INTERNATIONAL

BENCHBOOK
PAKISTAN
LAW
FOR
INTERNATIONAL LAW BENCHBOOK FOR PAKISTAN RSIL
INTERNATIONAL
LAW
BENCHBOOK
FOR
PAKISTAN
Table of Contents
INTERNATIONAL LAW BENCHBOOK FOR PAKISTAN
I. PREFACE

The following Benchbook demonstrates the nature of the engagement of

Pakistan's domestic courts with public international law. The primary
audience for this document is the superior judiciary, including members of
the special courts (i.e. Anti-Terrorism Court). Though the contents of the
Benchbook are intended to be informative to all members of the judiciary, the
superior judiciary is considered the primary audience because it exercises the
most expansive jurisdiction over those issues that involve questions of
international law.

The rst section of the Benchbook encompasses an introduction to basic

principles of public international law. Public international law is distinguished
from private international law, which will not be considered in this book. The
introduction includes an analysis of sources of international law, both primary
and secondary.

The Benchbook then addresses the concept of the rule of law and the
incorporation of international law within the domestic rule of law. This is
followed by an examination of the role of the domestic judiciary with respect
to international law. The Benchbook then examines the manner in which
international law is incorporated in Pakistan's domestic law. This includes
through legislative and judicial measures, including in relation to a con ict
between domestic and international law. Also addressed is the value of
understanding and interpreting the substance of an international treaty,
particularly one to which Pakistan is a party. Finally, examples of the use of
international law in Pakistan's domestic jurisprudence and the manner and
method by which select other states incorporate domestic law is provided in
the annexes.

To maintain a user-friendly approach, the Benchbook is written in an outline

format similar to the Benchbook on International Law written by the
American Society of International Law. It includes in its conclusion case law
examples from Pakistan's superior courts. These cases re ect international
law issues ranging from human rights to the use of force to access to justice
and thus demonstrate the signi cant depth and breadth of domestic issues
that relate to international law.

1 Diane Marie Amann, Benchbook on International Law, Am. Soc. of Intl. Law (2014) available at:
https://www.asil.org/sites/default/ les/benchbook/ASIL_Benchbook_Complete.pdf [hereinafter ASIL
Benchbook].
I. INTRODUCTION TO BASIC PRINCIPLES OF INTERNATIONAL LAW

A. International Law De ned

International law as it is used in this Benchbook refers speci cally to public
international law. Public international law is the set of legal rules that govern
international relations between public bodies that include states (i.e.
Pakistan) and international organizations (i.e. the United Nations). The
narrowest understanding of international law thus re ects a set of obligations
between and upon states. These obligations, by and large, are the direct
result of consent by states through conventions, treaties, etc.

B. Sources of International Law

The general sources of international law are identi ed in Article 38 of the
Statute of the International Court of Justice (ICJ), the primary judicial body
within the United Nations system. They include:

1) International conventions recognized between states

Treaties are binding upon those states that have either accepted the
obligations through rati cation, the state parties, or to the extent they
represent customary international law. Examples of international
conventions include the International Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights (ICCPR) and the four Geneva Conventions of 1949.

In relation to treaties, rati cation or accession represents a state's

acceptance of a treaty's binding obligations. The common term for states
that ratify or accede to conventions is “state parties.” Signature by a state of
a treaty does not make the treaty binding upon the state and thus states
do not become state parties. Rather, signature signals an intent to observe
the treaty's provisions domestically, which may lead to eventual
rati cation. Pakistan, for example, is a signatory to the 1977 Protocols
Additional to the Geneva Conventions.

