24 the officer in command of the pitiful little band who were trying to
defend it sent out this desperate but heroic message:

"To the People of Texas & All Americans in the world: . . .

"Am beseiged by a thousand or more of the Mexicans under Santa
Anna. The enemy has demanded a surrender, otherwise the garrison are
to be put to the sword if the fort is taken — I have answered the demand
with a cannon shot & our flag still waves proudly from the wall. I SHALL
NEVER surrender or retreat, then I call on you in the name of

Liberty, of patriotism & everything dear to the American character, to

come to our aid with all dispatch. I am determined to sustain myself
as long as possible. . . . victory or death.
"W. Barret Travis, Lt. Col. Com’t.”

Four days later, in the hands of a dusty rider, the note had reached
Washington on the Brazos where delegates were then holding a con¬
vention to declare Texas independent.
The delegates were aghast but helpless. They had no troops at hand.
Austin was not there. Houston had gone to the Indian country. The next
day, however, he was back, dashing in on horseback in a Cherokee
jacket, silver spurs and with a feather flying from his broad-brimmed
160
hat. Then as large as that of John Hancock’s, he scrawled his signature
on the Texas Declaration of Independence, March 2, 1836.
Two days later with three volunteers he was off, to gather troops
on the way, for the rescue of the Alamo, but that very day in the Alamo
all was over. Halfway there, Sam Houston heard the ghastly story. It
had been death for all the defenders of the mission fort. Only three
survivors lived to tell the story, a wife, her baby, and a Negro servant.
Before the end of March another American force had been defeated.
Settlers, volunteers — everyone was terrified. A scrambling retreat
towards the east began. Men, women, children, carts, wagons, cattle,
horses all in the most disorderly confusion, with Sam Houston trying to
organize the panicky mob and also cheer up his fighting men.
On the San Jacinto River they halted, and there the Mexicans
caught up with them. Until April 21 not much happened. Then during
the siesta hour of early afternoon, when he knew the Mexicans would be
sleeping, Sam Houston gave the order to attack their camp.
"Remember the Alamo!" was the cry. "Remember the Alamo! Re¬
member the Alamo!” cried the Texans as they went pouring into Santa
Anna’s camp down upon his sleeping soldiers. Only twenty minutes and
the Mexicans were overpowered and the battle ended, but in those
twenty minutes Santa Anna had managed to escape. That night he was
not among the prisoners. The next day, however, he was picked up,
disguised in a blue cotton smock, and brought into camp.
Sam Houston was lying under an oak tree having his splintered
ankle dressed and writing a note to President Jackson, when the little
man in the blue smock and red felt slippers was brought up to him.

"I am General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna,” said the man bowing
deeply. "President of Mexico, Commander in Chief of the Army. I place
myself at the disposal of the brave General Houston. Born to no common
destiny is he who has conquered the Napoleon of the West. It now
remains for him to be generous to the conquered.”
Some of the officers wanted Santa Anna killed at once. Sam Houston
saved his life, and within the year he was sent back to Mexico.
161
 "Restored to his own country Santa Anna will keep Mexico in com¬
shrewdly, "and Texas will be safe.”
motion for years," said Houston,Star
So Texas became the Lone Republic, and, on October 22, 1836,
first act of
Sam Houston took his oath as its first President. Almost the
In
the new republic was to ask to become part of the United States.
was to recog¬
March, 1837, the last act of Andrew Jackson as President
see it
nize the independence of Texas, and though he also wanted to
admitted to the Union, that was not to be so easily accomplished.
Texas was a slave state, that was reason enough to make the free
states 6f the North shout a positive no to the question of adding it to the
Union, and slave states of the South reply with an equally positive yes.
So for eight years, until just before Andrew Jackson died, the Texas
question was to be argued back and forth and remain unanswered.

ON TO OREGON

While Texas was fighting for independence from Mexico,

far to the northwest wagon-wheels were rumbling for the
first time over the long trail to Oregon. Five missionaries
were going to work among the Indians. Two were brides,
the first white women ever to cross the Rocky Mountains. One was bright
Narcissa Whitman, the brave-eyed young wife of Dr. Marcus Whitman,
who had organized the party in response to the Indians’ request.
It seems strange that four years before while poor old Black Hawk
was making his last stand against the white man’s greed, four Nez
Perces Indians from Oregon had been traveling eastward seeking the

White Man’s Book of Heaven. From it they had been told they might
learn a better way to worship the Great Spirit.
The end of a two-thousand-mile trail brought them to St. Louis,
where General Clark at the barracks recognized them at once. Thirty
years before on the expedition with Lewis he had passed through the
home of these Indians in the Columbia River valley. They were most
cordially received. All winter they were feasted and entertained, but
they were disappointed. At the farewell dinner in the spring one of the
two who were still living rose and addressed the company.

’'I came to you over the trail of many moons from the setting sun.
My people sent me to get the white man’s Book of Heaven. You took me
to where you allow your women to dance, as we do not ours: and the
Book was not there! You took me to where they worship the Great Spirit
with candles and images, and the Book was not there. You make my feet
heavy with gifts, and yet the Book is not among them! I came with an
eye partly open for my people who sit in darkness. How can I go back

blind to my blind people? I have no more words.”

The story of their visit published in a New York City religious jour¬

nal was accompanied by a cry for missionaries to "respond to the call

from beyond the Rocky Mountains.” Two Canadians went first.
In the spring of 1835, Marcus Whitman was on his way, going with
the annual caravan of fur traders from Independence, Missouri, when
they set out for the northwest. Halfway to Oregon, seeing the need, Dr.
Whitman returned to New York State to get more volunteers who

would be ready to accompany the fur1 6traders

3 on their next spring’s trip.
Marcus found Narcissa was willing to marry him and go, but he felt
she might be lonely without another woman, and was glad when Eliza
 red her husband that she also
Spaulding, in spite of delicate health, assu
age they started for
"had made up her mind for Oregon.” Full of cour
s the fur traders looked
Pittsburgh and down the Ohio River. At St. Loui
long skirts and the four-
askance at the little party, at the women in their
take them. Even after
wheeled wagon that was to go, and refused to
them.
finally promising to, they slipped off without
and after two weeks’
Undaunted, the Whitman party set out alone,
an of two hundred
chase finally overtook the fur traders and their carav
traders had to admit
persons and six hundred animals. Well — the fur
lo meat, and not
that the women had spunk, ’n if they could live on buffa
not the wagon!
hold up the procession, they could come along but
"tain’t possible.”
"Can’t git a wagon over the mountings,” they said,way,
Marcus Whitman just smiled in his big quiet and took his
down the river
wagon. On they went, through sagebrush, over rocks,
ush, over
banks, up the canyons, and on went the wagon, through sagebr
rocks, down the river banks and up the canyons.
"Chick-chick-shan-i-le-kai-kash, cried the Indians when they saw it,

trying to imitate the sound it made rustling through the grass and bump¬
they
ing over the rocks. They had never seen a wagon before. Nor had
seen white women. Their excitement was tremendous.
l Divide
By July 4, 1836, the travelers had reached the Continenta
in Western Wyoming. At twelve noon they had gone through the Pass
and were able to celebrate Independence Day on the sunset slope where
the rivers were flowing west. Wfomen and a wagon had crossed the Rocky
Mountains, and would soon enter Oregon.
At the rendezvous of the traders and Indians, agents of the Hudson

Bay Trading Company of Canada met the Whitman party and guided
them down the Columbia River in their bateaus to Fort Van Couver.

There they were made welcome by snowy-haired, big-hearted Dr. Mc-

Loughlin, who was in charge of the English fort. Oregon territory was
164
then still held jointly by the United States and England.
At Walla Walla on the Columbia River, the Whitmans founded their
first mission and opened to the Indians the white man s Book of Heaven.
 INTO DARKEST AFRICA

Darkest Africa” it was cal ed when David Livingstone was

moved to go to the great continent as a medical missionary.

The young Scotsman, who was to become Africa’s famous

explorer, sent in his application to the London Missionary
Society, the year that Dr. Marcus Whitman, also a medical missionary,
took the Bible to Oregon.
David Livingstone was twenty-three years old that winter. Big,
broad-shouldered, quiet-spoken, he was attending medical and divinity
classes in Glasgow. In the summer he would return to his home in Blan-
tyre to work in the cotton mill, as he had
165 done since he was ten years old.

As a small boy he had begun as a "piecer,” knotting the broken

threads on the weaving machine, keeping at it from six in the morning
until eight at night. After factory hours he had gone to night school until
ten o’clock and then would go home to study, until his mother snatched
the book away, sent him to bed and blew out the candle.

By the time he was nineteen he was promoted to work at the spin¬

ning jenny, and by frugal living had been able to save enough to study
winters in Glasgow. He had studied hard, and was hoping that he might
be sent to China, when he wrote out his application, but when he

appeared before the examining board, he was told that he was not clever
enough for a post in China or India either. His sermons were not elo¬
quent, it seemed, and his prayers were not drawn out long enough. They
were about to reject the poor disappointed fellow entirely, when some¬
one suggested that there might be a niche for him in Africa.
One of their men who had founded a post seven hundred miles

north of Capetown in the jungle called at Livingstone’s boarding house

one evening. He told of the vastness of Africa, of the thousands of vil¬
lages where no white man had ever been, talked of the great work to

be done, talked till the light shone in David Livingstone’s eyes and he
made his plans to go. Late in November, 1840, he went home to his vil¬
lage in Scotland to spend the last night with his family. There was so
much to talk about with his father that he proposed staying up all night,
but his mother would not hear of it, and blew out the candle.

"In the morning,” said his sister later, "I remember we got up at
five o’clock. Mother made coffee. David read the 121st and 135th Psalms
and prayed. Then my father and he walked to Glasgow to catch the

Liverpool steamer.”
The little bent figure standing on the misty shore was the last sight
David Livingstone ever had of his father, for now his face was set
towards Africa, and for many years he would be lost to civilization. Very
quiet, very patient, very sure, David Livingstone, a man who lived what
he believed, was starting out to make "religion the every-day business of
his life.” Arriving at Capetown, he traveled north the seven hundred
miles to the mission post, and from there on into the unknown interior.
And the leaves of the jungle closed behind him.
166
 YOUNG LION VS. ANCIENT DRAGON

Even if he had be n considered clever enough, David Livingstone

/

could not have gone to China at that time. Traders, guns and
opium, not missionaries, were then introducing China to the

' civilization of the west. The "abominable opium war” was on —

the first war between any modern nation and the old Empire of China.
It began in the summer of 1839, about the time that Li Hung Chang,
far back in his little village, saw many men ruined by the foreign drug.
That summer down at Canton, the only port where the barbarians were
allowed to trade, 2,500,000 pounds of the black sticky sweet opium was
seized by order of the Chinese Emperor, deliberately ruined with lime
and sea water and destroyed.
To the British traders who had brought it there from India against
the Chinese law, that much opium was worth $11,000,000 even after
the greedy, dishonest Chinese mandarins who allowed it to be smuggled
. in had received their bribe. When the first orders came from the Emperor
167
to surrender the opium, the British refused.
But the Emperor Tao Kwang was in earnest. He had seen three of
his own sons killed by opium, and was determined to do away with it.
 Food and water supply were shut off from the British traders and
their families at Canton, until they were obliged to surrender the opium
and take refuge on the barren rocky island of Hong Kong.
As there was no telegraph, no cable, no Suez Canal to shorten the
sailing distance, it was months before the news of their plight reached
England and British warships returned. Returned, you understand, to
protect the rights and lives of the citizens, not to protect those merchants
engaged in the unlawful trade. Though they did nothing to stop it the
English government would not protect it. The opium business, however,
they chose to regard as a minor point.
The important thing was that the time had come to force China to
treat the English as equals, not as barbarians. The old wall of pride and
prejudice against all who were not Chinese had to be broken down.
It was not a difficult war to win. Compared to the English battleships
the Chinese junks were like minnows to a whale. August 28, 1842, the
treaty of Nanking was signed and China humiliated.
Five ports, instead of one at Canton, were opened to foreign trade.
Hong Kong was ceded to the British.
All the opium destroyed was to be paid for by the Chinese. Also
the cost of the war (nothing else was said about opium) .

Nothing was said about "equality” between the two nations either,
but those who understood the Chinese custom of showing honor in docu¬
ments saw that that point too had been surrendered.
The characters for England as well as those for Great China were

raised one space above the top row of the text.

Those for the Emperor Tao Kwang were raised two spaces, as usual,
and for the first time the same honor was paid the ruler of another nation,
in this case a Queen, for Victoria was now Queen of England.
VICTORIA WROTE in her diary faithful y every night before she
memorable
went to bed, underlining all the words that she thought were
especially important. And she often wrote to her Dearest, most
Beloved Uncle Leopold in Belgium. She did both on the
day when she became Queen of England. The diary reads:

"Tuesday, 20th June 1837

"I was awoke at 6 o’clock by Mamma, who told me that the Arch¬
to
bishop of Canterbury and Lord Conyngham were here, and wished
see me. I got out of bed and went into my sitting-room (only in my dress¬
169 ed me that
ing gown) and alone, and saw them. Lord C. then acquaint
past
my poor Uncle the King was no more and had expired 12 minutes
2 has
this morning, and consequently that I am queen. . . . Since it
pleased Providence to place me in this station, I shall do my utmost to
fulfill my duty towards my country ... I am very young, but I am sure
that very few have more real desire to do what is fit and right than I have.
"Breakfasted . . . Wrote a letter to dear Uncle Leopold and a few
words to dear good Feodore. At 9 came Lord Melbourne, whom I saw
in my room and of course quite alone. He was in full dress. I like
him very much and feel confidence in him ... At about half past 1 1 I
went downstairs and held a Council in the red saloon . . . I was not

at all nervous and had the satisfaction of hearing that people were satis¬
fied with what I had done and how I had done it. . . . Wrote my jour¬
nal. Took my dinner upstairs alone. Went downstairs. At about twenty
minutes to 9 came Lord Melbourne and remained till near 10. I had a
very important and a very comfortable conversation with him. Went
down and said good-night to Mamma, etc. My dear Lehzen will always
remain with me as my friend. . . .

The letter written to Uncle Leopold told in a few words what had
happened in the early morning. Many letters were exchanged between
them before this one written a year later after the Coronation Ceremony:

"Buckingham Palace, 2nd July 1838

"my dearest uncle:

"many thanks for two kind letters, one which I got last Monday.
The kind interest you take in me and my country makes me certain that
you will be glad to hear how beautifully every thing went off. It was
a memorable and glorious day for me. The millions assembled to witness
the progress to and from the Abbey was beyond belief, and all in the
highest good-humour. It is a fine ceremony and a scene I shall ever re¬
member, and with pleasure. I likewise venture to add that people thought
I did my part very well.

"Pray tell dearest Aunt Louise that I thank her much for her very
kind letter. Ever and ever your most devoted niece,

l?9
 CORN AND POTATOES

Poor lit le que n,” sighed a certain English author, "she is at

an age when she would hardly be trusted with the choosing of a
bonnet, and she is called for a task, from which an archangel might

shrink.” Britain, he knew, had many unhappy people, both at

home and in the colonies, clamoring for their rights. Working people of
England wanted the vote; Ireland wanted a separate Parliament; Canada
wanted a better government, and the free settlers in Australia wanted no
more convicts. And no more were sent there after 1837. That demand
was granted; the others were questions for debate.
It was the Irish Question that young Disraeli, now a newly elected
member, chose for his first speech in the House of Commons. Well pre¬
pared, he rose with confidence, expecting the courteous attention usually

accorded a new member’s first attempt. Instead he was greeted with such
an outburst of hoots, hisses, catcalls and laughter that though he tried
to continue, he was obliged to sit down, humiliated.

The followers of O’Connell, the Irish leader, had started the com¬
motion because they wanted to hear no reply to the speech which O’Con¬
nell himself had just made concerning the grievances of Ireland.
They were indeed many, those griefs of Ireland, and too long en¬
dured. Nine-tenths of the people were Catholics. Though long excluded,
Catholics had recently been allowed to become members of Parliament,
but they still had to support the Church of England. This was especially
hard for the Irish people, because they were very poor. Three-fourths of
171
 who charged their
the land of Ireland was owned by English landlords
after they had
poor tenants such high rent for their small farms that,
left to eat except
sold their crops to pay it, they had almost nothing
was little hope to better condi¬
potatoes. Irish leaders thought that there ament
tions unless Ireland had a separ ate parli .

For the same reason the working people of England wanted to get
wages,
the vote. Their employers still paid the factory workers starvation
and the cost of food was kept high by a tax.
This tax was called the Corn Law. (The word Corn was used in
England to mean all kinds of cereal and grain.) Since England had too
little land on her small island to raise food enough for her population,

most of it had to be brought in from other countries. Yet in order to pro¬

tect those few English landlords who raised what little grain was grown
there was a high tax on all imported food. That made the price so high
that the poor could scarcely buy enough to keep from starving.
For years, Liberal leaders in Parliament had tried to get the Corn
Laws repealed, but in vain. The landlords opposed it and the .working

people were told conditions would never change until they got the vote.
In 1839 they were determined to try for it and drew up a petition

to Parliament known as "The People’s Charter,” asking for the vote. It

was signed by over a million names, but was rejected. Later another peti¬
tion was drawn up, signed this time by three million names. It made such

a huge roll that, after the "Chartists” had carried it proudly through the
London streets to the House of Commons, they found it wouldn’t go
through the door. It had to be cut in pieces before it could be presented.
It was voted down again by a huge majority.

The working people of England, therefore, were in a helpless, miser¬

able condition, the common people of Ireland were desperately poor,

while the pioneers and common people of America were more pros¬
perous in 1837 than they had ever been before.
Opening the vast prairies of the West had brought abounding pros¬
perity to the United States. There was land enough for every man to own
his own farm and raise more food than he could possibly eat.

172
 "I leave this great country prosperous and happy,” said Andrew
Jackson, whose term as President ended the year Victoria became Queen.

And then a strange thing happened. In the midst of this great pros¬
perity, in spite of the fact that by the sale of western lands, the United
States was completely out of debt and had $40,000,000 surplus, there
came a financial panic. Andrew Jackson was hardly out of office when
banks began to fail, factories closed, business houses crashed and people
were frantic for money.
What had caused it? Nobody knew. But this is what had happened:

First, Andrew Jackson had destroyed the "National” Bank. Believing

that it was dangerous for a few bankers to control all the government

money as they did at that time, he removed it from their "National”

Bank. So far so good. But the government funds, taken from the bank,

he then deposited in "pet” banks in the different states, and that was not
so good. With all that easy money to spend, state politicians went to
building roads, canals and railroads at a terrific rate. People borrowed
large sums to gamble on western land, and fell for all kinds of crazy

schemes to get rich quick, even investing in land that didn’t exist. New
and unreliable state banks issued worthless paper money to spend, and
spending whirled on faster and crazier until Jackson had to jam on the
brakes and stop it. He demanded that all further purchases of govern¬
ment land must be paid for not with paper money, but in coin.
coin ? Where was it? Who had it? Nobody. No one could get hold

of enough money to pay his debts. So came the crash. Fortunately it lasted
only a year and good came out of it.
The United States established its Independent Treasury system by
173
which government funds were to be managed in a businesslike way, and
not by private bankers or politicians. Credit for this excellent system
goes to Martin Van Buren, who followed Andrew Jackson as President.
 REBELLION IN CANADA

Canada was se thing with discontent, the year that Victoria

became Queen. And that year, while the United States was
having a financial panic, rebellion against the government
broke out in both Upper and Lower Canada. Those were the
nada” in
only provinces in British North America that used the name "Ca
1837. And none of them were united, all distinct in charac ter and gov¬
ernment as the thirteen colonies of the United States had been originally.
lower Canada, down the St. Lawrence, was the old French province

of Quebec. Though some English were living there, most of Quebec’s

people were French, holding to their language, their customs and their
church, upper Canada (now Ontario) had then only about one-sixth
of the population of Quebec, but they were English-speaking. Many
were descendants of loyalist refugees from the United States during the
War for Independence. Many others had come from Scotland, as had the
family of John Alexander Macdonald, a young man who was later to
play the leading part in making a loyal and united Canada.
John A., a lean lanky lad, with a long nubby nose, was easily the
homeliest fellow in Kingston. But he had a friendly manner, and always
1
74
a good story to tell. Though only twenty-two the year of the rebellion he
had already opened his own office as Barrister-at-Law. That spoke well
for him, since at fifteen he had had to stop school and go to work.
 Mr. Macdonald had not prospered so heartily in the New World as
he had hoped to do when he set out with his little family from Glasgow.
John A. was only five then, but he could remember the big boat that
brought them to Quebec, and the long bumpy ride over the rough forest
roads of Upper Canada to the town of Kingston. There John A. first
went to school, and then was put to work in the office of a lawyer.
Later in life, he said he never would forget the first case he was
allowed to try in court. He was eighteen, and it seems that both he and

the opposing lawyer lost their tempers and took to their fists. "Order in
court! Order!” shouted the old crier, circling about the flying fists. But
each time he came around he whispered to his favorite, "Hit ’im again,
John. Hit ’im again!” All his life John A. said that whenever he was in
a tight pinch, he would hear the encouraging voice of the old crier.
At the time of the rebellion in 1837, John A. carried his musket and
marched to Toronto, the capital — not to join MacKenzie and the rebels,
but to help disperse them. That was soon accomplished, for they were few
in number. Though all of the people of Upper Canada, except a few

families who made up the governor’s council, were dissatisfied, because

they had no voice in the government, the majority were lawabiding, and
did not approve of using violence to gain reform.
It was much the same in Lower Canada. There, too, a group of the
more excitable people, inspired by the orator Papineau, and carrying
liberty caps and French flags, marched against the government at Mon¬
treal. There, too the rebellion was easily put down. But it brought results.
It made the British government realize that something was very
wrong in Canada, and take steps to correct it before it was too late.
Lord Durham was sent in 1838 to investigate the situation. His very
wise report led in 1840 to an Act to Unite Upper and Lower Canada,

under a single governor, who was "to oppose the wishes of the assembly
175
only when the interests of the Empire were concerned.” This was not to
work well at first, but it was a step towards government by the people,
and towards the final founding of the loyal Dominion.
Cross the Atlantic Ocean by Steam Navigation? Bah! snif ed a
learned Doctor of Liverpool, throwing aside his newspaper in

which he had just read of the proposed attempt. "Men

liam from Canada and the Savannah out of New York City had made the
attempt, but what proof was that? They had come only part way by
might
as well project a voyage to the moon!” Already the Royal Wil¬

steam; when the fuel gave out they had had to resort to sails. That was
the trouble. No boat would ever be able to carry enough fuel to make

the trip. Such was the Doctor’s opinion in 1835.

Three years later, opening his paper filled with accounts of the com¬
ing Coronation Ceremony of his Queen Victoria, the skeptical Doctor
was to discover that the impossible had been accomplished. Not one, but
two ships propelled by steam had crossed the Atlantic Ocean.
It had marked the finish of an exciting race between two rival
steamship companies, each eager to win the honor of crossing first. One,
headed by an American living in London, had been building the British
Queen , while an English Railway Company had been working at top
speed on their first ship which was to be christened the Great Western.
On April 7, 1838, with the British Queen still unfinished, the Great
1 76
Western left Liverpool, and steaming along at eight and a half knots per
hour reached New York City on the fifteenth day. The proud captain,
sure that their arrival would be the signal for a great celebration, found
to his amazement the celebration already in progress. What ship could
possibly have beaten him, and how and why?
It was the Sirius, just a little coasting steamer, which the owners of
the British Queen had chartered in a last desperate moment. Filling every
inch of available space with coal, they had sent it out from Cork, four
days after the Great Western left Liverpool. Chugging steadily along, the
little craft had steamed into New Y)rk harbor on April 22, just six hours
ahead of the Great Western.
So technically the Sirius had won, but not actually. The coal had
given out and, in order to complete the stunt, mast, spars, furniture from
the cabins, everything that would burn, had to be thrown into the boiler.

The Great Western , however, had five days’ supply of coal left, and be¬
sides had carried a real cargo. So she was the ship that actually opened
the era of transatlantic steamship service.
fifteen days from Europe to America! The average speed by sail
was a few days over a month. Measured
177 by traveling hours, the width,
then, of the Atlantic Ocean had been divided by two, and the people of
the Old World and the New brought that much closer together.
JusAtlit le les than a year before thes first steamships cros ed the
BEHIND JAPAN’S CLOSED DOOR

Atlantic, out on the Pacific an American sailing ship, the Morrison ,

attempted to enter a harbor of Japan. At sight of it, a hundred

samurai, or warriors, rushed to the water’s edge, scowling furiously,

raised their old-fashioned muskets and began firing at it. The crew tried
to get word to them that the ship was unarmed and that they were only
bringing home seven shipwrecked Japanese sailors picked up on the
Aleutian Islands and the Philippines. No matter. The ship was not
allowed to land.

Japan’s door to the outside world was still closed and bolted in
1837, as it had been for over two hundred years. Japanese knew nothing
of the outside world and did not care to. Nor did they intend bar¬
barians to enter and pollute the sacred land of the gods. The samurai,
guarding the harbor, were but discharging their duty to the Emperor, or
rather to the Shogun, military overlord and real ruler of Japan.
These particular samurai were members of the Hikone clan. So, too.
was naosuke 11 who, sixteen years later, when another American ship

178
should enter that same harbor, would dare to defy his narrow-minde
d
countrymen and unbolt the closed door of Japan.
Naosuke would then be Baron Ii, fourteenth Lord of Hikone Castle,
head of the clan, and Prime Minister of Japan, holding power
second
only to the Shogun. But now Naosuke, poor fellow, had slim hope for
the future. A younger son, he was living alone in the country. Often at
night, when he unrolled his sleeping pad and gave a last look at the
moon shining on his lonely house, he felt that he was being "buried
alive” and, like a piece of buried wood, might turn to stone.
His only consolation was that he was obeying the will of his honor¬
able ancestor, the first Lord Ii, who had decreed that any descendant of
his not first-born or adopted should be brought up in a most humble
manner, believing as he did that hardships make a man grow strong. So
it was with Naosuke.

Though the future looked dark, he determined to prepare himself

so thoroughly that if the opportunity ever came to him, he might serve
his country in a manner worthy of his honorable ancestor.
Constantly he studied literature and swordsmanship, and especially
the art of dealing with an enemy in sitting position. He allowed himself

only four hours’ sleep a day, in order that by untiring practice he might
enter the "serene state of perfect mastery.”
"Nothing is more abominable to me,” he said, "than to give up what
I have set my hand to before it is fully accomplished.” So for nine years
he kept at his studies and with no change in his fortune.
Then in the spring came a sudden and unexpected summons to
^edo, the capital. His elder brother had died, and he, Naosuke, was heir
to the title. He was to become the Baron Ii, Lord of Hikone!
Almost overwhelmed at the remarkable change in his fortune, he

set out for 'Yedo, attended now by a large following of retainers. Seated
in his palanquin, he drew the curtains, and "secretly,” he said, "shed
tears of gratitude.” His chance to serve
179 had come at last.
In \£do Naosuke began at once to school himself in government
affairs. The most agitating problem of the day, he found, was in regard
 became each year more annoying and persistent.
to foreigners who
one knows,” wrote
'‘How this foreign question will terminate no
believed that foreign
Naosuke in his journal. "Though it is commonly
r season, we cannot
vessels will not come to our shores during the winte
newly invented fire boat
be sure of this; because there is a rumor that a
only knows what mighty
is shortly coming to pay us a visit. Heaven
e great sighs.
calamity may befall our Empire. I can but heav

Victoria was having such a glorious time being Que n, doing

as she pleased, seeing people alone , and even sleeping alone
in a room without her mother, that she had almost forgotten
about Albert. At least, in 1839, she wanted to put off marrying

him for a while, even though it was dear Uncle Leopold’s wish. Albert
180
and Ernest were coming to London on a second visit, and she wasn’t sure
that her feelings towards Albert might be "any more than that of a
cousin .”
Three years had passed since the German cousins had made their
Erst visit to London. Then Victoria had found them all that Grossmutter

had pictured them — especially Albert!

"Albert is extremely handsome,” she had written Uncle Leopold)
"and possesses every quality that could be desired to render me per¬
fectly happy!” And so she felt again when she saw him that autumn
of 1839.

On his third day there, with a little flutter in her heart, she proposed
to him and he accepted. It was her place as Queen to speak first and
his duty to accept. He had long prepared himself to do so, though the
thought of leaving home for a strange land where, as a foreign prince,
he would not be too welcome, filled him with melancholy.

"My future lot is high and brilliant,” he wrote a friend, "but also
plentifully strewn with thorns.”
They were married on the tenth of February, 1840, and left London
after the ceremony for a three-day honeymoon at Windsor Castle. From
there the bride wrote her uncle a letter bubbling with joy.

"Windsor Castle, nth February 1840

"My Dearest Uncle —
"I write you from here, the happiest, happiest Being that ever
existed. Really I do not think it possible for any one in the world to be
happier , or AS happy as I am. Albert is an angel , and his kindness and
affection for me is really touching. To look in those dear eyes, and that
dear sunny face, is enough to make me adore him. What I can do to
make him happy will be my greatest delight. . . .

"My love to dear Louise.

"Ever your affectionate,

181
 Mary Todd became engaged to Abraham Lincoln the year Victoria
was married. Mary Todd had always told the girls at school back home
in Lexington, Kentucky, that the man she was going to marry would
become President of the United States. Mary was the smartest, wittiest,
most high-spirited girl in school, the daughter of Robert Todd, Presi¬
dent of the First National Bank. She was a fiery little trick, with a saucy
tongue and a violent temper.
One day in 1840 after a tiff with her stepmother, she flounced up¬
stairs, packed her trunk, and announced that she was going to visit her
sister, Mrs. Ninian Edwards, in Springfield, Illinois.
One of the first men she saw there was Abraham Lincoln, the young
law partner of her cousin, Major Stuart. It was at a cotillion. She was
dancing with Stephen A. Douglas, who, by the way, was not much taller
than she was herself, when she spied with her bright eyes a tall fellow
with his necktie just a shade askew, standing near the refreshment table,
evidently telling a group of men some highly amusing story.
Mary Todd and Abe Lincoln danced the next waltz together. They
talked about French and Geometry, or rather she did the talking, while
he admired her cleverness, and tried to keep his big feet out of the way
of her little slippers. She made fun of him afterward.
182
 When Mr. Lincoln asked me to dance with him,” she told her

sister, "he said, 'Miss Todd, I’d like to dance with you the worst way,’
and — ” she added, "he did!”
Six months later, Miss Mary Todd, giving no heed to her brother-

in-law’s opinion that he was not socially eligible as a husband, became

engaged to marry Abraham Lincoln. She wrote the girls in Lexington
about her engagement to the awkward fellow, but she said,
"I mean to make him President of the United States. You will see
that as I always told you, I will yet be the President’s wife.”
Springfield was expecting to hear of the wedding, when rumor had
it that Lincoln had taken out no license. Then it was learned in January
that the engagement was broken off. Many conflicting reasons were cir¬
culated by neighbors who, of course, could only guess at the facts.
Whatever the cause, Lincoln was plunged by it into the blackest

despondency, despair, regret and self-reproach. All New Year’s night he

wandered about like a man bereft of his reason, while his friends searched
for him, fearing that he might kill himself. Too upset to even take his
seat at the sessions of the legislature, he finally sought rest and peace at
the home of a friend in Kentucky.
Early the next autumn he was back in Springfield working feverishly
— working to forget his trouble, people said. As the months wore on
through winter, spring and the following summer, they wondered, as
people will, if he ever saw Mary Todd. In November, 1842, they learned
the answer. The Springfield Journal carried this announcement:

"married. In this city on the 4th instant, at the residence of N. W.

Edwards Esq., abraham Lincoln Esq.; to Miss mary todd, daughter

of Robert Todd Esq., of Lexington, Ky.”

It had not been a happy wedding. There was just a handful of
guests. The night was stormy. The rain came streaming down the win¬
dows as Mary Todd looked up at the 183 future President of the United

States and he slipped on her small plump finger a ring in which were
engraved the words: Love is eternal.
 AUTHORS & VISITORS

anuary 22, 1 842, the year that Abraham Lincoln was married,

Charles Dickens, Esq., the famous young English author "and his
lady” arrived in Boston on the steamship Britannia, for a six months’
y v sit in America. It was Dickens’ first visit, and his first trip on a
steamship. Neither ended as happily as it had begun. He had gone
aboard in Liverpool in the highest of spirits, but the third morning out

he was awakened, he said, 'out of my sleep by a dismal shriek from my

wife. Then I began to comprehend that the stateroom is standing on its

head . . . the ship rights . . . before one can say 'Thank Heaven!’ she
wrongs again . . . she takes a high leap into the air . . . she throws a
somerset. And so she goes on staggering, heaving, wrestling, leaping,

diving, jumping, pitching, throbbing, rolling and rocking.’’ It was appal¬

ling and horrible. Words could not express it.
184
Words almost failed to express also the wildly enthusiastic reception
that America gave the author of the popular Pickwick Papers when to
his infinite relief he was able to set foot on land again.
 "There never was a King or Emperor upon earth so cheered and
followed by crowds,” he wrote to a friend at home, "and entertained at
splendid balls and dinners. If I go out in a carriage, the crowd surrounds
it and escorts me home; if I go to the theatre, the whole house (crowded
to the roof) rises as one man and the timbers ring again. I have five
public dinners on hand at this very moment, and invitations from every
town and village and city in the United States.”
Perhaps if he had stayed in Boston or New Y>rk where he seemed
to enjoy himself the visitor might have kept his happy outlook on
America. But after he had visited all the prisons and asylums, taken a trip
on a crowded river steamer, and bumped over rough corduroy roads to
the frontier city of St. Louis, he was so peevish and nervous, so sick and

tired and "fed up” with America, that all he could see were men chewing
and spitting great "gobs” of tobacco. All he could think of was getting
"home, — home, — home, — Home, — home !!!”
At home again, he dashed off a book called American Notes which

made such distasteful reading to his former hosts, that "All Yankee-
doodle-dum,” to quote Thomas Carlyle, "blazed up like one universal
soda bottle.” But the book sold well, and so perhaps achieved the pur¬
pose of its author. Before leaving England, in writing Pickwick Papers ,

he had had old Mr. Weller suggest sending Mr. Pickwick to "Merriker”
and then having him "come back and write a book about the ’Merrikins
as’ll pay all his expenses and more, if he blows ’em up enough.”
Emerson was one American too wise to take it seriously. On No¬
vember 25, that wisest and most gentle of men was writing in his Journal

of having read Dickens’ book the day before. "It answers its end very
well,” he wrote, "which was plainly to make a readable book, nothing
more. Truth is not Dickens’ object for a single instant.”
Mr. Emerson was seated that morning as usual among his books in
the quiet village of Concord, Massachusetts. On his desk, beyond the
open notebook stood a bowl of russet
1
apples. Outside the snow was
85
falling. He watched the soft flakes filling in the fresh footprints made by
young Thoreau, who had just tramped off towards the river. He was
wondering also how his friend Mr. Alcott was succeeding in England.
Mr. Emerson was fond of Mr. Alcott. He had given six lectures in

New York that spring to make his friend’s trip possible. He was also to
help with the purchase of a home for the Alcott family, about a third of a
mile away down the Boston Post Road. It was the one which Louisa May
was later to describe as the home of Little Women.
Louisa May, or Jo, a wild high-spirited little tomboy, was ten years
old in 1842. She adored Mr. Emerson. By the time she had reached
the romantic age of fifteen she had taken him for her hero.
"I wrote him letters,” she said, "but never sent them, left wild
flowers on his doorstep, sat in a tall cherry tree at midnight singing to the
moon till the owls scared me to bed.”
It was in 1847 that Mr. Emerson was invited to lecture in
England, and sailed for Liverpool on the Washington Irving. He enjoyed
his visit, understood and liked the people, and won all he met by his

gentle charm, despite what he called his "porcupine manners.” Thomas

Carlyle, then the most celebrated writer in England, showed him about
London, where he met Dickens, Thackeray and Disraeli. George
Stephenson, inventor of the locomotive, invited him to dinner, and
Emerson thought the old Scotsman the most remarkable man he had seen
in England. He went to visit Wordsworth, and found the poet, who was
then eighty years old, just waking up from a nap, and not very hospitable
at first. Tennyson, who was soon to succeed Wordsworth as Poet Laure¬
ate, reminded Emerson of his friend in Concord, Nathaniel Hawthorne.

