American Journal of Criminal Justice

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-018-9459-1

Feeling Blue: Officer Perceptions of Public Antipathy Predict

Police Occupational Norms

Christopher J. Marier 1 & Richard K. Moule Jr 1

Received: 8 September 2018 / Accepted: 16 October 2018/

# Southern Criminal Justice Association 2018

Abstract
Recent protests against law enforcement have spurred claims by practitioners and
editorialists that public antipathy toward the police may influence police occupational
norms. A number of classic police ethnographies also suggest a link between perceived
public antipathy and police culture, but limited empirical research has examined this
claim. Using a sample of 12,376 sworn law enforcement officers who participated in
the National Police Research Platform, and a series of ordinary least squares regres-
sions, this study examines whether officers’ perceptions of public support predict their
cultural orientations. Results reveal that officers perceiving greater public antipathy
report higher levels of social isolation, work-group solidarity, cynicism toward the
public, and coercive attitudes. We identify practical implications and potential organi-
zational remedies to address these perceptions, and situate these findings within
theoretical arguments of early police ethnographers and contemporary claims of the
BFerguson Effect.^

Keywords Police culture . Ferguson effect . Cynicism . Coercion . Police perceptions

Following public condemnations and criticisms, including protests in urban communi-

ties, the Black Lives Matter movement, and U.S. Department of Justice investigations
(Bever, 2014; Day, 2015; USDOJ Civil Rights Division, 2017), some members of the
law enforcement community argued that law enforcement may be compromised when
officers perceive substantial public hostility toward them. St. Louis Police Chief Sam
Dotson coined the term BFerguson Effect^ to describe officers’ hesitancy to enforce the
law due to fears of public and legal scrutiny (Byers, 2014). MacDonald (2015)

Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-018-

9459-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

* Christopher J. Marier
[email protected]

1
Department of Criminology, University of South Florida, 4202 E. Fowler Ave, SOC 107, Tampa,
FL 33620, USA
 American Journal of Criminal Justice

similarly argued that Bagitation^ against law enforcement led to low police morale,
officer disengagement, and rising crime rates. The FBI Director at the time, James
Comey, similarly suggested that a Bviral video effect^—fear of being recorded and
criticized by members of the public—was discouraging police officers from engaging
with the public (Lichtblau, 2016). What these claims all share is the proposition that
perceived public hostility toward the police may have unintended consequences for the
ways police think, feel, and behave.
Although the term BFerguson Effect^ is relatively new, the claim that officers’
perceptions of public sentiments affect officers’ approaches to policing is not. Policing
researchers have long argued that officer perceptions of public antipathy or hostility
toward them influence several aspects of police culture, including isolation from the
public, work-group solidarity (Skolnick, 2011), cynicism toward the public
(Niederhoffer, 1967), and favorability toward coercive strategies (Muir, 1977). Since
early ethnographic research on police culture in the 1960’s and 1970’s, however, few
studies have systematically tested whether officers who perceive a lack of public
support are more likely to subscribe to these aspects of police culture. These cultural
norms are antithetical to transparency, police-community partnerships, and de-
escalation of force–all cornerstones of modern police reform (President’s Task Force
on twenty-first Century Policing, 2015). Given the current climate of police protests
and criticism directed toward police, understanding normative consequences of per-
ceived public antipathy and criticism of the police is a meaningful and timely topic for
criminological inquiry (Nix & Wolfe, 2016; Nix & Pickett, 2017).
To that end, the current study examines whether officers’ perceptions of public
support predict their cultural orientations. We specifically ask four research questions:
(1) Do perceptions of public antipathy increase police isolation from the public?; (2) Do
perceptions of public antipathy increase police solidarity?; (3) Do perceptions of public
antipathy increase officers’ cynicism toward the public?; and (4) Do perceptions of
public antipathy increase officers’ willingness to use coercive force in the course of
their duties? To answer these questions, we use a sample of 12,376 sworn law
enforcement officers who participated in the National Police Research Platform and a
series of ordinary least squares regressions. In addressing these questions, our goal is to
evaluate police ethnographers’ claims that police-public conflict is a fundamental
source of the police culture. We begin by defining and characterizing police culture.

Police Culture

Occupational culture consists of the collective values, outlooks, and guiding principles
that materialize from the unique tasks and demands of a vocation (Cockcroft, 2013).
Occupational and organizational environments unique to police work contribute to
attitudinal and behavioral patterns emerging from uncertainty, danger, and bureaucratic
demands (Skolnick, 2011). Variously called Btraditional police culture,^ the Bworking
personality^ and Bthe police personality,^ the policeman’s disposition is characterized
in many ways (Cockroft, 2007). Manning (1989, p. 360), for instance, emphasizes
behavioral comportment when he defines police culture as Baccepted practices, rules,
and principles of conduct that are situationally applied.^ Others stress normative
adaptation to occupational strains, describing police culture as Ba layer of informal
American Journal of Criminal Justice