2) Customary law derived from the general accepted practice of States

Customary law is not codi ed per se. Rules of customary international law
are derived from a combination of widespread and consistent state
practice and “opinio juris,” a belief in the existence of a legal obligation⁴

Peremptory norms or jus cogens are principles of customary international

2 Public International Law, EUROPEAN COMMISSION, available at: http://ec.europa.eu/justice/glossary/public-

international-law_en.htm.
3 ASIL Benchbook, supra note 1 at I.A-1.
4 Christopher Greenwood, Sources of International Law: An Introduction, UNITED NATIONS, available at:
http://legal.un.org/avl/pdf/ls/greenwood_outline.pdf.
 law that are absolute and binding. Not all customary international law
rises to this level, but all peremptory norms are considered customary
international law. These norms include prohibitions on genocide, slavery
and torture and may not be derogated from under any circumstances.

3) General principles of law recognized by civilized nations

These principles are derived from concepts commonly present in
domestic law systems.

4) Judicial decisions
The decisions of the ICJ are binding only upon the parties to the case to
the extent of the applicability of the case itself.⁵ The ICJ (along with several
international tribunals) nevertheless frequently references previous ICJ
decisions in decisions.⁶ It is also important to note that judicial decisions
as sources of international law in the ICJ Statute are not limited to
international courts (though international court decisions have greater
authority).⁷ Domestic court decisions represent the practice of a state,
providing evidence for the development of customary international law.⁸

5) Scholarly writings of the “most highly quali ed publicists”

Sources 1 through 3 may be considered binding or “hard” law, while
judicial decisions and scholarly writings, though in uential, are
considered non-binding or “soft” law.

The sources of international law are not limited to those identi ed in

Article 38 of the ICJ statute. Other non-binding sources include, but are
not limited to: United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) resolutions
(especially those that contribute to the treaty-making process); the
position of states within the United Nations system; and international law
studies produced by the International Law Commission for the UNGA.⁹

C. Branches of International Law

International human rights law and international humanitarian law are
complementary branches of public international law. While human rights law
generally applies at all times, including during periods of armed con ict,
humanitarian law applies only in situations of armed con ict and/or
occupation. Both human rights and humanitarian law provide protection to

5 Id. at ¶ 5.
6 Id.
7 Id.
8 Id.
9 Id. at ¶ 7.
the lives, health and dignity of individuals. This is why, while very different in
formulation, the basis of some of their respective rules is similar.
Human Rights Law:
Human rights are rights inherent to all human beings. Human rights law
lays down obligations of Governments to act in certain ways or to refrain
from certain acts, in order to promote and protect human rights and
fundamental freedoms of individuals or groups.

Humanitarian Law:
Known as the law of armed con ict, humanitarian law is a set of rules
designed to limit the effects of armed con ict. It protects persons who are
not or are no longer participating in hostilities and restricts means and
methods of warfare. Humanitarian law does not regulate whether a State
may actually use force; this is governed by an important, but distinct, part
of international law set out in the United Nations Charter. It also does not
cover internal tensions or disturbances such as isolated acts of violence.
The law applies only once a con ict has begun, and then equally to all
sides regardless of who started the ghting.

The ICJ identi ed the relationship between these two branches of law in its
case, Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied
Palestinian Territory, as follows:

As regards the relationship between international humanitarian law and

human rights law, there are thus three possible situations: some rights may be
exclusively matters of international humanitarian law; others may be
exclusively matters of human rights law; yet others may be matters of both
these branches of international law. In order to answer the question put to it,
the Court will have to take into consideration both these branches of
international law, namely human rights law and, as lex specialis,
international humanitarian law

Human rights law applies continuously (including during armed con ict as
previously mentioned), but certain rules may be derogated from in situations
of public emergency threatening the life of a nation. This branch of law also
binds state parties to the treaties and not individuals, groups, provinces, etc.
beyond the state level.