"Take away Hawthorne’s bashfulness,” he said, "and let him talk

easily and fast and you would have a pretty good Tennyson.”
All in all it was a most interesting, successful and friendly visit
Nevertheless "I shall bring home,” he wrote Mrs. Emerson, "a con¬
tentedness with home, I think for the rest of my days.”
Returning to America in July, 1848, he began a series of lectures on
his experiences in England, and wrote a most interesting and under¬
standing book about the English people entitled English Traits ,

186

0
 TELEGRAPH AND PHOTOGRAPH

H H

W U H

That is the first message ever sent by the electric telegraph.

It went in dots and dashes over the first telegraph wires in the world,
18
from Washington to Baltimore, on the7 morning of May 24, 1844. Four
years before, the first photograph of a human face had been made. Al-
most simultaneously they were perfected, those two inventions upon
which the world today depends so much for news and information—

the tele- and the photo- graph, Greek words, meaning "far-off writing"
and "writing by light.”
Samuel Finley Breese Morse is known as the inventor of the tele¬
graph and the credit for the invention of the photograph, or daguerreo¬
type as it was then called, is given to the Frenchman daguerre.
Samuel Morse visited M. Daguerre in Paris in 1839, and so saw the
Frenchman’s invention the year it was perfected. In turn, Morse showed
Daguerre his newly completed telegraph, for which he had come to
Europe to try to secure foreign patents.
A portrait painter by profession, Samuel Morse was thrilled by the
exquisite detail shown in the daguerreotypes, and was delighted to take
one home with him to America. It was the first photograph ever seen in
the United States.
Every scientific invention is the result of many that have gone before.
Daguerre carried on from where Niepce, another Frenchman, left off.
They had agreed to share any profits if successful, and though Niepce
had died, Daguerre arranged that his widow should share the pension
which the French government under Louis Philippe were to pay him for
his secret process. As soon as these arrangements were complete, he was
charmed to send his formulas to Professor Samuel Morse, at New York
University, and did so.

Mr. Morse at once fixed up a "palace for the sun” and began ex¬
perimenting with the fascinating new art. A professor, Draper, also tried
his hand and while Daguerre himself had taken only landscapes, Draper
succeeded in making the first successful portrait.

"Though,” remarked Samuel Morse, "whether he or myself took the

first portrait successfully, I cannot say.”
It is hard for some people to share credit. For almost anyone it is
difficult to tell just how an idea originates. It was on shipboard coming
back from Europe in 1832 that the idea of the electric telegraph occurred
to Morse. He had been talking with a certain Dr. J. from Boston about
188
the recent investigations in electricity, and the possibilities for its use.
Thrilled with his telegraph idea, Samuel Morse had gone to work
at once to make it practicable, working on it for years, scratching along
to get money to buy the parts, and struggling to get Congress to pay for
the telegraph line. Then with success in sight, he learned to his dismay
that Dr. J. was claiming the credit for the invention, because he said it
was he who had given Morse the idea. Possibly he had. Many people
have ideas who do not or cannot work them out. The true scientist

usually does not care to. His interest lies in discovering the great prin¬
ciples and laws that govern the universe — not in putting them to prac¬
tical use. Such a man was Joseph Henry, whose improvements on the
electromagnet had made the telegraph possible. This is his answer to a
letter from Morse:

"Dear Mr. Morse:

"The idea of transmitting intelligence to a distance by means of elec¬

trical action has been suggested by various persons from the time of Ben-
jamin Franklin to the present. The mere suggestion, however, is a matter
for which little credit can be claimed, but the bringing it forward, and
carrying it into operation are grounds of a just claim to scientific reputa¬
tion. About the same time with yours Professor Wheatstone of London
and Dr. Steinheil of Germany proposed plans of the electro-magnetic
telegraph but I should prefer the one invented by yourself.

"With my best wishes for your success, I remain, with much esteem
yours truly, - .

JOSEPH HENRY.”

On the day that Congress had finally passed the appropriation to

construct that first telegraph line to Baltimore, the good news was
brought to Morse by a young lady. It was her mother who suggested the
1
8
first message to be sent. She opened her 9Bible and chose the twenty-third
verse of the twenty-third chapter of Numbers and read the words:
What hath god wrought!
 ON TO THE WEST

nd now what was spoken of elegantly as its "manifest destiny”

was about to be fulfilled by the United States. In other words,
the nation was about to annex all the territory west to the
^Pacific Ocean, Texas, Oregon and California. Texas came first.
In 1845, after eight years of argument, Texas, a territory five times the
size of England, was made part of the United States.
As a result, Mexico, which had never recog¬
nized even the independence of Texas, recalled her
minister from Washington and war clouds began to
gather. As another result, James K. Polk, a minor
politician who had favored the annexation, was
1845 therefore elected President. Soon he was heard to

say, confidentially, that he also wanted to see Cali¬

fornia acquired. And California belonged to Mex¬
ico! So it appeared very likely that war with Mexico
might come.
Oregon was acquired peaceably in 1846 by a
treaty with England, although excitement over the
settlement became so keen that for a time it looked
1846 like a clash instead of a compromise. Old John
Jacob Astor, whose fort on the Columbia River had
given the United States one early claim to the coun¬
try, had barely lived to see his prophecy come true.
After the War of 1812, when the peace commis'
sioners claimed that nobody would be interested in
far-off Oregon for at least two hundred years, he had

j $4.3 shaken his head.

100
 "If ve lif,” he had said, "ve should see drubble over it in less than
forty years.” And here it was!
Oregon, held jointly since that time, now had to be divided. All
of the country might possibly have been annexed to Canada, had there
not been so many sealers from the United States. And that they were
there was due largely to the enthusiasm, energy and courage of our
friend Dr. Marcus Whitman.
In the autumn of 1842, leaving Narcissa at the mission, energetic
Di. Whitman set out for the east on horseback and alone. After five
months battling winter storms, starvation and all manner of hardships,
he had completed the four thousand miles to Washington, D. C. On his
return the following year, two hundred families in their covered wagons
went rumbling after him over the Oregon trail. Other hundreds fol¬
lowed, and enthusiasm for the beautiful western country grew so great
that soon the greedy were heard claiming all of Oregon as far north as
the Russian territory, Alaska, or the parallel 540 40'.
"Fifty-four forty or fight,” became their foolish cry. England, on
the other hand, wanted the Columbia River Valley. The 49th parallel
was agreed upon as a sensible compromise, and became the dividing line.
Dispute over the northern boundary line of Maine had also been
settled peaceably with England a few years before by Daniel Webster,
acting for the United States. So the long northern boundary was com¬
plete from Maine to Oregon, from the Atlantic to the Pacific.
★ ★ ★ ★ ★
Added interest in Oregon and the Far West was aroused by the

report of "an exploring expedition to oregon and north Cali¬

fornia,” undertaken by a young army engineer by the name of John
Charles Fremont. The guide for the expedition had been Kit Carson,
whom the young captain had happened to meet on a Missouri River
steamboat. Two more dissimilar men could scarcely have been found

than rash, impulsive Fremont with his sensitive French face, and sandy-
haired Kit Carson, slow-going and cautious.
 Though unable to write his name, Carson could speak Spanish and
the Indian languages, so Fremont hired him at once.
The expedition took them not only to Oregon and California, but

on the way back across what was then called the "Great American
Desert,” now the states of Kansas, Nebraska, Oklahoma, Utah and Colo¬
rado, but then supposed to be unfit for habitation. Fremont reported to

the contrary, saying that east of Salt Lake he had seen "good soil and
good grass adapted to civilization.”

"Adapted to civilization” — Those words were responsible for the

first settlement in that unknown American Desert, and for making the

Valley at Salt Lake "blossom like the rose.” For it happened that back in
the Mormon tabernacle in Nauvoo, Illinois, those words written by
Fremont were read by Brigham Young, leader of the Latter Day Saints
of Jesus Christ, who were about to be driven out of Illinois.

"That’s where we will go,” he said to one of his twelve apostles,

"to the desert in Utah near Salt Lake. That’s in Mexico. We will be safe.”
"But why choose a desert?” queried the other man.
"Because nobody else will want it,” answered Brigham Young. "We
will be left alone. We drained a swamp to make this city of Nauvoo; we

can irrigate the desert.” He sat with the palms of his strong hands planted
on his widespread knees, already planning the great migration. Like
Moses he would lead his people of Israel to the Promised Land and
found a new Jerusalem, a more beautiful city of Zion!

192
 The terrified Mormons had a strong leader in Brigham Young, who
had taken command after their founder, Joseph Smith, was murdered.

Joseph Smith was a man who "saw visions” and could make other
people believe in them. His first vision was of golden plates bearing
strange inscriptions from which he made the Mormon gospel. Neighbors
who didn’t believe in visions chased him out of New \brk State, but
Joseph Smith gained many followers. In Ohio he had a vision of a bank
by which his Mormon colony there might grow rich enough to build a
tabernacle. The bank failed and the saints were driven from Ohio. In far
west Missouri they settled again, and spoke confidently of the time when
all Missouri would be part of Zion. So the citizens of Missouri rose in
wrath, attacked their village, burned their homes, and sent them fleeing
east across the state . . . east across the Mississippi into Illinois. There
they found sanctuary for a time.
The Illinois legislature, shocked at the persecution carried on by
their sister state, gave the Mormons a site about one hundred miles north
of Springfield, where they built the city of Nauvoo. All went well, until
Joseph Smith had another vision. In this vision he saw himself like
Solomon, a man intended to have many wives. That vision put into prac¬
tice was just too much for the people of Illinois.

"Get out!” they told the Mormons. "Get out of this state at once!”
and a mob of them killed Joseph Smith.
That was where matters stood when Brigham Young made up his
mind to go to Utah and, having decided, sent word to the Mormons far
and near to gather at Nauvoo and prepare to leave. Nights and days
they worked, building wagons, filling barrels with food, making warm
clothes, packing their belongings.
It was mid-winter when the first group started. After kneeling in
the snow in prayer, they crossed the frozen Mississippi and, in a caravan
two miles long, went creaking slowly westward into Iowa.
The plan was when spring came to plant crops that those who fol¬
lowed might have food, but the desperate, frightened people left behind
in Nauvoo dared not wait for spring. They came trailing along by thou-
sands, until the line of wagons, cattle, people and sheep stretched all the
way across the state of Iowa. By the time he had reached the Missouri
River Brigham Young had not 5000, but 20,000 people to look after. He
set them all to work and they built a settlement that was the wonder of

the countryside, but it was only a winter’s stopping place.

In the spring, with about one hundred and fifty men, Brigham
Young went on ahead to find the way to his promised land outside of
the United States. In the foothills of the Rockies they met a scout.

"Crickets and sand and salt — ain’t nothing else in that desert you’re
headed for,” he told them, "less’n it’s horned toads.”
Discouraging words, those, to men who had come a thousand miles,
but not discouraging to Brigham Young. He had faith in God and the
courage of his convictions, and that is enough for any man.
He marched ahead and one day in July, 1847, looked down a sheet
of silver lying in a valley encircled by a ring of snow-capped mountains —
a perfect place! Perfect it was then, but within the year Utah, instead of
belonging to Mexico, would be part of the United States!

x9
War with Mexico was in the air, but4 had not yet been declared when
Fremont, accompanied again by Kit Carson, started west on his next
exploring trip, if exploring trip it could be called. Sixty-four men, all
well armed, made it look more like a military expedition than a party
bent on making maps. So it seemed, certainly to the Mexican general at
Monterey, when that party of Americans marched into California.
Monterey, a sleepy Spanish village of two or three streets lined

with low adobe houses, was California’s principal town in 1845. Its only
rival was Los Angeles, two hundred miles nearer Mexico and seat of
the feeble Mexican government, whose control over California was very
weak. San Francisco was merely a few wooden shacks and shanties be¬

longing mostly to "Yrnqui” traders, and huddled along the edge of the
beautiful harbor, which Fremont at first sight named the "Golden Gate.”
Some miles inland from San Francisco up the Sacramento River was
a fort, owned by a Swiss, a former officer under Napoleon, Captain
Johann August Sutter. Within the thick adobe walls of his fort, the sturdy
captain lived with all the independent power of a pirate king.

Upon reaching California, Fremont went at once to Sutter’s fort.

He was welcomed hospitably by the genial host, but warned that the
Mexican authorities were very doubtful about the purpose of the Amer¬
ican expedition being purely scientific. Fremont, hastening to Monterey,
assured the Mexican general that he was engaged in geographical survey
purely and only wished permission to proceed to Oregon.
Permission was granted, but the Mexican raised a skeptical eyebrow
as he did so, and when later he saw Fremont marching south instead of
north, he sent sharp orders to him to leave the country, and at once!
Fremont refused, built a log fort on a hill, and rashly ran an American
flag to the top of a sapling. The Mexican general marshaled his men,
marched halfway towards that flag, then faced about and marched away
again. In three or four days Fremont also had a change of heart, and
leisurely marched out of California — but not too far out, just across the
border. Encamped there, he was waiting for months, waiting, of course,
for news from Washington as to whether war with Mexico had been de¬
clared or not. Though he did little19but
5 wait, his presence seemed to
encourage the energetic American settlers who, unlike the languorous
Spanish, wanted to see California free from Mexico.
 On June 14, 1846, a small force of these Americans attacked and
captured a shabby little old military post called Sonoma, north of San
Francisco. The next day they declared California independent, and ran
up a dag improvised out of an old red-bordered petticoat. On it, painted
in lampblack and pokeberry juice, was a grizzly bear eyeing a single star,
and the words "Republic of California."
Fremont, fed up with waiting, which did not suit his rash, impulsive
nature, threw caution to the winds, joined the revolution and, though

Sutter protested at first, took command of Sutter’s fort and organized the
California Battalion of Mounted Riflemen. And still he did not know
whether war had been declared or not.
A United States ship, meanwhile, had sailed into the harbor down
at Monterey, under the command of a commodore so cautious that, even
though he knew positively that war had been declared, hesitated to do
more than gaze across the water at the adobe walls and red-tiled roofs
of the village. Made more bold at word of the operations of Captain
Fremont, he finally ventured ashore and, on July 7, 1846, raised the Stars
and Stripes above the custom house and had the Proclamation of Occu¬
pation read aloud in Spanish and English. So there, beside the bay where
Portola had planted the Spanish flag and Fra Junipero Serra had founded
his mission, northern California, almost like a ripe fruit dropping from
the stem, fell into the lap of the United States.
From Monterey, the Americans went south by sea to San Diego.
The Mexican forces were rallying in the south, but Fremont and his men
saw no sign of them as they marched northward to Los Angeles. When
they entered the little town behind a small brass band, Fremont said it

was more "like a parade of home guards than an enemy taking possession
of a conquered town.”
In September, Kit Carson set out to carry the good news of the
capture of California overland to Washington, D. C. On the way he met
General Kearny coming out to assume command in California, as his
assignment in the war, for it was now four months since the politicians
had trumped up sufficient reason to declare war on Mexico.

196
 ''TO THE HALLS OF MONTEZUMA’’

The story of the Mexican War must now be told. It is not a

source of pride, but interesting because of the people who took
part in it. There was General Zachary Taylor, sixty years old,
known as ''Old Rough and Ready,” who was to become the next
President of the United States. A warm-hearted, uneducated, hard¬
hitting old soldier, he was as unpolished as his muddy boots.
His exact opposite in every way, except that they were both good

leaders, was General Winfield Scott, also sixty, known as "Old Fuss and
Feathers,” who brought the war to a close by prancing through Mexico
City on a white charger and resplendent in his best gold braid.
Robert E. Lee, now thirty-one, a captain and engineer, served under
General Scott and was constantly given special mention by him for cour¬
age and valuable service, in reports to Washington.
No special mention was made of Ulysses Grant, lieutenant, but he
was there, too, plodding along in charge of the dusty mules and supplies
in the quartermaster’s division, doing his duty, taking part in the battles
but hating the whole business of war, especially this one.
A third young officer was a man 19with a keen mind, cold and narrow
7
as a knife. His name was Jefferson Davis, and he was later to be elected
president of a short-lived nation, whose flag would be the sixth one to
fly over Texas. Davis, who was thoroughly in favor of the war, was, like
Lee, about the age of Abraham Lincoln.
Abraham Lincoln had been elected to Congress as Whig repre¬
sentative from Illinois just after the war had been declared. He kept his
opinion on it to himself, as long as harm could be done by expressing it,

but when the war was over he condemned it as one of aggression "com¬
menced by the President, unconstitutionally and unnecessarily.”
Unnecessarily, because, aside from recalling the minister, after the
annexation of* Texas, Mexico had made no further move towards declar¬
ing war, so it is very probable that there would have been no war if the

President’s party had wished to avoid it, and if Texas had been all they
wanted. They had more in mind.
All that was spoken of aloud at this time, however, was a compara¬
tively small strip of land lying between the Nueces River and the Rio
Grande, which they claimed as part of Texas, but which had never at any
time been considered by Mexico as belonging to that state.
Therefore, with the idea of irritating Mexico into making a hostile
move that could be seized upon as an excuse for declaring war, General
Zachary Taylor was sent to the Nueces River with orders to cross into
the disputed territory. Mexico, busy at home with one of its frequent
revolutions, still made no move. So Taylor was ordered to go further on
to the Rio Grande. He did so and there, at last, the Mexicans came over
and killed some of a scouting party.

"Ah!” said President Polk. "They have invaded our territory and
shed American blood on American soil.”
So, with that as a reason, war was declared on Mexico!
It started off brightly, with several victories won by General Zachary
Taylor, there in the region of the Rio Grande. Then plans were changed
in Washington. General Taylor received orders to send two-thirds of his
men to Vera Cruz to join in a campaign against Mexico City under Gen¬
eral Winfield Scott.

From an American messenger who was captured, Santa Anna

learned of the new plans, and made plans of his own to block them.

198
He would defeat the small force left behind with General Taylor and
then dash towards Vera Cruz in time to block General Scott’s march to
Mexico City. Taylor defeated him badly, but Santa Anna lost no time.
He faced about, and gathering more soldiers as he went, reached a place
called Cerro Gorde ahead of General Scott. That was where the road to

Mexico City left the sweltering damp sea land of Vera Cruz and entered
the foothills of the mountains. Posting guns halfway up the rocks on
either side of the road, Santa Anna lay in wait for the enemy.
It was night when the Americans arrived. While most of them kept

up a little firing to distract the Mexicans’ attention, others under Captain

Lee left the narrow road, clambered up the steep rocks by clinging to
roots and branches. Then, with ropes, they dragged up a cannon to a
ledge from which they could fire down upon the Mexican camp.
Santa Anna managed to escape and, with 7,000 men, hastened up
the winding mountain road to Mexico City, and the Americans followed.
Up the steep road they climbed, winding up into the mountains, until
they reached a ridge 11,000 feet above the sea. From there they could
look down upon the ancient city and its lake, lying in the green elliptical
valley. Just so, from that ridge Cortez, conqueror of the ancient Aztecs,

must have looked down upon the "Halls of Montezuma.”

All roads leading on from there were heavily guarded. Major Lee
reconnoitered, and with his engineers built a road across an almost im¬
passable field of lava, over which the soldiers reached the city walls
and forced their entrance. Santa Anna fled, saving his precious person,
leaving the city to its fate. September 17, 1847, General Scott and his
army entered Mexico City and the war was over.
Early in 1848 the peace treaty was signed. Mexico received
$15,000,000. But the United States gained all territory north of the Rio
Grande, Texas and all of California — more than half of the Mexican
Republic. For that loss of territory, Mexico could thank Santa Anna. With
more regard for law in dealing with19Texas9 in the early days, he might

have saved it all. And yet, who knows? Perhaps it was the "manifest
destiny” of the United States thus to reach the Pacific!
 gold!

Gi o-a-l-d,” g-o-l-d, no mat er how you spel it, the "met le'’ was
Gold! Gold!! and it was discovered in January, 1848, behind
the new sawmill being built by Captain Sutter some miles
^ from his fort in California. It took a little time for the news to
spread, but when it did, it started the craziest, wildest scrambling rush
for the West that the United States had ever known.
This first mention of the discovery was written by one of the laborers
at the mill. That afternoon the water was turned off in the tailrace, and
one of the men walking in the loose gravel spied some bright bits, about
as large as grains of wheat that looked to him like gold. Dropping a few
in his slouch hat, he took them to the kitchen stove, found they wouldn’t
melt, but were soft enough to pound, and said he believed he had dis¬
covered gold! Some of the men laughed, but Marshall (that was his
name) took his samples and rode off to Sutter’s fort. Sutter looked up
Gold in his encyclopedia, weighed the nuggets, tested them with sul¬
phuric acid, and declared that they must be Gold!
"gold! Gold! gold!” read the headlines in the little San Francisco
newspaper. Californians dropped their work, bought pickaxes and pans,
and set out for the diggin s. gold! Gold! gold! the magnetic words
sped east across the continent. Farmers, carpenters, shopkeepers,
clerks
started for California across the plains, around the Horn, over
the
isthmus, anyway to get there. The gold rush to California was on!
200
 The "49 ers” were on their way! Then, only
two years later another gold rush was on! gold
was discovered in Australia.

Since 1788, England had been trying to es¬

tablish a thriving colony on that continent but it
was far from home, and after sixty years, not

more than 50,000 Europeans were living there.

But then gold was discovered! And like a magnet, in a single year
no need
it drew over 200,000 people to Australia. After that, there was
for England to worry over the future of her colony in the South Pacific.

Canada was stil a troublesome of spring, in 1849, a mob of irate

¬
Canadians had set on fire and burned to the ground the gov
capital
ernment buildings in Montreal. That city was then the
Canada, formed when the two provinces, Upper and
i of United
Lower, had been united eight years before.
had failed to
The first three governors sent out to United Canada
supposed to be, so
be guided by the wishes of the assembly as they were
the people had been greatly disappointed.
ld the vote of the
Then in 1847, came Lord Elgin, who did upho
n eggs at him and
assembly. And for that, a mob threw stones and rotte
then burned the Houses of the Parliament.
201
 That was not so much, however, because Lord Elgin had upheld the
law, as because of the law itself, which was condemned by the furious

people as one "to reward rebels for rebelling.” For the Bill, put through
by the Ultra-Liberal leaders, was one to reimburse those among them who
who had suffered losses at the time of the rebellion in 1837. Those who
now formed the jeering, hooting mob were some of the conservative peo¬
ple who had formerly condemned the rebels for resorting to violence.
At home, in the English Parliament, when the Canadian question

was debated, Lord Elgin’s stand was upheld. Thus government respon¬
sible for its actions to the vote of the people was established in Canada.
John A. Macdonald had by then become a member of the Canadian
Parliament, and so was in Montreal at the time of the riot, but though he
was a Conservative, he took no part in the rioting, whatever he may have
thought of the bill passed by the Ultra-Liberals.
On the other hand, neither did he take his stand with those Ultra-
Conservatives, who were so disgusted by the rioting and general disorder
that they were ready and willing to have Canada annexed to the United
States. While the ashes were still smoking, they brought him their
Annexation Manifesto, but he refused to sign it.

"I firmly believe,” he said, "that the prosperity of Canada depends

upon its permanent connection with the mother country and I shall resist
to the utmost any attempt which may tend to weaken that Union!”
Instead, he took steps to make the connection stronger, and also to
promote a feeling of unity in Canada. This was not easy, for the Cana
dians were divided in so many different ways. The French against the
English, the Protestants against the Catholics, the Ultra-Liberals from the
Ultra-Conservatives, and each party in Upper Canada from the same
party in Lower Canada.
But between the two extremes stood the moderates of each party,
and these, with infinite tact and resourcefulness, J. A. Macdonald man¬
aged in 1854 to unite into the Liberal-Conservative party, of which he
was to be the head during the rest of his life, and which for those forty
more years would form the history of Canada.

202
 CORN AND POTATOES (Continued )

Shortlybefore the Gold Rush to California began, and Lord

Elgin went to Canada, thousands of Irish people came to find new
i homes in America, because of a grievous disaster that befell poor
Ireland. A Potato Famine! The previous summer the entire crop
failed. Ireland’s main food. Winter came. Starvation set in. All who had
or could borrow passage money sailed for America. Those left behind
died by tens of thousands in their small thatched huts.
The United States and other countries shipped in gifts of food, but
they were a mere fraction of what was needed.
The only way to save the people was to let in a great quantity of
food from the food-producing countries. And the only way to do that
was to get rid of the import tax. The English government finally realized
it. Faced with the absolute necessity of doing so, Parliament repealed at
last the long-cherished corn laws, and Ireland was saved.
Not only that. By reducing the price of food, England was spared
an uprising of her own hungry working people which, the government
learned with alarm, was being stirred up by their leaders in 1848.
"The Chartists” were drawing up another petition, it was said, to
ask for the vote. There was to be a great mass meeting held in Kensing¬
ton Commons, which it was feared might give rise to riots and bloodshed.
called
To quell any such possible disturbance, 70,000 special police were
out, and the old Duke of Wellington put in charge of the city of London.
But no disturbance arose. The movement for reform died quietly away,

largely because the most-needed reform had been already made and
203
the working people were no longer hungry.
England, therefore, had no violent revolution in that year 1848,
when revolution spread all over Europe.
 THE YEAR I 848

That year 1848 was to go down in history as the great year of

revolution. Never before had Europe seen such a wholesale
uprising in the cause of liberty. It brought about the most as¬
tounding event since the defeat of Napoleon — the downfall of
Metternich. Downfall of that Austrian who, more than thirty years be¬
fore, had united the Kings of Europe into a Holy Alliance to crush the
liberty of the people. All those thirty years, people had dreamed of, but
almost despaired of seeing, the day when his power would be broken.
Now the day came.
In 1848 revolution broke out, not in Austria alone but all over
Europe, everywhere from east to west, from the Baltic Sea to the Medi¬
204
terranean. It had needed but a spark to set it off, and that spark was
supplied as before by France.
 There in France it was a Working Men’s revolution. Its aim was to
overthrow the rule of the middle class and their King, Louis Philippe,
as the middle class had overthrown the aristocrats and Charles X in the
famous three-day revolution eighteen years before.
What hope La Fayette had had after that revolution that Louis

Philippe would then "make the best of kings”!

Instead, he had pleased nobody. Not the Aristocrats, of course, who
had lost their power, and not even the Bourgeoisie who had gained
the vote. He was too much like a shopkeeper— they thought— like they
were themselves. There was no glamour about such a solid man — none
of the glory of the "great” Napoleon! And certainly he had not satisfied
the Republicans, nor the students nor the working men, nor any of
those people who had hoped that under him there would be reform.
There had been no reform. Not a reform in the eighteen years that
Louis Philippe had been king. And there was need for reform, cry for
reform, demand for reform. To all these cries and demands, Louis
Philippe had been deaf, but now the voices had grown so loud that the
word reform echoed from every wall — reform — Reform — reform. On
February 22 a "reform banquet was held by a group of students.
"Vive la Reforme!” they cried with excited voices. Excitement

spread to the working men’s quarters. Barricades were raised. Working

men and students marched to the home of the chief minister. Some un¬
known person fired on the guards; the guards returned the fire. Fifty
men were killed. Their dead bodies were laid in carts by their comrades
and drawn through the streets, while bells tolled a funeral dirge.
"Vive la Reforme! Long live reform!” they cried as they filed past
the Tuileries. Inside Louis Philippe, deaf no longer, was ready to grant
reform, but it was too late. The next cry he heard was:

"Long live the Republic! Down with the King!”

So the king abdicated, the last King that France would ever have.
205
Disguised as "Mr. Smith” he fled to England, where he was received
was his son-in-law.
graciously by Queen Victoria, whose Uncle Leopold
ana
In Paris, the crazy mob dragged the throne out of the Tuileries
made a bonfire of it. Then on the site of the old Bastille, still a symbol
of tyranny, they proclaimed the republic of France.
Louis Blanc, one of the leaders of the new republic, and a socialist,
promised every French working man a permanent job, in government
workshops. Until these could be established, he distributed 1,000,000
francs among the laboring men!

La Reforme! Only a few days after the banquet held in France,

the word was taken up in Hungary, by the eloquent orator Kossuth.
Hungary belonged to Austria, and had long been crying for independ¬
ence. Now mingled with Kossuth’s cry for independence went a condem¬
nation of the whole despotic system under which all of Austria’s subjects
were oppressed. The flaming Hungarian words were soon translated into

German, and published in Vienna. There, in Austria’s capital, students

read them to the working men. Crowds surged to the palace crying,
"Down with Metternich! ’Raus mit Metternich!”
The Emperor shivered and Metternich knew that his day was done,
that he must leave if he would live. March 14th he left, his power gone.
The Emperor shivered again and abdicated. The people shouted their
joy. There was even talk among them of a Constitution!
What nonsense in Austria! Did they not know, these people, that old
ways in Austria were not so easily jarred from their deep ruts? Before
the year was over the old order had been well restored by the Austrian
troops and a young new Hapsburg emperor sat upon the throne.
Austrian troops were also sent to Italy, for now again the people of
Italy rose to fight for independence from their foreign rulers.

tftalcw/
All Italy was ablaze. The King of Sardinia or Piedmont, once lack¬
ing courage, now marshaled his forces against Austria. Grand Dukes
of the northern states sent troops to join with his, and granted their
people constitutions. There was much singing and great joy.
206
 The Robert Brownings, newly married, were in the center of the
excitement in Florence. Elizabeth Barrett describes in a poem what they
saw from the "Casa Guidi Windows.”
Italians long exiled returned. Mazzini hastened from London to
Rome, whence the Pope had fled, leaving the city without a government.

There Mazzini’s ideal, a Roman Republic, was soon proclaimed.

Far off in South America, in Uruguay, Garibaldi heard of the good
news and, with fifty followers, set sail for home. Fifty men in red shirts,
borrowed from the gauchos, sailed the gray-blue ocean under their
undaunted leader, their hearts with his in their beloved Italy. Fifteen

hundred volunteers joined these "Red Shirts,” when they landed in

Piedmont, and marched with Garibaldi on to Rome.
Alas! The Austrians were also marching — marching into Italy. By
them the King of Piedmont was defeated. Against them the Republic of
Rome could not be defended. By them for thirty days Garibaldi was
chased through the mountains; his army dwindled away. Hunted from
one place to another he finally reached the seacoast and escaped to
North America. Mazzini returned to England. The King of Piedmont
abdicated in favor of his son. Austria was again supreme.

From Prussia, also, citizens who loved liberty were to be expelled,

for in Prussia, as in Austria, there was no room for non-conforming Ger¬
mans who had ideas of freedom, and such foolishness.
There had been uprisings in Berlin, uprisings in western Prussia,
uprisings in all of the thirty-five or more small German states, but of
what use? The Prussian King did, it is true, grant a constitution of a
sort. Other rulers made promises, but then changed their minds and
answered further requests with bullets, stamped out the revolution and
sent the rebellious subjects fleeing from the country.
207
Richard Wagner, the great composer who stood for freedom in gov¬
ernment, as well as music, took refuge in Switzerland. His new opera
Lohengrin was to have been produced for the first time, the day the
revolution broke out in Koln, and he was obliged to dee the country.
Carl Schurz, the editor of a liberal newspaper, went to the United
States, and became one of its most loyal citizens, the first man of German
birth to be elected to Congress. There were many other such Germans
who also came to find liberty in America and whose descendants in
years to come would not forget why their ancestors left Germany.
So, within one short year, all over Europe revolution had blazed up
and been stamped out, and, except in France, kings sat again upon their
thrones. And things were as they had been? No — not quite.
socialism had been born.

Karl Marx, an exile from Prussia, a brilliant student of law and his¬
tory, whose radical beliefs so pained the heart of his good mother, had
written the birth cry of the party, the communist manifesto.

It was published in London, on the very day that the Working Men’s
revolution had broken out in Paris. That day the first copies came off
the press, and these words were seen for the first time in print, words
freighted heavily with both good and evil: —
WORKERS OF THE WORLD — UNITE!

It was a call to workers not of one nation but of every nation. Thus
with the downfall of Metternich, who had once united the Kings of
Europe against the people, came Karl Marx to unite the Workers of the
World in the first political party designed to be International.