occupational norms and values operating under the apparently rigid hierarchical struc-
ture of police organizations^ (Chan, 1997, p. 43) and Ba patterned set of understandings
which help to cope with and adjust to the pressures and tensions which confront the
police^ (Reiner, 1992, p. 109).
Fundamentally, police culture consists of a constellation of values and norms that
inform police conduct and emerge in response to unique occupational and organiza-
tional conditions of police work. The distinguishing features of the police culture are
broadly characterized by an Bus vs. them^ mentality and include isolation and solidar-
ity; distrust and suspicion; cynicism and pessimism; and authoritarianism and coercion
(Crank, 2014; Reiner, 2010). There are a number of sources which influence police
culture. Components of police culture (e.g., isolation, cynicism, coercion) emerge in
response to the strains experienced in police work, which include bureaucratic de-
mands, danger, and public antipathy. The strains associated with police work are
augmented by organizational and work group characteristics, as well as the communi-
ties in which officers serve, and the experiences of individual officers (e.g., Silver,
Roche, Bilach, & Ryan, 2017; Ingram, Paoline, & Terrill, 2013; Ingram, Terrill, &
Paoline, in press). Existing evidence suggests that the occupational strains associated
with policing contribute to widely shared coping mechanisms, attitudes, and behaviors
among officers. Together, these coping mechanisms, attitudes, and behaviors constitute
the traditional police culture (Paoline & Gau, 2018; Paoline & Terrill, 2014).
The traditional police culture appears to be, in part, the consequence of officers’
experiences with, or perceptions of, a hostile public. There is evidence that officer
perceptions of public support and public cooperation contribute to officers’ self-legit-
imacy, which in turn contributes to commitment to democratic policing styles (Bradford
& Quinton, 2014). Studies utilizing clustering techniques to identify distinct police
cultures find that an officer’s cultural orientation is frequently predicted by his or her
perception that citizens are willing to contact and assist the police (e.g., Shjarback,
2016; Terrill, Paoline, & Manning, 2003). Beyond these studies, there appear to be few
quantitative studies measuring police-reported perceptions of police-community rela-
tionships, and fewer still which explore the relationship between these perceptions and
self-reported cultural norms.
Prominent among ethnographic depictions of law enforcement and police culture is
the relevance of police-public conflict for officers’ cultural orientations. Police work is
characterized by loneliness and friendlessness (Van Maanen, 1973a, b), creating Ba
close-knit group of men, sharing a life style and general outlook on the world which
includes intense feelings of being misunderstood and misrepresented by outsiders,
hence requiring absolute secrecy as well as suspicion towards all such outsiders^
(Lefkowitz, 1975, p. 9). Officers perceive that citizens deceive, mischaracterize, and
antagonize the police (Whitaker, 1964; Ahern, 1972); in response, officers develop a
contemptuous distrust of human motive and behavior, which manifests as cynicism
toward the public (Niederhoffer, 1967; Regoli, 1977). In a hostile environment, the
police become hypervigilant, perceiving small cues of language, behavior, or attire as
Bprelude to violence,^ and respond with suspicion and coercion toward members of the
public (Skolnick, 2011, p. 41; see also Muir, 1977). In sum, there is much in the
ethnographic literature to suggest that when officers perceive antagonism from the
public, they become insular, cynical, and coercive. We elaborate on these linkages in
greater depth, in the following sections.
 American Journal of Criminal Justice

Isolation & Solidarity

Isolation and solidarity are the Bdistinguishing characteristics^ of police culture (Punch,
1983, p. 224) and are frequent themes in police culture research (Banton, 1964; Cain,
1973; Harris, 1973; Manning, 2006; Reiss & Bordua, 1967; Westley, 1970). Isolation
reflects difficulties forming relationships and interacting with members of other social
groups (Kappeler, Sluder, & Alpert, 2015, p. 92). Solidarity refers to a sense of
camaraderie and loyalty to one’s group members, characterized by inclusiveness,
shared identity, and mutual defense (Skolnick, 2011). Most officers report that their
occupation leads to difficulty establishing and maintaining friendships (Clark, 1965).
The isolation that police work often brings is so acute that many officers conceal their
vocation from others because it tends to compromise relationships (Skolnick, 2011).
Officers tend to ‘otherize’ non-police into reductive but cognitively manageable out-
groups. The classification of others as Bsymbolic assailants^ (Skolnick, 2011) or
Bassholes^ (Van Maanen, 1978) rather vividly illustrates officers’ perceived estrange-
ment from the public. Meanwhile, officers form strong fraternal bonds with each other
as they become isolated from non-police. Interviews with police indicate that
Bunstinting loyalty to fellow officers^ is among the most cherished values held by
patrol officers (Brown, 1981, p. 82). This solidarity is Bseen as the result of a need for
insulation from perceived dangers and rejection by the community^ (Kappeler et al.,
2015, p. 93).
There are both structural and cultural sources of these phenomena. Police work often
requires working nights, weekends, holidays, overtime, and rotating shifts, limiting
officers’ opportunities to socialize with others who enjoy a more conventional schedule
(Swanton, 1981). Further exacerbating the physical separation of police from others are
restrictive departmental policies that delineate the contours of off-duty social life.
Although police who propose to marry are no longer required to submit their
fiancé’s name to commanders for approval to wed (Banton, 1964), modern
police departments still limit officers’ private associations. For instance, the
New York Police Department delineates over two dozen acts that, even off-
duty, constitute BProhibited Conduct of Public Contact,^ including discussing
police business, identifying one’s employer or rank on social media monikers,
joining a political club in one’s jurisdiction, or associating with any person who
has ever committed a crime (NYPD, 2017).
Public sentiment also contributes to officer’s sense of separateness from the public.
Public criticism and antipathy sever the policeman’s bonds to the civilian world, and he
retreats into fraternity, where he finds both physical and psychic security from a hostile
public (Reuss-Ianni, 1983). Skolnick (2011) noted that even the relatively benign
enforcement of traffic laws and public order crimes engenders resentment in the public,
creating estrangement between those with authority and those upon whom authority is
exercised (see also Clark, 1965; Swanton, 1981). Such resentment produces a group-
defense reaction in the police, a culture of solidarity: BI’m for the guys in blue!
Anybody criticizes a fellow copper that’s like criticizing someone in my family; we
have to stick together^ (Brown, 1981, p. 82). Officers learn that mistakes are unavoid-
able in a chaotic and uncertain work environment, but that they will be harshly
criticized for these mistakes by the public and the media; the only protection from
such criticisms is the blue brotherhood (Van Maanen, 1973b).
American Journal of Criminal Justice

