1.

Call by Value & Call by Reference

2.Strings
By,
T.K.PradeepKumar,DCE, B.Tech, MBA, ME, (PhD),
AP, CSE Dept,
Poornima University
 The Structure of a C program:
[Comments /Documentation Section]
[Pre-processor Directives/Link Section]
[Global Declaration Section]
[Function Declaration Section]
main()
{
Declaration Section
Executable part
}
Subprogram section
[Function1
Function2 . .
Functionn]
/*Documentation Section: program to find the area of circle*/
#include<stdio.h> /*link section*/
#include<conio.h> /*link section*/
#define PI 3.14 /*definition section*/
float area; /*global declaration section*/
void main()
{
float r; /*declaration part*/
clrscr();
printf("Enter the radius of the circle\n"); /*executable part starts here*/
scanf("%f",&r);
area=PI*r*r;
printf("Area of the circle=%f",area);
getch();
}
Function
• The function that is invoked by writing the name of the function and its
arguments is called ―called function
• The function which calls or invokes function is called ―calling function.
/*Documentation Section: program to find
the sum of two integers*/
int addition( int x,int y) /* Function definition*/
#include<stdio.h> /*link section*/
{
#include<conio.h> /*link section*/ int s ;
int addition( int , int ); /*Function Prototype s = x+y;
declaration section*/
return s; /* Return statement to return the sum s*/
void main()
}
{
int n1,n2,sum ; /*declaration part*/
Called function
clrscr();
printf("Enter the values of n1 and n2\n");
scanf("%d %d",&n1,&n2);
sum = addition(n1,n2); /* Function Call */
printf("Sum =%d \n ",sum);
getch();
}
Calling function
Argument Passing :
• There are two ways of passing parameters to the function
a. Pass by Value ( Call by value )
b. Pass by Reference ( Call by Reference
Pass by Value (Call by value):
• Here the values of actual parameters are copied into formal
parameters i.e formal parameters contain only the copy of actual
parameters.
• So even if the value of the formal parameters changes in the called
function the values of the actual parameters are not changed.
• Programming Example:
#include<stdio.h> void exchange (int m , int n) /*Formal Paramters m,n*/
{ int temp; Called function
#include<conio.h>
temp = m;
void exchange(int m,int n); m = n;
void main() n = temp;
{ int a,b; }
clrscr(); a=10, b=20;
printf(“\n The values of a and b before calling exchange() \n”);
printf(“\n %d %d \n”,a,b);
exchange(a,b); /* Actual Paramters a,b*/ Calling function
printf(“\n The values of a and b after calling exchange()\n”);
printf(“\n a =%d and b = %d \n”,a,b);
getch();
}
Pass by Reference (Call by Reference) :
• In pass by reference / address when a function is called the address of
actual parameters are sent.
• In the called function the formal parameters should be declared as
pointers with the same type as the actual parameters.
• Using these addresses the values of the actual parameters can be
changed.
• This way of changing the actual parameters is called pass by
addresses.
• Programming Example: void exchange (int *m , int *n)
#include<stdio.h> /*Formal Paramters m,n*/
#include<conio.h> { Called function

void exchange(int m,int n); int temp;

temp = *m;
void main() *m = *n;
{ int a,b; *n = temp;
clrscr(); a=10, b=20; }
printf(“\n The values of a and b before calling exchange() \n”);
printf(“\n %d %d \n”,a,b);
exchange(&a,&b); /* Actual Paramters a,b*/ Calling function
printf(“\n The values of a and b after calling exchange()\n”);
printf(“\n a =%d and b = %d \n”,a,b);
getch();
}
Strings
• A string is an array of characters terminated by null character which is
denoted by the escape sequence ‘\0’. Consider a string “VISION” .
This string is stored in the form of an array as shown below::
Declaring String Variables:
• In C string variable is any valid C variable name and is always declared
as an array of characters.
• The general form of declaration of a string variable is :
char string_name[size];
• The size determines the number of characters in the string name
including the null character.
Examples : char city[10]; char name[30];
• Null character: The null character denoted as ‘\0’ marks end of the
string.
Initializing String Variables:
• Like numeric arrays character arrays may be initialized when they are
declared.
• C permits a character array to be initialized in either of the following
two forms
char city[9] = “New York” ;
char city[9] = { ‘N’,‘E‘,‘W‘,‘‘,‘Y‘,‘O,‘R‘,‘K‘,‘\0‘};

• The declaration char st1[ ] = {‘G’,‘O‘,‘O‘,‘D‘,‘\0‘};

char str[10] = “GOOD” ;

The following declaration is illegal: Here

char str2[3] =“GOOD” ;
Printing a string:
String is printed using a printf statement. As long as the string is
terminated by a null character Example:
main()
{
char country[15] = “India is Great”;
printf(“%s\n”,country);
}
Output:
Reading Strings using scanf:
• The conversion specification for reading a string using scanf is %s just
as in printf. One must not use ampersand (&) symbol while reading
the string
Example :
char name[20];
printf(“\n Enter the name\n”);
scanf(“%s”,name);
printf(“\n The entered name is \n”);
printf(“%s”,name);
String Manipulation Functions From the
Standard Library
• C language provides number of built in string handling functions.
• All the string manipulation functions are defined in the standard library
string.h .
• The standard library string.h contains many functions for string
manipulation.
• Some of the string handling or manipulation functions used in C are:
1. strlen( ) 5. strncmp( )
2. strcpy( ) 6. strcat( )
3. strncpy( ) 7. strlwr( )
4. strcmp( ) 8. strupr( )
9. strrev( )
strlen( ) :
This function is used to find the length of the string in bytes .
The general form of a call to strlen is the following :
length = strlen(str);
Ex:
#include<stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main( )
{
char str[20];
int l;
clrscr();
printf(“\n Enter a string \n”);
scanf(“%s‖,str);
l = strlen(str);
printf(“\n Length of the given string is %d”,l );
getch();
}
String Input/output Functions
• Reading and Writing using gets( ) and puts( ) :
• The functions gets() and puts() are called line oriented I/O functions
and can be used to process entire line.
• The gets( ) function can be used to read entire line including white
spaces.
• The puts() function can be used to print the line.
• Printing a string using puts() :
The general form of puts function is as given below :
puts (str) ;
• Reading a string:
The general form of gets function is as given below:
s = gets (str); or gets(str)
Example:
The following program shows how to read and display a string using gets and
puts functions.
main()
{
char name[30];
clrscr();
printf(“\n Enter your name \n”);
gets(name);
printf(“\n Your name is \n”);
puts(name);
}
Thank You