208
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 UNIFORM OR A SPIKED HELMET?
A BEAUTIFUL

This is young Franz Josef of Austria, as he lo ked in his dres

uniform on his coronation day in 1848, and also from that day
on. For from then on "Franzi,” as his favorite brother Maximil¬
ian called him, was never seen in anything but a splendid uni¬
form. He was shy and reserved; perhaps it gave him confid
ence. Cer¬
tainly, in the stiff high collar and the tight trousers, smoothly fitting as a
glove, he looked extremely handsome.
Shy and handsome, young Franz Joseph was also very proud, for he
213
.
was a Hapsburg and the Hapsburgs were Europe s oldest royal family
had ruled
Appointed, they believed, by the divine will of God, they
Europe’s most powerful nation for almost six hundred years.
 Since the families of the Hapsburg rulers were always numerous as

well as proud, every young Hapsburg had a host of uncles, aunts and
cousins on or near the other thrones — (and also many less fortunate ones
who were quite mad and shut up in gloomy castles) .
Next to the drawing of Franz Josef is a partial list of his relatives
beginning with his great-great-grandmother Maria Theresa, who had
sixteen children. From the list you see that Napoleon’s son was a first
cousin of Franz Josef, as was also Pedro II of Brazil. Only five years
old when he became Emperor of Brazil, Pedro had been ruling eighteen
years when Franz Josef became Emperor.
That year 1848 was of course the year of revolution, which had over¬
thrown the old counselor Metternich. Franz Josef’s uncle, who was then
ruling, had gladly handed over the uneasy throne, and his father had been
equally glad to sign away his right to it. So after seeing the crown placed
on "Franzi’s” smooth young brow, the two old unambitious brothers
had gone off to eat dumplings and take life easy in one of the family
castles. The inexperienced boy of eighteen was left (with the help of his
mother and new councilors) to manage his rebellious and unwieldy old
Empire as best he could.
Franz Josef, though he was ill-fitted for the task, began conscien-
tiousty to do his best, for he loved the Empire, and wished above all
things to do his duty. Though he had no imagination, nor desire to learn
anything new, he had an excellent memory and clung to the things he
had been taught.
When he was only six years old, Prince Metternich had found a

tutor for him, selected, Metternich said, "because he thought as I

thought, saw as I saw.” So it is plain to see what little "Franzi” had been
taught. Naturally he came to the throne believing that the people had
no rights, a king could do no wrong, and the way to rule Austria was
tor the Emperor to command and the people to obey.
He had also been taught to speak 214
Hungarian (but very poorly) ,
because Hungary was part of Austria, though a rebellious part, and, like
northern Italy, always struggling to be free.
 Hungary was in the midst of rebellion,
started by Kossuth, when Franz Josef came to the
throne. The Czar of Russia hastened to the res-
cue and helped stamp it out. Franz Josef then
coolly ordered the Hungarian leaders killed in
order to secure the safety of his Empire. Right
or wrong, Franz Josef lived only for his Em¬
pire — that and nothing else — until he saw his
‘angel Sisi

"Sisi” was his cousin Elizabeth, and from the day he had first seen
her, he adored her. Exquisite, charming, she had come lightheartedly
down the Danube from her home in Bavaria to marry her handsome
lover, when she was sixteen and he was twenty-three. But once there in
the old castle in Vienna, she was like an unhappy wild bird, beating her
wings against a cage, until she died. Poor lovely Sisi, Franz Josef
would adore her memory to the end of his long life.
Sixty-eight years he was to rule in Austria. Two years before the end,
in trying to avenge the death of his nephew, the heir to his throne, Franz
Josef, then an old man of eighty-four, would unintentionally start the first
World War. In 1918, when that war was over, the last of the Hapsburgs
would cease to rule, and of the once proud Empire of Austria there
would be only a fragment left— like a broken hearthstone lying among
the ruins of an ancient castle.
Soon after he came to the throne, young Franz Josef would see
that Empire begin to crumble away, the Empire that he loved so much
and wished to rule so honorably and well. First he would lose a province
in Italy. Then he would suffer at the hands of Prussia.
Prussia was the German nation second in size to Austria. There was
not and never had been a united Germany, only, in 1848, these two large
nations, Prussia and Austria, and thirty-five or so smaller ones, some no
larger than a good-sized farm. All21were
5 hung together loosely in a
Confederation, which met at Frankfort-on-the-Main, and of which
Austria was head . . . but Prussia wished to be.
 olWf
95StI^eIm-
This man in the helmet is Prince Wilhelm, known as the Prince of
Prussia. Though his brother was now king, he was soon to act as regent,
and in 1861 was to be crowned King himself. Wilhelm was fifty years
old in 1848, a great giant of a man, bluff and rugged and blond like
some old hero from a German saga. And he was first and foremost a

soldier. If he didn’t actually sleep in that helmet of his, he certainly

must have kept it hanging on the bed-post.
Frederick the Great, who ruled Prussia in the days of George Wash¬

ington, was Wilhelm’s great-uncle, and the king who actually put Prussia
on the map. Before Frederick began his conquests, Prussia had been
small and insignificant. His grandfather had been its first independent
king. Plainly, then, the Hohenzollern family to which the Prussian kings
belonged were mere upstarts compared to Franz Josef’s family which
could be traced back six hundred years.
Prussia, compared to the old empire of Austria, was decidedly a raw
and upstart nation. But it was up and coming, and had the ambition

of crowding Austria out of first place in Germany. What’s more, Prussia

was a nation of soldiers, with a standing army steadily increasing and a
warlike Prince who was soon to be its King.
Soon also, a clever counselor for that King was to step onto the stage
of European politics, a clever young man by the name of Otto von Bis¬
marck. He was going to push the interests of Prussia to the limit — unite

the German states by a cement of "Blood and Iron” into an Empire . . .

and make this man in the helmet its first Kaiser.
216
 THE PEACE FESTIVAL

Victoria AND Albert, especial y, to k great interest in Euro¬

pean affairs. Naturally with so many friends and relatives
among the rulers they were particularly interested in the Ger¬
man states. The summer of 1851 they were glad to welcome as
their guest Prince Wilhelm of Prussia, accompanied by his son, a non¬
descript young fellow of twenty. They had come to London to visit the
great Exhibition, the First World’s Fair, which had been planned by
Albert, and opened on the morning of May the first.
What a beautiful morning it was, that first of May, 1851, a perfect
day for the opening of what Albert thought of as a great Peace Festival
of the Nations.
Victoria was so proud of him, and so happy as they sat at breakfast
that morning, surrounded by their children, seven of them, now. The two
oldest, Vicky, the Princess Royal, who was ten, and the nine-year-old
Prince of Wales, were to ride with their father and mother in the state
217
carriage to the "Great Exhibition.” How excited they were when the
cavalry rode out of the palace gates and the procession started! How
the children exclaimed when they turned into Hyde Park and saw the
"Crystal Palace,” a huge house of shining glass sparkling in the sun! A
thousand feet long it was, and high enough to enclose two of the park’s
largest elm trees. On top, flying in the breeze, were flags of all the
nations, while inside the great dome were palms, and fountains, and
flowers and statues. And the bands were playing! Victoria, as she walked

to the platform with her hand on Albert’s arm, felt sure that it was the
proudest, happiest day of her entire life.
"The tremendous cheers,” she wrote later in her journal, "the joy
expressed in every face, and my beloved husband the author of this
peace-festival which united the industry of all the nations of the earth,
all this was moving indeed. God bless my dearest Albert. God bless my

dearest Country. To see the great conception of my beloved husband’s

mind crowned with success is a source of pride and thankfulness which

none but a wife’s heart can comprehend.”

Albert, too, in his quiet way, was very happy. He was hoping, as
he had said from the beginning, that this exhibition bringing together
the products and arts and inventions of all the different countries of the
world would lead to a better understanding between nations and people,

and be a step towards the "unity of mankind.”

But what a storm of objections had been raised against the scheme
when he had first proposed it, most of them now too ridiculous to recall.
It was fortunate that he possessed the patience and good temper to work
steadily along until the objections had been overcome, for when the invi¬
tations had gone out to the various countries, there had been a most
enthusiastic and gratifying response.
Fifteen thousand exhibitors sent displays. Visitors from all over the
globe came pouring into London, thronging through the aisles and in
and out of booths and balconies, admiring the beautiful products of the
East and marveling at the inventions of the West.
They saw the Koh-i-noor Diamond from India shining in its case,
elephant trappings and carved ivory tusks — jades and porcelains from
China, painted silk, edible birds’ nests, Persian rugs and Turkish water
pipes — nuggets of gold from California, the sewing machine of Elias
218
Howe, and the Coit repeating rifle — false teeth and camel bags as well as
all manner of ill-conceived and useless things supposed to be ornamental.
All were listed alphabetically in a large blue catalogue. Under the

A’s today’s common metal aluminum was not mentioned. It was then al¬
most unobtainable and so practically unknown, but there was a "sub¬
marine boat in the shape of a broad-backed carp," and demonstrations
throughout the day of a grain reaper invented by Cyrus McCormick of

Chicago, said to be "the most important addition to farm machinery

since the invention of the threshing machine.’’
Charles Goodyear of New Haven, Connecticut, Inventor and Manu¬
facturer, had a display of India-rubber goods, life boats and pontoons, as
well as boots and overshoes. For now at last rubber was usable. Good¬

year’s invention had made it so. It would no longer get soft and sticky in
summer, and hard enough to break in winter. It stretched and would go
right back in shape. One of the marvels of the age!
And so there in the "Crystal Palace,” gathered together for the first
time, were the products of the world and the people of the world assem¬
bled to see them. Crowding the streets of London, filling the omnibuses
and railway trains, they went streaming through the Great Exhibition
from May until October. And from firSv. to last nothing unpleasant hap¬
pened. Only words of delight and praise were heard. Truly it had been,

as Albert had hoped it would be, a "Peace Festival of the Nations.” To

Tennyson it even seemed a fleeting vision ol that far-off day when the

War drum throbbed no longer, and the battle flags were furled,
In the Parliament of Man, the Federation of the World.

Albert was very weary when the Exhibition was over, but he kept
Vic¬
up his long hours of work each day. As far as possible he relieved
toria of all work and responsibility that went with her title. Every morn¬
219 in the sitting room working
ing he was up at seven, and spent two hours
at his desk, lighted on dark winter mornings by a German lamp with a
read
green shade. At nine o’clock he joined the Queen at breakfast and
the newspapers of the day, greatly concerned in the affairs of Europe
as well as England, but grieved over Germany.

"I don’t like to read of Germany any more,” he would say, "the
behavior of the governments is such that I feel ashamed. ...”
One morning, the fourth of December, 1851, a little over a month
after the great Exhibition closed, the papers were filled with the most
startling news from France. Albert read it aloud.

"What!” Victoria gasped. Why only day before yesterday, the very
day it had happened, she had written Uncle Leopold in Belgium that
she did not think there would be any outburst "yet awhile in France.”
And here it was. She must write to him again. . . .

"Dearest Uncle,” she wrote. "I must write a line to ask what you
say to the wonderful proceedings at Paris, which really seem like a story

in a book or a play! What is to be the result of it all?”

And what was that exciting news from Paris ?
Louis Napoleon had seized the power on December 2, 1851, and
was on the way to becoming the Emperor Napoleon III.

NAPOLEON III

December 2, 1851. The night before had be n an anxious one for

Louis Napoleon in Paris. All night, while his conspirators
went about their work, he had only to wait and listen to a gilt
clock on the mantel tick off those endless hours that would
make him either Emperor of France or again an outlaw. Down
220
in the
dark courtyard below horses were saddled, ready for his instant escape
in case of failure. Failure?

He could not fail, he told himself, not on such an auspicious date as

the second of December. For was it not on December 2, 1804, that his
famous uncle had crowned himself Napoleon I? On that same date in
1805, had he not won his most famous battle? No, surely, on a December
second, he, Louis Napoleon, could not fail!
Yet as the clock struck the hour, the small man turned nervously
from the window where he had stood twisting the ends of his waxed
moustache. He walked to the end of the room and back. He lit a ciga¬
rette, and then stood gazing blankly at the wall with those half-closed
eyes of his that never gave any hint of what he might be thinking. He had
many hours to think that night. And of what?
Of the future, perhaps, of the improvements he was to make in the
life of the poor, in industry and commerce, plans for the prosperity of
France and the peace of Europe. The Empire and Peace!
Perhaps he thought of the past, and saw himself as a small boy

again, kissing his grandmamma Josephine. He was now forty-three years

old, but of all the women he had since loved (and they were many) she
still seemed most glamorous to him. He could still feel the softness of
her skin and hear her seductive voice telling him never to forget that his
uncle was the great Napoleon. He had never forgotten. Twenty years

ago his cousin had died, Napoleon’s son who might have been Napoleon
II. Since then, considering himself heir to the throne of France, Louis
Napoleon had made two attempts to seize the power. Both attempts had
been so dismally unsuccessful as to make of him a laughingstock.
The first plan had been that he should enter the border town of
Strasbourg, rouse the soldiers with his ringing words, and make a tri¬
umphal march to Paris. But when the time came he failed to think up
those ringing words, and appearing to the King Louis Philippe less
dangerous than ridiculous, he had not been imprisoned but was shipped
out of France. . . . He went to the United States.
After two months in New York, receiving word that his beloved

221
mother, Hortense, was dying, he hastened back to Switzerland. Then,
obliged to leave Switzerland, he went to London, where he enjoyed him¬
self in society, and also plotted for another return to France.
In 1840, it seemed to Louis Napoleon and his fellow exiles in Eng¬
land that the time had come. They chartered a small steamer, crossed the
English Channel, and carrying supplies, proclamations and a somewhat
mangy eagle, landed on a dark night at Boulogne, with much the same
plan as before. Three hours later, however, instead of marching triumph¬
antly on to Paris they were scurrying back to the seashore, chased and
shot at by the National Guard. Plunging into the water the men swam out
to a yawl, hoping to reach their steamer, but the boat capsized. Louis
Napoleon was seized, taken to trial, and condemned to life imprison¬
ment in the castle of Ham.
Ham was an old chateau that stood on marshy ground, about seventy
miles north of Paris. Louis Napoleon was there six years, valuable years
spent in study and research, that made him one of the best informed men
of his day. He was well treated. His sitting room was lined with books,
and he had a small laboratory. And his doctor, an old and faithful friend,
was with him.
It was the doctor who watched over a dummy in the bed of the
prisoner, supposed to be very ill, on the day that he made his astonishing
escape. It was a cleverly simple plan. The rooms had been in need of
repair, so for many days carpenters and plasterers had been coming and

going. One day Louis Napoleon, dressed in laborer’s clothes, with his
moustache shaved off and a plank on his shoulder, simply walked
through the courtyard, out of the gate, and next day was back in
London! That was 1846.
Two years later came the revolution which made France a Republic
and sent Louis Philippe, the Citizen King, hurrying out of Paris across
the Channel to London. Immediately out of London across the Channel
back to Paris hurried Louis Napoleon, without stopping to pack his
bags. Too soon to be welcome, he went back to wait in London. In Sep¬
tember he was elected and returned to Paris to take a seat in the Assem-

222
bly. In December, by an overwhelming majority who rallied around him
for various reasons, he was elected President.
Republicans believed him to be a friend of law and order, and hear¬
ing him take the oath of office, did not suspect that he intended to break
it. But as the term passed and his popularity increased, a plot was hatched
to overthrow the Republic and re-establish the Empire. Louis Napoleon,
after much changing of his mind, had finally set the date of December

second for the coup d’etat.

So came this night of waiting. The tray was filled with halfburnt
cigarettes, as the gilt clock struck two. He sat forward in his chair to
listen. According to plan, the troops would now be starting to move
silently through the Paris streets.
At three he felt sure the seventy-eight political leaders who might
cause trouble must have been arrested.

Four o’clock came. The proclamations, he thought, were to have

been plastered throughout Paris before dawn. Five came and went,

another hour passed and with six o’clock and daylight came the word
that all, so far, had gone off to perfection!

Four hours later, at ten o’clock in the morning of that December 2,

1851, Louis Napoleon, accompanied by a cavalcade of officers in bril¬
liant uniforms, rode through the streets of Paris.

‘'Vive l’Empereur! Vive Napoleon!” cried the people.

And Louis Napoleon, generous as ever, gave all that was left of his
private fortune to be distributed among the poor.
There was some rioting in the streets; during the next two days a
number of citizens were killed, but it was soon over. Within the year the
Assembly had decreed the Republic dead, the Empire established. On
December 2, 1852, Louis Napoleon became Napoleon III, Emperor of
France, a title that the little man with the waxed moustache and the
changeable mind was to hold for eighteen years.
And the Empire, he assured the 2people
23 of Europe, stood for peace!
So once again France had an Emperor, and in the following year
was asked to welcome another Empress.
 This is eugenie, who became the Empress of France, and bride of
Napoleon III in 1853. Eugenie was the daughter of a Spanish count, but

her red-gold hair and deep blue eyes she had inherited from her mother’s
family, the Kirkpatricks, who were of Scottish origin. Her beauty had
caught the roving eye of Napoleon III at once. Since all of his charm,
however, advanced him no closer to her lovely neck and shoulders, he
finally proposed marriage, she accepted, and the Countess de Montijo,
her mother, sighed with satisfaction that the husband hunt for her
spirited daughter had ended so successfully.
Napoleon III had aspired, if possible, to marry a princess from one

of Europe’s royal houses, but he had soon found that those royal families
offered him a snub instead of a princess. So he cleverly made a virtue
out of a necessity.

"The union I am about to make,” he announced to the Councilors,

"is not in accordance with ancient policy. Therein lies its advantage. I
have preferred a woman whom I love to a woman unknown to me. In
placing qualities of heart and family happiness before dynastic preju¬
dices, I shall be more strong, in that I shall be more free!”
A marriage for love! The French people were charmed. And to so
beautiful a bride . . . and so generous, giving her wedding gift of
250,000 francs to the sick, and her diamond
224 necklace to be sold for the
poor. What a pity that the gilt crown fell from the roof of the imperial
coach on the way to the cathedral! A bad omen, n’est ce pas?
 DER TOLLE BISMARCK

)\ If ad Bismarck they called him, those other German delegates

/ U /ll ° thC Confederation at Frankfort in 1851. Frantically they

i V 11 Wr°te home asking for instructions as to what attitude to take
11 regarding the incident for which the
new Prussian delegate
was responsible. A most extraordinary
incident it was: Bismarck the
new delegate from Prussia, had dared to
light a cigar and smoke in the
presence of the ambassador from Austria.
Mein Gott! Such boldness!
The man, said they, must certainly be mad!
Mad? Far from it. Otto von Bismarck was
anything but mad He
was an extremely clever man. This littl
e smoke was just a puff to show
which way the wind was blowing— just a hint
that Herr Bismarck in¬
tended to uphold the honor of Prussia—
that in time he might make
Prussia instead of Austria head of that German
confederation.
Bismarck was a Junker— that is, he was a
country gentleman, one of
Prussia s aristocracy. As such, he believed
in upholding not only the
honor of Prussia, but also the privileges of the
upper class and the abso¬
lute and divine right of the King. One nigh
t in a beer garden in Berlin,
he had overheard some stranger at the
next table make a slighting
remark about the royal family. He jump 225ed to his feet
at once.
"Out of the house!” he thundered. "If
you are not off when I have
drunk this beer, I will break this glass mug on your
head.”
 That set of? a great commotion, with all kinds of outcries, to which
Bismarck gave no heed. He finished his beer, then brought the mug
down on the skull of the offender with a crash that sent him howling to
the floor, and smashed the glass in pieces. Then a dead silence, in which
Bismarck asked calmly, as if nothing had happened:

"Waiter, what is the cost of this broken glass?”

In 1848, the year of revolution in Europe, Bismarck was acting as
a member of the Prussian Diet or Assembly, at the request of the King,

who had given the people a Constitution. The young Junker, then thirty-
three years old, had taken his seat most reluctantly, because he did not
approve of Constitutions, or of Assemblies or of any other such ridicu¬
lous democratic institutions.

Any person who believed m turning over government to the vote of

the people, he said, must be either a knave or a lunatic. How could the
will of the majority be always right, when nine out of ten people knew
nothing about the law, and were not even educated ? Why, most people,
he contended, if they were asked about it, would vote that the sun
revolved around the earth. But aid that make it true?
Other members of the Assembly, on the contrary, were grateful to
the King for the Constitution, and made speeches expressing their hope
for the future of liberal ideas in Prussia. Bismarck jumped to his feet and
spoke on the opposite side.
"I consider,” he said, "that Prussia’s honor lies in avoiding every
shameful union with democracy.”
The members hissed and shouted, but that young giant would not
be shouted down. Taking a newspaper out of his pocket, he calmly read
until order was restored and then completed his remarks.
Otto von Bismarck came from northeast Prussia, from Brandenburg,

Pomerania, to be exact. He was born on his father’s country estate on

April 1, 1815. At six years of age he was sent to a very strict boarding
school in Berlin and was there until, at seventeen, he had finished the
gymnasium or high school. Off he went then to the University, where he
distinguished himself highly for the amount of beer he could drink and

226
 the number of duels he fought. Once he had four
on his hands at one
time, and fought twenty-eight in his first three semesters.
Oh, he was a
lusty fellow, but keen, too, for he finished his course in
the law and
passed the state examinations.
Not long after, at a ball, he met for the first time his future
sover-
eign, Prince Wilhelm, eighteen years his senior.
Why aren t you a soldier? asked the Prince, astonished to
find
that a young man six feet and over was not in the best of
all professions.
"I had no prospect of advancement in the army, Your
replied Bismarck tactfully. Truth was, he hated drill and Highness,”
discipline,
hou 11 have no better prospects in the law,” replied the Princ
e.
It seemed so for a time. After being misfitted in a few
government
positions, the young lawyer went home to Pomerania, upon his fathe
r’s
death, to manage the estate. Then to keep tfom being bore
d and de¬
spondent he gave parties so wild and hilarious as to become the
scandal
of the countryside. Pomeranian girls eyed him as
dangerously exciting,
while their mammas warned them against the "mad youn
g Bismarck.”
Otherwise he had not distinguished himself particularly,
before he was
called to the Prussian Assembly by the King.
Now at Frankfort, as ambassador to the German Confe
deration, he
had startled the old diplomats by impudentlv smoking
a cigar.
"Mad Bismarck,” they called him,
then just how much method there was in those diplomats, little reali
that so-called madness. Neitzing
her
did they know how much they amused him with their pomp
ous manners,
nor how he v*as sizing them up, and what a working know
ledge of the
ins and outs of diplomacy he was acquiring and stori
ng up for future
use. But Bismarck knew, and chuckled to himself.

"I am making enormous progress,” he wrote home, "in

the art of
saying nothing in a great many words. I write reports of many
sheets,
which read as tersely as leading articles, and if any one
227
can say what
there is in them after he has read them, he can do more than I can.” He
chuckled as he wrote, and drew deep on his cigar.
"Mad Bismarck,” was he? About as mad, that Bism
arck, as a fox!
 AT HOME IN SPRINGFIELD

' ATE IN THE spring of 1849, a tall man wearing a faded high hat, and

ch in
carrying a shabby carpetbag descended from the stagecoa
in
Springfield, Illinois. Abe Lincoln was home again. His term
. Lw Congress was over . . . and, also, he believed, his political
career. Doomed to failure, he was. Others succeeded. Stephen A. Douglas,
who had entered the State Legislature the same year he had, was forging
ahead, now a United States Senator with a brilliant future. Only he,
Abraham Lincoln, failed.

Mary might have married Douglas, he thought, as he turned down

Jackson Street and approached the frame house on the corner. Been better
for her if she had than tied up to a failure. His wife didn’t act as if she
felt that way, though, when he opened the door and set down his carpet¬
bag. He felt stimulated by her pride and spunk.

Mary Lincoln, whatever doubts she may have had about her hus¬
band’s future during his absence, at seeing him again felt confidence in
her first judgment of him. She was glad to have him home, and for once,
at least, said nothing when he unwound his necktie and dropped it on
228
 the floor. She even held her tongue whe
n he pulled off his boots and sat
in his stocking feet playing with the littl
e boys.
There were two of them. Bobby
was five, Eddie was two years
younger. They climbed all over their papa
, while he hugged and kissed
them, laughing as hard as they did when
they tickled his ears, and tried
to poke their fingers up his nose. He put
first one and then the other
astride his shoulders and gave them
a ride around the room. They
showed him the new kittens and it was
time for supper.
Mary, who had had to help the new "hir
ed girl" make gravy, came
to the table irritated at her stupidity,
and when the boiled potatoes
weren’t done in the center, she snap
ped at
thing stumbled out weeping into the kitchen,her so sharply that the poor
and next morning she was
gone. The girl that followed cooked no bett
er. Meals were never much
good at the Lincoln house, but the head of
the house didn’t complain.
Friends said Lincoln never seemed to know
what he was eating. His wife
thought sometimes he didn’t even know that
a meal was on the table.
Shed see him sit staring into space—
lost in thought. Suddenly he
would laugh or speak.

What would you say, Mrs. Lincoln,” he

asked one day, "to going
out to Oregon territory, if the party gave me the
job of Governor?”
‘'No!” said Mrs. Lincoln. "Absolute
ly not!” She had her reasons.
Aside from the fact that living in Oregon wou
ld be duller than Spring-
field, which, heaven knows, was dull enough
, it seemed to her that to
bury himself in that far-off corner would cert
ainly spell the end of any
man s political career. So Lincoln turned back
to the practice of the law
in Springfield with his partner Herndon.
LINCOLN & HERNDON. So read the gilt letters on their sign
that hung
opposite the Court House. It creaked in the warm
prairie wind, that first
morning as the tall disconsolate man passed unde
r it and up the wooden
stairs, down the narrow hall to the dingy office.
229
Didn t seem hardly fair to share the proceeds from the business
Herndon had worked to keep up while he was gone.
He offered to with¬
draw but the younger man wouldn’t hear of it, so the
firm continued.
Lincoln took up life where he had left off, riding the circuit of the county
courts all over the state three months each spring and autumn and trying
cases there in Springfield in the winter.

Mornings when he went to the office about nine o’clock, the first
thing he did was to lie down on the haircloth sofa, fling one leg on a
chair and read the newspaper out loud. Then he might go over to the
desk near one of the two grimy windows, jot down a few notes about
some case, and drop them in his hat. Very few, however.

"Notes are a bother,” he told a young law student. "Take time to

make and more to hunt up afterwards.” He relied on his memory, for
though his desk was a mess, his mind was in perfect order.

"Talk to the jury,” he also added, "as though your client’s fate
depended on every word you uttered.”
"Lincoln himself did that very thing,” said the youngster after
watching him. "He steered the jury by skillful questions and by a joke or
a quick retort as the trial progressed.”
One day in court a man had brought suit against another for beating
him up when he himself had provoked the fight.
"Reminds me,” said Lincoln to the jury, "of the man who killed a
farmer’s dog with a pitchfork after the dog had bitten him. 'What’d you
kill my dog for?’ yelled the farmer. 'Why didn’t you go at him with the
other end?’ 'Why,’ replied the man, 'why didn’t the dog come at me
with his other end?’ ” The jury saw the point and laughed. Lincoln
laughed too, and the argument over, sat down, giving a jerk to the single
suspender that held up his pants.
The all-important button holding that single suspender was gone
one day and he was whittling a plug of wood to take its place when a
young attorney came up to him in the court room asking for some help.

"Just wait,” said he, "till I fix this plug of my gallis’ and I’ll pitch
into it like a dog at a root.”
By "pitching in” Lincoln was always also turning up unexpected
bits of evidence as in the case of his old friend Jack Armstrong’s boy who
had been accused of killing a man.

230
 I seen him do it, swore one witness. "The moon
was shining just
as bright as daylight.”
You re sure about that ? asked Lincoln, and
then produced an
almanac that proved that on that particular night there
was no moon.
Then by an appeal that moved the jury to tears, while
the boy’s
widowed mother sobbed beneath her bonnet, he won
the freedom of his
client. Few days of tears, there were, however. On
many more the court
room roared with laughter, when Lincoln had a case
on trial.
Judge Davis, who was judge of the circuit court, enjoyed the
stories
Lincoln told as much as did the jury. The four or five
lawyers who rode
the circuit with him from one little county seat to anothe
r would gather
at the end of the day in the judge’s bedroom, and laugh
and swap stories
half the night. Lincoln’s were the funniest by far, and
he had great fun
telling them. Judge Davis, who also knew his fits of melancholy, was
always glad to see him when he was happy.
Saturdays, when they were near enough to do so, all the other
lawyers would go home. Lincoln never seemed to want to. He stayed
on
wherever they happened to be, until the season was over. Then
jogging
over the countryside behind "Old Buck” he would go home
to Spring-
field, to the house on the corner, to Mary’s sharp tongue, to
his little
boys and to the dusty law office with its creaking sign.
Often at the office he would tip back in his chair, with his head
against the wall, and sit as he did at home, staring into space with unsee¬
ing eyes, lost in thought. One day he suddenly dropped his feet to the
floor and turned to Herndon.

"Billy,” he said with a strange tone in his voice, "I fear

I am going
to meet with some terrible end . . . but that,” he added, "accords with

my philosophy.” There was law and order, cause and effect, in all things.
Why, then, should not a man’s character with its strength and weak¬
nesses lead his life inevitably to a foregone conclusion?
He went out of the office, then, and down the stairs, and soon
Herndon heard him in the street below chatting with a group of friends
and laughing as if he never had a serious thought in his mind.

231
 ★ ★
FREE SOIL AND SLAVE

A erica was n o w c o m i n g t
be looked upon more and

o
more as the land of oppor¬
tunity. In 1853, the Lon¬
don Daily News printed this article:
"An American merchant has just ar¬
rived in Europe on a pleasure trip.
His private yacht is a monster
steamer, said to surpass in splendor

the Queen’s yacht. Mr. Cornelius

Vanderbilt is a sign of the times.
America was not known four cen¬
turies ago, yet she turns out her
Vanderbilts small and large every
year. America is the arena in which
men have free play. All its citizens
have full permission to run the race
in which he, Vanderbilt, has gained

such immense prizes.”

It is no wonder, then, with such
advertisement, that thousands of im¬
migrants from Europe were coming
to the United States each year. Land¬
ing in New York, they had almost
doubled its population in ten years. kL
Now a city of 600,000, it was known

as "America’s Front Door.” yh

San Francisco, the door to the
west, had grown even faster. In one

232
year after the gold rush began, San Francisco had grown from a hamlet of
four hundred people to a rough rowdy city of 20,000 and one of the five
leading seaports in the world. California itself had 100,000 people,
most of them swarming like bees around the lawless mining camps,
and
in 1849 California asked admission to the Union as a state.
Up came the old question of slavery again — not because there was
any thought of making a slave state of California. There was no need for
slaves in mining camps. California w'ould be free. No, it was the same
old trouble. There was then no territory also ready to come in as slave.
So the balance between the slave and free states which now stood 15-15
threatened to be upset again, as it first had been thirty years before when
Missouri asked to be admitted.

\oung Henry Clay had then hushed the trouble with a compromise.
Now in 1850 "the Great Peacemaker” proposed another one. He was
an old man now, Henry Clay. This compromise of 1850 was to be his last.

"California will come in as a free state,” he said. Very well. Then,

in all other states made from the territory gained from Mexico let the
people living there, and not Congress, decide whether they should be
free or slave.
And, in addition, see that a strict fugitive slave law be enforced.
That is, have officers in every state in the Union catch all runaway slaves
and send them back to their owners.

That in the main was his proposal. It brought on an argument more

intense and bitter than any argument over slavery had ever been before.
While conservatives in both parties supported it, anxious to preserve the
Union and keep peace at almost any price, both extreme pro- and anti¬
slavery men condemned it. Abolitionists damned the Fugitive Slave
Law. Pro-slavery men cried that the division of territory was unfair to
the South. What guarantee was there that the rest of the Mexican cession
would be slave? What about Kansas, Nebraska and all the rest of that
northern territory? 233
John C. Calhoun, great champion of slavery and states’ rights,
was determined to express the sentiments of the South for one last
time, but he was old and too ill to speak. A friend read his speech.

"Senators,” he began, "it can no longer be disguised that the Union

is in danger. The southern States cannot remain as things are now with

safety in the Union” — not unless, he said, there was equal division
between the sections, and all anti-slavery talk by the Abolitionists was
stopped. "If you who represent the stronger portion are not willing to
settle on these principles, say so, and let us separate in peace.”
"Separate in peace!” those words brought old Daniel Webster to
his feet. Third of those young statesmen who had started out together,
his hair was now white, but his eyes were as snapping black as ever.

However much Daniel 'Webster hated slavery, he loved the Union more.
"Secession!” he cried, facing Calhoun, "peaceful Secession! Sir!
Your eyes and mine are never to see the division of this country without
violent opposition. Why, sir, our ancestors — our fathers and grandfathers
— would reproach us, and our children and grandchildren would cry out
'Shame!’ No, sir! There will be no secession. . . . Let the compromise
be accepted, by all means, if need be, to save the Union!”
Thus the three old statesmen spoke their final words in American
politics. Younger men now stood ready to take their places.

William F. Seward, the new Senator from New York, spoke for the
234
Abolitionists, who were shocked at what they called the "treachery” of
Daniel Webster.

Jefferson Davis, Democrat Senator from Mississippi and a cotton

planter, held out for the right of any man to go anywhere in the United
States and take with him all property, including slaves.
Stephen Douglas, Democrat from Illinois, upheld the compromise,
and after months of argument the compromise was finally passed.
Nobody was satisfied. The Abolitionists, and many other people,
thought the Fugitive Slave Law was too unjust to be obeyed. Instead of
returning them, a regular system arose for helping the slaves escape.
Hidden by day, they would be taken at night from one place to the next
northward from the Ohio River until they were safely over the border
into Canada. These secret routes, traveled under cover of night, came

to be spoken of as the ''Underground Railway.”

With this possibility of help, more and more slaves along the border
attempted to escape. Southerners who saw people of the North actually
breaking a law to rob them of what they honestly believed to be their
property, became more and more convinced that union with the free
states would only do them harm.

"Let them go in peace,” then said the Abolitionists. Good riddance

to bad rubbish. But those rabid Abolitionists were few.
Most Northern people felt that they must obey the law and in order
to preserve the Union keep their mouths closed and say just as little
about the dreadful question of slavery as possible.
That was how matters stood in the summer of 1850.
In the spring of 1850, little Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe, after almost
twenty years in Cincinnati, was on her way back to New England with
her family of small children. On her way to Maine, where Professor
Stowe was to teach, she stopped off to see her brother, Henry Ward, in
his church in Brooklyn, and her brother Edward and his wife in Boston.
Everywhere she went she heard people discussing the new Fugitive Slave
Law, and was shocked to find so many, even ministers of the gospel, up¬
holding the compromise which included that sinful law.
235
"To me it is incredible,” said Harriet, her small figure tense with
feeling. "It cannot be that these people know what slavery is. They do
not see what they are defending.”
 A
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After she reached Maine, a let¬
ter came from brother Edward’s KHIZHINA DYADI TOMA (ft—.)
wife. "Hattie,” it said, "if I could
use a pen as you can, I would write Onkel tom’f.l)utte
OsikEL Tom's STUQA (Su*<tai)
something to make the whole world
see what an accursed thing slavery cLuu Ojcd iouicu
SatiL Tu/rrurA.’TuL^ia, Oa/tviuaK)
TAMAS BATVA (Hum-}****)

'a~\vpT) rov QwMgJ£*!&-T,

"I will write something,” said
is!” II . ... —- — .
Harriet in a low voice, crumpling

the paper in her small thin hand. "I will write something.”
Thinking over all that she had seen and heard of slavery out on
the Ohio River, it occurred to her that the faithful slave husband of a free
Negro woman whom she had known would be the perfect pattern for
the main character in her story. She might call him Uncle Tom.
Sitting in church one Sunday morning, her mind sailed away from
the little New England meeting house to a plantation in the Deep South.
There she imagined Uncle Tom as an old man being beaten to death by a
cruel master, and saw it all so vividly that she "shook with sobbing.”
She wrote that last chapter first. Then the rest of the book, characters
and scenes, fell naturally into place.

She called it uncle tom’s cabin, or "Life Among the Lowly.” And
it was a pitiful story, that tale of Uncle Tom, sold to pay the debts of his
good Kentucky master— of Eliza who crossed the river on floating ice
cakes of the cruel slave driver Simon Legree with his cracking whip
and his trusty bloodhounds ... of Topsy, the black imp who "jes”
growed,” and angelic little white Eva who was too good to live.
Thrilled by it while she was writing, Harriet was so exhausted when
it was finished that she was afraid nobody would read it, and that it
would do no good for the anti-slavery cause.
Instead, it made the evils of slavery and the Fugitive Slave Law come
to life to all who read it. And it was read by thousands, not only in
America but all over the world, translated into many languages.
Published in book form on March 20, 1852, within the year eight
presses running day and night could not keep up with the demand.
Letters of congratulation came pouring in to the author in Maine.

An early one came from the "Swedish Nightingale,” Jenny Lind, who
was on her first American concert tour. She had "a feeling about Uncle
Tom’s Cabin that great changes would take place because of it.”
Mrs. Stowe sent a copy to Charles Dickens, whom she addressed as

"the first author of our day to turn the attention of the high to the joys
and sorrows of the lowly.” And he replied that he had read her book
"with deepest interest and sympathy,” but that if he "might suggest
fault in what had so charmed him, it would be that she went too far anda

sought to prove too much.” "I think,” he said, "this extreme champion¬
ship likely to repel some useful sympathy and support . . .”
Harriet herself had been afraid, on the other hand, that she had been
too moderate, and feared, that by showing some slaveholders to be just
.and kind, she would antagonize the Abolitionists. Instead, the entire
South rose up and attacked it, as a completely unfair picture, while the
Abolitionists welcomed it, as a great help to their cause.