Cynicism toward the Public

Cynicism refers to Ban attitude of contemptuous distrust of human nature and motives^
(Graves, 1996). Niederhoffer (1967) argued that cynicism is a core component of the
police personality, and many other scholars have also described cultural elements of
contemptuous distrust, even if they use terms other than cynicism (Skogan & Frydl,
2004). Officers may exhibit cynicism toward organizational functions, the police
mission, the loyalty of his fellow officers, training and education, or the general public
(Regoli, 1976). Of these, officers’ suspicion and distrust of the public may be partic-
ularly acute. Officers often suspect that citizens manipulate the police, whether to file
fraudulent reports, avenge their enemies, or protect their allies (Crank, 2014), and they
often view the general public as Bstupid, fallible, greedy, lustful, immoral, and
hypocritical^ (Manning, 1978, p. 83).
Reiner (2010) argued that one source of police cynicism was the contradiction
inherent in the police mission. The police feel that they serve an indispensable social
function, protecting society from moral and physical threats on all sides. These
ubiquitous threats, such as they exist in the officer’s psyche, reify the officer’s
perception that mankind is hedonistic, self-centered, and untrustworthy. However, these
views are contradictory—he cannot save man from evil if man is evil. For his cause to
be worthy, mankind is contemptible by necessity. Police cynicism toward the public is
the BJanus face of commitment^ (Reiner, 2010, p. 120), a reference to the Roman god
of duality. Officers must be cynical toward the public for their cause to be just. Public
hostility toward law enforcement simultaneously reaffirms officers’ views that the
public is contemptible and that their order-maintenance mission is indispensable.
Other research suggests that cynicism toward the public is more simply a recipro-
cated distrust between police and the public, illustrating that officer perceptions of
public sentiment influence police culture. Officers are inclined to perceive citizen
activism as motivated by malevolence rather than goodwill: 92% of officers believe
that recent protests are driven by longstanding anti-police bias, and only a minority
believe they are motivated by a sincere effort at accountability and reform (Morin,
Parker, Stepler, & Mercer, 2017). A comparison of resident attitudes and police
attitudes in Chicago finds that about half of citizen respondents feel the police are
untrustworthy; however, only about 7.3% of officers agree that Bthe community that I
police trusts the police,^ and as a sign of reciprocity, about a quarter feel that Bpolice
officers have reason to be distrustful of most citizens^ (Fontaine, Leitson, Jannetta, &
Paddock, 2017).
The police maintain silence and secrecy because they believe the media and the
public deliberately distort police actions to serve their own agendas (Crank, 2014). The
police fiercely protect their Bsecret knowledge^ (Fielding, 1988, p. 185) or Bsacred
canopy^ (Manning, 1977, p. 5), demonstrating their cynicism toward the public and
anticipating the public’s cynicism toward the police. Manning (1977) argued that the
police culture is a public performance: front stage, officers emphasize their moral
mandate, pre-emptively invalidating citizens’ challenges to their motives and intent;
the back stage, however, obscures many of the ugly realities of policing from those who
would denigrate the police. The existence of a back stage suggests that officers conceal
many aspects of their work out of the contemptuous distrust they have for their
audience’s intentions. In a word, their secrecy is evidence of their cynicism for the
 American Journal of Criminal Justice

public, who would, presumably, use even benign evidence of police culture and
practice to manipulate and discredit law enforcement.

Coercion/Aggression

What distinguishes police work from other occupations is the authority of officers to
use physical coercion in the course of their duties (Brown, 1981). Klockars (1985)
noted that the entire justification for law enforcement relies on this coercive authority:
their primary function is to immediately resolve situations that citizens have been
unable to resolve peacefully on their own, and only coercive authority (whether
exercised or not) ensures the immediate neutralization of real or potential
opposition. Officers, however, demonstrate substantial variation in their inclina-
tion to use physical force to resolve problems (Muir, 1977). Some officers
appear to endorse the use of excessive force, justifying it with a sense of
mission in which ends justify means, and this may be particularly problematic
where officers perceive that they are soldiers in the moral crusade of the war
on crime (Westley, 1970; Skolnick & Fyfe, 1993). Therefore, the research
suggests that, although coercion is a universal feature of police work, coercive
attitudes are normative, cultural values that demonstrate substantial variability
and have a number of proposed sources.
Both qualitative and quantitative research has suggested that officers’ coer-
cive attitudes are influenced by their perceptions of hostile citizens. In his
ethnographic study of coercion in police work, Muir emphasized the reciprocal
nature of coercion between police and the public, what he calls Ban extortionate
relationship^ (1977, pp. 44–45):

[T]he reality, and the subtle irony, of being a policeman is that, while he may
appear to be the supreme practitioner of coercion, in fact he is first and foremost
its most frequent victim. The policeman is society’s Bfall guy,^ the object of
coercion more frequently than its practitioner. Recurrently he is involved in
extortionate behavior as victim, and only rarely does he initiate coercive actions
as victimizer. If he is vicious, his viciousness is the upswing of the vicious cycle
inherent in an extortionate relationship.

The police, despite their official authority, are relatively powerless when low
public support undermines their authoritative legitimacy (Bottoms & Tankebe,
2012). Lacking the support or legitimacy necessary to exercise either the power
of exhortation (Wrage, 2007) or barter (Kolm, 2008), policemen lacking public
support double down on their exercise of physical coercion, according to Muir
(1977). Observational studies suggest that officers reporting antagonistic rela-
tionships with the public tend to use more physical coercion (Terrill et al.,
2003). Research on the Bdemeanor hypothesis^ tends to support this interpreta-
tion. The exercise of police coercion—whether measured as arrest, the use of
force, or threat—is most likely when citizens are disrespectful toward the police
(Alpert, Dunham, & MacDonald, 2004; Black, 1971; Engel, Sobol, & Worden,
2000). In sum, the police are more likely to endorse coercion when they
perceive hostility, disrespect, and challenge to their authority.
American Journal of Criminal Justice

Current Study

Qualitative policing research has consistently suggested that the police culture is
substantially influenced by officers’ perceptions of public sentiment. Yet, a relatively
small body of quantitative research has evaluated this relationship. The current study
examines whether officers’ perceptions of public antipathy predicts several dimensions
of the traditional police culture. We use four regression models to answer the following
research question: Do officers’ perceptions of public antipathy influence aspects of
police culture, including (1) social isolation, (2) police solidarity, (3) cynicism toward
the public, and (4) coercive attitudes? A fifth model combines these outcomes into a
global measure of Btraditional police culture^ in order to permit broader generaliza-
tions. Based on the literature reviewed above, we derive five testable hypotheses:

Hypothesis 1: Officers perceiving greater public antipathy will demonstrate higher

levels of isolation from the public.
Hypothesis 2: Officers perceiving greater public antipathy will express higher
levels of police solidarity.
Hypothesis 3: Officers perceiving greater public antipathy will demonstrate more
cynicism toward the public.
Hypothesis 4: Officers perceiving greater public antipathy will have more phys-
ically coercive attitudes.
Hypothesis 5: Officers perceiving greater public antipathy will be more likely to
endorse the traditional police culture.

Addressing these questions will provide insights into the consequences of perceived
public antipathy for police officer culture. In the following section, we describe the data
and methods used to answer our research questions.