"What a glorious work Harriet Beecher Stowe hath wrought!”

wrote John Greenleaf Whittier, the Quaker poet, to his great friend
2 37
William Lloyd Garrison, "thanks for the Fugitive Slave Law, since it
gave occasion for Uncle Tom’s Cabin.”
 LAND OF NOBLES AND SERFS

ussia’s great author, Tolstoy, then but a young man in his twen¬
ties, was reading Uncle Tom’s Cabin on an early September day
in 1854, using his English dictionary occasionally, as he also
had had to do in reading David Cop per field. Though he had a

gnawing toothache, and was on his way to war, that story of "Life Among
the Lowly” so excited his sympathy that he read on without interruption
to the final page.
Tolstoy was a nobleman, but all the later years of his life, after
giving away his fortune, he was to live and work among the lowly people
of Russia, preaching the simple way of life. He had already started a
school to teach the children of the serfs belonging to him.

Upon his father’s death, Tolstoy had inherited Yasnaya Polyana, the
country home near Moscow where he had been born, and with it 5400

acres of land and 350 serfs. In Russia, where a nobleman’s wealth was
rated by the number of "souls” or serfs he owned, a mere 350 did not
make young Count Tolstoy a wealthy man.
No. Not in Russia. There, to be considered rich, a man must own
at least 10,000 souls, for in Russia in 1854 twice as many peasants as
there were people in the United States were held in bondage. There were

238
 roughly 23,000,000 serfs belonging to the Czar, and 23,000,000 more
owned by the nobility. Bound to the land on which they lived, they were
bought and sold with it like the other livestock and the buildings. Ex¬
cept that they could not be sold without the land, they were as slaves.
A serf worked three days for his master each week, then three days for
himself, in order to earn enough to pay taxes to the Czar, from which
his master, being a nobleman, was exempt.

"Yet these noblemen, of which there were only about 140,000 families,
and the Czar owned nine-tenths of all the land of Russia, which meant
that they owned nearly one-sixth of all the land on earth. That was the
size of this largest of all nations. Largest in area, but most lacking in

freedom of any empire in the world, it was ruled over by Europe’s most
despotic sovereign, Nicholas I.

Nicholas I, known as the "Iron Czar,” had ruled for almost thirty
years. He had come to the throne in the midst of rebellion, which he had
stamped out by beheading the leaders and sending thousands to exile in
Siberia. Then by a system of spies and censorship, he proceeded to shut
off from the Russian people as far as possible all ideas of progress, sci¬
ence, liberty — everything that might disturb their blind obedience and
worship. Then with his empire set to rights in frozen order, that most
absolute of Czars looked outside of Russian boundaries and sought to
extend his influence for good.

Like his grandmother, Catherine "the Great,” and all Russian rulers
before him, Nicholas I cast his eye on Turkey. With that empire growing
weaker year by year, Turkey was looked upon by Russia and the other

nations as the "Sick Man” of Europe. In 1853 Czar Nicholas I felt that
Turkey’s pulse had grown weak enough for him to relieve the Sultan
of some responsibility. Therefore, he made it his "Christian” duty to in¬
terfere in Turkish affairs, and so started the useless slaughter known as the
Crimean War.

Tolstoy was on his way to this 2war on that September day in 1854
39
when he was reading Uncle Tom's Cabin. He was waiting then to be
transferred to Sevastopol, where the great siege of the war took place.
 A LAMP IN THE CRIMEA

The Crimean war was the first great war in Europe since the fal
of Napoleon in 1815, almost forty years before. Many claimed
there would have been no great war in the Crimea, that England
and France would not have joined in with Turkey, had it not
been for another upstart emperor — Napoleon III.
Everyone knew, they said, that Napoleon III had a grudge against
the Czar, because haughty Nicholas only, of all the European rulers,
refused to call him "My dear Brother” as one king to another. Besides,
Napoleon III was none too sure of his position at home. Feeling wobbly
on the throne, he wanted a war to gain prestige and glory.
On the contrary, said others, Napoleon III did not want war. He

had said on his coronation day that the "Empire meant Peace” and his
ambition was to be the Peacemaker of Europe. He had gone to war only

to make peace, they said. It sounded a bit confusing, but perhaps "Napo¬
leon the Little,” as Victor Hugo called him, was a bit confused!
It was a religious argument that the Czar had raised with the Sultan
of Turkey. Many Christians were living in the Turkish Empire, often as
cruelly treated by the Mohammedan officials as the Greeks had been
when they rebelled. Jerusalem was also under Turkish rule. The Czar,
therefore, as head of the Greek Orthodox Church, claimed the right to
protea Christians in Turkey and also the shrines in the Holy Land.
That did not please France. France was a Roman Catholic nation and
held that, by a treaty with Turkey, she had the sole right to do whatever

240
protecting was to be done. Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox Chris¬
tians of that day could not work together, so they went to war. Moham¬
medan subjects of the Sultan, if they thought of it, must have found it
strange to see two so-called Christian nations squabbling over the holy
shrines of their religion, which taught peace and good will on earth.
England was drawn into war for a practical reason. Far better for

her that the sick man of Europe” hold on to life, than that Russia gain
so much power in Turkey as to possibly interfere with her main route
to India. So France and England, and also little Piedmont (for reasons
not yet disclosed) , became allies of Turkey, and in 1854 declared war on
Russia and sent off their boys to die in the Crimea.

The siege of Sevastopol, Russia’s stronghold on that Black Sea

peninsula, was one of the great events of the war. The other, made
famous by Tennyson, occurred at Balaklava. There, in an effort to recover
some guns captured by the Russians, an officer had blundered and sent
the Light Brigade charging to certain death.

Half a league, half a league, "Forward, the Light Brigade!

Half a league onward,
Charge for the guns!” he said.
All in the valley of Death Into the valley of Death
Rode the six hundred. Rode the six hundred.

Tennyson, at nome in England, could imagine only the glory of the

charge. He was not on the battlefield. Young Tolstoy was there in the
thick of it, at Sevastopol. And although he served bravely, he questioned
why. He told how the French and Russian soldiers hobnobbed together
like friends during the truce to allow the dead to be buried. "Then,”
said he, "the white flags are lowered again, the engines of war are sound¬
ing again, again the air is filled with moans and curses.”
Florence Nightingale, too, heard those moans and curses. As a
trained nurse, she could almost hear them in London when she read in
the London times that no sufficient preparations had been made for the

care of the wounded. "Not only are there not sufficient surgeons,” the
241
article continued. "There are no nurses. There is not even linen to make
bandages. Not only are the men kept in some cases for a week without the
hand of a medical man coming near them, but many are brought down
three days after the battle without their wounds having even been

washed. Most of them have died from want of proper care.”

Into this horror went Florence Nightingale, the first woman nurse
to serve in war. With thirty-seven nurses she sailed from London for
the Crimea, four days after the Charge of the Light Brigade. With her
courageous spirit, her skill as a nurse, her executive ability, she set to
work with furious energy to establish order and bring comfort to thou¬
sands of these stricken soldiers. To them she appeared like an angel of
mercy. They even blessed her shadow thrown by the lamp she carried as
she went her rounds during the long hours of the night.
The story of her heroic service spread. Far off in his quiet study in
Massachusetts Longfellow wrote of her:

"Lo! in that house of misery

A lady with a lamp I see
Pass through the glimmering gloom

And flit from room to room.”

The war ended with the siege of Sevastopol. Before that, Nicholas I
had died, so it was with his son Alexander II that the treaty of peace was
signed. What the war accomplished is difficult to see.
The Sultan was made to promise that he would treat his Christian

subjects better, but later didn’t keep his word. For making that promise,
however, Turkey, hitherto looked upon as a barbarous nation, was ad¬
mitted to the European family of states.
Napoleon III also came out in higher standing among the kings
Host to the peace commissioners who met in Paris, victorious foe of
powerful Russia, intimate and trusted ally of England, he was quite the
man of the day in Europe ... at least a man to be reckoned with. He
and Eugenie were even on visiting terms with Victoria and Albert.

242
 FAMILIES AND FRIENDS

ow STRANGE,” thought Victoria, "that I, the granddaughter of

George III, should be dancing with the Emperor Napoleon III,

nephew of England’s greatest enemy, and in the Waterloo

Room! And to think that only six years ago he was living in

this country an exile, poor and unthought of.”

It was the evening of the court ball, which she and Prince Albert
were giving in honor of Napoleon III and Eugenie on their first visit

to England as Emperor and Empress. It had been Albert’s idea to invite

them. He had met Louis Napoleon at Boulogne a few months before and
been rather well impressed by him, and also pleased to discover that he
spoke German even better than English.
Eugenie had been thrilled, but distinctly awed at the prospect of
the important visit. It had been a foggy day when they arrived in London.
As they drove across town and Louis243Napoleon pointed out to her the
house where he had lived when there in exile, she felt even less sure of

herself as an Empress. The Queen’s natural, cordial greeting when they

 I

reached Windsor Castle that evening put her more at ease, but what
despair was hers when, upon going to her room to dress for dinner, she
discovered that her trunks had not arrived!

"I knew that fog was a bad sign,” she moaned. "What shall I do?”
"\bu might pretend to have a sick headache and stay in bed,” was
her husband’s not too helpful suggestion.
One of the ladies-in-waiting, however, saved the situation by offer¬
ing a "little blue silk” of hers with the full crinoline skirt, which Eugenie
wore and in which the Queen thought she looked very charming. In fact,

Victoria was altogether pleased with Eugenie, who was "so gentle, grace¬
ful and kind,” she said, "and so modest and retiring.”
Napoleon III also pleased his hostess, who felt that there was "some¬
thing so fascinating, melancholy and engaging about him.”
The guests spent a week and, in August, Albert and Victoria went
to Paris to return the visit, taking with them Vicky, the princess Royal,
in a pretty bonnet, and the Prince of Wales dressed in a Scotch plaid suit.
Cheering crowds, bands playing God Save the Queen , signs of welcome

enthusiastically misspelled with two Ts,” greeted England’s royal lady.

It was the first time a ruler of England had set foot in France for over
four hundred years. The weather was extremely hot but Victoria, holding
aloft a small green parasol, wanted to see everything that there was to
see, both historical and gay.
It was a rainy day when they visited the tomb of Napoleon. Out¬
side the thunder rolled, while inside the wavering torches of the guards
lighted the gloom. Victoria was moved to tears, and made the Prince
of Wales kneel by the tomb of that man who, when alive, had been
England’s greatest enemy!
"Strange and wonderful,” she thought it was. "As if in this tribute
to a dead foe, old enmities were wiped out forever between the two great

nations.”
The visit ended with a ball in the Hall of Mirrors at Versai
lles, a
244
dazzling affair of diamonds and jewels, bare shoulders, gold-
trimmed
uniforms, wide tilting skirts, full beards and astonishing mousta
chios.
Dressed in a pure white uniform was a huge German with a smooth-
shaven chin, but a bushy red moustache, who bowed deeply to England’s
Queen as he was presented. Herr von Bismarck, the Prussian minister at
Frankfort. It was their first meeting.

"She is unsympathetic towards me,” thought the shrewd man, and

if he thought so, she was. Certainly she would have been more so had

she known then how "unsympathetic,” to put it lightly, he was to be

towards her Vicky, who was so soon to go to Prussia as a bride.
Vicky was almost sixteen. As soon as the Paris visit was over and

they were home again, the son of Prussia’s warlike Prince Wilhelm, who
had visited the Great Exhibition with his father, came to England to pay

another visit. Vicky’s engagement to him was then arranged. Both fam¬
ilies were very happy, feeling that the marriage would be a strong bond
between Prussia and England.
In January, 1858, the marriage took place, and a year later, in Berlin,

Vicky’s son was born. Victoria’s first grandchild — "dear little William,”
she called him, little knowing that he was to become Kaiser Wilhelm II,
as great an enemy of England as Napoleon I.

"Strange and wonderful” it is indeed how old enmities are wiped

out and new ones arise.

245
 These first years following the visit to Paris seemed especially full
of births, engagements and marriages of especial interest. The year before
"Vicky” was married, her youngest sister was born, making Victoria and
Albert’s family of four sons and five daughters complete.
In 1856 a son, the Prince Imperial, had been born to the Empress
Eugenie and Napoleon III.

That same spring Victoria learned of dear Charlotte’s engagement

to the charming Archduke Maximilian of Austria.

Charlotte was the daughter of Uncle Leopold. She was an attractive,

very intelligent girl, whose face was made almost beautiful by her large
dark eyes, which were not brown, but an unusual shade of green, and
fringed with long black lashes. Seventeen, she had been dreaming of a
romantic future, but at the same time fearful that, for the sake of politics,
she might have to marry some one very ugly, when lo and behold! Prince
Charming himself appeared upon the scene, the Archduke Maximilian!
Extremely blond, divinely tall, and almost handsome, Maximilian,
who was then twenty- five, had always been the favorite brother of Franz
Josef, although since Franzi had become Emperor he seemed to care for

nothing outside of his empire and "Sisi.”

In the spring of 1856, Maximilian had set out on a tour of the Euro¬
pean capitals to find himself a wife, not that he wanted to. His mother
insisted upon it, to get him away from a bewitching Hungarian Countess,
with whom he had been so impractical as to fall in love.
Making it also a pleasure jaunt, Maximilian went first to Paris,
where he spent twelve enchanting days, and wrote home with great
246
 enthusiasm of the improvements being made
there by Napoleon III. Old
tenements were being torn down, and an arch
itect was transforming the
narrow, crooked streets into broad, beautifu
l boulevards. The Emperor
himself did not appeal to Maximilian.

His stubby stature,” he wrote Franz Jose

f, "his shuffling walk,
ugly hands, sly inquisitive glance, make a most unga
inly impression. His
interest in every attractive female is also beco
ming notorious, and will
greatly diminish his prestige as a sovereign.”
Eugenie, he had to admit, was "undeniably beaut
iful” — Eugenie,
who was to help bring about that fine young Maxi
milian’s tragic death
and the even worse fate of poor little Charlotte.
Charlotte had fallen in love with the young
Austrian at first sight,
and in spite of himself those wonderful eyes of
hers cast their spell upon
Maximilian. He could not forget them when he left.
Upon his return to
Vienna, therefore, the marriage was arranged.
As a wedding settlement, Franz Josef had decided
to give Maxi¬
milian his two northern provinces of Italy— Lomb
ardy and Venetia.
A month before their marriage in Belgium,
the young Austrian
bridegroom crossed to England to visit his new "Cousin Victo
ria,” who
promptly wrote to Uncle Leopold how much they liked him.

"He is so charming,” she wrote, "so kind and amiab

le,
his feelings, and so anxious for the best understanding betwso English in
een Austria
and England. I wish you really joy, dearest Uncle, at havi
ng got such a
husband for dear Charlotte ... He may and will do
a great deal for
Italy” . . .
For Italy? The Archduke Maximilian wanted sincerely
to do a
great deal for Italy and, when they went to live there, Charlotte
so fell
in love with the sunny land that she even changed her name to
the Italian
Carlotta. Both felt that they would be happy to stay on foreve
r in the
Palazzo at Milan. But it was to be only two years before Maximilian
and
Carlotta would have to pick up their 24things
7 and flee!
For in two years the Italians, aided this time by France, were to
be
at war with Austria . . . fighting again for independence.
 "viva l’italia!”

One fine day in July, 1858, riding in a nat y car iage along
one of the airy mountain roads outside of a health resort in
eastern France, two men had been planning that war of Italy
and France against Austria. The one with the pointed, waxed
moustache who held the reins and did the driving was our friend Napo¬
leon III. Beside him sat a portly man, wearing small steel-rimmed spec¬
tacles on a large round face. He was Cavour, Count Emile Cavour, Prime
Minister of Piedmont, one of the sanest men and cleverest diplomats in
Europe. He had come incognito for this secret meeting with Napoleon III
with the single purpose of gaining his help for Italy. He did not intend
to return to Piedmont without news for his King, Victor Emmanuel, that
the arrangements were complete.

248
 Count Cavour was an upright man. He did not like dealin
g with
Napoleon III, who had broken a solemn vow in order to become Em¬
peror, but he had long felt that the help of France was necessary to Pied¬
mont. So three years before he had laid the groundwork for this meetin
g,
by sending Italian troops to help France in the Crimean War. That was a
subtle way of reminding the French Emperor of his old promise to
help
Italy. Many years before Louis Napoleon had made this vow:

"When I shall preside over the destinies of France, I shall

support
with all my strength the claims of Italy to become a nation.”
Then he was a French exile helping Italy fight for freedom,
and
then, no doubt, intended to keep that promise. As Emperor, however, it
seemed that he had changed his mind, or else forgotten about it.
An excitable young Italian, in fact, had so brooded over this forget¬
fulness of Napoleon III that, only six months before, he had tried to
assassinate him. Unsuccessful, the Italian had gone to his death warning
the fickle Emperor with his last breath not to break his vow to Italy.
All things considered, then, it seemed to the little man who did the
driving that afternoon that the time had come to fulfill his promise. But,
as protector of the peace of Europe, he could do so only if it was plain
to see that he was helping a weaker nation against an aggressor. There¬
fore he said he would help Piedmont, provided only that Austria could
be made to take the first hostile step.
Count Cavour agreed to that proviso. It would not be very difficult
to bring about, though it might take a little time. He bade Napoleon III
adieu, went home to Piedmont and sent out a message.
It brought results. One day early in 1859 his servant reported that
a blond man in a red blouse and an embroidered cap was at the door,
asking to see him, but refusing to give his name.

"Let the poor devil in,” said Cavour. "No doubt he has some petition
to present,” and when Garibaldi entered he closed the door behind them
and explained his plan for provoking 24Austria.
9
Soon thereafter what appeared to be a spontaneous uprising of
Italian soldiers occurred all over northern Italy, with the great adven-
turous Garibaldi at their head. Austria was on the alert immediately.

"Disarm those soldiers at once,” came the cold positive order from
Austria to Piedmont in the name of the Emperor Franz Josef.
Piedmont refused. Austria, seeing therefore that she would have to
disarm the Italians herself, sent troops over the border into Piedmont,
thus taking, as Cavour had planned, the first hostile step. It was then up
to Victor Emmanuel to take the next one; he was ready.
Victor Emmanuel, King of Piedmont, was a rough, brusque, cour¬
ageous man, and very level-headed. His feet were firmly planted on the
ground, while his moustache swooped boldly across his face like the
handlebars of a bicycle, and his voice had force behind it.

"People of Italy,” he now proclaimed, "Austria assails Piedmont.

I can with free conscience take up arms to defend my throne and the
liberties of the whole nation. "Viva l’ltalia!”
Victor Emmanuel then met Napoleon III at Genoa, and they
went off to the front together. At the same time, Franz Josef left Vienna.
The old Austrian commander who had put down the former Italian up¬
risings had died, and since there seemed no one to take his place, Franz
Josef, inexperienced though he was, felt that the duty was his.
Emperors and King therefore were approaching each other. So too
Were their soldiers. The Italians and French were well-trained, seasoned
troops from the Crimea, equipped with modern weapons.
The Austrians, who hadn’t fought a war in forty years, came to this
one decked out gorgeously in "brass helmets, white coats, green plumes
and cockades, maroon capes and silver bayonets,” and carrying weapons
so antiquated that they belonged in a museum.

"Surprising,” Napoleon wrote Eugenie, "that they aren’t still wear¬

ing powdered wigs!”
Eugenie, the Empress, was in Paris, acting as Regent during her hus¬

band’s absence and praying devoutly every day for the success of his ex¬
pedition. In Vienna "Sisi” was also praying for the safety and success
of her handsome Franz Josef, and writing him wild, tearful letters. In

reply he would beg his "dear dear only angel Sisi” not to despair.
250
 "That one must bear trials with resignation and do one’s
duty in all
things.” . . .
He wrote those words after the battle of magenta,
which was a
smashing defeat for Austria, and such a complete victory
for France and
Italy that the Italians sang with joy, and in Paris the modis
tes began to
feature a new shade of bluish red, calling it "Magenta”!
The battle of Solferino was another great victo
ry for Italy and
France, and another dreadful defeat for Austria. One of the
worst battles
of the century; 40,000 out of 260,000 men were killed.
From opposing
hills, in a blazing July sun, the two emperors watched the dread
ful
slaughter, Franz Josef stoically. Not so, Napoleon III. The
sight of
blood nauseated him. He had had enough. Also in his pocke
t was a note
from Eugenie which made him worry about his own affairs.
So at once, after that great victory at Solferino, without a single
word
to his ally, Napoleon III asked Franz Josef to meet him across the
river
at Villa Franca and arrange for peace. There the French Emper
or in¬
formed the Austrian that Lombardy must go to Piedmont,
he might keep
Venetia, after which, bidding him a jaunty ciu^-wiedcYseheYi
and giving
a twist to his waxed moustachios, Napoleon III was off for Paris.
His
part in this war was over.
Cavour, Garibaldi, Victor Emmanuel, who were working for but
one cause, the union and freedom of their country, were aghast at
Napo¬
leon s treachery. Cavour, ill from overwork, Garibaldi frantic with
anger, both rushed to Victor Emmanuel and threatened to resign. The
King was enraged as they were, but his feet were more firmly planted
on the ground.

"No!” said he. "We have gained much. Italians must

neither lay
down their arms nor be discouraged.”
So the fight for freedom in Italy went on.
In the spring of i860, Garibaldi set out with his legion of a thousand
Red Shirts on what was to be his most famous expedition. Secretly,
on
the night of May fifth, they sailed from Genoa for Sicily to conquer that
island, to set it free from its despotic ruler, and to make it part of a united

251
 only
Italy. Sicily was guarded by an army of 50,000 men. Garibaldi had
1000 and scantily equipped, but in less than a month they had accom¬
a
plished their purpose. The King had fled, the island was free! It was
remarkable feat, a true adventure more daring and amazing than even

those invented by Garibaldi’s author friend for the "Three Musketeers”!

Strangely enough, that very author was there with Garibaldi in
Sicily. It happened that three days after the Red Shirts left Genoa, Alex¬
andre Dumas, the great rollicking French genius, with his warm heart
and mop of kinky hair inherited from his Negro grandmother, had sailed
into the harbor at Genoa aboard his new play boat the Emma.
He was bound for the Orient, but hearing the news, followed in the
wake of more exciting adventure. So there he was standing in a balcony
in Palermo, Sicily, waving a banner, as Garibaldi came marching in from
a glorious expedition, followed by the victorious Red Shirts singing
through the streets. It was a thrilling sight.

"Oh! if you could only have been with me on this balcony,” wrote
Dumas in a letter to his old friend, his "dear, dear Victor Hugo.”
From Sicily, Garibaldi crossed to the mainland and captured Naples.
On November first he welcomed Victor Emmanuel and gallantly, nobly,
declining all honors, like a knight of old, laid liberated Sicily and Naples

at his sovereign’s feet. So with Garibaldi holding it, Victor Emmanuel,

Italy’s first King, shoved his foot firmly into the boot of the peninsula.
Venice and the country immediately surrounding Rome still remained
co be liberated, but otherwise Italy was at last a free and united nation.
It was a great victory, in which each of four men had played his part.
mazzini, the idealist, who had sounded the first cry (and now
came home from a long exile in London) ;
cavour, the practical statesman, who faced facts as they were;
garibaldi, the adventurer and soldier; and

VICTOR EMMANUEL, the level-headed King.

Well might they cry now, those four patriots, "Viva l’ltalia!”

252
 THE DEVIL’S WIND

‘n England the summer of 1857, a new medal, the Victoria Cross, was
just being awarded to heroes from the Crimea who had fought to

protect England’s route to India, when suddenly from India came

shocking news of a rebellion. A Sepoy Rebellion, a revolt of the native
soldiers, or sepoys, that had been caused by a new type of rifles recently
sent out from London. The Indians would not use them. The cartridges
were greased with beef tallow and lard, so they refused to bite off the
patches with their teeth. And who could blame them, when to taste the
fat of the sacred cow or the foul pig would render them outcaste and
damn their souls forever?
The British officers in India, knowing the belief of the Hindus,
might very easily have seen to it in the first place, that another grease
was used, and so avoided the trouble. They did not. Therefore, the

"Devil’s Wind," as the natives called it, had begun to blow. In the mili¬
tary report the officers spoke of it as a "mutiny.”
Mr. Disraeli, however, in a speech to Parliament described it as a
national revolt, citing causes which in his opinion justified it.
The rule of the East India Trading Company was generally known
to be far from perfect. And it was by this trading company, never directly
by the English government, that India253 had been ruled for the past hun¬
dred years. Just a hundred years it was since the English General Clive
had defeated the French, driven them out and established England as
supreme. According to an old prophecy, one hundred years after that
victory, in 1757, the power of the English East India Trading Company
would be overthrown. It was now 1857.
One hundred years had passed. Ten years more than the life of old
Shah Mohammed Bahadour, who now, in his ninetieth year, was still
living with his tremendous family in the rose-red palace beside the Jumna
River in ancient Delhi. But when he was gone, his sons would no longer
live there, so the British had decreed.
Therefore the old man was glad when one morning, from a balcony
overlooking the river, he saw a regiment of mutinous sepoys coming up
from Merrut, where the uprising had begun. He was glad to see them
cross the river on a bridge of boats, circle the walls to the Raj ghat Gate,

and burst into the European quarters with "swords drawn and murder in
their eyes.” From there they rushed down the Street of Silver past the
diamond merchants, with their scarlet teeth, on to the palace fortress.
There they murdered five British officers and took possession of Delhi.
All that pleased old Shah Mohammed Bahadour.
Two hundred miles away at Bithoor on the sacred Ganges, word of
that mutiny also sounded sweet in the ears of a much younger man, one
with strange uneasy eyes. For it was he, Nana Sahib, who now nursed
a grievance there beside the sacred river, instead of his adopted father.
The Peshwa of Poona was dead. He, Nana Sahib, had applied the
torch to his funeral pyre as a son should do, expecting also as a son to

inherit his father’s pension. But the British had refused to pay it. There¬
fore they, the British, had made him no longer a son of his father and,

by so doing, damned his father’s soul for all eternity! And also, do not
forget, deprived him of a fortune!

"Ah!” said he with satisfaction at word of the mutiny in Merrut and

the capture of Delhi. At once he went to Cawnpore and offered his help
to the British commander to protect the English women and children

there in case the mutiny should spread. Nana Sahib’s eyes were shifty,
but his face was round and jovial, and his cordial manner hid the murder
that was in his heart. So the old British commander, who looked
upon all
the natives as "his children,” supposed Nana Sahib was friendly and
accepted his offer, gratefully.
Nana Sahib then brought three hundred of his soldiers into that
city of Cawnpore and caused a massacre of all English men, women and
children. The last few, huddled together in a little dark house known as
the Bee-bee-ghar, were killed at twilight one June night by two Hindu
butchers and dumped into an empty well.
It was all too hideous. So, too, was the revenge taken by the franti¬
cally furious British soldiers, as they came marching up the Ganges,
hanging thousands of innocent people who had taken no part whatever
in the mutiny. The siege of Lucknow was the last chapter in the Sepoy
Rebellion. There kind and wise Sir Henry Lawrence died.

"Until we treat natives as having much the same feelings as we have

ourselves,” he had often said, "we shall never be safe in India.”
That was the way, of course, all sensible people felt. Victoria was
shocked to hear some saying that all natives of India were cruel, and
was happy to hear of the many instances during the trouble when both
Hindus and Mohammedans had shown great kindness and generosity.
The Maharajah of Singh, whom she and Albert had known well for many
years, was, she said, the kindest and most gentle of men.
A little over a year from the time trouble began, the siege of Luck¬
now had been raised, Nana Sahib had fled from Cawnpore, Delhi was

again in English hands, and the Devil’s Wind had ceased to blow. The
rebellion which, if successful, might have been called the Indian War for
Independence was over.
In 1858, a year late, the old prophecy was fulfilled. The government
was transferred from the East India Trading Company to the English
Government. The Proclamation issued by Queen Victoria to announce

that change ended with these words: "It is our further will that our sub¬
jects of whatever race or creed be freely admitted to our service, the duties
255
of which they may be qualified to discharge.”
It would still be another nineteen years before Victoria would be
given the title of Empress of India by Disraeli.
 ABOUT "PEACE” AND FOREIGNERS

For China, the year 1858 was the seventh year in the reign of the
Manchu Emperor Hien Feng. It was also the seventh year of a
revolt to overthrow that Emperor and his Manchu Dynasty — a
ruinous civil war known as the taiping rebellion. Li Hung
Chang was twenty-eight years old at the outbreak of this war and loyal
to the Empire which had educated him. Now one of the foremost scholars
in China, he had been graduated with high honor from Hanlin Academy,
or "Forest of Pencils” at Peking, and the fame of his beautiful handwrit¬
ing had spread throughout the provinces.
His noble and severe father and his mild mother were proud beyond
256
compare that their son had brought such honor to his village. He, too,
was well pleased with his accomplishment and praise. He had memorized
all the Analects of Confucius, he could recite backward or forward whole
volumes of the Classics, and write essays or verses on any subject. In other
words, he had all knowledge ever considered necessary to equip a States¬
man or Scholar in ancient China.
But Li Hung Chang soon realized that all ways of ancient China did
not fit a modern world, and saw that there were other things to learn if
a Chinese statesman was to hold his own among the aggressive foreigners
from the west.

The first foreigners Li Hung Chang came to know well were two
adventurers who took part in the Taiping Rebellion, helped put down
the rebels and prevent the Manchu Dynasty from being overthrown. By
that they actually rendered China a doubtful service.
The Manchu Dynasty had become corrupt, and the government was
rotten to the core. Originally the Manchus were foreigners. The first
emperor, a wild Tartar horseman, had come down from the north and
conquered China about 1640, or the time that European traders had first
come sailing into Chinese waters. To show that they were conquered, he
had decreed that his Chinese subjects must shave their heads, leaving
only a long queue like the tail of his wild horse.

The Manchus had otherwise adopted all of China’s customs, soon

were foreigners no longer, and most Chinese had almost forgotten in
1858 why they wore the pigtail. That is, the Chinese of the north and
central part. The tribes in the mountains of the south had never worn it.
They had never been subdued, always rebellious. And it was there in the
south that the Taiping Rebellion started.
There a secret society had grown strong with the purpose of over¬
throwing the Manchu Dynasty. But their plans were weak and ill de¬
fined, until in 1851 a wild-eyed fanatic had become their leader. The son
of a poor farmer near Canton, he had257studied hard to become a school¬
master, then tried for the Budding Genius Examinations and failed. One
day the disappointed fellow was in Canton, and met a Protestant mis-
 sionary who gave him some literature, which he read so feverishly that he
began to have visions and hallucinations.

"I am the Heavenly Prince, the younger brother of Jesus Christ,”

he told the people of his village. "God the Father urges me to take up
arms against the Manchu Emperor.” And his voice was so strong and
vibrant with emotion that he convinced those people.
A thousand followers started north with him, capturing villages as
they went, and adding to their ranks. They were 100,000 strong when
they reached the mouth of the Yangtse Kiang in 1853 and captured the
city of Nanking.

There, in Nanking, the "Heavenly Prince,” as he called himself,

established his new dynasty, which he called "Taiping” or Great Peace
dynasty. Then as Emperor he sat himself comfortably down in a luxurious
palace, supplied with plenty of rice- wine and concubines, and enjoyed
this "peace” of his while the war continued.
His rebel army of 100,000, plundering and looting as they went, now
set forth in the direction of Peking, the Purple City, where the Manchu
Emperor was still sitting on his Red Dragon Throne.
Then it was that Li Hung Chang entered the Taiping Rebellion
as a soldier, to help put down the rebels and protect the Manchu Em¬
peror. He was in the city when the rebels reached Shanghai. Shanghai
was even then an international city. Many Europeans were
living there,
and when the rebels attacked, French and English sailors came
to the
rescue and drove them off.

Li Hung Chang was impressed with the skill with which they did
it,
and looking about for someone to teach Chinese soldiers those
western
methods, his eye lit upon an American by the name of Ward.
Ward had sailed the world for sixteen years on
Clipper ships, fought
with Garibaldi in Uruguay, and had drifted into
Shanghai, spoiling for
more adventure. He fell in with the idea, and organize
d what he called
his Ever- Victorious- Army.
Carrying a crown in his knapsack, it was said, just in
case he should
be lucky, Ward began to fight the rebels. He was killed.

258
 A British administrator, soon known as "Chinese Gordo
n,” took his
place, and from Gordon, Li Hung Chang, who
had already gained a
healthy respect for foreigners as soldiers, learned that
foreigners could
also be straightforward and trustworthy.
Gordon, to put it bluntly, could not say as much for Li on one
occa¬
sion. But then Li, on that occasion, could not see how
Gordon could be so
impractical. They didn’t get each other’s point of view.
Gordon had promised pardon to seven rebel chiefs,
if they would
surrender. Li Hung Chang knew of that promise, but
nevertheless al¬
low ed the rebels to be tortured and beheaded.
Gordon was perfectly
furious. Li was quite at a loss to understand why, with
so many bandits in
China, Gordon should make such a fuss about the merest
handful.
This handful of bandits, said Li, "would have only retur
ned to the
path of rebellion, and tens of thousands would have suffered
in conse¬
quence. Li Hung Chang had great skill with words.
The Rebellion finally ended after thirteen years with
the capture of
Nanking, suicide of the "Heavenly Prince” and overthrow of
his Tai-
ping Dynasty. Gordon was honored with the Peacock Feather and
a
yellow jacket. Li Hung Chang was made Governor of a provi
nce and
began his career as China’s great diplomat.
And the corrupt Manchu Dynasty was to continue its evil rule
over
China for another fifty years.

So the Taiping Rebellion ended, but in the midst of it, in 1858

the
same year that the Sepoy Rebellion ended in India, France and Engla
nd
pointed their big guns at China, torn by civil war, and forced her
to sign
humiliating treaties.
Treaties were also signed by China with the United States
and
Russia, but less reluctantly, as there were no rankling grieva
nces against
those nations. With France and England 2 59 it was a different
story.
France wanted a chunk of Indo-China, and so claimed
that the
Chinese had killed a French missionary and should be "taught a lesson
.”
 England and China had had a sharp argument as to whether the
crew of a ship called the Arrow, who the Chinese said were pirates,
should be tried by the British at Hong Kong, or by the Chinese Viceroy
at Canton. The latter, growing weary of the many words, had chopped
off some heads, which ended the pirates but not the argument.
Thus matters stood when representatives of the United States and
Russia joined with those from France and England to secure better
trade agreements with China The four met with the Chinese Viceroy at
Chihli and drew up four similar treaties which were sent on to Peking.
The American and Russian treaties came back shortly, signed and

approved by the Emperor.

England and France received no word. They asked why and re¬
ceived no answer. An envoy tried in vain to reach Peking. Forts at the
mouth of the river fired on English ships. An American, offering to act
as go-between, made his way to Peking, and asked to see the Emperor.
If he did, he was told that he must perform the kowtow, that is bow
down before the Emperor and beat his head nine times upon the floor,
which the American naturally refused to do, and left.
China, therefore, having unceremoniously slammed the door in the
face of Europe, was to have it smashed in by force.
The following summer of i860 found British and French soldiers
marching through the gates and into the Purple City of Peking, from

which the Emperor had fled. Then to "teach the Chinese a lesson’’ they
went north, and, behaving like the barbarians they were supposed to be,

ruthlessly burned the Emperor’s beautiful summer palace to the ground.