Method

Sample

The present study consists of survey results from 12,376 sworn law enforce-
ment officers in 98 agencies participating in the National Police Research
Platform between August 2013 and January 2014 (Rosenbaum et al., 2016).
The Platform data utilizes a stratified sampling procedure consisting of a
sampling of law enforcement agencies, followed by a sample of the subpopu-
lation of officers within those agencies. First, a sample of police departments
and sheriff’s offices across the United States with between 100 and 3000 sworn
personnel was drawn from the 2007 Law Enforcement Management and Ad-
ministrative Statistics (LEMAS) database.1 Approximately 80% of all sampled
agencies were municipal police departments, and 20% were sheriff’s offices,

1
LEMAS includes the population of local US law enforcement agencies over 100 sworn employees, hence
delineating the lower bound for sampling. This also ensured a sufficiently large sample of officers were
available to participate in the survey.
 American Journal of Criminal Justice

comparable to the composition of local law enforcement agencies in the U.S.

Within each agency, the universe of officers was emailed with a survey
invitation which was delivered through each agency’s chief executive officer
(Chief, Sheriff, etc.) and was drafted with the assistance of Platform
researchers.
Web-based surveys were delivered via Qualtrics to the population of officers
in 98 agencies, with a mean sworn officer response rate of 37.1% across
agencies, a relatively high figure for online surveys of police officers (Nix,
Pickett, Baek, & Alpert, 2017). Participation was encouraged by weekly follow-
up emails to the agency head indicating then-current response rates and en-
couraging follow-up with members via memorandum or email highlighting the
importance of the research, the anonymity of the survey data, and their contri-
bution to the field (Rosenbaum et al., 2011).
Listwise deletion of cases missing information resulted in final sample sizes ranging
from 9725 to 9995 in our regression models. The loss of cases was principally
attributable to nonresponse to items regarding age, tenure, and race, and officers
expressed concern that their survey responses may be identifiable and that their
feedback could be used against them, despite assurances to the contrary
(Rosenbaum et al., 2011).2
Overall, the data are well-suited for addressing questions regarding officer
cultural orientations and the correlates of these orientations. A sizable number
of officers were surveyed, and they were drawn from numerous agencies across
the United States, avoiding regional peculiarities and other sampling biases
common to smaller samples. Further, these recent data reflect the contemporary
composition of the law enforcement profession, which is presumed to be
culturally distinct from the past, given the increased representation of female
and minority officers (Paoline, 2003). Overall, the National Police Research
Platform appears to be the largest law enforcement survey to date explicitly
addressing police occupational norms.

2
Even nonresponse, then, suggests cultural themes of cynicism, isolation, and solidarity, justifying missing
data analysis. Nonresponse rates were compared to organizational variables (such as agency size, organiza-
tional structure, and city characteristics) as well as overall agency demographics (including gender, race, and
military history) in order to evaluate possible nonresponse bias. Missing data were uncorrelated with agency
characteristics, and discrepancies between survey demographics and overall agency demographics were rather
small, with supervisors and white officers slightly overrepresented (Rosenbaum et al., 2011). It stands to
reason that officers choosing not to respond to specific demographic questions out of fear of retaliation or
harassment are likely to be those who most embrace the traditional police culture, characterized by cynicism,
distrust, and insularity. Given that age, race, and years of experience were the most commonly missing
variables, we examined how nonresponse to these items correlated with our outcome measures (isolation,
solidarity, cynicism, coercion, and TPC) and key explanatory variable (perceptions of public antipathy). Few
of these relationships were statistically significant and none were substantive. Officers who chose not to
respond to the age question were slightly more likely to report social isolation (r = 0.02, p < 0.01). Officers
who chose not to disclose their race were more likely to report perceptions of public antipathy (r = 0.04,
p < 0.001) and social isolation (r = 0.02, p < .01). Officers with missing or invalid data for years of experience
also reported higher perceptions of public antipathy (r = 0.02, p < .05) and social isolation (r = 0.02, p < .05).
No other relationships attained statistical significance, and none exceed (r = .04). This analysis (not shown) is
available upon request. The pattern of nonresponse would downwardly bias our regression coefficients,
underestimating the strength of the proposed relationships and reducing the likelihood of committing a type
I error.
American Journal of Criminal Justice

Measures

Dependent Variables The Platform survey instrument captures several cultural dimen-
sions prominent in the police literature: social isolation, solidarity, cynicism toward the
public, and physically coercive attitudes. Mean scales were computed to improve
comparability between models, since the number of indicators (and, hence, summative
scales) differed for each dependent variable.

Social Isolation Consistent with suggestions that police officers conceal their employ-
ment from, and tend not to socialize with, non-officers (e.g., Swanton, 1981; Skolnick,
2011; Clark, 1965), respondents were asked how strongly they agreed with the
statement BI don’t really talk about my job with people who are not police officers.^
Responses were captured using a 4-point Likert scale, with responses ranging from 1
(Strongly disagree) to 4 (Strongly agree). Higher scores on this measure indicate greater
social isolation.

Solidarity Fraternal loyalty to other officers above all others is a defining characteristic
of the traditional police culture (Brown, 1981; Skolnick, 2011; Van Maanen, 1973a, b;
Westley, 1970). Two items were used to measure the degree to which officers endorse
police solidarity. Respondents were asked the extent they agreed to the following
statements: BOfficers need to stick together because we can’t count on anyone to
protect us if we get into trouble^ and BLoyalty to other officers in the department
should be one of the highest priorities.^ These items were each measured using 4-point
Likert scales and were averaged into a composite scale (Spearman-Brown coefficient =
0.55, α = 0.54, r = 0.38),3 with higher scores indicating greater solidarity.

Cynicism toward the Public Three questions were used to assess officers’ cynicism
toward the public, similar to items used in recent multi-site police surveys and
the Project on Policing Neighborhoods (e.g., Paoline & Terrill, 2014; Paoline,
2004). Respondents were asked the extent they agreed to the following state-
ments: (1) BOfficers have reason to be distrustful of most citizens;^ (2) BThe
public doesn’t understand what it means to be an officer;^ and (3) BIn general,
the media treat the police unfairly.^ Responses to each item ranged from 1
(Strongly disagree) to 4 (Strongly agree). Responses were averaged, with higher
scores indicating greater cynicism toward the public (Spearman-Brown coeffi-
cient = 0.52, α = 0.54).

Coercion According to the traditional police culture and its emphasis on physical
coercion, many officers feel that Ba good police officer takes charge of encoun-
ters with citizens^ (Paoline & Terrill, 2014, p. 116). Aggressive orientations or

3
Given considerable debate about the most appropriate measure for inter-item correlation (Elsinga, Te
Grotenhuis, & Pelzer, 2013), several are reported here for the reader’s consideration. Several of our measures
demonstrate modest reliability coefficients. This is, in part, attributable to the small number of items used in
each scale. Furthermore, a limited number of response categories (here, a 4-point Likert item) has been
associated with lower internal consistency in multi-item scales (Preston & Colman, 2000). We address
concerns about the reliability of outcome measures through the use of an omnibus measure of traditional
police culture, described later.
 American Journal of Criminal Justice

attitudes were captured using three items assessing how eagerly officers em-
braced the use of physical coercion in their duties. A 4-point Likert scale was
used to capture officers’ degree of agreement with the following statements: BIf
officers don’t show that they are physically tough, they will be seen as weak^;
BIt is more useful for an officer to be aggressive than to be courteous^; and
BSome people can only be brought to reason the hard, physical way^ (Spear-
man-Brown coefficient = 0.58, α = 0.63).

Traditional Police Culture There are empirical and theoretical reasons to suspect
that police occupational culture is not a multi-dimensional phenomenon com-
posed of isolation, solidarity, cynicism, and coercion. Rather, the traditional
police culture may be a unidimensional construct characterized by the concep-
tual overlap of these features. We have noted, for instance, that reliability
coefficients for our two- to three-item cultural variables are modest at best.
Furthermore, some researchers have argued for the construction of a Btraditional
police culture^ scale that combines various inter-related components of police
norms and attitudes (Silver et al., 2017). In light of these arguments, as well as
the low internal consistency of our small scales, we constructed a unidimen-
sional scale of Btraditional police culture^ (TPC) that combines our measures of
isolation, solidarity, cynicism, and coercion. The 9-item TPC scale combines
these subscales, providing an omnibus measure of traditional police culture that
is empirically reliable and internally consistent (Spearman-Brown coefficient =
0.67, α = 0.75). A unidimensional construct of police culture allows us to
explore how the perceived quality of the police-public relationship is associated
with officers’ general endorsement of the traditional police culture.
Results utilizing a unidimensional indicator of police culture should be interpreted
with caution. Some police researchers have suggested distinctions between constructs
such as isolation, solidarity, cynicism, and coercive attitudes, as indicated in our
preceding review (e.g., Skolnick, 2011; Paoline & Terrill, 2014). Further, the
concept of a ‘monolithic’ police culture has been criticized as overly reductive
(Paoline, 2003). We do not attempt to resolve the conflict between the multi-
dimensional police culture depicted in the theoretical literature and the unidi-
mensionality suggested by the reliability coefficients, and instead present out-
comes consistent with both. In short, we use the same items in an omnibus
measure of traditional police culture that demonstrates good reliability, but we
report the smaller subscales nonetheless, based on theoretical representations of
police culture.

Independent Variables Prior research on police culture suggests that officers’ percep-
tions of public support influence the policeman’s working personality. Research also
suggests, however, that the structural characteristics of the job (e.g., shift work),
demographic characteristics, and organizational roles are also relevant consider-
ations. We incorporate measures of these characteristics as independent vari-
ables in our analyses.

Perceptions of Public Antipathy We have variously used the terms public antipathy,
public hostility, and low public support to describe resentment from the public that
American Journal of Criminal Justice

some officers perceive. To evaluate perceptions of public antipathy toward police,

officers were asked to what extent they agreed with the statements BMost people
respect the police^ and BThe relationship between police and the people of this city
is very good^, items consistent with recent surveys of officer perceptions of the police-
public relationship (e.g., Morin et al., 2017; Fontaine et al., 2017). Responses were
reverse-coded using a 4-point Likert-type scale, where higher scores indicate greater
levels of perceived public antipathy, and averaged into a composite scale (Spearman
Brown = 0.65, r = .486, α = 0.65).4

Shift Work Some scholars have argued that members of law enforcement become more
socially isolated from non-law enforcement because they often work unconventional
schedules (e.g., Swanton, 1981; Banton, 1964). Furthermore, the type and volume of
police work varies substantially with the hour of day (Cohn, 1996), and it stands to
reason that work-related strains that vary by shift may also contribute to variation in
cultural adaptations. Officers were asked about their Bnormal work shift.^ Officers
indicating that they Bmostly work days^ were coded as 0, while officers indicating that
they Bmostly worked afternoons/evenings,^ Bmostly worked nights,^ or Bmostly rotat-
ed shifts^ were coded as 1 to indicate shift work.

Work Role Given that patrol officers may differ substantially from supervisors and
specialists (Reuss-Ianni, 1983), we account for two measures of officer work role. First,
we use a dichotomous variable to distinguish between supervisors (coded as 1) from
non-supervisors (coded as 0). We also distinguish patrol officers (coded as 1) from
those working in special assignments such as traffic, investigations, narcotics, gangs, or
various other specialties (all coded as 0).

Demographic Characteristics We include controls for gender (dichotomous, male = 1),

race (dichotomous, white = 1, non-white = 0), military experience (dichotomous, yes =
1), tenure at current agency (continuous, in years) and highest education received (an
ordinal variable where 1 = high school degree, 2 = some college, 3 = A.A. or equiva-
lent, 4 = B.A. or equivalent, 5 = some graduate courses, and 6 = a graduate or profes-
sional degree).

Analytic Strategy

To assess the influence of perceived public antipathy on dimensions of police culture,

our analysis proceeds in two stages. First, we describe summary and bivariate statistics
for key dependent and independent variables. Second, we use ordinary least squares
regression in five separate models to test hypotheses regarding the influence of after

4
Although it might appear that the perceptions of public antipathy scale has overlap with the dimension of
cynicism toward the public, confirmatory factor analysis shows that these dimensions are indeed distinct. For
the two-factor solution, χ2(4) = 227.78 RMSEA = 0.070 with an upper bound of 0.078, CFI = 0.972, TLI =
0.931, and SRMR = 0.026 which is within the range of acceptable fit (Hu & Bentler, 1999) and fits better than
a one-factor solution (where χ2(4) = 734.68, RMSEA = 0.113, CFI = 0.910, TLI = 0.820, and SRMR = 0.049).
Based on the results of the two-factor solution, we can conclude that perceptions of public antipathy and
cynicism toward the public are empirically distinct.
 American Journal of Criminal Justice

Table 1 Summary statistics of study variables

Variable N Mean Min-Max S.D.