Needless to say, the treaties were signed by which:

4*
Envoys of foreign nations were allowed to reside in Peking.

& Foreign merchants might travel anywhere in China, ships trade all
along the coast and even inland up the rivers.

The sale of opium was made legal.

260
 Naturally many Chinese were furious and cried for revenge. They
still believed that China was a powerful nation, as it had been in the
ancient days. They still cherished the idea that outside barbarians should
be glad to kowtow before the Dragon Throne.
Li Hung Chang, however, was not so deceived. Quick as ever to
learn his lessons, he saw facts as they were. A few years later, when he
held a more responsible position, he expressed his views in a recom¬
mendation to the Emperor.

"The truth is,” he said, "that at present foreigners are powerful and
China is weak. If we are to cherish a feeling of revenge, it will be
necessary to wait until we have large armies and abundant supplies to
cope with them. ... It is often said that
foreigners are crafty and malign and full
of unexpected tricks. But is it not the fact
that Chinese are the same, perhaps even
more so?

"The humble opinion of this writer is

that in conducting affairs with foreigners
one should avoid exciting their contempt.
If they feel respect for China, even difficult
questions can be settled by compromise.
Not foreigners alone, but all persons are
influenced by this feeling. It moves the
minds of the whole human race.”
And so Li Hung Chang, China’s great
statesman of the nineteenth century, said

what China’s great teacher Confucius had

told ancient China 2500 years before:
"By nature all men are much alike, by
custom only they grow wide apart,” or in
other words —

"Men of the four seas are brothers. ...”

261
 SHRINKING THE WORLD

China was now opened to the world. Europeans were living in

Shanghai. Factories, railroads and telegraph lines were being
built in India. European traders had greater need than ever
for a shorter route to the Far East, but still, as thirty years
before, there was no canal across the Isthmus of Suez. Though Ferdinand
de Lesseps still cherished the dream of building that great international
river, his plans were not yet realized.
Mohammed Said, the fat boy who so loved macaroni, was now Vice¬
roy of Egypt. He had approved the plan of his good friend, and offered

large sums from Egypt’s treasury, but, alas, the necessary consent could
not be gained from his overlord, the Sultan of Turkey.

Certain politicians who happened to be in control of England’s

foreign policy at the time were whispering in the Sultan’s ear.
"Don’t do it,” they said. "Tou’ll regret it. Egypt may grow strong
enough to secede from your Empire, or be taken by France.”
What they actually feared was that in some way or other that canal

might endanger England’s route to India. All English statesmen were not
262
so narrow-minded. Gladstone for one, declared himself utterly disgusted.
''Nothing could be more deplorable than their attitude,” said he in
the House of Commons. "No one casting his eyes over the globe can deny
that a canal through the Isthmus of Suez must be a great step towards the
welfare of the whole world.”
That didn’t stop the opposition.
In France, too, de Lesseps struck a snag. Napoleon III couldn’t make
up his mind whether to support the plan wholeheartedly or not.
De Lesseps appealed to the Empress Eugenie, who was his cousin,
to use her influence upon the Emperor. And for years he kept his carpet¬
bag packed, and traveled constantly back and forth from Cairo to Lon¬
don, to Constantinople, to Paris, to Cairo again and back to London,
talking with everyone in authority who might help him in the great
undertaking in which he had such faith.
Finally his persistence and faith were rewarded. The House of Com¬
mons voted its consent. The Emperor 2Napoleon
63 III promised his support.
The people of France bought bonds to supply the funds necessary in
addition to those provided by Mohammed Said. And in 1859, the first
shovelful of shifting yellow sand was lifted from the Isthmus and the
building of the canal begun. Even then some people said it could never
be accomplished. Mud from the Mediterranean would fill it up as fast as
they dug it out. Robert Stephenson, son of the engine designer, who pre¬
ferred a railroad across Egypt, said that the canal was a crazy scheme
that could only end in ruin!
But then, people were also saying at that very time that no telegraph
cable could ever be laid across the Atlantic Ocean. The Suez Canal would
be dug and the Atlantic Cable would be laid, and each because of the
faith and determination of a single man. . . .
Cyrus Field, an American business man, was responsible for the
Atlantic Cable. The year that De Lesseps gained the support of Moham¬
med Said, Cyrus Field started to organize his Atlantic Cable Company,
with Peter Cooper, the engine builder, as president. Then he raised funds
for the work, engaged engineers and prepared the cable.
In 1857, two ships met in mid-ocean, one American, and one Eng¬
lish, spliced the ends of their cables together, then gradually unwinding
them, sailed back towards the opposite shores. The cable broke. Another
attempt was made. Another failure.
Finally, the great wire rope was successfully unwound, and on
August 16, 1858, the first message by telegraph went between England
and America, to the great joy of those who had accomplished it. Their
joy soon faded. The sounds grew weaker, and in October stopped en¬
tirely. The insulation, it seemed, had been burned off by using too strong
an electric current. The work had to be done again.

"No use to try,” most people said. "Plain to see it can’t be done.”
Cyrus Field thought it could. Undaunted he started in again, and for
another eight years, while Ferdinand de Lesseps was digging away to
shorten distance between Europe and Asia, Cyrus Field was working to
shorten time and space between Europe and America. Also at that same
time there was effort being made to 2shorten
64 the distance across America
from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Everywhere it seemed, men were trying
to squeeze the world and make it smaller.
 It took fifteen days to send a message by steamship from New 'York
to London in 1859. It took twice as long, a month, for a letter from New
\ork to reach San Francisco, sent the usual way by ship to Panama, over¬
land across the isthmus, and by ship again up the western coast. Mail
could go overland, across the continent, but the time was almost the same,
and it was less sure to get there.
The railroad carried it as far west as Missouri. Telegraph wires had
also reached Missouri. From there on, letters and messages were carried
by the swaying, rattling stagecoaches of the Overland Mail Company,
which went in the general direction of the old Santa Fe Trail to New

Mexico, on to Los Angeles and up to San Francisco. A twenty-two days’

trip. The letter might arrive and it might not, depending upon whether
or not the coach was held up by bandits or attacked by Indians.

Californians, especially those lucky "Forty-Niners” who had about

everything that gold could buy except fresh news from "home” were
clamoring for speedier mail service. The same demand came from Colo¬
rado where gold had been discovered near Pike’s Peak in 1859, and from
Nevada where the great "Bonanza” silver mine had just been opened up.
They also wanted news and better transportation.
Back in Congress it was being discussed. Jefferson Davis suggested
using camels, and seventy-five were imported from Arabia. A stagecoach
owner in Kansas had a more practical suggestion.

"Why not have horseback riders carry the mail in saddlebags?”

That suggestion caught on, ponies were rounded up, boys hired to
ride them, and relay stations established every twenty-five miles or less,
between Missouri and California. And in April, i860, the first mail left
Sacramento for the East and from St. Joseph, Missouri, for the West on
the PONY EXPRESS.
With each rider making about seventy miles a day, at a speed of
fifteen miles an hour, jumping from one to another of six ponies, and at
the end of his run hurling his mail bags
265 to the next, the mail was raced
across the 2000 miles of Indian country from the Missouri River to the
Pacific Ocean in nine days. Nine instead of twenty-two!
 Meanwhile a thin line of telegraph poles, which would replace the
Pony Express in two years, was creeping out from either end.
There was also much talk of building a transcontinental railroad.
That would be a tremendous undertaking.

''They’ll never get it over the Rocky Mountings,” came the voice of
the chronic can’t-doers.
But that too, like the building of the Suez Canal, was to be accom¬
plished, and only three years after the Atlantic cable was successfully laid.
In the spring of 1869, the first locomotive would make the trip across
the continent, and six months later the first ship would sail through the
Suez Canal.

BLOODY KANSAS

A fourteen-year-old Kansas boy named Bill Cody, later

known
as Buffalo Bill, held the record for the longest run
ever made
on the Pony Express. Three hundred twenty miles
in twenty-
l YYone hours on twenty horses. Bill had been born in Iowa, but
had
been brought out to Kansas by his family when
he was seven. Just over
the Missouri River and a few miles out along
the Salt Lake trail from
266
Leavenworth, Kansas, Bill’s father, Isaac Cody, ran an Indian trading
post. That is, he had, until he got stabbed in the back with a bowie knife
by a border ruffian from Missouri. For he had dared to say, Isaac Cody
had, that he was an Abolitionist and didn’t want to see any slaves in
Kansas. That was dangerous talk in 1854, for that year Congress had
passed the Kansas-Nebraska Act.
Two years before when they left Iowa, the Codys had no idea that
there would be any row in Kansas over slavery, or that Kansas would

soon be made into a territory. There weren’t enough white folks in that
Indian country, no more than eight hundred in the entire region, and
none of them had slaves. Besides, Kansas was free territory, because it
was north of the slavery line set by the Missouri Compromise. So there’d
been no talk about it— not until this new law was passed and then there
was "hell to pay’’ in Kansas!
Politicians down in Washington, it seemed, had decided to make
Kansas and Nebraska into territories and let the people who lived
there decide themselves by vote whether they should be free or slave.
Soon the land was swarming with emigrants, both North and South
making a frantic effort to fill up the country and control the vote. Out
from Boston came bands of New Englanders with abolition books and

rifles. The southern planters didn’t move so easily, so border ruffians from
the slave state of Missouri acted for them. As soon as free-soilers from
Iowa, Illinois, Ohio, put up a cluster of tents or cabins, over the river
from Missouri would come rough men in red shirts with bowie knives in
the top of their boots, and stake out their claims to land with whiskey
bottles stuck in upside-down.
One gang emptied too many of those whiskey bottles on a certain
night and, swaggering forth, destroyed half of a new town built by

northern settlers. That so raised the blood of "old John Brown,” lately
come from Iowa, that he and his sons killed five pro-slavery men on
Pottawatomie Creek. Then with the fire of a crusader in his eye, "old
John” headed east for ammunition to carry on his "holy” war.
Meanwhile down in Congress, Stephen A. Douglas, the Illinois
Senator who had proposed the Kansas-Nebraska Act, was bidding his
countrymen rejoice. That act, turning over to the people of Kansas the
right to vote whether it should be free or slave, had banished, he said,

forever the dreadful question of slavery "from the Hall of Congress to

the prairies of the west.”
Far from banishing the question, however, the Kansas-Nebraska Act
roused the entire country and so divided Congress, Democrats and
Whigs, over the question of slavery as to make any further compromise
between North and South impossible. It also brought before the nation
the great country lawyer who was to lead in the final struggle.
Nine years Abraham Lincoln had been practicing law in Springfield
and riding the circuit in Illinois, with no desire to return to politics until
the Kansas-Nebraska Act gave him the incentive. The night that he and
Judge Davis had been discussing it, he did not sleep. He sat on the edge
of the bed, a tragic figure even in his clumsy yellow night-shirt.
"I tell you,” he said, "this nation cannot exist half slave and half
free. But the problem is too great for me. May God in his mercy superin¬
tend the solution of it.”
Then while the Judge slept, Lincoln sat staring into the darkness
reviewing all that he knew and had seen of slavery since his first trip to
New Orleans. Sat until the cold gray river dawn came in through the
window. Then he had decided, come what may, he must speak the truth
on the problem as he understood it.
When Douglas returned to Illinois and tried to justify his Kansas-
Nebraska Act to the people, Lincoln was ready to meet him, and de¬
nounced that Act which helped the spread of slavery.
Lincoln did not intend to do away with slavery in the southern States
where it already existed. He did not think it was yet possible, but he
firmly believed that it must not be allowed, even by vote of the people,
to spread any farther.
As Whig candidate for the Senate, he went down in the election
with the general ruin of that party. The new Republican party then rose
to take its place, and two years later when Douglas ran for re-election,

268
Abraham Lincoln opposed him, as the candidate for the Republicans.
Now he spoke with ever greater firmness, for now the Dred Scott
decision had been handed down. By it the Supreme Court so upheld the
cause of slavery that Lincoln felt its advancing shadow fall on the entire
nation. For now a man might take his slave, like any other property, into
any territory! That had been the decision in the trial of the Negro slave
Dred Scott. According to that, not in any territory, even by vote of the
people, could the spread of slavery be stopped.

But if it be not stopped,” said Lincoln, "its advocates will push it

forward till it shall become alike lawful in all the states, old as well as
new, North as well as South; for this nation, I believe, cannot perma¬
nently endure half slave and half free. A house divided against itself
cannot stand; it will become all one thing or all another. ...” And
which was it to be? That was the serious question which Lincoln chal¬
lenged Douglas to answer in the summer of 1858 in a series of debates
that were to become famous in American history. . . .
The Lincoln-Douglas Debates took place in seven little towns in
Illinois. For each one, huge crowds came from the surrounding country¬

side. On the night before, their

campfires could be seen for miles
across the prairies. Next day, as they
gathered around the rude wooden
platform, there v/as all the gayety
and hubbub of a county fair, with
bands playing and fakers peddling
their wares.
But when the speakers appeared

the hubbub subsided, while the peo- -

pie watched the two men take their
seats, compact Stephen Douglas, only live feet three, and long, gawky
Lincoln, six feet four. Silent and intent, they listened as first one and
then the other spoke.
Senator Douglas would step forward, well groomed, graceful, sure
of himself, a brilliant man with a success behind him and the possibility
of being President ahead. And with his eye on that possibility, and in the
hope of offending no one, he would speak. Adroitly he would lead his
hearers around and about the unpleasant subject, "saying nothing in a
great many words,” but holding the crowd spellbound by the resonance
of his voice and his liquid-flowing sentences.
Then Lincoln would rise. Tall, ungainly, awkward, he would step
slowly forward, hesitate over the first few sentences in his high thin voice.
Then the words would come, plain, honest forceful words that any man
could understand, with homely anecdotes that struck straight and fairly
at the truth, for to him the Truth was all that mattered.
In the last debate he took the broadest view. This struggle, he said,

was but part of the eternal struggle in which "right and wrong had stood
face to face since the beginning of time.” "You work and toil and earn
bread, and I’ll eat it.” Those, he said, were the words of slavery, no matter
whether said by a king to his people or by one nation or race who sought
to enslave another.

And so ended the famous debates between Douglas, the "little

Giant, ’ and Abe, "the Giant Killer.” Most famous of them all was the
debate at Freeport, where Douglas, in order to please Illinois and win
the state election, was forced to answer a question put to him by Lincoln
in a way that completely antagonized the South and split the Democratic
party. Reported in newspapers all over the country, the debates, especially
this one, put the name of Lincoln, the back country lawyer, before the
nation. Invitations to speak came to him from many northern states, and
Republicans of Illinois began to mention him as their candidate for
President, in the i860 election.

In the winter of 1859, after some hesitation about facing an eastern

audience, Lincoln accepted an invitation to speak in Henry Ward
270
Beecher s church in Brooklyn. Then, on arriving, he found that he was
to speak before an even larger audience at Cooper Union in New York.
So he spent two more days going over his speech and perfecting it.
It was the most distinguished audience he had ever had to face, and
when he stood before them that night he felt keenly, as always, his
lack
of education, and for the first time was conscious of his wrinkled and ill-
fitting clothes. For in that gathering were such men as the publisher
Horace Greeley and most of the city’s leading citizens. Somewhere also,
no doubt, was a staunch young Republican by the name of Roosevelt,
then the father of a year-old baby boy called Theodore. Mien of culture
they were and education, waiting curiously to pass judgment on this
country debater who had suddenly risen in the West. They heard his
first hesitating sentence uttered in a high voice in which a slow Kentucky
drawl mingled with the twang of the Middle West. Then his words came
more easily. The audience became interested, stimulated, and then lost in
admiration at the simple logic, the perfect phrasing, the honesty and fair¬
ness of his entire speech which ended with this challenge, in which lay
his strength:

"Let us have faith that right makes might; and in that faith let us, to
the end, dare to do our duty as we understand it.”
Courage and understanding. Not all people can have both.

Only that fall, in Virginia, poor "old John Brown” from bleeding
Kansas had dared to the end to do what seemed to him his duty, lacking
not in courage, but in understanding. With a few bewildered followers

he had attempted to seize the United States arsenal at Harper’s Ferry in

the confused idea that he might so liberate the slaves.
United States soldiers under Colonel Robert E. Lee put down the
attempt. John Brown was tried and executed. . . . But "his soul went
marching on,” so sang the Abolitionists of New England, for to them he
was a martyr. The people of the South called him a murderer. To Lincoln
he was only a misguided and peculiar case. A fanatic, he had but driven
deeper the wedge of bitter feeling that now had almost split the North
and South apart. . . .
271
 y?»

OPENING JAPAN

' n the spring of i860, shortly after Lincoln spoke there, New York
City welcomed the first delegation from Japan ever sent to the United
States. There in New York the Japanese visited the former home of
. Commodore Matthew Calbraith Perry, who in 1853, ^ve years before
his death, had induced the Japanese to open the long closed door of their
country to him.

"Great bloodshed and misery will probably precede the opening of

Japan,” an English journalist had written shortly before Commodore
Perry’s peaceful entrance. And it had been peaceful because he had
approached the problem with a mixture of imagination and tolerance.
Long before he started Perry had tried to learn all he could about
the mysterious land. He sent to Holland for all available books, pictures
and maps of Japan. These he spread out and studied over all of one
summer in the library of his country home, which, by the way, adjoined
the estate of Washington Irving up the Hudson River.
Washington Irving was an old man then, looking backward instead

272
of forward, and marveling at the changes time can bring. To think, he

often said, that the little four-year-old girl he had once "dandled on his
knee” in Spain was now the Empress Eugenie! . . . Time does bring
changes, but not in human nature, and something of the same tolerant
spirit that made friends for Washington Irving in Europe brought results
for Commodore Perry in Japan.
Holland, where he had sent for the Japanese books and maps, was
the only European country allowed to trade with Japan, but only one ship
a year were the Dutch allowed to send, and then only to one small island
in the harbor of Nagasaki.
As he read, Perry saw the reason for it. Japan was a nation with a
proud caste system. Tradespeople were considered low class, and for¬
eigners were "scum.” The Dutch, being both foreigners and traders,
naturally had to deliver their bundles at Japan’s back door.
If, on the contrary, someone of apparently high caste approached
Japan with the proud but courteous formality which Japanese could
understand, would he not at least receive consideration? It seemed worth
trying, and in that manner Commodore Perry planned his entrance.
In November, 1852, he sailed out of Chesapeake Bay, on the uncer¬
tain mission, taking with him as secretary his son, Oliver Hazard, named
for the uncle who had fought the battle on Lake Erie. A Dutch interpreter
also went. And in an elaborate rosewood box inlaid with gold was
carried a letter, inscribed on parchment bound in blue velvet, from the
President of the United States to the Mikado of Japan.
On Friday, July 8, 1853, four American steamships entered Yedo

Bay. To their left across the harbor at the blue water’s edge lay the town
of Uraga, with piney green hills rising behind it and against the distant
sky the white peak of the sacred Fujiyama.
As soon as the excited natives on shore saw these strange smoking

ships "carrying volcanoes,” a gun was exploded in the hills, gongs rang
2
and the bay became alive with small 73boats. Several government boats

sped out immediately and surrounded the American ships. As they ap¬
proached the flagship Susquehanna, they were motioned away. One Japa-
 nese, however, threw aboard a scroll of paper with a message in French
ordering the ships to leave at once. Others threw ropes up and tried to
clamber aboard, while the American crew warned them off with pikes.
Then came a voice from one of the Japanese boats.

"I can speak Dutch,” it said. "Are you Americans?”

"Ja,” replied the Dutch interpreter, going forward.
"We wish to speak to your commander,” said the Japanese.
"I’m sorry,” replied the American, "but Commodore Perry is 'Lord
of the Forbidden Interior.’ Only people of equal rank may see him.”
"But the Vice-Governor of Uraga is aboard this boat.”
"The Lord of the Forbidden Interior,” the American regretted to
say, could not speak with the Vice-Governor. Would he then please
appoint a lesser person to confer with their Vice-Governor, came the
request. The request was granted. The Vice-Governor came aboard.
And why were the Americans here, he asked. To deliver a letter from
their honorable ruler? So sorry, they must turn about and deliver it at
Nagasaki. The Americans said they wished to deliver it in Uraga. The
Vice-Governor said that was impossible, but finally agreed to take the
matter up with the Governor, bowed, and returned to his own boat.
Next day the boat returned, bearing the Governor himself in a gold
kimono embroidered in peacock feathers. He was escorted to the Cap¬
tain’s cabin, though the Lord of the Interior still remained hidden.
The American letter, the Governor said, must be delivered at Naga¬
saki. Very sorry, said the Americans, but they must obey their President’s
orders. The letter was to be delivered at Uraga, by Commo
dore Perry
himself and to some high Japanese official of equal rank.
The Governor would like to see the letter. At sight of the beauti
ful
rosewood box inlaid in gold, his manner changed at once. He would
take
the matter up with a high Councilor at \hdo, he said, bowed, return
ed to
his boat and disappeared.
274
Three days later he returned and after many more words
spent in a
last attempt to send the Americans to Nagasaki with their
letter, he said
that a meeting had been arranged to take place two days
later near
Yokohama. There the First Councilor of the Empire would receive the
letter from the American Lord of the Forbidden Interior.
Two days later all was in readiness. A special pavilion had been
constructed with a three-pointed roof and walls of painted screens. On
top fluttered colored flags, and from nine tall standards, long scarlet
pennants floated. Drawn up on either side of the path were soldiers of
Japan with shining shields and polished lacquer headgear. The United
States boats approached. One hundred marines landed and stood at atten¬
tion on either side of the wharf, followed by two hundred sailors. Then a
barge drew up and from it the Lord of the Forbidden Interior, Commo¬
dore Matthew Calbraith Perry, in blue uniform and huge gold epaulets,
stepped silently and majestically ashore!
Preceded by two tall seamen carrying the Stars and Stripes, two
ships boys bearing the rosewood box, and, as a special bodyguard, the
first two Negroes ever seen in Japan, Commodore Perry passed through
the entrance of the pavilion, into a room hung in violet silk.
At the far end on a dais sat two elderly men in handsome kimonos.
At a signal from them, Perry walked the length of red carpet and pre¬
sented to the First Councilor of the Empire the President’s letter. With
the announcement that he would return in the spring for the answer, the
ceremony ended. March, 1854, he had returned, a treaty of friendship
was signed between Japan and the United States, and Commodore

Perry’s part in the opening of Japan was over.

This was a treaty of friendship only, that was signed in 1854, but the

President’s letter had been a request for more than that — for a trade
agreement between the nations. That treaty was not to be signed for
another four years, not until 1858, and then only because of the foresight
and courage of Lord Ii Naosuke.

275
That year 1858, Ii Naosuke had been appointed Prime Minister of
Japan, or Tairo, the highest office under the Shogun and one filled only
in a time of national emergency such as this caused by the knocking of
the Americans on their door.

Japan was torn into two factions, bitterly opposed. Many govern¬
ment officials wished to continue their old policy of isolation and drive
off all foreigners by force. Ii Naosuke, and a smaller group of his country¬
men, realizing how strong the foreigners were and how impossible
resistance would be, favored signing the treaty of commerce, if necessary.
His adversaries spoke against it.

"The proposal of constructing large ships to send abroad for tradal

purposes sounds admirable,” said one of them, "but this is the most risky
thing conceivable. The Japanese nature is restless, facile and superficial;
so if our countrymen should go to foreign lands and mingle with for¬
eigners, they will only fall into the pernicious state of the crow trying to
whiten its feathers in imitation of the stork.”

"But if we persist in clinging to our antiquated system,” said Lord Ii,

"Heaven only knows what calamity may befall our Empire.” He pointed
to the disastrous fate of China now being forced by Europeans to sign
humiliating treaties. Rather than allow similar humiliation to come upon
his own country, Ii Naosuke determined to take the full responsibility
upon his own shoulders and sign the treaty.

"Do not, we beg of you,” implored his loyal retainers. "Some

calamity will surely befall your honorable and historic family.”
Ii Naosuke, however, felt that it could not be avoided. Therefore, in
the face of tremendous opposition, he courageously signed the treaty on

July 29, 1858, and so unbolted Japan’s door from within.

For that he was called a traitor and a rebel. One day in March, i860,
before the cherry trees, which were late that year, had blossomed, Ii
Naosuke was being carried in his palanquin to a meeting with the
Shogun when he was beset by hostile samurai and murdered.
Gradually as the years passed, his countrymen came to see that Ii
Naosuke was a man far ahead of his times, that he had performed a
service to the Empire well worthy of his great and honorable ancestor.
In 1908 a statue of him was unveiled in the port of Yokohama.
276
 It was in February, just a month before Naosuke was killed, that the
first envoys from Japan sailed for the United States, to bring back to the
Shogun a report of what the outer world was like. They made many
sketches and took many measurements. One kept an interesting diary.
On April 28, they were in Washington, D. C., and he says:
We are going to the home of the ruler in carriages this morning.
We are putting on our finest kimono: The ruler of this country is called
President. He is President Buchanan. There is no policeman in the Presi¬

dent’s house and no fortress in his yard. It is very beautiful but

different from what we expected. quite

The people of this country, both men and women, are white.

"Ladies are highly honored in America as parents are in Japan.

"The people of America are big-hearted, honest and faithful. The
Americans do not scorn foreigners and are kind to strangers. The Ameri¬
cans are simple and honest like Japanese born in the mountains or on the
farm who have never been spoiled by the big city. The Russians are like
the Americans.

"May 21. In Washington and all other American cities, the mothers
do not carry their babies on their backs, but in small carriages.

"There is a telegraph line between New York and Philadelphia over

which messages are sent as fast as lightning. But I cannot describe it.

"June 9 [they were in New York]. At 1 o’clock in the afternoon we

accompanied our chief commissioners to the home of Commodore Perry
who went to Japan several years ago. Commodore Perry became sick and
died some time ago but his son was at home. The home was very fine and
decorated with many Japanese mementoes. We were entertained with
wine and cake. Two Japanese spaniels in the house sniffed our clothes
and realizing that we were Japanese, danced at our feet, leaped in our
277
laps and would not leave us. They showed their affection so plainly by
their voice that we were quite sad and shed a tear when we left.

"July 13. The anchor was raised at noon and we sailed East.”
 GOOD OLD ABE, THE RAIL SPLITTER
t t

> 9

Pounding and ham ering was going on at a great rate in that

spring of i860 out on Lake Street near the Chicago River, where

the old Sauganash Tavern used to stand. "Used to stand was

right,” any Chicago booster would have told you. "Been torn
down now for a week. Once was the only tavern around, but that was
back in the days of old Fort Dearborn, way before Chicago was born.

Been a town now more’n twenty-five years, Chicago had. In 1833, when
it got started, there weren’t forty houses, and less’n two hundred folks.
An’ look at it now, twenty-seven years old, and a city of 112,172!” That’s
the way a good Chicago booster talked.
And it was amazing how the town had grown. A husky young giant
of a city, born in an onion swamp, it was now actually pulling itself right
out of the mud. Pieces of new sidewalk and pavement were seven or eight
feet up above the old ones. Some of its buildings were down, others
jacked up on piles, when Chicago spoke up and invited the Republican
party to hold its National Convention there in i860.
That was what all the pounding and hammering was about. There
was no building big enough to use for a meeting hall, so Chicago had had
to take a day or two off and build one. A big rough shed of clapboards,

they christened it "The Wigwam.”

On May 16, i860, in that Wigwam, after three ballots for President,

Abraham Lincoln was nominated and "pandemonium broke loose.”

"Such a yell went up,” it was said by someone, "that a thousand
steam whistles, ten acres of hotel gongs, and a tribe of Comanche Indians

might have mingled with the scene unnoticed.”

One man yelled to a man on the roof, and he spread the news to the
278
 crowd below, and on it went. Cannons boomed, factory whistl
es shrieked,
guns were fired, locomotives of all fifteen railroads now
coming into
Chicago blew their whistles and rang their bells.
Fence rails were bundled up to ship all over the count
ry. Soon young
Wide-Awakes in oilcloth capes and carrying torch
es were zigzagging
down the streets, cheering for good old Abe the Rail Splitt
er!
Down in Springfield, Abraham Lincoln had waited in the news¬
paper office for the results. When they arrived he said that he “reckoned
there was a short little woman down at his house that would like
to hear
the news,” and went off with the telegram in his hand.
The next evening, the committee from Chicago, among them
the
former German, Carl Schurz, tendered the formal announcement. Lincoln
received them in a grave but friendly manner, and then since he never
kept wine in the house, served them what he had, a pitcher of water.
There were then six months to wait for the election, which there was
little doubt that he would win, for the Democratic party had split. After
the election came four more months of waiting in which Mrs. Lincoln
was busy ordering bonnets and dresses and shawls, one of fashionable

“Magenta,” while Lincoln, unable to raise a hand, had to watch condi¬

tions grow steadily worse. Every mail brought him threatening letters.
“Come with me,” he said one day to Mrs. Lincoln in an odd tone of
voice, leading her into his room where a long mirror hung opposite

a sofa. "Do you see anything strange about that glass?”

She said no. He peered into it intently for a moment, and then told
her that twice, lying on the sofa, he had seen himself reflected in that
mirror with two faces, one much paler than the other.
Mrs. Lincoln was worried . . . afraid that it was a bad sign. It
might be, Mr. Lincoln said, and it might mean nothing. . . .
In January, when he still had over a month to wait, he went “down
state” to bid goodbye to the one who had believed in him the longest,
Sally Bush Lincoln. She was over seventy,
27 and though Thomas Lincoln
9
was dead, she was still living in the log house which Abe had helped
them build. It was shadowy inside, so she took his hand and had him sit
in the window where she could get a good light on his face. As she
brushed back a lock of hair and looked into his eyes she saw her boy
again . . . just her boy . . . except, she thought briskly, except for that
beard. Why had he grown a beard, she wondered?
"I reckon because a little girl wrote me a letter saying she thought

it would improve my face,” he laughed.

His stepmother laughed too, but her eyes were blurred. And as she
watched him go down the path she knew it was for the last time.
The relief at having the waiting over was so great that Lincoln
seemed in high good spirits the day before his departure, when he came
down to his office to pick up a few last things.

"Billy,” he said, "we’ve been together over sixteen years. Let the old
sign hang on undisturbed. Show clients that the election of a President

makes no change in the firm of Lincoln & Herndon.”

The morning of February n, 1861, was cold and drizzly. The smoke
from the funnel-shaped stack on the little engine hung low about the
Springfield station and the crowd of people gathered there. Mrs. Lincoln
and the boys had gone on into the train, as Lincoln himself in his high
hat and shawl about his shoulders, stood on the back platform in the
chilly air. He had not intended to speak, but as he looked down on all
those familiar faces the words came from his heart:

"My friends, no one not in my situation, can appreciate my feeling

of sadness at this parting. To this place and the kindness of these people
I owe everything. Here I have lived a quarter of a century, and have
passed from a young man to an old. Here my children have been born
and one is buried. I now leave, not knowing when or whether ever I may
return, with a task before me greater than that which rested upon Wash¬
ington. Without the assistance of that Divine Being who ever attended
him, I cannot succeed. With that assistance I cannot fail. Trusting in Him
who can go with me and remain with you and be everywhere for good,
let us confidently hope that all will yet be well. To His care commending
you, as I hope in your prayers you will commend me, I bid you an affec¬
tionate farewell.”
280
 THE MAN AND THE HOUR

The election of Abraham Lincoln, a so-cal ed Black Republican,

gave the final blow to the wedge of ill-feeling over slavery,
and
split the United States in two. Before he took the oath of office,
seven states in the Deep South had seceded. South Carolina took
the lead. Then Alabama held a mass meeting under a banner reading
Resistance to Lincoln is obedience to God,’’ and Yancey, a hot-headed
radical, proclaimed that he would fire the Southern heart and precipitate
a revolution. At the same time a hasty orator of Georgia
was urging the
people "not to let the rising sun of March fifth find them in the Union.”
So Alabama and Georgia followed South Carolina— also Florida, Louisi¬
ana and Mississippi. Six, by February, were gone.
Meanwhile President Buchanan, old and timid, feebly wrung his
hands and wondered what to do. Every day congressmen from the seced¬
ing states were packing their bags and leaving Washington for home. On
the ninth of January Buchanan spoke a few futile words to the Senate.
That day Senator Jefferson Davis, on his way to hear that speech,
281
learned that his state Mississippi had seceded. In a slate gray suit, neat
black cravat, and with his thin lips as meticulously shut as ever, he was
about to step into his carriage, when the telegram was handed to him. A
few days later he made his farewell speech.

"Secession is justified,” he said, "upon the basis that the states are
sovereign.” He asked that those that had seceded be allowed to leave the
Union peaceably. "There will be peace if you so will it,” he concluded.
He then left for home, his beautiful plantation near Natchez, Mississippi,

with its four thousand acres of cotton, its gardens, and "tangled hedge¬
rows of brier and Cherokee roses.”
Just one week before Lincoln left for Washington the delegates from
the six seceded states met at Montgomery, Alabama, organized a new na¬
tion, the Confederate States of America, and elected as its President Mr.
Jefferson Davis of Mississippi. He was a man much too moderate in his
views to suit the fiery Yancey of Alabama, but the latter rose to the occa¬
sion, and praising him as statesman, soldier and patriot, proclaimed that
"The man and the hour had met.”
Jefferson Davis had been making rose cuttings in the garden with
Mrs. Davis when the news of his election was delivered to him. Excited

crowds met him at the little station in Montgomery. As the band played
Dixie , his carriage was drawn by four white horses to the Capitol build¬
ing of the state. There at one o’clock, beneath the tall white columns of
its portico, on February 18, 1861, Jefferson Davis took the oath of loyalty
to a nation whose cornerstone was Slavery. He then declared his deter¬

mination to maintain "that proud position and make all who opposed
it smell Southern powder and feel Southern steel.

"Our separation from the old Union,” he said, "is now complete.”
But was it? Could the states separate from the Union? Had they the
right to do so? Abraham Lincoln said no. Andrew Jackson had said no.
Down in Texas Governor Sam Houston said no, and opposed to the last
day the secession of Texas, but to no avail. In late February Texas became
the seventh state to follow South Carolina. An old man now, Sam Hous¬
ton thought back to the good days when his hero Andrew Jackson had
282
made short work of South Carolina’s first threat to secede. Abraham
Lincoln also looked back to Andrew Jackson’s proclamation of that day.
A copy of it had lain on his desk in Springfield as he carefully wrote out
what he was to say at his inauguration.
But would there be an inauguration? Would Lincoln ever reach
Washington ? Men in Washington, and everywhere else, were of the opin¬
ion that he wouldn t. Much better, said many, if he didn’t. A back country
lawyer, with no experience, he should never have been elected. Seward
should have been. William H. Seward, Senator from New ’York.
William H. Seward had also been Governor of New 'York. He was
undoubtedly a man of experience. Lincoln, believing him to possess

integrity, ability and learning,” had already asked him to fill the position
of Secretary of State. William Seward had accepted, thus proving that he
also had the quality of good sportsmanship. As the acknowledged head
of the Republican party, he had expected to win the nomination in Chi¬
cago. His defeat had been a great disappointment and his followers had
begged him to bolt the party.

"No, gentlemen,” he had said, "the Republican party was not made
for William H. Seward, but Mr. Seward, if he be worth anything, for the

Republican party, and I believe I still have work to do.”