Isolation 11,563 2.69 1–4 0.74

Solidarity 11,394 2.70 1–4 0.65
Cynicism 11,443 2.84 1–4 0.53
Coercion 11,396 2.49 1–4 0.60
Perceived public antipathy 11,494 2.45 1–4 0.64
Shift work 11,196 0.43 0–1 –
Military 11,275 0.28 0–1 –
Male 11,034 0.86 0–1 –
White 10,821 0.79 0–1 –
Experience 10,517 15.47 0–53 8.44
Education 11,157 3.45 1–6 1.38
Age 10,619 42.40 18–79 8.66
Supervisor 11,341 0.35 0–1 –
Patrol 11,211 0.41 0–1 –

controlling for other relevant characteristics of the officers and their jobs.5 All analyses
were conducted using STATA 15 (StataCorp., College Station, TX).

Results

Summary Statistics and Bivariate Correlations

Table 1 contains summary statistics for all study variables. It is worth noting that
officers do not appear to be especially isolated, loyal, cynical, or coercive: the average
response on each of these dimensions were near the middle of the 4-point scale. Of
these, more than half of all officers agreed or strongly agreed that they don’t speak
about their jobs with civilians, demonstrate solidarity with other officers, and were
cynical toward the public. On the other hand, slightly fewer than half agreed or strongly
agreed with statements regarding physical coercion or public antipathy. Nearly half of

5
We also examined several alternative modeling strategies (not shown). Given that the dependent variables
are ordinal rather than interval, ordered logistic regression was analyzed, but the dependent variables violated
assumptions of parallelism, complicating interpretation (O'Connell, 2006); nonetheless, the findings did not
substantively differ from the OLS models presented here. Given that officers are clustered within agencies and
violate the assumption of independence of observations, we also analyzed various hierarchical linear models,
which examined both random intercepts and random coefficients, where appropriate (Luke, 2004). ICC’s were
low (1–4%) and our parameter estimates and p-values were quite similar to the more parsimonious and
interpretable models presented here. Finally, we also calculated standard errors for OLS models using the
cluster option in STATA, which relaxes the assumption of independence (StataCorp, 2007). The small changes
to the calculated standard errors had no effect on inferences of statistical significance. Our evaluation of
alternative models suggests that, especially given our large sample size, our linear models are extremely robust
to small deviations from OLS assumptions. Our chosen models also permit the calculation and meaningful
interpretation of standardized beta coefficients, in order to evaluate the relative influence of our predictors on
cultural outcomes.
American Journal of Criminal Justice

all officers (43%) worked a rotating, evening, or night shift, and over a quarter (28%)
had military experience. The vast majority of officers were white (79%) and male
(86%). The average officer had just over 15 years of experience and was over 42 years
of age. The average educational level, at 3.45, corresponds with a level of education
between an Associate’s degree and a Bachelor’s degree. Just over a third (35%) of
respondents held supervisory positions, and 41% worked in patrol operations.
Bivariate correlations are shown in Table 2. The correlations demonstrate positive,
statistically significant relationships (p < .001) between perceptions of public antipathy
and four elements of the traditional police culture: social isolation (r = .14), solidarity
(r = .20), cynicism (r = .43) and coercion (r = .24). The composite measure of tradi-
tional police culture is also significantly and positively correlated with percep-
tions of public antipathy (r = .38). These correlations provide preliminary evi-
dence supporting the linkages between perceived public antipathy and belief in
the traditional police culture.6

Regression Analyses

Table 3 presents the results of five OLS regression models designed to examine the
effects of perceptions of public antipathy on various indicators of police culture,
including social isolation (Model 1), police solidarity (Model 2), cynicism toward the
public (Model 3), and coercion (Model 4). Model 5 combines these indicators of police
culture into a comprehensive Traditional Police Culture (TPC) scale, and examines the
effect, if any, of perceptions of public antipathy on TPC. We address each of these
models in turn.
Model 1 predicts social isolation. We find that officers who perceive greater
antipathy from the public also report greater social isolation (b = .173, p < .001, S.E.
= .013), supporting Hypothesis 1. Officers who perceive little public support are
significantly less likely to talk about their jobs with others who are not also police.
Despite its emphasis in the literature, officers working unconventional schedules (shift
work) are not significantly more isolated.
In Model 2, which predicts police solidarity, the regression results demonstrate that
officers express significantly more loyalty to other officers when they perceive public
hostility (b = .177, p < .001, S.E. =.011). We therefore find support for Hypothesis 2,
confirming the predictions of ethnographers who argue that police solidarity may be a
mutual defense reaction to public hostility.

6
Table 2 also indicates potentially problematic collinearity between respondent age and experience (r = .77)
(see Licht, 1995). Given this high correlation, additional model diagnostics—variance inflation factors (VIFs)
and condition indices–were also examined. VIFs did not exceed a value of 3, below the problematic threshold
of 5 (Rogerson, 2001), but condition indices were at 31 with the inclusion of both the age and experience
variables in the models, slightly exceeding the problematic threshold of 30 (see Belsley, Kuh, & Welsch,
1980). These additional diagnostics indicate that collinearity could bias regression estimates. To determine
whether this was the case, alternative regression models, which excluded either age or experience, the highly
correlated variables, where examined. Results from these models are substantively similar to those reported
here. That is, officer perceptions of public antipathy are consistently and significantly, positively associated
with each outcome of interest. In these alternative models, condition indices all fell below 30, and VIFs fell
below 2. Given the concordance across these different models, we present the full models (e.g., those
containing both age and experience) in the current text.
Table 2 Bivariate correlations between study variables

Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

1 Isolation
2 Solidarity 0.13*
3 Cynicism 0.22* 0.38*
4 Coercion 0.18* 0.45* 0.48*
5 TPC 0.40* 0.71* 0.79* 0.83*
6 Perceived public antipathy 0.14* 0.20* 0.43* 0.24* 0.38*
7 Shift Work 0.00 0.16* 0.14* 0.14* 0.17* 0.12*
8 Military 0.03 0.03* −0.01 0.01 0.01 −0.01 0.02
9 Male −0.01 0.10* 0.01 0.09* 0.07* −0.09* 0.08* 0.15*
10 White 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.06* 0.04* −0.03 −0.01 −0.05* 0.08*
11 Experience 0.02 −0.17* −0.16* −0.18* −0.20* −0.10* −0.32* −0.02 0.02 0.01
12 Education −0.03* −0.09* −0.05* −0.05* −0.08* −0.04* −0.05* −0.10* −0.10* 0.02 0.01
13 Age −0.02 −0.16* −0.20* −0.19* −0.23* −0.12* −0.30* 0.09* 0.04* −0.03 0.77* 0.00
14 Supervisor 0.01 −0.19* −0.14* −0.16* −0.19* −0.15* −0.07* −0.01 0.05* 0.02 0.39* 0.16* 0.30*
15 Patrol −0.02 0.15* 0.12* 0.11* 0.14* 0.05* 0.40* 0.03 0.06* 0.03 −0.25* −0.02 −0.22* −0.04*