He had then returned to Washington. From there, hearing of plots
to prevent the inauguration, he had written Lincoln suggesting that he
arrive earlier in the capital. Lincoln, not easily alarmed, had preferred to
go on with the initial plans. Accordingly on February 20th he reached

New 'York City. There his trip was being ridiculed as that of a cheap
clown, cracking rough jokes at every station. The New York Herald, not
given to humor, printed these words:

"A grand opportunity now exists for Lincoln to avert impending

ruin, by surrender of his claims. If he persists in his position, he will totter

to a dishonoured grave, driven perhaps by an assassin.”

Lincoln folded the newspaper, and
283 went calmly on to Philadelphia.
There he was met by a Chicago detective named Pinkerton.

"We have come to know, Mr. Lincoln,” said this man Pinkerton,
 "beyond a shadow of a doubt that there exists a plot to assassinate you.
A barber of Baltimore,’’ he said, "was boasting that before Lincoln
reached the Washington depot he would 'be a corpse.’ ”
Only a few hours later the son of William H. Seward arrived from
Washington with a note from his father describing the identical plot,
and urging Lincoln to take an earlier train through Baltimore.
The next morning, February 22, still according to plans and in cele¬
bration of Washington’s birthday, Lincoln raised the flag over Independ¬
ence Hall, in Philadelphia. Eighty-five years before the United States of
America had been founded there upon the principle of liberty. Now that
Union and the principle were threatened, but rather than see either fail,
Lincoln said that he would be willing to lose his life, if need be.
That life his friends felt was now uselessly in danger, and so they
persuaded him to change his plan. Therefore, with a single companion,
detective and guards, he slipped secretly out of Philadelphia, caught the
night train from New \ork, passed through Baltimore while the assassins
still lay asleep, and was safe in Washington the following morning. There
he was well guarded.
And on March 4, 1861, beneath the unfinished dome of the capitol
building, Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated President of the United

States. In his address he spoke particularly to "such of his fellow country¬

men as were dissatisfied,” urging them "not as enemies but as friends,” to
think calmly, not to act in haste.

"In your hands,” he said, "and not in mine is the momentous issue
of civil war. The government will not assail you. ^ou can have no conflict

without yourselves being the aggressors.”

Then he took the solemn oath to "preserve, protea, and defend the
Union of the States,” which he saw as perpetual from its beginning and
also strengthened through the years "by mystic chords of memory stretch¬
ing from every battlefield and patriot grave to every living heart and
284
hearthstone over this broad land.”
Thus, contrary to all prediaions, Abraham Lincoln had become the

nation’s President. The great man and the tragic hour had met.
PART FIVE : WHEN

PRESIDENT OF THE
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NORTH f

BEAUREGARD
G.B.M* CLELLAN attac^aJL Jfc .S uurntin.
>uvrv aaatmdt £t/nc<j?n.

Jot BtCOudimt uulgtf

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 I 86 I : THE TORN MAP

The American Civil War began on April 12, 186 1. It was a war
fought not to abolish slavery, but to restore the Union, to bring
together again the nation which slavery had now torn apart. On
April 12, 1861, the opening guns were fired on Fort Sumter, a
fort belonging to the United States government, and guarding the harbor
of Charleston, South Carolina.
Upon seceding, South Carolina had demanded that the fort be evac¬
uated and turned over to the state. President Buchanan had refused, and
so South Carolina had prevented food from reaching it.
289
On his first day in office Lincoln received word from Major Ander¬
son at Fort Sumter that his provisions would last no longer than a week
and that without reinforcements he could not hold out against attack.
Lincoln turned to the War Department for advice.
Chief of the United States Army at this time was the old hero of the
Mexican War, General Winfield Scott, seventy-five years old.
"Evacuation seems inevitable,” said he. "Anderson might hold out a

month, but it is my advice that he be instructed to evacuate.”

Secretary Seward offered similar advice, still clinging to a foolish
hope that gentle measures might lure back the southern states.
Lincoln did not agree with them. In his inauguration he had said

that as President of the United States he would "Hold, occupy and pos¬
sess places belonging to the national government.” Knowing that the
issue must be faced sooner or later, he shouldered the responsibility and
ordered food shipped to Fort Sumter. But he notified South Carolina that
food, only, was being sent — no ammunition.
Before the supply ship arrived, however, the fort had been fired
upon. The next day, the Stars and Stripes came down, and a wave of rage
swept the North, bringing a great response when two days later Lincoln
called for 75,000 volunteers to serve three months.

At the same time he also gave the Southern forces twenty days’ time
to disband and return home, but the Southerners had no idea of disband¬
ing. A great celebration followed the surrender of Fort Sumter. It had
been fired upon for the very purpose of shaking the remaining eight
slave states out of the Union and into the Confederacy. Four of them
responded to those shots and seceded, Arkansas, Tennessee, North Caro¬
lina and Virginia, making eleven in all.
As soon as Virginia seceded, a rumor spread that Chief of the Army
General Winfield Scott, had resigned and gone with his native state. It
was false. The mere suggestion insulted him.

"Stop!” he said. "Go no further. I have served my country under the

flag of the Union for more than fifty years, and so long as God permits

me to live I will defend that flag.”

General Scott was not only old, but tremendously fat, ill, and
swollen with gout, but he worked seventeen hours a day during

290
those first weeks of war, organizing and preparing for the new army.

"We are gathering a great army,” said Seward to the old soldier one
morning. "But what are we going to do for generals?”
"That is our great problem,” replied General Scott. "Unfortunately
for us, the South has taken most of the higher officers. But there is one
who would make an excellent general, though I do not know whether we

can rely on him. I am expecting him today.”

The officer was, of course, Colonel Robert E. Lee, who had served
under General Scott in Mexico. Recently recalled from Texas, Colonel
Lee had spent the past month with his wife and family across the Potomac
River at their home in Arlington. He called that day to pay his respects to
General Scott, but had then practically decided that he must join the
Confederate Army. Two days later he sent in his resignation, saying that

"save in the defense of his native state he never desired again to draw his
sword.” So Robert E. Lee, who loved Virginia too well to do otherwise,
resigned from the army of his country.

Meanwhile, out in the little town of Galena, Illinois, a poor seedy-

looking man, who had also fought in Mexico, was trying to get back into
that army to which he had once belonged, but with no luck.

"Luck” so far certainly hadn’t followed the footsteps of Ulysses

291
Grant. He and Julia had had a hard time, ever since they married, and
especially after he was ordered out to the Pacific Coast. Fred was a baby
then, and not daring to take him across Panama, Julia had gone home to
St. Louis. In a couple of years, Lys was also back in St. Louis, out of the
army, out of work, and without a cent in his pocket.
He tried farming, selling real estate, but things went from bad to
worse, till his brothers had had him come to Galena and clerk in their
leather store. So there he was, discouraged, but trying hard to support a
wife and four children when the war began.
He was asked to drill the Galena Volunteers, because there was no¬
body else to do it, but when the company left for the state capitol at
Springfield, one of the men he had drilled went as captain, and he just

tagged along behind. He had a letter to the Governor, but it didn’t do

much good. A friend encouraged him, and so he wrote a letter to the

War Department, offering his services. He said that "having served

fifteen years in the regular army, he felt competent to command a regi¬
ment if the President saw fit to entrust one to him. He added that a letter

"addressed to him at Springfield, Ill.,” would reach him. No answer ever

came. His letter was lost in the shuffle. And no wonder!
Washington had been a scene of utter confusion for the past six
weeks. Troops of volunteers were pouring into the capital, buildings
turned into barracks overnight. Everywhere a frantic haste made to
fortify the city against attack from the Confederate army, while impatient

newspapers were already crying "On to Richmond!”

Richmond, Virginia, was the new capital of the Confederacy. There
the Southern troops were also assembling, the young blades highly con¬
fident that five Yankees would go down before the gallant fighting spirit

of one Southern gentleman. "On to Washington!” they cried.

By the end of May, the Union army had crossed the Potomac River
into Virginia and was encamped just over the Long Bridge at Arlington.
The Confederate army under General Beauregard had advanced to a
little creek known as Bull Run and so was just twenty miles away. On
July 21, though neither army was ready for it, they fought their first
292
battle, the battle of Bull Run. It was Sunday, and from Washington,
people drove out in carriages to view the battle as if going to a horse race
or a picnic. t

From noon on Lincoln was listening in the telegraph office of the

War Department with General Scott. The first news was good, and by
five
o’clock he was so encouraged that he went for a short drive. At six Secre¬
tary Seward rushed to the White House.

"Find the President,” he croaked hoarsely. "The battle is lost!”

Half an hour later the President returned. In a few hours crowds of

panic-stricken people arrived who had witnessed the disorderly rout, in

which soldiers, carriages, sightseers, had been tangled in a mad mix-up.
The rebel army, they said, was now headed for Washington! They would
be coming over Long Bridge at any moment!
Fortunately they did not come. In the Confederate camp there had
been unbounded joy over this first victory, and bold proposals were made
to go on and capture Washington. Jefferson Davis, their president, how¬
ever, disapproved. So the chance was lost. Washington was saved!
Washington was safe, yes, but that was all, and that was due more to
good luck than good management. There was no denying that the first
battle in the war which was to "end in ninety days” had been a disaster.
The ninety days were up, and volunteers, many of them, who had enlisted
for that time, were ready to go home. Everywhere, newspapers and
speakers were blaming the government for the catastrophe.
"An indignant people demand the immediate retirement of the
present Cabinet from the high places of power,” shouted the New York
Tribune, whose editor was Horace Greeley.
Stanton, the man who was soon to become Secretary of War, called
the defeat at Bull Run "an irretrievable misfortune and national dis¬
grace.” It was due, he declared, to "the weakness of the Administration
and the painful imbecility of Lincoln.”
On Friday, Lincoln, whose heart was with the common soldiers,
2 93
asked Seward to take a "run over the Potomac with him to see the boys.”
They were shown about camp by General William Tecumseh Sher-
 man, a man who spoke his mind in a snappy fashion. He was glad that a
call had now been issued for 300,000 volunteers to serve three years. Said,

" ’Twas no use trying to put out a house on fire with a squirt gun!”
The North, shocked by the defeat at Bull Run, more than answered
the new call for volunteers. Also very soon came a demand that the
general who had met defeat at Bull Run be replaced by a popular young
general who had been successful in West Virginia, and whom the news¬

papers were calling the young "Napoleon of the West!”

Into Washington therefore on July 26, came that dashing young man,

Major-General George B. McClellan, ready and willing to "save the

country.” He began at once a thorough reorganization of the Army of the
Potomac, but was soon complaining that he could do nothing so long as

that "confounded old General Scott” was in the way.

The impudence of the young cock was more than the old general,
sick and overworked, could swallow. On October 31, gallant old General
Winfield Scott asked to be relieved. Next day G. B. McClellan took his
place as Chief of the Army. And a far too busy and important personage
he then became to be bothered by the President. If the President must

come "browsing” around to have a word with him, let him wait his turn!
Friends of the President were indignant at the discourtesy. But Lin¬
coln was no more ruffled by it than he had been by Stanton’s remarks
about him, or by the one brief attempt to run the government, made at
first by Secretary Seward, to his later regret.
Personal resentment never entered into Lincoln’s judgment of a
man s ability, nor warped his sense of values. So now, instead of uttering

any rebuke, he merely remarked that "he’d be willing even to hold Mc¬
Clellan’s horse, if he’d only bring a victory!”
Months passed, however, and McClellan brought no victory. He did
not even move. All was quiet on the Potomac!” Far too quiet! But other
excitement was stirring: By Christmas, the United States had barely
escaped war with England! 294
ENGLISH- CARTOON AT THIS TIME SHOWS JOHN auu AS HUNTER, AND LINCOLN AS RACCOON "up a TREE*'

WHAT ABOUT ENGLAND?

PRINCEAlbert was largely responsible for the fact that Christmas,

1 86 1, found the United States and England still on peaceful terms.
Prince Albert died just before Christmas. It was ten years since his
Peace Festival of the Nations. And it is pleasant to think that
this, his last act, was also one to further international friendship.
When the Civil War began in America, England had determined to
remain neutral, though both the United States and the Confederacy
hoped for England’s active friendship.
The North counted on the strong anti-slavery feeling held by the
majority of English people. But the South knew that the English aristo¬
crats felt more akin to its gentlemen planters than to the Yankee trades¬
men of the north, who were also looked upon as rivals by the English
merchants. Cotton was also needed by English mills, and since the block¬
ade of Southern harbors by the North 29cut
5 off that supply, Jefferson Davis
saw reason to hope for England’s help.
The British government, however, declared a strict neutrality, and
 warned her Majesty’s subjects to give no assistance to either side. But in
November that neutrality was almost overturned. At the news that T he
Trent, a Royal Mail Ship, had been held up by a ship of the United States,

”999 English people out of 1000,” it was said, "were for declaring im¬
mediate war on the United States.” Eight thousand troops were actually
sent to Canada.

Washington got word of the embarrassing Trent Affair, two weeks

before London did, for it took place at sea just one day’s journey from
Havana. The English ship was carrying to Europe two envoys from the
Confederate States. The men were just congratulating themselves on their
lucky escape through the blockade at Charleston, when suddenly The
Trent was halted by a United States warship. Whereupon the impetuous
Captain, acting on his own initiative, boarded The Trent, captured the
Southerners and took them back to the United States as prisoners of war.

"Those prisoners will prove about as useless to us as White Ele¬

phants, I fear,” was Lincoln’s first remark. It was embarrassing and con¬
trary to American principles to board a neutral ship. "We fought Great
Britain in 1812,” he said, "for insisting on the right to do that very thing.
If Great Britain now protests, we must stick to our principles and give

those prisoners up.”

The country in general, however, went crazy with excitement. They
praised Captain Wilkes, gave him banquets, and Congress even con¬
sidered having a gold medal made for him. It was fortunate that they did
not see the first angry message prepared by England’s foreign ministers
before its arrogant tone had been softened by Prince Albert. Otherwise
Congress might have been swept away by that kind of passion often mis¬
taken for patriotism, and have overruled the saner judgment of President
Lincoln and Secretary Seward.
Prince Albert had just returned from a trying visit to the Prince of
Wales who was then at Cambridge when that angry message arrived at

Windsor for the Queen’s approval. Albert was wretched and ill, but
w read it, he saw that something must be done. So he sat down by
his green-shaded lamp and spent all night going over it, smoothing every
296
phrase that might irritate the United States. Eight o’clock next morning
he showed it to Victoria.

"Ich bin so schwach he said in German, "so weak ... I could

hardly hold the pen.” His head was feverish, and he could barely reach
his bed. The next day he was even weaker. Each day he grew worse. The

doctors were worried, but "I do not cling to life,” he had told Victoria
one day. So he let go of it easily and a few hours later he was gone. He
died four days before the message tempered by his peaceful spirit reached
the United States.

A courteous request it was then from England’s government, asking

for the "liberation of the gentlemen and a suitable apology.” Lincoln
read it calmly. On December 19 Seward, whose duty as Secretary of State
lay with foreign affairs, prepared the answer.

At ten o’clock on Christmas morning Seward read the reply that he

had written to the Cabinet. The United States, he said, would surrender
the prisoners to the British minister at Washington, but felt that no
apology was necessary since the Captain had not been acting under gov¬
ernment orders. Though it was like swallowing a bitter pill for some of
the so-called patriotic congressmen, they agreed to acknowledge the mis¬
take, and so as James Russell Lowell put it,

"We give the critters back, John

Cos Abram thought ’twas right.”
Christmas, 1861, found Queen Victoria desolate and heartbroken,

without Albert, but "I shall live on with him and for him,” she told Uncle
Leopold. And to her ministers she said firmly that from then on she would
be guided only by what Albert would have wished.
The friendly reply from the United States, arriving early in the new

year, gave her the comfort of knowing that Albert’s last work had been
successful. To the Prime Minister she wrote that she was sure "he could
not but look on this peaceful issue 2of
97 the American quarrel as greatly

owing to her beloved prince.” The observations on the draft she said
"were the last things Prince Albert ever wrote.”
 AN "EMPIRE” FOR MEXICO

Napoleon I I was wel aware that one war at that time was
quite enough for the United States to handle, and that they
were no more eager to have war with France than with Eng¬
land. It appeared to him therefore to be an opportune time to
defy that Monroe Doctrine of theirs and undertake a project of his own
in Mexico, but one to be kept secret till the proper moment.
As for Mexico: On January n, 1861, Mexico City had been gay
with flying flags. There had been a great fiesta in celebration of the newly
elected President, Benito Juarez. Nothing had been missing except the
President himself, who did not approve of such extravagant display. Two
weeks later, therefore, dressed in his usual somber black and wearing a
high hat like that of Abraham Lincoln, the sober, brown-faced Indian
lawyer came riding into the city quite unnoticed, his small black carriage
298
drawn by four white army mules. Crossing the quiet plaza, he went to
work at once upon the problems that faced him.
Mexico had now been free from Spain for forty years and in that
time had had many more than forty chief executives. Of them all Juarez
was perhaps the only one who cared more for Mexico than for himself.
He had served well as Governor of Oaxaca, and for fifteen years had been
married to the lovely Dona Magarita de Maza. It was her father who had
once paid tuition in the Seminary for a poor Indian boy, who had now
become the President of his country.
The presidency of Mexico was no bed of roses in 1861. Many revolu¬
tions and unscrupulous leaders had almost ruined the country. Mexico’s
treasury was empty. Worse still, the nation was deep in debt. It owed Eng¬
land, France and Spain more than $80,000,000. With government ex¬
penses pared to the minimum, Juarez figured that it would take at least
two years to get the farms and mines back into operation and the country
on a paying basis. Therefore he asked for that much time before begin¬
ning to pay the foreign debts.
But how could France, Spain and England know that this president
of Mexico was more responsible than the others? In October, 1861,
representatives of these three nations met in London and decided to
send ships to Mexico and act together in collecting their debts.
At word of their arrival Juarez sent his foreign minister down to
Vera Cruz to confer with them. The English and Spanish, convinced of

Juarez’s good faith, easily came to an agreement. They were amazed to

hear France refuse and name the outrageous sum of $12,000,000 to be
paid at once! Instantly suspicious, Spain and England drew apart from
France and returned home at once. Their suspicions were soon justified

by the development of Napoleon’s plot.

That plot of Napoleon III, now revealed, was to establish an Empire
in Mexico. It was not original with him but had been suggested by the
Empress Eugenie. She in turn had imbibed
299 the fascinating idea from a
Mexican exile, a suave Spaniard, whose acquaintance she renewed one
summer afternoon in 1858. She was driving to a bull fight just across the
Spanish border from her summer home at Biarritz and, passing him,
invited him to accompany her.
Barely seated beside her was he, than with tears in his voice, he
began a sad tale about his fellow exiles driven from their estates in
Mexico by the Mexican Republic. He told how even the great lands of
the church were no longer free from taxation. What a wonderful chance,
he said, there was for some European ruler to establish an Empire there!
Yes, echoed Eugenie. And for France! What an opportunity to regain the
blessings of his Holiness, the Pope!
When Napoleon III came for the weekend, they presented the
dramatic scheme in all its colors. Think, said they, of founding a modern
empire on the throne of the ancient Aztecs! There, indeed, was an irre¬
sistible thought to Napoleon III. Back in Paris, thumbing over old Mexi¬
can histories, the spell of the empire idea grew on him. One must proceed
with subtlety; however, difficulties were involved.
The United States, for example, in its Monroe Doctrine positively
forbade European powers to interfere with any government existing in
the Americas. He must wait for some moment when they would not be
able to enforce that doctrine.
In 1 86 1, the proper moment seemed to have arrived. Civil war broke
out in the United States, and the collection of debts offered easy entrance
into Mexican affairs. So when Spain and England withdrew, French sol¬
diers were dispatched to Mexico. Landing at Vera Cruz, they went march¬
ing and fighting their way up the winding mountain road to Mexico City.
Juarez had hastily moved his government to a town farther north. So the
French marched into the capital, paying people well to cheer and wave
flags while they took possession. It was then 1863. Those few Mexicans

who expected to benefit from it were then summoned to hold an "elec¬

tion,” after which word was sent to France that all was ready for the new
Emperor of Mexico!
And who was that new Emperor to be? None other than the fine
young Austrian Archduke Maximilian! It was Eugenie who thought of

him. Aside from Maximilian’s being a most royal person, to offer him that

3°o
opportunity ought to cancel the ill will that his brother Franz Josef bore
Napoleon III because of the Italian War. Franz Jose£ though careful
not to show too much enthusiasm, raised no objections to it so Mexico’s
crown was offered to the gentle Archduke.
Maximilianand Carlotta were then living a peaceful, beautiful life
in a white marble palace by the seaside at Trieste. While he painted and
sketched and played the organ, she wrote poetry and prose. A beautiful
life it was, but so unvaryingly peaceful as to be a little boring to Carlotta.
She was energetic and ambitious and how she envied Sisi and Eugenie!
How she too would love to be an Empress! What joy was hers then, when
lo and behold, as out of a fantastic fairy tale, came the glorious, almost
unbelievable opportunity.
Maximilian, much less enterprising, did not respond so quickly.
What about the Mexican people, he asked. Did they really want him?
Indeed they did, he was assured. His sense of honor satisfied by news of
the election, Maximilian allowed himself to become enthusiastic. He
could see the old Aztec palaces restored. He imagined uniting all the
people of Mexico from Indians to archbishops in one peaceful, happy
Empire! It all seemed so simple that he gave no heed to those who knew
conditions and warned him to beware. And he only half listened to the
dull, practical suggestions of his father-in-law, King Leopold, regarding
money and military support.
Mexico herself, he was told, would gladly be taxed for his support
and the French troops were already there.

"Tou may count on my everlasting friendship,” said Napoleon III.

"You will bring honor to the house of Hapsburg,” said Franz
Josef in semi-sad farewell, advancing 200,000 gulden.
So, in a solemn ceremony in their chapel at Trieste, Maximilian and
Carlota (with her name now changed to Spanish), were acclaimed
Emperor and Empress of Mexico. And on a beautiful day in April, 1864,
on board an Austrian frigate flying their new imperial flag, they set out
on their great adventure, with high hearts, fearless of the future, and
with no premonition of the tragedy in store for them. . . .
201
 RUSSIA’S SERFS ARE FREED

The year that the American Civil War began was also one marked
upon whom
in Russian history, for that year Russia freed the serfs. On Sun¬
day, March 3, 1861, the day before Abraham Lincoln took the
oath of office, Alexander II, the Czar of Russia, issued to the serfs
the proclamation of their freedom. To the imperial council and the nobles
he had called for support he spoke of the difficulties ahead.

"But I feel sure,” he said, "that God will prosper this undertaking
most vital for the future welfare of our beloved Fatherland.”
The first day of Lent, as the proclamation was read to them from the
altar steps of every church, the serfs showed no emotion, until they heard
these last few simple words that they could understand.

"Sign thyself with the mark of the holy cross and pray that on thy
free labor may fall the blessing of God.” Then they fell upon their knees
with joy. That afternoon, huge crowds gathered in the open square in St.
Petersburg to cheer the Emperor as he rode among them. In Moscow
later, ten thousand serfs welcomed him with thankful hearts and fell on
their knees before their "Little Father.”
The next year, 1862, Russia celebrated 1,000 years since the found¬
ing of the Empire. But it was not for old Rurik, their first king, that the

people cheered, but for Alexander II, the "Czar Liberator!”

Later they would learn that their freedom was little but a name, and
that men must earn for themselves that most priceless possession.

3 02
1862: THE ''MONITOR” AND THE "MERRIMAC”

That year 1862, celebrated in Rus ia, also marked a turning

point in the naval history of the world, for it brought the first
battle ever fought between metal instead of wooden warships.
It was the battle between the Monitor and the Merrimac fought
in that second spring of the American Civil War.
The Merrimac was originally a wooden ship, which the Con¬
federates got when they seized the United States navy yards at Norfolk,
Virginia. After remodelling it, they covered it with iron, making it look

like a "giant crocodile” and then sent it out into Chesapeake Bay to
destroy Union warships, which of course were made of wood.
Since their cannon balls bounded from the Merrimac' s iron sides
two of them were soon destroyed by it and sunk. That was Saturday.
On Sunday, March 9, the Merrimac steamed confidently out for

another day’s destruction, to find that something peculiar had arrived

from New Tork that looked like a "cheese box on a raft” and was waiting
to do battle. It was the Monitor, designed by John Ericsson, a Swede, who
had mounted a revolving iron-plated gun turret on the metal deck of a
ship, cut ofF so close to the water as to resemble an old Norwegian timber
raft. The funny little Monitor put up a stiff three-hour battle against the
Merrimac , drove the big ship back into its harbor and then chugged off
uninjured. Neither ship played any further heroic part in the war. That
was their one big day, one on which they made the world say goodbye to
wooden warships and turn to making ships of iron.

3°3
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“henceforth and forever free”

Emancipation of the slaves was a pos ibility constantly in Abra¬

ham Lincoln’s mind in that year 1862, but an act to which he
turned only as a means to save the Union, and only after another
' defeat of the Union forces in Virginia. That year 1862 began for
Lincoln with the necessity of making a change in his Cabinet and ap¬
pointing a new Secretary of War.
One crisp morning in January, Lincoln came out of the White House
with his two little boys Willie and Tad, and began a game of throwing
pebbles with them along the gravel path that led to the War Department.
They had not reached the building when the door burst open and a man
with telegrams in his hand, beard and coattails flying, rushed to meet
them, apparently in great excitement.
And so he was, for he was Edwin McMasters Stanton, and there was
no more excitable man in Washington than the newly appointed Secretary
of War. Nor was there ever a more energetic and capable man or one
more impatient. He had no patience with crooked contractors, no

patience with those who didn’t produce results, no time to waste on funny

3°4
stories, and no use at all for General-in-Chief Me-
Clellan, who had let an army sit six months on the ,
Potomac and do nothing!

"That army has got to get busy and fight!”

exclaimed Stanton, his black eyes snapping as he
faced Lincoln across the desk.
About emancipation of the slaves, Stanton
was equally positive and impatient. Almost a year in office and the Presi¬
dent had done nothing about it! He spoke vehemently on the subject,
marching about as if to supply steam, backbone, intelligence, whatever
it was that Lincoln lacked, and push him into it.
Lincoln was no man to be pushed. Not yet, regardless of his own
opinion on slavery, would he interfere with it. According to the Consti¬
tution, as it was then, he had no more right to take slaves away from a
citizen of the United States than any other kind of property, and he had
taken an oath to uphold that Constitution.

"But slaves are now property of the enemy,” argued Stanton. "They
should be dealt with like any other kind of enemy property.”
"Enemy,” thought Lincoln. He disliked the word. He preferred to
still think of the Southern states as friends and part of the Union. If the
time should come when that Union could be saved only by freeing the
slaves, and so weakening the rebellious states, he would be willing to do
it, for the Union must be saved. As yet he still hoped to save it by force of
arms alone, by using that army which McClellan must now move. On
that point he agreed with Stanton.
He had waited patiently, he felt, and long enough. So acting as
President, and therefore commander-in-chief, he now set February 22 as
a definite date for an advance towards Richmond.

Before that date arrived, there came to Lincoln a great personal sor¬
row, the "hardest trial,” he said, "of his life to bear.” Willie died. He was
only eleven. A child of great promise, he was very close to his father, and
the favorite of his mother, who went almost beside herself with grief.

Gently the President led her away from the child’s bedside to the window.

3°5
 "Mother,” he said kindly, "try to control your grief, or it will drive
you mad.” He knew how difficult that was, for he was making the same
effort himself. Praying for strength, it came to him.
Two days after the funeral he held a Cabinet meeting, and gradually
was back into the routine of work, studying military tactics, receiving
delegations, consulting Seward, Stanton, and above all, trying to work
out a plan for freeing the slaves that would be just and reasonable. On
March 6, in his message to Congress, he proposed one which he hoped
would be accepted! It was briefly this:

That the national government should set aside money to purchase

the slaves from their owners in any state which would set them free.

Lincoln had great hope that the four slave states along the border,
which had remained loyal to the Union would act upon the plan. He was
greatly disappointed when they failed to respond. And also disappointed
that February 22 had brought no move towards Richmond.

April, however, saw what was called the "Peninsular Campaign”

begin, a campaign on that narrow strip of Virginia land between the
James River and the York. There McClellan landed his troops with the

plan of marching up that "peninsula” to the Confederate capital. The

marching turned out to be largely wading, sloshing through the Chicka-
hominy swamp, and floundering about in marshes and bogs.
McClellan, however, managed to drive the Confederates from York-
town, and Williamsburg, and by the end of May the Union soldiers were
within ten miles of Richmond, and actually in sight of the church spires.
Then they got no farther, largely because then and there, after the Battle
of Fair Oaks, General Robert E. Lee was put in command of the Southern
forces. Lee began at once a daring, brilliant game. With less than

three-fourths the number of McClellan’s troops, Lee made his seem like
many more. Confusing, out-maneuvering the Union general and by cut¬
ting off his supplies, he forced him back to the mouth of the James River.
McClellan retreated in good order. But Lee, leaving Richmond almost

306
unprotected except for some wooden "scare” cannon, followed him
closely. Day after day from June 25 to July 1 Lee attacked the Union
forces in what were known as the "Seven Days’ Battles.” They ended
after terrific losses on both sides, with Richmond still in the hands of the

Confederates, and the "peninsular campaign” a failure.

"Almost any time day or night” during that campaign Lincoln, it
was said, might be seen in the telegraph office of the War Department.
Day after day he read the dreadful bulletins, his face drawn in agony.
At the final failure of the campaign he was almost inconsolable. All those
boys dead, and nothing accomplished. Troops, money, supplies poured
into the campaign and a failure. What was there to do now but play
his last card, as he called it. Nothing. The time had come.
One day he asked the manager of the telegraph office for a piece of

paper, saying that he had something special to write. "He sat as he

wrote,” said the man, "looking out of the window, his left elbow on the
table, his hand scratching his temple, his lips moving. Frequently he
spoke the sentence in a half whisper. Then satisfied that he had the

proper expression he would write it out.”

On July 22, three weeks after the peninsular campaign ended, Lin¬
coln called a Cabinet meeting and told the members that he had resolved
to issue a proclamation to free the slaves. He would read what he had
written and ask for suggestions. His plan was this:

On January 1, 1863, all slaves would be set free in any state still at
war with the United States, but not in those slave states that were loyal.
Until January 1, 1863, the rebellious states might return to the Union and

thus keep the slaves. Otherwise they would t(then, henceforth and forever

be free”
The sweep of the measure went beyond the expectations of them all
— even of Stanton. Secretary Seward had a suggestion to make:
"Mr. President,” said he, "while I approve of the measure, I suggest,
sir, that you postpone its issue until after a military victory.”
3°7
 Lincoln agreed that it would be wiser than following a defeat, and
therefore set the proclamation aside to wait for a victory. And night after
night he was heard pacing the floor, as August brought not victory, but
another defeat — the second Battle of Bull Run!
This time, Lee, being the victorious general, did not fail to follow
up his advantage. Heading for Philadelphia, he pushed north, and above
Washington, crossed the Potomac River into Maryland. There he was
stopped by McClellan. And near Antietam Creek, in one of the bloodiest
battles of the war, McClellan defeated Lee, drove him back into Virginia,
and gave Lincoln the long-awaited victory.
On September 22, exactly one week after the battle of Antietam,
Lincoln called the Cabinet together to hear, as they expected, his finished
draft of the Emancipation Proclamation. His face was gray as he took his
seat at the table, and opened a small book. He then read a ridiculous
squib written by one Artemus Ward. Stanton sniffed. The others smiled
politely. They needed a good laugh, thought Lincoln, surveying the
solemn circle. So he read another.

"Then,” said Secretary Chase, head of the Treasury, "the President

took a graver tone and turned to the subject of Emancipation, and read

again what he had written.”

The next day the proclamation appeared in the papers. Many people
who read it were doubtful that it would ever be enforced. One of them
was Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe, who soon put on her bonnet.

"I am going to Washington,” said she, "to satisfy myself that the
Emancipation Proclamation is not going to fizzle out.” Off she went.
She arrived at Thanksgiving time, visited Lincoln himself, and came

to the opinion that "Father Abraham” meant to "stand up” to his procla¬
mation. She saw her son whose regiment was encamped near the city,
and was thrilled at the sight of five hundred Negro fugitives having a
Thanksgiving dinner. She wrote of the strange rhythmical chant which
they sang, that haunting Negro spiritual: • «

"Oh go down Moses. . . . Way down into E-gypts La-a-nd. .

Tell King Phar-a-oh. To let my people go! . . .

qo8
 New Year’s Day came, January i, 1863.
In the morning Lincoln rewrote the Proclamation in its final form,
sent it to be copied on parchment, and then went into the East Room to

receive guests at the regular New 'Year’s Day reception.

In mid-afternoon Frederick Seward said that he and his father

brought the proclamation to the President’s office in the White House for
his signature. They were there alone.

"Mr. Lincoln,” he said, "dipped his pen in the ink, then seemed to
hesitate. Looking around he said, 1 never in my life felt more certain that
I was doing right than I do in signing this paper. But I have been shaking
hands this morning till my arm is stiff and numb. Now, this signature is
one that will be closely examined, and if they find my hand trembled,

they will say, "he had some compunctions!” But, anyway, it is going to
be done!’ So saying he slowly and carefully wrote his name to the bottom
of the proclamation. This is next to the last sentence and the signature.”

^ A/uZZj fz&o 0~~*J

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A fZG&v+J £ »<wK/
^

Thus on January 1, 1863, the slaves in all states then in rebellion

against the Union were set free. Two years later, at the end of the war,
the slaves in all the remaining states would also be given their freedom,
by an amendment added to the Constitution.
That thirteenth amendment declaring that henceforth slavery
should exist no longer anywhere in the United States completed one of
the great events in American history. It made good by law the words of

the Declaration of Independence, that to "Life, Liberty and the Pursuit

of Happiness” all men have been given equal right by their Creator. . . .

3°9
 PRUSSIA MARCHES TO WAR

■ i-^ismarck had now become Prime Minister of Prussia in 1862, and

J/ Wilhelm I of the spiked helmet was Prussia’s King. With that
old soldier as King, and the wily Bismarck at the head of affairs,
- Europe was now to see how soldiers and swords, "Blood and
Iron,” could settle the questions of the day! Some years before, on a visit
to England, Bismarck had announced exactly what he intended to do
when he conducted the government of Prussia. He had to laugh, because
he spoke the truth and knew that nobody would believe him, and nobody
did — except Disraeli.
"Take care!” said Disraeli. "That man means what he says!”
As of course he did. What Bismarck said was this:

310
 "My first care shall be to reorganize the army. Then I shall seize the
first possible excuse to declare war on Austria. I shall then dissolve the
German Confederation, and establish a United Germany under the
leadership of Prussia.”
Bismarck, in control, soon made it possible for Wilhelm I to reor¬
ganize the army, increase its size, and raise the required service of every
able-bodied man from five years to seven.
That done, Bismarck looked about for an excuse to pick a quarrel
with Austria, and decided that by handling it skillfully, he might make
use of a situation that existed in Denmark. The situation concerned two
provinces, Schleswig and Holstein, and was such a tangled one, that in
England it was said flippantly, few but Prince Albert ever could explain
it, and now he was dead.
Schleswig and Holstein were part of Denmark in 1862, but whether
they should belong permanently to the King of Denmark or to a certain
Duke who claimed them, had been argued for the past fifty years.
The King of Denmark was an old man now, and he knew that just
as soon as he was dead, the Schleswig-Holstein question would pop up
again. Therefore he got England, France, Russia, Austria and Prussia to
sign a guarantee that those two provinces should belong to his successor
who would become Christian IX.
But Bismarck, also looking ahead, had another idea. Holstein, you
see, belonged to the German Confederation. Schleswig did not, but the
few German people who lived there wished that it did.
Should it seem sad then for Germans who were and wished to be
part of the Confederation not to be rescued from the rule of Denmark?
And if Prussia should go to the rescue, and ask Austria to help,
could Austria as head of the Confederation very well refuse?
Then after Schleswig and Holstein had been "rescued” jointly by
Austria and Prussia, could not some disagreement over the final settle¬
ment probably be arranged? Very probably. What, then, had Bismarck
to do but wait for the old King of Denmark to die? Thereupon he would
persuade Wilhelm I, who said honestly that he had no claim to those
 Prussia
provinces, to dull his conscience for the good of Prussia. Then
invade
joined by Austria would first speak sharply to Denmark, and then
the country.

To have Prussia carry out those plans against Denmark was to prove
with
most embarrassing for England. And for Queen Victoria, because

her daughter "Vicky” already married to the King of Prussia’s son, her
to the King of Denmark’s daughter
by thats time
son Princes
the Alexan dra.be married
would

"Sea-kings’ daughter from over the sea,” Tennyson called the lovely
Danish Princess when she came to England in the spring of 1863 to
become the bride of the Prince of Wales. She was blond and slim, with

an enchanting smile, and a "sort of awe and wonder” in her face, it

seemed to Charles Dickens, on her wedding day.

The ceremony took place in the chapel of St. George at Windsor

Castle. It was one of "utmost magnificence” attended by the great Lords
of England and their Ladies, in colorful uniforms and wide rustling silks.
From a small old pew hung high in the wall above the chancel, a little
figure all in black looked down upon the scene. Her eyes filled with tears.
If only Albert were there with her, to see their son standing in his splen¬
did uniform waiting for his bride, and to watch the lovely bride as she
came down the aisle in a cloud of white! Followed by eight bridesmaids
also all in white they seemed to Thackeray as they floated past, like

princesses in a fairy tale who had been turned into swans.”

Alexandra, too, may have felt that day that she was living in one of
those very wonder tales which she had so often heard Hans Andersen
himself tell at home in Copenhagen.
For Hans Christian Andersen was still living in Denmark in 1863.
He was there when the old King died in late November. . . .
"Then I knew,” said he, "that dark days were at hand and a heavy
bitter time. The bloody waves of war were to wash over our Fatherland.
A kingdom and an Empire stood united against our little country. I knew
that from great Germany the railways would hurl soldiers against us, as

312
the sea in a storm casts its waves against the strand. Every day our soldiers
left for the seat of war, young men— singing. In the early morning I was
awakened by the song and tramp as they came past my dwelling.
But what avails a little band against well-appointed armies?
No sunshine fell upon us. Ships brought the wounded and man¬
gled back to Copenhagen. ... For more than a year I wrote no Wonder

Story, my soul was so burdened.”

BLUT
md. eisen/"
Bismarck was well pleased with the outcome of the war on Den¬
mark. England, in embarrassment, had looked the other way. France and
Russia also became absentminded about the treaty they had made with
the old King of Denmark, and so they also stood by and let the little
nation be robbed. In October, 1864, Christian IX ceded the two provinces
of Schleswig and Holstein to Austria and Prussia, to do with them what
they liked. Franz Josef, Wilhelm I and their two advisers then met in
Vienna to dine on gold plates and serve up the spoils.
Austria’s suggestion that Schleswig-Holstein be made a new state in
the German Confederation was skilfully sidetracked by Bismarck. He
then put through the arrangement, more useful to him, of having them
held jointly for a time by Austria and Prussia.
King Wilhelm still protested that he had no right to them, but he
grew used to the idea, and even convinced that as a good Hohenzollern it
was his duty to God to extend the size of Prussia.
Quite aglow over this first expansion, he conferred upon his Prime
Minister the title of count, which was very gratifying to Bismarck,
though he found the note which explained the honor most amusing. It

had been conferred, wrote King Wilhelm, "as an outcome of my system

of government, which you have followed with such great and distin-

3*3
guished circumspection.” . . . Followed, did he say? Yes. . . . Fol¬
lowed! Count Bismar ck had to laugh. . . .

And laugh again in 1866. For then, when everything was lined up,
when he had persuaded Italy to help in order to get Venetia, when he felt
sure that France would not help Austria, Bismarck sprung his trap. He

began by having Prussia find fault with the way that Austria was govern¬
ing in Holstein, and then go to war about it. Starting June 16 and ending
August 23, it was the shortest war in history. In less than seven weeks,
Prussia dealt the old Empire of Austria a knockout blow from which it
never would recover.

"You are a great man, now, Excellency,” said an aide to Bismarck

very frankly, "but what if the Crown Prince had not arrived with his
troops just in time at the battle of Sadowa? The war would have been
greatest of all rascals!”
lost, and you would now be one of theBismarck.
No one knew that better than And that was not all he
knew. What if the other nations had stood by their treaty with Denmark?

Or, inasmuch as they didn’t, what if they had united and refused to let
Austria be attacked, for no good reason whatsoever? Where would his
plans be then ? He knew.
But they hadn’t interfered!
The first German Blitz-Krieg was successful. Austria was dropped
completely out of the Confederation, and Prussia became head of all the
united German states north of the Main. The powerful nation planned
by Bismarck had now formed itself and from now on, from this fateful
year of 1866, when they had stood by and let it happen, the Blood and
Iron of Prussia were to make sad history for the nations of Europe.
To the third and fourth generation the children would pay for the
sins of their fathers. For there is no changing of the law — the future is
born in the past.
Only a little over four years and France would be defeated by
Prussia, the Empire overthrown, Napoleon III made prisoner, and old
soldier Wilhelm crowned the first Emperor of the newly created German
Reich in the palace at Versailles!

314
 4

1863: VICKSBURG AND GETTYSBURG

November, 1863, when the King of Denmark died, giving Bis¬

marck the chance to promote his rule of "Blood and Iron,”
Abraham Lincoln dedicated the battlefield of Gettysburg,
where five months before thousands of men had given their
lives that a government
JULY
of and by free people might live on.
4, 1863, the day after the battle of Gettysburg had taken place,
brought another victory for the Union armies. For that day July 4, out on
the Mississippi River, U. S. Grant, now a Brigadier-General, had cap¬
tured Vicksburg. His luck, if you call it luck, had turned at last. And that
capture at Vicksburg ended a long, hard struggle to open the Mississippi
River, one which Lincoln had followed as anxiously as he had the cam¬
paign in Virginia.
Lincoln knew the river. He had poled the length of it on his flat boat

3i5
from the Ohio to New Orleans. He knew that to get control of the Missis¬
sippi was as important to the North as the direct attack on Richmond,
because it would divide the Confederacy in two, cutting off the three
states west of the river from contact with the east. While he had watched
one Union general after another fail and retreat in Virginia, he saw with
growing confidence the results turned in by Grant, as the river campaign
went slowly forward.
The navy started at New Orleans, while the army starting from
Cairo, Illinois, began to push south through Tennessee and Mississippi.
February, 1 862, the campaign began with the capture of two forts,
Fort Henry and Fort Donelson on the northern line of Tennessee.
It was at Fort Donelson that the first great Union victory of the war
was won. And it was that victory that first brought the name of U. S.

Grant before the people, and gave him the new nickname "Unconditional
Surrender.” After a three-day battle, the Confederate General had asked
Grant for terms, and received this reply:

1^

Those words were joyfully caught up, and though the nickname
would often be drowned out in curses, those were the terms Grant would
stick to as he dragged through mud and blood and agony to the end.
By the capture of Fort Donelson, the Confederate line was pushed
back to the southern border of Tennessee. There at Shiloh, in early April,
1862, came the next great Union victory. For that victory, Grant very
rightfully took little credit, saying that he owed it to General William
Tecumseh Sherman, who had then been transferred west from the Army
of the Potomac. So Sherman, with his fighting spirit, and his snappy
tongue, was with Grant as they left Shiloh and pushed down through
Mississippi to Vicksburg, almost the last fort to be captured, for in
 fv*» (juhnjjuu y 9/vfJu pw<t : iw P <ryi . • . sr\
P r Jnc //U&Asux4scpfu ori Jxsmi, erf J^JULCJU — '

April, 1862, Admiral Farragut and the navy had cap¬

tured New Orleans. New
Orleans, as you can see on
the map, was guarded by two forts farther down the
delta. Between them heavy chains had been stretched
across to block the river channel, while on guard
above the forts were fifteen Confederate vessels, two
of them ironclads, like the Merrimac.
A month before the battle between the Monitor and the Merrimac
which had occurred in March, Admiral Farragut had taken fifty of those
Union warships from Chesapeake Bay, and set out for New Orleans. It
took six days and nights, after he reached the mouth of the river, before
he could break through the chains, run past the forts, and capture the city.
The levees for miles were then ablaze with burning ships and cotton
bales, but the river was open north to Port Hudson, which would fall
soon after Vicksburg. But in that spring of 1862, the fall of Vicksburg
was still more than a year away.

Vicksburg was too well protected. It stood on a bluff so high above

the river that it could not be fired upon from the boats. And from the
northeast by land it was almost unapproachable, because of swamps and
bayous and streams full of swirling yellow water.

317
 Grant tried. But months of building bridges, clearing streams of
fallen logs, knocking out levees and digging a canal ended only in what

the newspapers damned as a "stupid and disgraceful failure.” And be¬

sides he lost his false teeth in the river!
It was then decided to put the troops on ships, try to run past the
batteries, land and come up against Vicksburg from the south. The dar¬
ing attempt was made one dark night in April, 1863, and was amazingly
successful. Though the Confederates burned the houses of Vicksburg to
light up the river, so that the gunners could see the transport ships, only
two small boats were lost. The army landed.
Then for ten days Lincoln heard nothing from Grant. He was too
busy to telegraph. He was striking right and left at two Confederate
armies forty miles apart, for another army under General Johnston had
then arrived at Jackson, Mississippi. Pemberton came out of Vicksburg.
Grant struck left and drove him back. Then struck right at Johnston and
drove him out of the state capital, and whirled back for an attack on
Vicksburg. Grant and Sherman shelled the town for days and nights con¬
tinually, but Pemberton did not surrender. So Grant began the siege to
starve him out. That was the first of May, 1863.

may, 1863, in Virginia saw the Union Army of the Potomac again
headed for Richmond, and again defeated by General Lee, this time at
the town of Chancellorsville. It was the last Confederate victory, and one

in which Lee suffered the tragic loss of his so-called "right arm,” General
"Stonewall” Jackson, who was accidentally shot by one of his own men.
After this victory, Lee tried as before to move north into Pennsylvania
with the hope of reaching Philadelphia. This time he got over the border
as far as a town called Gettysburg.
July 1 the famous battle there at Gettysburg began, the only battle
fought on northern soil. Lee was defeated by General George Meade,
who later failed, however, to follow up his advantage.
It was a three-day battle, with the armies facing each other from two
high ridges separated by a mile of open valley. On the first day the

318
Union army failed; on the second day the Confederates were driven back.
On the third day General Lee, sitting on his horse Traveller, scanning
the valley, decided to charge the center of the Union line. That charge
made by fifteen thousand of the bravest soldiers in the southern army was
one as desperately fatal as the Charge of the Light Brigade in the Crimea.
At the signal to start, the valley was filled with clouds of smoke from
the artillery fire which began the day. From where he sat, Lee watched
the men in gray start out in wedge formation, and through the rifts of
smoke could see them going across the valley. Halfway there the rifle fire
of the Union soldiers began to tear holes in their ranks, the holes filled
up and on they went, till they were fighting hand to hand. And before the
retreat sounded, a boy named Armistead, leading them on, had vaulted
a stone wall on the crest of the ridge, and fallen there still holding his cap
high on the point of his sword.
Next day in pouring rain, nearly fifty thousand men in gray and blue
were left dead on the battlefield, as Lee, blaming no one but himself, led
the troops which remained to him, back into Virginia.
November 19, a little more than four months later, a ceremony was
held on the battlefield to dedicate a portion of it as the burial ground for
the men who had died there. As Lincoln took his place on the platform
on that bare November day, he looked out over the faces of one hundred
thousand living people, gathered in that valley where so short a time ago
half that number were lying dead.
The President of Harvard had been chosen as the orator of the occa¬
sion. He spoke for two hours. Then the choir sang. Then Lincoln rose to
make "a few appropriate remarks” as he had been asked to do.
Seward knew that the President had been so pressed for time that he
had been obliged to finish writing his speech after they left Washington,
but he was not prepared to see him stop before he had fairly started, and
sit down. The photographers had not been able to adjust their cameras,
the crowd had barely stopped rustling and prepared to listen, when he
was through.

"I’m sorry for it,” whispered Secretary Seward to the President

3*9
of Harvard. "He has made a failure. The speech wasn’t equal to him.”
Neither Seward, nor the crowd, nor the President of Harvard — no
one then seemed to realize that they had just heard one of the finest things
ever written in the English language. But they knew it later, for these are
the words that Abraham Lincoln spoke at Gettysburg, that day, words
in which the soul of America rose from that brown battlefield:

FOUR SCORE AND SEVEN YEARS AGO OUR FATHERS BROUGHT FORTH

ON THIS CONTINENT A NEW NATION, CONCEIVED IN LIBERTY AND DEDI

CATED TO THE PROPOSITION THAT ALL MEN ARE CREATED EQUAL.
NOW WE ARE ENGAGED IN A GREAT CIVIL WAR, TESTING WHETHER
THAT NATION OR ANY NATION SO CONCEIVED AND SO DEDICATED CAN
LONG ENDURE.

WE ARE MET ON A GREAT BATTLE-FIELD OF THAT WAR. WE HAVE

COME TO DEDICATE A PORTION OF THAT FIELD AS A FINAL RESTING PLACE
OF THOSE WHO HERE GAVE THEIR LIVES THAT THAT NATION MIGHT LIVE.
IT IS ALTOGETHER FITTING AND PROPER THAT WE SHOULD DO THIS.

BUT, IN A LARGER SENSE, WE CANNOT DEDICATE, WE CANNOT CONSE¬

CRATE, WE CANNOT HALLOW THIS GROUND. THE BRAVE MEN, LIVING
AND DEAD, WHO STRUGGLED HERE HAVE CONSECRATED IT FAR ABOVE OUR
POOR POWER TO ADD OR DETRACT.
THE WORLD WILL LITTLE NOTE NOR LONG REMEMBER WHAT WE
SAY HERE. BUT IT CAN NEVER FORGET WHAT THEY DID HERE.

IT IS FOR US THE LIVING, RATHER, TO BE DEDICATED HERE TO THE

UNFINISHED WORK WHICH THEY WHO FOUGHT HERE HAVE THUS FAR SO
NOBLY ADVANCED. IT IS RATHER FOR US TO BE HERE DEDICATED TO THE

GREAT TASK REMAINING BEFORE US, THAT FROM THESE HONORED DEAD
WE TAKE INCREASED DEVOTION TO THAT CAUSE FOR WHICH THEY GAVE

THE LAST FULL MEASURE OF DEVOTION; THAT WE HERE HIGHLY RESOLVE

THAT THESE DEAD SHALL NOT HAVE DIED IN VAIN; THAT THIS NATION,
UNDER GOD, SHALL HAVE A NEW BIRTH OF FREEDOM, AND THAT GOV¬
ERNMENT OF THE PEOPLE, BY THE PEOPLE, AND FOR THE PEOPLE SHALL
NOT PERISH FROM THE EARTH.

320
 RED CROSS

The American Civil War, the worst and blo diest war that had
ever been fought thus far in the history of the world, had now

completed its third year. Great victories had been won. "Vic¬
tories, yes! but oh, the cost,” said Clara Barton. "Dead every¬
where! On every battlefield they lie. In dark ravines . . . tangled forest!
In miry swamps. On lonely picket line! And by the roadside ... I saw

them fight and die.”

Yes, Clara Barton had seen them fight and die. She had followed out
onto the battlefield, while the smoke was still in the air, to give first aid
to the wounded, and to help bring them back. She had improvised hos¬
pitals, cooked and supplied food, soothed those who were dying, and
helped bury the dead. And when it was all over she was to hunt for the

missing men. Then upon her doctor’s orders that she must have "three
years of absolute rest,” she went to Switzerland.
There she first heard that in 1864 a great international organization

321
had been formed to care for the wounded in war, and to which twenty-
two nations now belonged. When she found that the United States was
to
the only civilized nation missing and had refused two invitations

belong, she said she "grew more and more ashame d.” It was interesting
to her to learn how the organization had been formed.

"Although the horrors of India,” she said, "and of the Crimea and
the work of Florence Nightingale had led up to such a movement, it
was not until the campaign of Napoleon III in northern Italy that any

definite steps were taken.”

Monsieur Henry Dunant, a Swiss gentleman, was traveling in Italy
in the year 1859, and was in the neighborhood of Solferino the day of
the great battle. This led to the publication of the description of what
he had observed on the battlefield and in hospitals, as well as a propo¬
sition for founding in every country societies for the relief of the
wounded.

The work resulted in calling the International Convention of Geneva

of 1864, which drew up a treaty and a code. It was necessary to fix upon
some common sign to be recognized by all nations.
The design proposed was a red cross upon a white ground.
In the war so soon to come between Prussia and France, Clara Barton
was to see the Red Cross put to its first test.

"As I saw the work of these Red Cross societies in the field,” she
said, "accomplishing in four months under their systematic organization
what we failed to accomplish in four years without it— no mistakes, no
needless suffering, no starving, no lack of care, no waste, no confusion,
but order, cleanliness and comfort wherever that little flag made its way
—a whole continent marshalled under the banner of the Red Cross — as I
saw all this, and joined and worked on it, you will not wonder that I
said to myself 'if I live to return to my country I will try to make my
people understand the Red Cross and that treaty.’ ” And in 1882, through
the efforts of Clara Barton, the United States adhered to the treaties gov¬
erning the Red Cross.

322
 THE LAST YEAR OF WAR

A PRIL, 1864. The dandelions were bright on the White House lawn,
/ VL the leaves were green in Virginia. Spring had come again. The
/ >\ fourth spring to begin a year of war. What would this year
1 1\ bring? What did it hold for the tired man in the White House,
now also entering the fourth year of his term ? Would the people cast him
aside, in November, or would they re-elect him, that he might go on
until the war was over and his work was done ?

And what of that other President in the Confederate capitol in Rich¬

mond, Virginia? How long would he be there?
How long? Just so long as Richmond could be defended. Just so
long as the brilliant technique of Robert E. Lee could stand against the
well-directed blows of Ulysses Grant. For it had come to that. It would
be Lee against Grant in this spring of 1864.
U. S. Grant, summoned to Washington by the War Department to
command the Union armies, was planning a new campaign in Virginia.
Lee in his army tent on the Rapidan River was preparing to meet it.

Grant’s Potomac army numbered 115,000, and behind him were the
almost unlimited resources of the North, the efficiency of Stanton, and
the wisdom, patience and understanding of Abraham Lincoln.
Robert E. Lee, standing almost alone, had an army of 60,000 men.
They had neither clothes enough to wear nor food enough to eat. He was

323
thankful that they had ammunition. Arms and munitions were now being
made in the South, many at the foundries in Atlanta, Georgia. And they
had spirit, those men of the army of Virginia. The battle of Gettysburg
had broken the faith of many Southern soldiers and thousands since then
had deserted, but the old guard of Virginia were loyal to Lee, and Lee
had their welfare in his heart.

"Keep the Army of Virginia in your thoughts and prayers," he wrote

a cousin. "It is preparing for a great struggle."

May i, the move towards Richmond began. Grant started directly

for the Rapidan River. But that was only half of the Union plan. Out in
Chattanooga, Tennessee, Sherman waited for the signal to start down
through Georgia. Then, by making a wide circle north, he v/ould cut off
Richmond and Virginia from the states to the south.

"War is Hell,” said Sherman. No use softening the blows, it would

only prolong the agony.
May i, then, Grant started. Lee knew it. The morning of May 4 his
staff officers heard it. They were seated with him at a meager breakfast
in his tent.

"General Grant,” Lee said calmly, "crossed the Rapidan last night.”
Then as his old Negro servant filled each cup with the unusual treat of
coffee, he explained his plan to wait — not to attack Grant in open coun¬
try, but to let him come on until he had reached the "Wilderness,” where
Grant would lose advantage of a larger force.

This "Wilderness” of which Lee spoke was a deserted stretch of

rough ground about twelve miles square, full of abandoned ore pits,
gullies, scrub oaks, scraggy pines, and dense undergrowth.
May 5, Grant was in the Wilderness, hoping to go through the
tangled thicket before the attack began. But about noon came the open¬
ing guns. In no time the echoing woods were filled with smoke and fire,
and the pits and gullies heaped with wounded. The second day, which
began at sunrise, saw another day of frantic and confused fighting in the
tangled flaming woods filled with choking smoke.
 Surely now, thought many of the Confederate officers, Grant would
retreat. They did not know Grant. He changed his direction, but he did
not retreat.

May n he sent this telegram to Lincoln from Spottsylvania:

"l PROPOSE TO FIGHT IT OUT ON THIS LINE IF IT TAKES ALL SUMMER.”

And fight he did, day after day, sidling to the left, working, fighting,
hammering his way mile by mile, almost foot by foot, around the right

end of Lee’s line constantly sidling towards Richmond until, on June 2,

he was only six miles away, just where McClellan had stood two years
before. And again, as then, Lee blocked the path. Grant attacked him at
Cold Harbor; he lost 7,000 men in twenty minutes. Still he did not
retreat. He circled again to the left, and two weeks later he was south of
Richmond, twenty miles away near the town of Petersburg. There at
Petersburg he settled in for a long siege, determined to hammer and

pound and blast away at Lee’s army until that town and Richmond, too,
were captured. That was to take almost a year, all fall, all winter, until
April came again.

During that time Grant’s headquarters at City Point grew into a

regular town, with people coming and going on all kinds of business.
Mrs. Grant and the children came to spend the winter, and old Jesse
strutted down to see his now famous son. Newspaper reporters, of course,
were everywhere. Soon after the fall of Vicksburg they had begun asking
Grant, to his embarrassment, if he would run for President in 1864. The

very idea made him quake. Couldn’t even make a speech; how could he
be President? He was a soldier, not a statesman. He’d stick to his job.
And stick to it he did, for that was Grant. . . .

Meanwhile, where was General William Tecumseh Sherman? Well,

where would he be, but down in Georgia? Wasn’t that the plan? On the
dot, as soon as he got a telegram that Grant was in the Wilderness, Sher¬
man set out from Chattanooga, Tennessee, and fought his way down to
Atlanta, Georgia, which he captured by September. Thereupon he set

325
fire to the Atlanta factories, destroyed all ammunition foundries, mills
and machine shops. Then hearing that the Confederate Army, instead of
protecting Georgia, had been sent off by Jefferson Davis on a wild goose
chase up into Tennessee, Sherman swept right on down from Atlanta to
Savannah. The army left behind them, sad to say, a strip of devastated

country sixty miles wide straight through the heart of Georgia "from
Atlanta to the Sea.”
From the seaport of Savannah he sent back this snappy telegram:

"Savannah, Georgia, Dec. 22, 1864

"To his Excellency, President Lincoln, Washington, D. C.:
"I beg to present you as a Christmas Gift the City of Savannah, with
one hundred and fifty guns and plenty of ammunition; also about twenty-
five thousand bales of cotton. W. T. Sherman.”

The telegram, which had to go by ship to Chesapeake Bay, reached

Washington on Christmas Day, and was gratefully acknowledged.
November 4 had also brought Lincoln a message for which he was
deeply grateful, the approval of the people. Although he had been called
almost every ugly name from baboon to tyrant, they had re-elected him
as President. That meant he’d go on to finish his work.
Then had come Thanksgiving, the first one to be celebrated as an
annual national holiday, on a date fixed by the President, the last Thurs¬
day in November. And so the year 1864 came to a close.
and spring came again. Spring, 1865, the fifth one to begin a year
of war, but this time it brought hope of peace.
Only three of the original eleven Confederate States were still left
fighting, Sherman was on his way north into the Carolinas and, though
Lee still held out against Grant, the Army of Virginia, starved through
the winter, was dwindling away.
President Jefferson Davis was still in Richmond, though Mrs. Davis
had sold her carriage and gone south, but General Lee warned Davis to
be prepared any time to move the government. Unless he could get food

326
for his army, he could not keep it together any longer. Messages bringing
no results, in March General Lee went himself to beg Congress for food
for his starving troops. Seething with anger and distress he returned to
the small house in Richmond, where his invalid wife and family were
then living. That evening he paced back and forth before the open fire,
and then turned to his son, Custis Lee, who was a Major-General.

"Mr. Custis,” he said, "I have been up to see the Congress and
they seem unable to do anything except to eat peanuts and chew tobacco
while my army is starving. When this war began, I was opposed to it,
bitterly opposed, and I told those people that unless every man should do
his whole duty, they would repent it . . . and now they will repent.”
Robert E. Lee was low that night, but next day his spirit was up,
and later at the promise of possible fresh recruits, his black eyes snapped.

"If I had 15,000 fresh troops,” he said, "things would look very
different.” It was only another promise. Lee went back to Petersburg to
make the best of what he had, in a last brilliant showing, but it was
obvious to the North that he could not hold out indefinitely.
March 4, 1865, therefore, was a very different day in Washington
from Lincoln’s first inaugural day, when he had had to slip into the city
secretly, and every window of the unfinished Capitol had to be guarded
by soldiers as he took the oath of office.
Now the Capitol dome was finished, even to the bronze figure of
Liberty on top. A great applause swept over the happy crowd gathered
on the grounds as they saw Lincoln step forward on the platform. At that
moment the sun, which had been under a cloud, came out and shone
down on the wet green leaves of spring, the golden dome, the upturned
faces and the tall black figure standing before them with the sheet of
white paper in his hand. Then he spoke to them of peace and of finishing
the war, of bearing no resentment for what was past, and of believing
always through whatever was to come that the judgments of the lord
ARE TRUE AND RIGHTEOUS ALTOGETHER.

Therefore "with malice toward none,” he said, "with charity for

all, with firmness in the right as God gives us to see the right, let us

327
strive on to finish the work we are in; to bind up the nation’s wounds;
to care for him who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow and
his orphan; to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting

peace among ourselves and with all nations.”

Looking out upon the crowd as he finished, Lincoln saw the face
of Frederick Douglass, the Negro leader. He saw him again at the recep¬
tion which was held that evening in the East Room of the White House.

At sight of him, Douglass said, Mr. Lincoln’s "countenance had lighted

up,” and he shook hands cordially.
Walt Whitman, the poet, was also there, but he saw the President

looking "rather disconsolate” as the crowd surged by him. He was

dressed in black, the poet said, "with white kid gloves and a claw hammer
coat, receiving, as in duty bound, shaking hands,” but "looking as if he
would give anything to be somewhere else.”
By midnight the reception was over; the White House lights went
out, and it was still at last. But Lincoln was completely exhausted. He
could still feel people shaking his hand as he lay down to rest, and closing
his eyes he could still hear the voices of the crowd — voices dying into
silence and the deep stillness of sleep.
And then into that deep stillness, some nights later, came the sound
of sobbing. Or was it sobbing? He listened, then rose from his bed and
followed the sound through the empty halls down the stairs, until he
stood in the door of the East Room. There before him was a bier upon
which rested a corpse, wrapped in funeral vestments. There was a

throng of people weeping pitifully. "Who is dead?” he asked one of the

guards. "The President,” was his answer. "He was killed by an assassin.”
Then came a loud burst of grief from the crowd, which woke him from
the dream.

"I slept no more that night,” Lincoln said, telling of it later. "But
it was only a dream. So we’ll let it go — I think the Lord in His own good
time and way will work this out all right. God knows what is best.”
In that faith lay Lincoln’s courage. He could walk through life, or
into "the valley of the shadow of death,” without fear of evil.

328
 TTME A(&E <EDEF (BOBA§§>9
(^lOrtvaCuM^i^i^ pru^i I8L9) </i, thi/ tnjiumifsht) o£ VJcrrnssrU

LOOKING TO THE FUTURE

' give YOU Upper Canada,” said Artemus Ward, for fun, proposing a
toast to a convivial group of newspapermen in Virginia City,
Nevada, one night in 1863. Ward was the humorous gentleman whose
stories gave Abraham Lincoln so much amusement. Listening to him
that night in Nevada was a bushy-haired young fellow who had just then
taken the pen-name of Mark Twain, borrowed from his old job as river
pilot on the Mississippi, and one to which he had no desire to return.
He liked writing better, and was then doing a humorous column, some¬
what after the fashion of Artemus Ward.

Ward’s way was to poke fun in a misspelled dialect on all the topics
of the day, from "Wimin’s Rites” to the Atlantic Cable and Cyrus Field,
whose "Fort” he said was to "lay a sub-machine tellegraf under the
boundin’ billers of the Oshun and then hev it Bust!” So now it was

Upper Canada. "Gentlemen,” he said, "I give you Upper Canada.”

"And why?” asked one of the companions.
"Because,” he responded, "I don’t want it myself!”

329
 Canada would have been glad to hear such a posi¬
tive statement made by the United States. And John A.

Macdonald, also, who was now Canada’s Prime Min¬

ister, would have been glad to be assured that the
United States did not want Canada. Though sixteen
years had passed since the idea to reach the Pacific
Ocean had swept over the neighbor to the south, Canada had not for¬
gotten when and how the great piece of Mexico had been acquired.
Now that the Civil War was drawing to a close, might not the same
thing happen to Canada? What would General Grant do with that
great army of his when the war was over? The United States might very
possibly, they thought, look north now instead of west, with hopes of
annexing one or more of the British provinces.
That might not be too difficult either, since only the two provinces,
Upper and Lower Canada, were then united. And people in them were
still dissatisfied with the system of government.
So now this need to unite for protection, and for better government,
led to one of the important events in the history of North America, the
founding of the Dominion of Canada.
In Quebec in the autumn of 1864, delegates met from United
Canada, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and Prince Ed¬
ward Island. Under the leadership of John A. Macdonald, they drew up
a scheme and resolutions for a Confederation which they hoped would
eventually include Hudson Bay territory. Like the United States, they
also felt it their manifest destiny to reach the Pacific Ocean.
The sessions were secret, like those held seventy-seven years before
in Philadelphia to form the Constitution of the United States. And in
planning the government, the founders of Canada looked both to that
Constitution and the British system. They made Canada a union of
provinces or states similar to the United States, but at the head they
placed not a President but a cabinet or committee headed by a Prime
Minister like that of England. There was to be a governor general repre¬
senting the Queen, but having little power.

33°
 Then rose the question of what to call the nation.

"I propose we call it the Kingdom of Canada,” said Macdonald.

Others felt that some other name than Kingdom would be more
agreeable to the United States, and so settled upon the name dominion.
The plans being completed, they were not adopted by the separate
provinces without great agitation, and much weighing of benefits to be
gained against possible sacrifices, fear and jealousy taking a hand as
usual. In the end, however, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and United
Canada (Quebec and Ontario) decided to cooperate. The plans were
then sent to the British Parliament for approval. A committee, headed by
John A. Macdonald, went to England to help put through the negotia¬
tions. There he was received by Queen Victoria, and kissed her hand.
A week after that audience, Parliament passed and Queen Victoria
signed the British North America Act and brought into existence the
Dominion of Canada, on July i, 1867.
John A. Macdonald became the First Prime Minister of the new
nation and was to be, for the next quarter of a century, the leading figure
in building this Canada which he had helped to found. The founding of
the Dominion came just ten years after the Sepoy Rebellion in India, and
Sir John regretted that the event had not been given more prominence.
"The declaration,” he said, "of all the British North American
provinces that they desired as one Dominion to remain a portion of the
Empire showed what wise government and generous treatment would

do, and should have been marked as an epoch in the history of England.”
Today, Canada is free, but still united with England in a Common¬
wealth of Nations, whose formation marked a step in the history of the
world. For the British Commonwealth, formed of self-governing nations,
is a union of the largest groups of society ever joined together since
families first united into tribes, tribes into states and states into nations.
Looking from the past to the future, many people believe that in time all
nations will be free to govern themselves, and all united for mutual
benefit in a Federation of the World.

Perhaps England lost sight of the importance of what had happened

33i
in Canada in 1867, because of a great reform which took place that year,
industrial
by which the vote was given to most of the working class in the
cities, and England became, at last, a democracy.

The Reform Bill was put through by the two great leaders in Parlia¬
caught
ment, and the two greatest rivals, Mr. Gladstone and Mr. Disraeli,
of the
working together for once in their lives. Gladstone, now leader
a sort of
Liberal Party, believed in the Reform. With Disraeli it was
n from
heads I win, tails you lose proposition, as you see in the cartoo
Punch.

As the Conservative leader, Disraeli did not want Reform. The

year before, when Gladstone had introduced a Reform Bill, he had fought
against it, helped defeat it, and so put the Liberal party out.

But "you cannot light against the future,” Gladstone had kept say¬
ing. The rule by the people and for the people was bound to come.
Disraeli was shrewd enough to see that, too. Even though he did
not want it. But since he knew that it was coming, he thought his party
might as well get the credit for it. So when the Conservatives came into
power he turned about-face, introduced a Reform Bill, which Gladstone
kept adding to until it suited him, and then Disraeli manipulated until he
got it passed. So in 1867, the year that the Dominion of Canada was
formed, England became a democracy.

332
 During the debates in the House of Commons over the Reform
Bill, one member, John Stuart Mill, made a strong plea in favor of grant¬
ing the vote to women. Two years later, in the United States, under the
leadership of Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, the first

National Woman’s Suffrage Association was to be organized. That same

year, in the territory of Wyoming, women were actually to be given the
vote. But on the whole, the idea of woman suffrage was looked upon as a
joke, in those days, both in England and the United States.

Artemus Ward made great sport of the "Wimin’s Rite’s Associ-

ashun,” whitch he said as a feroshus female explained "beleeves wimin
has rites — whitch beleeves in razin’ her to her proper speer — hense 4th
& forever.” Women’s Suffrage was still funny in 1867.
But the Atlantic Cable was no longer a joke. In July, 1866, Cyrus

Field had succeeded in "laying his tellegraf beneath the boundin’

billers,” and it was possible to telegraph between
Ireland and Newfoundland the year before the
Dominion of Canada was formed.
North America was to see two other changes
that year, 1867:
Alaska was to be purchased from Russia by
the United States for $7,200,000.