*p < .001
American Journal of Criminal Justice
Table 3 OLS regressions predicting belief in dimensions of traditional police culture

Model 1: Isolation Model 2: Solidarity Model 3: Cynicism Model 4: Coercion Model 5: TPC

b S.E. Beta b S.E. Beta b S.E. Beta b S.E. Beta b S.E. Beta
American Journal of Criminal Justice

Intercept 2.466 .065 2.284 .057 2.228 .043 2.084 .051 2.222 .037
Perceived Public Antipathy .173* .013 .151 .177* .011 .174 .336* .008 .410 .212* .010 .229 .242* .007 .355
Shift Work −.018 .017 −.012 .077* .014 .059 .029 .011 .027 .054* .013 .045 .043* .009 .049
Military .067* .017 .041 .023 .014 .015 −.005 .011 −.004 .000 .013 .000 .010 .009 .010
Male −.009 .021 −.004 .197* .018 .106 .065* .014 .043 .173* .016 .102 .123* .011 .099
White .026 .019 .014 .017 .016 .011 .037 .012 .028 .087* .015 .059 .047* .010 .043
Experience .007* .001 .079 −.003 .001 −.039 .002 .001 .024 −.002 .001 −.027 .000 .001 −.003
Education −.015 .005 −.028 −.017* .005 −.037 −.003 .003 −.008 −.006 .004 −.014 −.008 .003 −.026
Age −.007* .001 −.079 −.002 .001 −.035 −.008* .001 −.129 −.006* .001 −.094 −.006* .001 −.122
Supervisor .038 .017 .024 −.185* .014 −.136 −.053* .011 −.048 −.116* .013 −.093 −.091* .009 −.100
Patrol −.030 .017 −.020 .121* .014 .091 .070* .011 .066 .047* .013 .039 .061* .009 .069
N 9995 9859 9945 9896 9725
R2 .028 .113 .219 .120 .215
F 25.61* 125.37* 259.35* 125.73* 241.02*

*p < .001
 American Journal of Criminal Justice

In Model 3, we find that officers are significantly more cynical about the public
when they report greater public antipathy (b = .336, p < .001, S.E. = .008), lending
support to Hypothesis 3. Officers who perceive little public support are substantially
more likely to distrust citizens.
The results from Model 4 indicate support for Hypothesis 4. Officers are signifi-
cantly more likely to endorse the general use of physical coercion when they perceive
public antipathy (b = .212, p < .001, S.E. = .010).
Model 5 predicts Btraditional police culture,^ the omnibus indicator of the police
culture that is comprised of isolation, solidarity, cynicism, and coercion. Again, we find
evidence that perceptions of public antipathy are significant and substantial predictors
of the traditional police culture (b = .242, p < .001, S.E. =.007).
We may also make comparisons across models. In four of the five models, older
officers and supervisors appear significantly less likely to ascribe to characteristics of
the traditional police culture, and so too do officers assigned to assignments other than
patrol–results consistent with prior studies finding that culture tends to differ substan-
tially by rank and assignment (Silver et al., 2017; Reuss-Ianni, 1983). While being male
was significant in four of the five models, race was significant in just two and
demonstrated rather small effects; these observations are perhaps unsurprising given
inconsistent results reported on such demographic characteristics on police norms
elsewhere (Silver et al., 2017; (Paoline, Myers, & Worden, 2000). Put simply, in
addition to the influence of public antipathy, we find that white, male, line-level patrol
officers are the most likely to identify with values expressed in the traditional police
culture, although these effects were not always statistically significant.
In all five models, officers’ perceptions of public antipathy have a direct, positive
association with aspects of police culture. Public antipathy is the only variable to attain
statistical significance in every model (p < .001). Standardized beta coefficients, which
allow us to compare the relative magnitude of effect, reveal that it is the single strongest
predictor of social isolation (B = .151), police solidarity (B = .174), cynicism toward the
public (B = .410), coercive attitudes (B = .229), and our global measure of traditional
police culture (B = .355), far outperforming personal and work role characteristics. In
sum, all of our models indicate that perceptions of public antipathy toward police shape
police cultural orientations. We discuss these findings in the following section.

Discussion

In the wake of the events of Ferguson, law enforcement has faced increased scrutiny
and criticism from both policymakers and the public (MacDonald, 2015; President’s
Task Force on twenty-first Century Policing, 2015). Prominent members of the law
enforcement community have made claims that this scrutiny and criticism influences
officer attitudes and behaviors (Byers, 2014; Lichtblau, 2016). These suggestions were
consistent with ethnographic accounts of police culture from the 1960s and 1970s.
These ethnographies suggested that when officers feel as though they are the subject of
hostility or criticism by the public (Whitaker, 1964; Crank, 2014), they may respond by
retreating into a fraternal solidarity (Skolnick, 2011), cynically distrusting the public
(Niederhoffer, 1967), and embracing the use of physical force (Westley, 1970). In this
way, the suggestion has been that police culture is borne, at least in part, out of officer
American Journal of Criminal Justice