The Republic of Mexico would be restored to its great Indian Presi¬

dent, Benito Juarez. First, Napoleon III was to withdraw the French

troops. Maximilian, deserted by those who had made him an "Emperor,”

would calmly face the firing squad on the Hill of Bells. Carlota, having
then lost her mind, was to live on insane for sixty years. Though the

333
nations of Europe would have sent urgent appeals to Juarez to be merci¬
ful, to Juarez this was a time for justice and not mercy. They had shown
no mercy to Mexico. The law must take its course.
Looking ahead to 1867, however, is to go beyond the world that
Abraham Lincoln knew. For in 1865, with the end of the American Civil

War, would come the end of Lincoln’s life. Sitting in a box at the theatre
he was to be killed by an assassin. Time and again Stanton had warned
the President to be careful, that his life was constantly in danger, but

Lincoln paid as little heed to him, as to the eighty-odd notes he had

received threatening him with violent death.
"I can die but once,” he said, "but to live in constant dread of
it, is to die over and over again.”
Yet the thought of death was often with him. He was so weary, so
incredibly weary. He wanted quiet, a long quiet peaceful sleep, one in
which there would not even be dreams to trouble him. Several times one

day early in April, 1865, a friend heard Lincoln read these lines from
Shakespeare, saying Macbeth was to be pitied, and not Duncan, whom

he had killed, for . . . "Duncan is in his grave;

"After life’s fitful fever, he sleeps well;

Treason has done its worst: nor steel nor poison,
Malice domestic, foreign levy, nothing,
Can touch him further!” . . .

Lincoln sat for a few moments with the small book open on his
knee, then closed it, and slipped it in his pocket. His face lighted up,
he turned to casual conversation, watching with interest the shore line
of the Potomac River, as the boat moved upstream towards Washington.
For that was where Lincoln was, on the Potomac River.

It was Sunday, April 9, and he was returning from a two-week visit

to General Grant’s headquarters at City Point. Just the Sunday before,
while Lincoln was still in camp, Petersburg had at last been evacuated
by Lee, and Richmond, the Confederate capital, had also fallen!
334
 On Sunday morning, April 2, in Richmond, President Jefferson
Davis had been in church, listening to the sermon, when someone tip¬
toed up the aisle and handed him a dispatch. It was a message from
General Lee saying that Petersburg had fallen, and that Richmond must
be evacuated.

Thinking that Davis would go with the army, Lee made known to
him the route he proposed to take, in order to join the other Confederate
army, under Johnston, now in North Carolina.
Davis protested at first about having to hurry and leave behind so
many valuables, but he finally left. In North Carolina he heard of Lee’s
surrender on April 9, and so continued on down into Alabama, where
he met his family. He hoped to get across Mississippi, and escape from
there into Mexico. But leaving their tent one night with his wife’s shawl
over his head, he was captured, and then taken off to prison to Fortress
Monroe. Later he went to England.
The road to Fortress Monroe lay through Augusta, Georgia. There,
from the window of the parsonage, a pale nine-year-old boy wearing
spectacles saw the President of the Confederacy being led through the
streets under Federal guard, the man for whom he had heard his father
pray, since the first gun fired at Fort Sumter. That Southern boy, whose
name was Tommie Woodrow Wilson, would one day be President of
that great Union of States, which his good father, Jefferson Davis, and
many other sincere and upright men had honestly believed should be
broken up, that an outworn institution might be preserved.
No one would come to realize more keenly than this boy, who was
to plan for an even larger Union, that theirs had been a lost cause from

the beginning. For slavery belonged to ages in the world’s history that
were past. And to break down a union instead of trying to preserve it
was also looking to the past and not the future. And so in the very cause

itself lay its defeat, for whether you wish it or not, "the great cause of
the world will go forward.” . . .

"you cannot fight against the future.”

335
 VICTORY AND DEFEAT

ON Sunday, April 9, 1865, as Lincoln was sailing up the

Potomac, General Robert E. Lee surrendered the pitiful
remnant of his army to General Ulysses S. Grant, in the
village of Appomattox Court House, in Virginia. There was
nothing else left for him to do. Early in the morning word had come from
his cavalry leader that the Union army lay straight across their path, that
he had "fought his troops to a frazzle” and could do nothing more.
"Then,” said Lee, more to himself than to officers who were with
him, "there is nothing left for me to do but to go and see General Grant,
and I would rather die a thousand deaths.”
Sitting by a fire of fence rails, he talked with various officers and
members of his staff, and they agreed that it was the right course to take.
Several notes had then gone, under white flags of truce, between the two
commanders. The first one which Grant had more or less hesitatingly
sent, suggested that General Lee surrender his army to avoid further
useless bloodshed. In a later note he suggested that they might both
appoint officers to confer, in case Lee did not wish to do so himself.
Grant had known too often and too well the pain of humiliation. He
did not wish to inflict it upon anyone else.
General Robert E. Lee had not thought of delegating the disagree-

336
able task of surrender to anyone else. Early that morning, rising before
dawn, he had dressed himself in his best gray uniform, fresh linen, and
hung his finest sword from a new sash of scarlet silk. He wished to make

his best appearance, in case he should have to become Grant’s prisoner

before the day was over.
Shortly after noon, following the final exchange of notes, General
Lee mounted Traveller and, accompanied by three of his staff, rode off
beyond the line of battle, across a stream where he stopped long enough
for Traveller to drink, and then west on down the road towards the vil¬
lage of Appomattox.
By a strange coincidence, the small brick house chosen for the
meeting place belonged to a farmer who had been living near Bull Run
Creek when the first battle of the war took place. He had moved south
to get away from it, and now the war had followed him, and was going
to end on his little round parlor table!
Lee dismounted, and entered the house with his three officers. He
laid his gauntlets and hat on the small table and seated himself beside

it. After a half hour of heavy silence, he heard horses’ hooves.

In a few moments Grant, who had had farther to come, drew rein
and dismounted before the small brick house. He was dressed for the
field, no coat, dirty trousers tucked into the top of boots, covered with
mud, and no sword — no sign of his rank except the shoulder straps on
his shirt. He felt embarrassed as he tramped up the front steps of the

porch, hoped Lee wouldn’t feel that his appearance was meant for dis¬
respect — hoped Lee wouldn’t recall the time in Mexico when he had
rebuked him for his slovenly appearance — feared — But then the door
opened and he was inside.
General Lee rose, surprisingly tall in the low room. The two men
shook hands, Lee resumed his seat by the window, Grant took a seat in
the center of the room. Twelve of his men entered and ranged them¬
selves behind him. A slight pause, then Grant cleared his throat.

"I met you once before, General Lee, in Mexico.”

"\es, I remember that occasion,” answered Lee, and the conversa-

33?
tion turned to reminiscences of Mexico. Grant hated to open the subject
of the interview, Lee was too nervous to stand the suspense.

"I have come to meet you here, General Grant, to ask upon what
terms you would accept the surrender of my army.”
Now that the subject was opened, Grant mentioned briefly the
terms — generous ones — saying that the officers and men might go
home on parole, and that the officers might keep their arms and horses.
Lee suggested that it be put in writing. Grant agreed, and for a few
moments the only sound in the room was the scratching of his pencil.
Lee wiped his glasses and put them on.

"There is just one thing,” he said. "Our privates in the cavalry also
own their horses.” His face showed the request he did not make.
"In that case,” said Grant, "all the men who claim to own a horse
or mule may take it home with them, to work their farms.”
"That will have a very happy effect,” said Lee. After some further
mention of details, he signed his name to the terms of surrender, rose,
shook hands with Grant, took his hat and gauntlets, and returned the
salute of the Federal officers. Outside on the porch he stood for a
moment, looking off over the valley, clapped his hands together once
or twice, then walked down, mounted Traveller and rode away.
A few minutes later Grant swung himself into the saddle and was
off down the dusty road. So the two great soldiers had met, the one as
dignified in defeat as the other was generous and considerate in victory.
Here in this little Virginia house their ways had crossed and parted. Four
years later Ulysses Grant was to be pushed by the foolish people into a
position for which he was wholly unfitted when they made him Presi¬
dent of the United States. . . . But he had been a great soldier!
Robert E. Lee was to be more fortunate. He was allowed to retain
his dignity. Holding no trace of bitterness nor resentment for the past,
he was to do all in his power to restore the friendly feeling of Virginia’s
people towards the government of the United States, and to urge them

"To fulfill every duty of peaceful citizens, loyal to the Constitution of

their country.” His spirit was never defeated.

338
 DAY OF LIGHT AND SHADOW

a pril 14, 1865, was

j
a great day for the United
one for Abraham Lincoln. For that day, almost exactly four
States and a happy

/ Vl years after it had been fired upon, the Stars and Stripes were
L W raised again above Fort Sumter! War was over! The Union had
been saved. Slavery had been abolished. All, and more, that Lincoln had
pledged himself to do had been accomplished.
His work was done. The care that had weighed so heavily upon him
for the last four years seemed to have slipped now from his shoulders.
His lined face that had grown so drawn and haggard was almost radiant.
The last day he began as usual working at his desk, and then had
breakfast at eight. Robert, his oldest son, now twenty-one, was with him.
Just returned from camp, he was full of news from the army at City Point.
He had a picture of Robert E. Lee to show his father. Lincoln looked at

it earnestly. "It is a good face,” he said.

After breakfast came several interviews before the Cabinet meeting
which was called for eleven o’clock.
"Today,” said the President, "General Grant will be with us.”
Frederick Seward, acting for his father who was then dangerously
ill, was the first to arrive. One by one the others came in, entering into

339
casual conversation over the day’s news, and speculating as to where the
leaders of the rebel government had now gone.

"I suppose, Mr. President,” said the Postmaster General, "you

would not be sorry to have them escape out of the country.”
"Well, I should be for following them up pretty close to make sure
of their going,” answered Lincoln in a comical tone.
There was some further speculation as to how soon word could be
expected from General Sherman in North Carolina. Then a half cloud

passed over Lincoln’s face, and he told of a strange dream that he had
had the previous night. The dream itself was not so strange, he said,
as the fact that he had had it several times before — and each time it had
preceded some great victory or disaster. . . .
It was a vague feeling of being on a strange phantom ship, sailing,
or floating towards some vast indefinite unknown shore. . . .
Someone ventured the suggestion that the anxiety in his mind each
time over what might happen may have led to the dream.

"Perhaps,” said Lincoln thoughtfully, "that may be the expla¬

nation.”
And here Stanton burst in — carrying a large roll of papers, and the
group around the table was complete. General Ulysses S. Grant was
then cordially introduced. Grant nodded and told in the fewest possible
words the incidents of the surrender at Appomattox.

"And what terms did you give the common soldier?” asked Lincoln.
"I told them to go back to their homes and families, and that they
would not be molested if they did nothing more,” said Grant.
The President’s face lighted with approval. That was right. There
must be no hate shown or vindictiveness. Now that the war was over,
everything must be done to help the bankrupt people of the South back
to prosperity. So the talk turned to post-war plans. Stanton spread out
his big roll of paper, showing charts for reconstruction. These were dis¬
cussed until the meeting broke up at two o’clock.
As they were leaving, Lincoln spoke of going to the theatre that

evening to see "The American Cousin.” Turning to General Grant, he

340
said that he hoped that he and Mrs. Grant would accompany them. But
there seemed to be some misunderstanding, because, though it had been
advertised in the papers, General Grant said that they were to leave town
that evening. Lincoln, himself, was not too eager about going, but since
it had been announced, he thought he’d better go. . . .
He made an appointment for the following day, and then went to
lunch, from which his next callers saw him return munching an apple.
Thenfollowed a talk with Vice-President Andrew Johnson, the
man who was so soon to be faced with an overwhelming task. For now

the time was growing short; it was past three o’clock. Lincoln could not
stay much longer. There were only a few last things for him to do.
Towards late afternoon, for a short rest he put on his high black hat
and went for a drive with Mrs. Lincoln, alone. No, "just ourselves,” he
had told her when she had suggested guests. It was a fresh spring day,
the lilacs were in blossom, the willows along the river were green, the

dogwood was opening. Lincoln’s face glowed.

"I never felt so happy in my life,” he said, drawing a deep breath.
Returning, he walked across the gravel path to the War Department

and "was more cheerful and happy,” Stanton thought, "than he had ever
seen him.” But to the guard who walked back to the White House with
him in the gathering dusk, he spoke of men who he believed would take

his life. And when they reached the steps it was "Good-bye, Crooks,”
that he said for the first time, and not "Good night.”
The strands of happiness and tragedy that made Abraham Lincoln’s
life were twisting closely now ... for in the next moment, seeing two
friends from Illinois, the governor and a congressman, he called to them
in the cheeriest tone. Laughing and chatting, he led them to his office,
and there read them one ridiculous story after another. Tad came to call

him to supper, and he said he’d be right there. But first he wanted them
to hear just one more story, the one perhaps in which the author poked

fun at the "Goriller Linkin,” whuz rane "he had hoped wood be a
short wun.”
But now he said, "The Confederacy is ded. It’s gathered up its feet,

341
sed its last words, and deceest . . . Linkin will serve his term out — our
leaders will die off uv chagrin and inability to live long out uv offis. And

so, Farewell, vane world!” And Lincoln left them laughing.

After dinner the Speaker of the House came for a few minutes, to
say that if there was to be no special session of Congress during the
summer he would take a trip to the West Coast — where, by the way — the
transcontinental railroad was now being built.
The clock ticked on; it was just time to go to the theatre, if go they
must, when the congressman from Massachusetts was announced. After
a few words Lincoln arranged to see him in the morning. Taking a small
card he wrote a few words on it, and signed his name — for the last time.
They were now at the door. Outside the carriage was waiting. A
breath of fresh cool air came in as the door was opened, and they walked
out onto the portico in the moist spring night. Abraham Lincoln stood
for a moment, then stepped into the carriage, its door closed behind him,
the horses started, the carriage rolled down the driveway, the sound of
the wheels on the gravel grew fainter and then died away — and he was
gone. Abraham Lincoln was gone.

And only then could the people of Abraham Lincoln’s world

realize how great he was. He was too tall when he walked beside them.

342
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INDEX OF CHARACTERS

(* indicates drawing) Boone,

Carson,
* 210
Daniel,
82 pioneer: Missouri, 65; and
Adams, John, second President of the U. S.:
* 62 ; and La Fayette, 92 Brown, John, Abolitionist, * 266
Adams, John Quincy, sixth President of the Browning, Elizabeth Barrett, English poet, 207,
U. S.: *62; and Florida, 78; Monroe Doc¬
trine, 90; elected President, 93 Browning, Robert, English poet, 207, * 210
Albert, Prince Consort of Victoria: boy, 100; Buchanan, James, fifteenth President of U. S.:
* 137; * 180; married, 181; Peace Festival, 281 ; and Fort Sumter, 289
217; and Napoleon III, 243; and U. S., 295; Byron, Lord George Noel, English poet, 113
dies, 297
Alcott, Louisa May, author: * 184; and Emer¬ Calhoun, John C., American statesman: * 3 ;
son, 186 * begins career, 21; with Webster, 31; and
Alexander I, Czar of Russia: *2; and Napo¬ R. E. Lee, 72; and South Carolina, 132; last
leon, 38; forms Holy Alliance, 60; and speech, 233
Greece, 113 Carlos IV, King of Spain, 17
Alexander II, Czar of Russia: 242 ; * 287 ; frees Carlota, Empress of Mexico: * married, 246;
the serfs, 302 to Mexico, 301; insane, 333
Alexandra, wife of Edward VII: * 287; mar¬ Carlyle, Thomas, English author, * 184
ried, 312
Carson,
196 Christopher, frontiersman: * boy, 62;
Andersen, Hans Christian, author: *211; to Santa Fe, 82; with Fremont, 191 and
quoted, 312
* 333
Anthony, Susan B., woman suffrage leader, * baby, George
Carver, 287 Washington, Negro leader,
Astor, John Jacob, American businessman: Cavour, Count Camillo, Italian statesman: 125;
* early life, 18; founds Astoria, 22; about * and Napoleon III, 248
Oregon, 55, 190 Charles X, King of France: 96; dethroned, 121
Audubon, John James, naturalist: *62; 105 Clark, William, explorer: 66; 163
Austin, Stephen, Texas pioneer: * 158; Mex¬ Clay, Henry, American statesman: *3; starts
ico, 159
career, 21; for War of 1812, 28; and Lin¬
coln, 30; with Webster, 31; Missouri Com¬
Barton, Clara, American nurse: * Red Cross, promise, 77; runs for President, 92; Com¬
321 promise 1833, 133; Compromise 1850, 233
Beecher, Henry Ward, preacher: boy, 74 Clemens, Samuel (Mark Twain): * 210; 329
Beethoven, Ludwig van, composer: * 2; in Cobbett, William, English labor leader, 98
Vienna, 57
Cody, William F. (Buffalo Bill), Pony Ex¬
Bismarck, Otto von, Prussian Prime Minister:
216; * smokes cigar, 225; meets Victoria, press, 266
Cooper, Peter, engine builder: 119; 264
245; * 287; * against Denmark, 310 Crockett, Davy, Indian fighter, 42
Black Hawk, Indian Chief: * 136; war, 156 Custis, George Washington Parke, 72
Blanc, Louis, French socialist, 206
Bliicher, Prussian General: *2; against Napo¬
leon, 45; at Waterloo, 59 Daguerre,
107 Louis Jacques, photographer, * 187
Bolivar, Simon, liberator of S. A.: youth, 15; Darwin, Charles, scientist: *63; *105; boy,
♦leader, 33; banished, 34; *62; hero, 88;
Pan-American Congress, 91 Davis, Jefferson, American soldier and states-

343
 man: in Mexican War, 197; * 211; southern his father, 325; meets Lee, 336; and Lincoln,
leader, * 234; Pony Express, 265; President
of Confederacy, 282, 293, 323, 326; captured, Greeley,
340 Horace, editor, 271
335
Dickens, Charles, English author: * boy, 63 ; Harrison, William Henry, ninth President of
102; *136; reporter, 150; * visits U. S., the U. S.: governor Indiana, 24; letter to
184; writes H. B. Stowe, 237 Clay, 29; Fort Detroit, 39; letter to Perry,
40
Disraeli, Benjamin, English author and states¬
man: *142; in Turkey, 143; in London,
Hawthorne, Nathaniel, American author, * 184
150; in Parliament, 171; and India, 253; and Henry, Joseph, American scientist, 189
Bismarck, 310; * and Gladstone, 332 Hidalgo, Mexican priest, 86
Douglas, Stephen A., American statesman: Holmes, Oliver Wendell, poet, 30
*211; and Mrs. Lincoln, 228; in Senate, Houston, Sam, American political leader: boy-
* 234; debates, 267, 269 25;
281 fights Indians, 43; * to Texas, 158; 162,
Douglass, Frederick, Negro leader, 328
Dumas, Alexandre, French author: * boy, 2; in Hugo, Victor, French author: *2; boy, 59;
Italy, 252 about Napoleon III, 240; and Dumas, 252
Dunant, Henry, originator of Red Cross, 322 Humboldt, Alexander von, scientist, 16
Durham, Lord, English statesman, 175
Ii Naosuke, Japanese statesman: * boy, 63;
Edward VII, King of England: boy, 217; in youth, 178; opens Japan, 275
France, 244; * 287; married, 312 Irving, Washington, author: to Washington,
Elgin, Lord, Governor of Canada: about his 19; * 20; * 62; in Europe, 94; and Eugenie,
father, 112; in Canada, 201 272

Elizabeth, wife of Emperor Franz Josef, * 215 Iturbide, Augustin, Emperor of Mexico, * 86
Emerson, Ralph Waldo, American author:
* 184; 186
Jackson, Andrew, seventh President of the
Ericsson, John, and the Monitor, 303 U. S.: *3; * Indian fighter, 41; New
Eugenie, wife of Napoleon III: * 210; * Em¬ Orleans, 53; in Florida, 78; visited by
press, 224; visits Victoria, 243; son, 246; La Fayette, 93; elected President, * 129; and
and Suez, 263; and Irving, 273; and Mex¬ South Carolina, 133; * 136; and Texas, 162;
ico, 299 national bank, 173; quoted, 281
Jackson, ''Stonewall,” Southern general: * 286;
Farrag ut,s, David G., U. S. Admiral: * New
Orlean 317
Jefferson,
318 Thomas, third President of the U. S.:
Fernando VII, King of Spain: * 15; abdtcates, * 3; last day in office, * 11; about Missouri,
17; 90 76; with La Fayette, 93; dead, 133
Field, Cyrus, * and Atlantic Cable: 262; 333 Joao, King of Portugal, 110
Foster, Stephen, American composer, * 211 Johnson, Andrew, seventeenth President of the
Francis II, Emperor of Austria: 6; in Vienna U. S.: * 287; 341
Congress, 57; about Italy, 123; family tree,
213 Johnston, Joseph E., Confederate general, * 286
Josephine, first wife of Napoleon: *2; di¬
Franz Josef, Emperor of Austria: *210; 213; vorced, 7; with grandson, 9; dead, 58
246; and Italy, 250; and Maximilian, 301; Juarez, Benito, President of Mexico: * boy, 62;
and Bismarck, 313
84; young lawyer, 87; president, 298, 333
Fremont, John Charles, American explorer:
191; * in California, 194. Keats, John, English poet, 113
Fulton, Robert: his steamboat, 3 ; monopoly, 80
Key, Francis Scott, composer Star-Spangled
Banner, * 3; 53
Garibaldi, Giuseppe, Italian hero: * boy, 63; Kossuth, Louis, Hungarian patriot, 206, 215
* man, 123, 125; in 1848, 207; * 248
Garrison, William L., Abolitionist: * 136; 151 La Fayette, French statesman: against Napo¬
George III, King of England: *3; dies, 94; leon, 59; gift to Bolivar, 91; visits America,
* 99
, 92; and Charles X, 96; and Louis Philippe,
George IV, King of England: coronation, 94;
at christening of Victoria, 95; 97; * receives 122
Victoria, 99, 100; dies, 127 Lee, "Light Horse Harry,” 72
Gladstone, William E., English statesman: Lee, Robert E., American general: boy, * 71 ;
West Point, 116; in Mexican War, 197; and
boy, 48; * 63; in Eton, 112; in Oxford, 127;
in Parliament, 150; on Suez, 263; and re¬ John Brown, 271; * 286; * resigns U. S.
form, 332 Army, 290; takes command in South, 306;
Goodyear, Charles, and rubber, 219 at Gettysburg, 318; against Grant, 323; and
Grant, Ulysses S., soldier, eighteenth President son, 327; surrendered, 335, 336
of U. S.: * baby, 62; boy, 115; Mexican Leopold, King of Belgium: *63; uncle of
War, 197; * 286; * opening of Civil War, Victoria, 99; invited to Greece, 114; King
290; on Mississippi, 315; in Virginia, 323; Belgium, married, 122; letter from Vic-

344
 toria, 170; letter front Victoria, 181; father McClellan, George B., American general:
of Carlota, 246 * 286; succeeds Scott, 294; Peninsular cam¬
Lesseps, Ferdinand de, French diplomat: 140;
* and Suez Canal, 262 paign, 306
McCormick , Cyrus, and his reaper, 219
Lewis, Meriwether, explorer, 66 McLaughlin, John, doctor, pioneer, 164
Li Hung Chang, Chinese statesman: *63; Meade, George G., general: * 286; at Gettys¬
boy, 147; * 256 burg, 318
Lincoln, Abraham, sixteenth President of U. S.: Mehemet
* 139; Ali,
140 ruler of Egypt: and Greece, 114;
born, vii; with mother, 31; with fish, *44;
* boy, 61; to Indiana, 67; arrested, 81; Metternich, Austrian statesman: * 56; era of,
* 105; to New Orleans, 106; in Illinois, 134; 60; and South America, 90; and Greece,
♦storekeeper, 135; *136; in New Salem, 113; in 1830, 122; about Italy, 123; down¬
154; Black Hawk War, 156; postmaster, fall, 204; and Franz Josef, 214
surveyor, etc., 157; * married, 182; Con¬ Miranda, South American leader, * 32
gress, 198; * lawyer, 209; Springfield, 228; Monroe, James, fifth President of the U. S.:
* debates with Douglas, 269 ; nominated, Secretary of State, 53 ; * 62 ; President, 76 ;
278, 281; Ft. Sumter, 289; and Stanton,
Morelos, Mexican priest, 86
304; Emancipation Proclamation, 309; Get¬
tysburg Address, 320, 323; second inaug¬ Morse, Samuel F. B., inventor: * 187; 188
ural, 327; visits Grant, 334; * last day, 339 91
Lincoln, Mary Todd, wife of Abraham: * 182; Nana
254 Sahib, prince of India: boy, 146; *210;
bride, 183; *211; in Springfield, 228; 279;
Napoleon, Emperor of France: * 2 ; in power,
341
Lincoln, Nancy, mother of Abraham: with 5 ; buys Louisiana, 1 1 ; plans to invade Eng¬
baby, vii; illiterate, 5; reads Bible, 31; to land, 12; in Spain, 17; in Russia, 37; de¬
Indiana, 68 feated, 45; *46; escapes from Elba, 57;
Lincoln, Robert, son of Abraham: *211; in Waterloo, 59; St. Helena, 60; in Portugal,
Springfield, 229; in Washington, 339 109; in Egypt, 140
Lincoln, Sarah Bush, stepmother of Abraham: Napoleon III, Emperor of France: * 2; boy, 9;
in Indiana, 69; visited by Lincoln, 279 meets Wilhelm, 48; with uncle, 58; in
Lincoln, Thomas, father of Abraham: viii; Italy, 126; * 210; becomes emperor, 220;
illiterate, 5; in 1812, 30; in Indiana, 67 Crimean War, 240 ; visits Victoria, 243 ; son,
246; Mexico,
and Italy, * 248;
Lincoln, "Tad,” son of Abraham: *211; and and 299; 333 and Suez, 263; * 286;
304
Lincoln, Willie, son of Abraham: *211; and Nelson,
* 240 Horatio,
falgar, 13 English admiral: *2; Tra¬
father, 304; death, 306
Nicholas I, Czar of Russia, 239
Lind, Jenny, Swedish singer, * 210; letter, 237
Livingstone, David, explorer: * boy, 63 ; * man, Nightingale, Florence, English nurse: *210;
136; Africa, 165
Longfellow, Henry W., American poet: in
Spain, 94; poem on Florence Nightingale, O’Connell, Daniel, Irish leader, 171
324 O'Higgins, Bernardo, President of Chile, * 32 ;
Louis XVIII, King of France: * 47 ; king, 56 ;
flees, 58; king again, 60; dead, 96
Louis Philippe, King of France: 122; and Pedro I, Emperor of Brazil, 108
Napoleon III, 126; * 137; flees to England, Pedro II, Emperor of Brazil: * boy, 108; fam¬
205; and Napoleon III, 221
ily, 214
Lowell, James Russell, American author, quoted, Perry, Matthew C., American naval officer:
297
* 211 ; in Japan, 272
Perry, Oliver H., American naval officer, 39
Macdonald, John A., Canadian statesman: boy, Polk, James K., eleventh President of the
* 174; in 1849, 202; * 286; in 1867, 330 U. S.: 190; declares Mexican War, 198
Madison, "Dolly,” wife of President: 20;
flees, 52
Roosevelt, Theodore, twenty-sixth President of
Madison, James, fourth President of the U. S.: . the U. S.: * boy, 211; baby, 271
*3; mentioned, 14; with Dolly, 20; declares Russell, Lord John, English statesman, 127
War of 1812, 28; in Washington, 52; with
La Fayette, 93
San Martin, Jose de, South American general:
Mahmud II, Sultan of Turkey, 143
* 32; 34; meets Bolivar, 89
Marshall, John, Chief Justice: * 3; decision, 81 Santa Anna, President of Mexico: * 87 ; and
Marx, Karl, founder of Communist Party, *208 Texas, 159; Mexican War, 198
Mary Louise, wife of Napoleon: * 2; 6; 45
Maximilian, Emperor of Mexico: 213; ♦mar¬ Schurz, Carl, German born citizen of U. S.:
ried, 246; to Mexico, 301; death, 333
208; and Lincoln, 279
Mazzini, Giuseppe, Italian patriot: * 123; in
1848, 207; * 248 Scott, Sir Walter, Scottish author: *2; 94

345
Scott, Winfield, American general: *137; Victor Emmanuel, King of Italy: boy, 124;
Mexican War, 197; Civil War, 290 * 211; and Garibaldi, * 248
Sequoyah, Indian leader, * 62 Victoria, Queen of Eugland: * child, 63; born,
Seward, William H., American statesman: * in 95; * child, 99; * with Albert, 137; * Queen,
Senate, 234; and Lincoln, 283; and war, 290; 169; * married, 180; Peace Festival, 217;
and England, 296 ; and emancipation, 307 ; entertains Napoleon III, 243; with grand¬
at Gettysburg, 319; ill, 339
son, 245; and India, 255; * widow, 287,
Shelley, Percy B., English poet, 113 297; and son, 312; 331
Sherman, William T., American general: * 286; 245
Victoria ("Vicky”), daughter of Victoria: 217;
in Virginia, 294; on Mississippi, 316; weds Crown Prince of Prussia, 245 ; and son,
Georgia, 324
* 21
Smith, Joseph, Mormon leader, 193 Vittoria,0 President of Mexico, 84, 87
Stanton, Edward McM„ Secretary of War:
about Bull Run, 292; and Lincoln, * 304; Wagner, Richard, German composer: 207 ;
334; 340
* 333 Elizabeth C., woman suffrage leader,
Stanton, Ward,
287 Artemus, American humorist: 329; 333
Washington, Booker T., Negro leader: * boy,
Stephenson, George, inventor: *63; 118; son,
264
Webster, Daniel, American statesman: * 3;
Stowe, Harriet Beecher, American author: * 62 ; War of 1812, 31; on Missouri, 77; tries
as a child, 73, 77; to Cincinnati, 152; * 211; case, 81; oration Bunker Hill, 93; Hayne
and Uncle Tom’s Cabin, 235; and Lincoln, debate, 132; treaty with Canada, 191; and
308 1850 Compromise, 234
Sucre, Jose de, South American general, 90 Webster, Noah, author of dictionary, * 62
Sutter,
200 Johann August, early Californian: 195, Wellington, Duke of, English general and
statesman, * 2 ; against Napoleon, 45 ; at
Waterloo, 59; Prime Minister, 127; to pro¬
Tao Kwang, Emperor of China: 147; and tect London, 203
opium, 167 Whitman, Marcus, American medical mission¬
Taylor, Zachary, twelfth President of the U. S.: ary: * 163; trip east, 191
* 137; in Mexican War, 197 Whitman, Walt, American poet, 328
Tecumseh, Indian chief: * plans union, 23 Whittier, John Greenleaf, American poet, 237
Tennyson, Alfred, English poet: * 184; quo¬ Wilberforce, William, English Abolitionist,
tation, 219; quotation, 241 151
Thackeray, William Makepeace, English au¬ Wilhelm I, Emperor of Germany: youth, 48;
thor: * 184 *211; Prince of Prussia, 216; *217; 227;
Thoreau, Henry D., American naturalist, au¬ with family, 245; and Bismarck, 313
thor: * 184 169
Wilhelm II, Emperor of Germany: * baby,
* 287
Tolstoy, Leo, Russian author: 238; 241; 211, 245
William IV, King of England: * 99; 127; dies,
Travis, W. B., U. S. soldier, 160
Trevithick, Richard, engine builder, 118 Wilson, Woodrow, twenty-eighth President of
U. S.: * boy, 211; sees Jefferson Davis, 335
Van Buren, Martin, eighth President of the Wordsworth, William, English poet: * 184
U. S., 173
Vanderbilt, Cornelius, American businessman: Young, Brigham, leader of Mormons, * 192
youth, 79; and yacht, 232 Ypsilanti, Greek patriot, 113

INDEX OF NATIONS, PLACES AND EVENTS

(* indicates map) Canada:

formed, *330
rebellion, 174, 201 ; Dominion
Africa, the dark continent, 165
Argentina: free, 34; and San Martin, 88 Chile: freedom from Spain, 35, 88
Atlantic Cable: fails, 262; succeeds, 333 China: 147; Opium War, 167; * Taiping Re¬
Australia: settlers, 171; gold found, * 201 bellion, and foreign treaties, 256-60
Colombia, 88
Austria: and Napoleon, 6; Congress of Vienna,
57; and Italy, 123; revolution of 1848,
204-6; Franz Josef and family tree, 213; Denmark, *attacked by Prussia, 310
loses Italian provinces, 248 ; defeated by
Prussia, 310 Ecuador, 88

England: rulers, * 99; growth of democracy in

Brazil: gains independence from Portugal, 108 time of George IV, 9; Reform Bill of 1833,

346
 128; People’s Charter. 172; rubber,
ether, 137219; grain reaper, 219; matches,
Reform Bill of Gladstone and inDisraeli,
1848, 203;
332 Slavery:

France: * Empire under Napoleon, 5-11; 44- England, Negro slavery abolished, 150
47; 47-59; monarchy restored — Louis XVIII, Russia: serfdom, 238; serfs set free, 302
United States: Missouri Compromise, 76;
60 ; * rulers, 96 ; Charles X and Three day
Revolution, 121; ’’Citizen” King, Louis Abolitionists, etc., 151; in Texas, 160;
Philippe, 122; Revolution of 1848 — Repub¬ Fugitive Slave Law, 233; Uncle Tom’s
lic established, 204; Republic overturned — Cabin, 236; Kansas-Nebraska Act, 266;
Empire re-established by Napoleon III, 220 Lincoln-Douglas Debates, 269; Dred Scott
Freedom (wars fought for) : South America Decision, 269; John Brown uprising, 271;
from Spain, 32, 88; Mexico from Spain, 85; Secession of Slave States, 281 ; Emancipa¬
Greece from Turkey, 112; Italy from Austria, tion Proclamation, 304-309
123, 207, 248; Texas from Mexico, 159; Suez Canal, 139, 262
India from England, 253
Turkey: and Greece, 112; and Egypt, 139;
Gold, found in California, 200; in Australia, Sultan entertains Disraeli, 142; Crimean
201
War, 239; opposes Suez Canal, 262
United States:
India:
253 * Conquerors of, 145; Sepoy Rebellion,
Growth of: Louisiana Purchase, 11; Cana¬
Indians (American): Shawnees, Tecumseh and dian border established, 55; * in 1815,
Tippecanoe; Cherokees, 25, 158; Sequoyah, 64; * 66; Florida added, 78; * 137; * 190;
62; Creeks and Andrew Jackson, 41; Semi- Texas, 190; Oregon, 191; Maine Border,
noles in Florida, 78; Black Hawk War, 156; 191; California, 194, 199; Chart of
Nec Perces of Oregon, 163 states as added, 232; Alaska purchased,
Ireland: condition of, 171; Potato Famine, 203
333
Monroe Doctrine, declared, 91; defied, 298
Japan: closed to world, 178; * opened by Negro slavery (see Slavery)
Perry, 272 Star-Spangled Banner, written, 3, 53
Union threatened by States Rights: New
Mexico: free from Spain, 84; loses Texas, 158; England threatens to secede, 54; national
Mormons to Utah, 192; loses California, use of waterways established, 81; South
194; War with U. S., 197; Maximilian made Carolina threatens to secede, 131-133;
Emperor, 298; Juarez President, 333 Southern states secede, 281; Civil War to
preserve union (1861-1865), 289
Pan American Congress (first one), 91
Prussia: rival of Austria, 216; exiles from, Wars: War of 1812, 28, 39, 53
207; Bismarck, delegate from, 225-7; re¬ Mexican War (1846-48), 197
lated to England, 245; defeats Austria, 310 Civil War (1861-65), 289-94; 303-10;
315-29; 334-41
Science, inventions and discoveries: Fulton’s World: and steamships, * 176; and Suez Canal
steamboat, 3; Stephenson locomotive, 63, and Atlantic Cable, * 262
118; telegraph and photograph, 137, 187; Federation of, 219, 331

347
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