perceptions of public antipathy toward law enforcement. Using a sample of 12,376

sworn law enforcement officers in 98 agencies, the current study used a series of OLS
regressions to quantitatively evaluate the linkages between perceived public antipathy
and these aspects of police culture.
Officers perceiving hostile public attitudes were significantly and substantially more
likely to report (1) greater social isolation from the public, (2) greater police solidarity,
(3) increased cynicism toward the public, and (4) more physically coercive attitudes.
Elements of the traditional police culture appear to be a function of officers’ sense of
animosity from the public. Officers who perceive hostility from the public withdraw
from the public into fraternal solidarity. Furthermore, these officers become much more
distrustful of the public, and are more likely to justify the use of coercive tactics in the
course of police work. The results lend support to qualitative research from the 1960’s
and 1970’s which suggests that police cultural norms are a function of transactional
relationships with the public.
The linkages between officer perceptions of public antipathy and their behavior
warrants further examination. Research suggests that the traditional police culture may
contribute to undesirable practices including corruption (Skolnick, 2002), hostility
toward the public (Regoli, Crank, & Rivera, 1990), and the escalation of force
(Terrill et al., 2003). Skolnick (2002) noted that a culture of police solidarity increases
corruption and misconduct because it promotes loyalty to the working group over the
law, and also due to its effectiveness in impeding investigations of wrongdoing
(Kutnjak Ivković & Shelley, 2008). Cynical officers also report poorer work relations,
more hostile police-citizen encounters, and more frequent arrests than their less cynical
counterparts (Regoli et al., 1990). Officers who subscribe to a police culture which
includes distrust toward citizens demonstrate significantly more use of coercive force in
observational studies (Terrill et al., 2003). This evidence suggests the norms character-
izing traditional police culture may produce tangible threats to democratic policing. Our
results indicate these forms of problematic policing are not only a result of personal or
organizational characteristics, but may derive from perceived tensions between officers
and the public.
Given these potential consequences, police organizations must find ways to mitigate
or minimize perceptions of public hostility among officers. We propose two potential
solutions to address these perceptions. First, practices of organizational justice by
police leadership may be useful for helping street-level officers deal with public
criticism (Nix & Wolfe, 2016). When police leadership treat officers with respect,
fairness, kindness, and consideration, officers may be significantly less likely to
respond to public hostility with mutual derision and disaffection (Wolfe & Nix,
2016). Organizational justice also contributes to procedural justice and officer commit-
ment to policing reform (Rosenbaum & McCarty, 2017). More broadly, this evidence
supports arguments that both organizational and procedural justice are essential to
overcoming modern-day challenges to policing, including public protest, criticism,
and distrust (President’s Task Force on twenty-first Century Policing, 2015).
Second, if cultural adaptations are due to officers’ mistaken assumptions of public
hostility toward police, it may be possible to correct these assumptions. Officer
perceptions of public antipathy may not accurately reflect public attitudes toward the
police; for instance, officers’ perceptions of public antipathy may have been largely
driven by Bhostile media effects^ and dominant news narratives post-Ferguson,
 American Journal of Criminal Justice

independent of actual citizen attitudes (Nix & Pickett, 2017). There does indeed appear
to be a discrepancy between actual public support and officers’ perceptions of public
support: 76% of Americans express Ba great deal^ of respect for the police (McCarthy,
2016), but only 58.2% of officers believe the public respects the police (Cordner,
2017). Nonetheless, this study reveals that the officers who do not share this sentiment
are the most likely to subscribe to the traditional police culture, with its attendant
consequences. It stands to reason that correcting these officers’ misperceptions of
public attitudes (perhaps during regular in-service training) might reduce adherence
to the traditional police culture. Correcting simple misunderstandings of experienced
police officers has been a cornerstone of law enforcement training on mental health
(Compton et al., 2014), sexual assault (Lonsway, Welch, & Fitzgerald, 2001), and
domestic violence (Friday, Lord, Exum, & Hartman, 2006). As with these topics,
officers may only need reminding that their perceived stigma is unwarranted. Simply
making officers aware of their high levels of public support may mitigate against
problematic and reactionary cultural adaptations.
Of course, the current study is not without limitations. First, the psychometric
properties of many of our theoretical constructs are not as robust as would be desired.
This issue of psychometric soundness is not uncommon in secondary data analysis, and
policing research is no exception to this issue (e.g., Shjarback & White, 2016). Refining
these measures should be a priority of future research. Second, there is emerging
evidence that characteristics of workgroups and organizations influence police culture
beyond the occupational strains common to all officers (Ingram et al., 2013; Ingram
et al., in press). This consideration extends to important public events, such as police
shootings or public protests. It is unclear whether officers’ perceptions of public
antipathy are differentially influenced by local versus national events.7 Continuing to
explore these local, organizational, and workgroup influences on police culture is
necessary and worthwhile. Finally, the cross-sectional design of this study limits causal
inference. While police ethnographies have suggested that officers’ perceptions of
public attitudes influence their cultural adaptations, the reverse is also plausible. As a
lens through which they construe meaning, the traditional police culture may taint
officer interpretations of citizen attitudes and behaviors. Given the dialogic and recip-
rocal nature of police-community relationships, non-recursive models are implied.
Analysis of future waves of the National Police Research Platform would be better
able to disentangle these processes. These limitations notwithstanding, our study is
among the few to quantitatively demonstrate that officers’ perceptions of police-public
conflict influence police cultural norms.
In the end, this study presents compelling evidence that officers’ sense of hostility
from the public significantly influences police culture. Officers’ approach to public
service is significantly influenced by their perceptions of public sentiment,
underscoring claims made by police ethnographers (e.g., Skolnick, 2011), law enforce-
ment leaders (e.g., Byers, 2014), and editorialists (e.g., MacDonald, 2015). Tension
between officers and their communities is not merely incidental to police work; rather,
the degree of such tension predicts cultural adaptations that may further damage police-

7
There is evidence for both: Baltimore police officers began de-policing in the wake of protests in Ferguson,
but withdrew even further following local protests stemming from the death of Freddie Gray (Morgan & Pally,
2016).
American Journal of Criminal Justice

public relationships. These theoretical arguments are echoed in the popular wisdom of
the BFerguson Effect,^ which suggests that criticism of the police has a tangible
influence on police culture and practice. Police officers are not immune to public
antagonism, and they appear to respond with a degree of reciprocity. While much
research has examined how public perceptions of the police influence citizen attitudes
and behaviors, we hope that criminologists will continue exploring the other half of this
exchange, as well.

Acknowledgments The authors would like to send sincere thanks to those who provided invaluable
feedback to improve this manuscript: Dr. George Burruss, Dr. Lorie Fridell, Dr. Justin Nix, and the anonymous
reviewers. The data used in this study were retrieved from the Inter-University Consortium for Political and
Social Research. Data were collected for The National Police Research Platform, Phase 2 (ICPSR 36497).

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Christopher J. Marier is a PhD student in the Department of Criminology at the University of South Florida.
He earned an M.S. in Criminology from Florida State University. His current research interests include police
culture, bias, and the sociology of law.

Richard K. Moule Jr ., PhD, is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Criminology at the University of
South Florida. Dr. Moule earned his PhD from Arizona State University. His research interests include
criminological theory and the correlates and consequences of technology adoption and use. His research has
been published in outlets such as British Journal of Criminology, Crime and Delinquency, Journal of Research
in Crime and Delinquency, and Social Science Research.