10 “WHAT ARE HUMAN RIGHTS?” OFFICE OF THE HIGH COMMISSIONER FOR HUMAN RIGHTS, available at:
http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Pages/WhatareHumanRights.aspx.
11 International Committee of the Red Cross, What is International Humanitarian Law, ADVISORY SERVICE ON
INT'L HUMANITARIAN LAW, available at: https://www.icrc.org/eng/assets/ les/other/what_is_ihl.pdf.
12 Advisory Opinion Concerning Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian
Territory, International Court of Justice (ICJ), 9 July 2004.
Humanitarian law on the other hand only applies during an armed con ict
and there is no permitted derogation. Humanitarian law binds parties to the
con ict, which may be states or non-state actors. A number of factors must be
taken into account before characterizing a situation of armed con ict, subject
to the rules of IHL. An armed con ict may either be “international” (between
two or more states) or “non-international” (between government authorities
and organized armed groups or between such groups within a State). There
can be instances of international and non-international armed con icts
simultaneously applying in a situation.

International Armed Con ict:

Under humanitarian law, an international armed con ict (IAC) exists
whenever there is recourse to armed force between two or more States.
The threshold for determining the existence of an IAC is therefore fairly
low, and factors such as duration and intensity are generally not
considered to enter the equation. For instance, the mere capture of a
soldier or minor skirmishes between the armed forces of two or more
States may spark off an international armed con ict and lead to the
applicability of IHL, insofar as such acts may be taken as evidence of
genuine belligerent intent. In this context, it is important to bear in mind
that an armed con ict can arise where a State uses unilateral force against
another State even if the latter does not or cannot respond with military
means. The attacking State's resort to force need not actually be directed
against the armed forces of another State. IACs are fought between States.
The government is only one of the constitutive elements of a State, while
the territory and the population are others. It is the resort to force against
the territory, infrastructure or persons in the State that determines the
existence of an IAC and therefore triggers the applicability of IHL.

Non-International Armed Con ict:

A NIAC is an armed con ict in which hostilities take place between the
armed forces of a State and organized non-State armed groups, or
between such groups. For hostilities to be considered an NIAC, they must
reach a certain level of intensity and the groups involved must be
sufficiently organized.

13 International Committee of the Red Cross, International Humanitarian Law and the Challenges of
Contemporary Armed Con icts, 8 (2015), available at: https://www.icrc.org/en/document/inter national-
humanitarian-law-and-challenges-contemporary-armed-con icts.
D. Relevant International Law Instruments

Human Rights Law Treaties and Conventions:

INSTRUMENT NAME STATUS IN PAKISTAN

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) Widely accepted as

customary international law

Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Rati cation (1966)

Discrimination (1965)

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Rati cation (2010)

(1966)

International Covenant on Economic, Social and Rati cation (2008)

Cultural Rights (1966)

Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Rati cation (1996)

Discrimination against Women (1979)

Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Rati cation (2010)

Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment
(1984)

Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) Rati cation (1990)

Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights Rati cation (2011)

of the Child on the sale of children, child
prostitution and child pornography (2002)

International Convention on the Protection of the No Action

Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of their
Families (1999)

International Convention for the Protection of All No Action

Persons from Enforced Disappearance (2006)

Convention on the Rights of Persons with Rati cation (2011)

Disabilities (2008)
Humanitarian Law Instruments:
INSTRUMENT NAME STATUS IN PAKISTAN

Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Rati cation (1957)

the Crime of Genocide (1948)

Four Geneva Conventions of 1949 Rati cation (1951)

The Hague Convention for the Protection of Rati cation (1959)

Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Con ict
(1954)

Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Rati cation (1974)

Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological
(Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on their
destruction (1972)

Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Rati cation (1986)

other Hostile Use of Environmental Modi cation
Techniques (1976)

Two Protocols Additional to the four 1949 Geneva Signature (1977)

Conventions

Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Rati cation (1985)

Use of Certain Conventional Weapons Which May
be Deemed to be Excessively Injurious or to have
Indiscriminate Effects (1980)

Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Rati cation (1997)

Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical
Weapons and on their Destruction (1993)

Revised Protocol on Prohibitions or Restrictions on Rati cation (1999)

the Use of Mines, Booby-Traps and Other Devices
(Protocol II [revised] to the CCW of 1980) (1996)

Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, No Action

Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-
Personnel Mines and on their Destruction (1997)

Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court No Action

(1998)

Protocol (V) on Explosive Remnants of War (added Rati cation (2009)

to the CCW of 1980) (2003)

Arms Trade Treaty (2013) No Action

III. INTERNATIONAL LAW AND THE DOMESTIC RULE OF LAW

A. What is the Rule of Law?

The Rule of Law, as a concept, has deep roots within the socio-political,
democratic legal tradition. Though there is no xed de nition, the Rule of Law
entails numerous obligations on the government and its citizens. The Rule of
Law generally supports the following:

 People in positions of authority should exercise their power within the

narrow framework of well-established public norms rather than acting in
an arbitrary, ad hoc or discriminatory manner on the basis of their own
preferences or ideology
 Generally, government should adhere to a particular framework in all its
operations, remaining accountable through law when actions
demonstrate and overreach of power
 Citizens should respect and comply with legal norms, even if they do not
agree with them
 Regardless of con ict of interest, citizens should accept legal
determinations of their rights and duties
 Law should be normative and public so as to facilitate citizens in
understanding their rights and duties
 Legal institutions should be available to ordinary people to uphold rights,
settle disputes and protect them from abuse of public or private power,
which requires the independence of the judiciary, accountability and
transparency of government and integrity within the legal system

The phrase “Rule of Law” was coined by Albert Venn Dicey (though the
concept itself may be traced back much further) and his theory, reproduced in
large part above, is widely accepted as a dominant expression of its
parameters. Beyond transparency and equality before the law however, Dicey
also rationalized that in the British context, the rule of law is sourced by the
protections offered by the courts and not solely constitutional constructs.

14 Contestedness of the Rule of Law, Rule of Law, STANFORD ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PHILOSOPHY, available at:
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rule-of-law/.
15 Id.
16 Id.
17 Id.
18 Id.
19 Id.
20 Stephane Beaulac, The Rule of Law in International Law Today, 197, 199 (2009) available at:
https://papyrus.bib.umontreal.ca/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1866/3093/International-Rule -Law-
Final.pdf;jsessionid=A2E9E7F48AD3B1D72FE7298CACAF1B70?sequence=1.
Stated another way, Dicey's proposition implies that the outcomes of the
applications of rights of individuals are the source of the Rule of Law as
opposed to a written document alone and thus the role of the courts is critical
in applying the Rule of Law. If there is then a willingness to legally protect
individual's rights in a society, the source of such protections may better occur
through the courts.

These concepts in their totality underpin the notion of what is the Rule of Law,
but they do not limit the particular rights that are accorded to individuals
under that umbrella. This being the case, whether an individual's rights
emanate from the jurisprudence of courts or a written constitution, they are
not limited in their scope or origin. It is only for the government to specify
which rights exist and grant them equally, while fostering their protection
through domestic courts. This being the case, international law is not barred
as a source of rights of individuals, which then comprise the Rule of Law in a
domestic legal framework.

B. International Law as a Source within the Domestic Rule of Law

In any state, the sources of law (conveniently also the sources of rights) are
most commonly derived from central and provincial constitutions and
statutes and the jurisprudence of courts. This list is not exhaustive and in fact
regional laws or foreign laws, cultural or religious norms and international
instruments and customary laws also contribute signi cantly to domestic law
and the recognized rights of individuals.

International law itself is comprised of approximately 180,000 treaties,

spanning from 1648 to the present. Though many of these treaties
guarantee particular rights either directly or indirectly to individuals, nine
core treaties represent the central framework of human rights present in
international law:

 International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial

Discrimination
 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against
Women
 Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading
Treatment or Punishment

21 This is an estimation provided by a number of international law treaty databases.

 Convention on the Rights of the Child
 International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant
Workers and Members of their Families
 International Convention for the Protection of all Persons from Enforced
Disappearances
 Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities

Pakistan is a party to hundreds of multilateral treaties and several thousand

bilateral treaties, Memorandums of Understanding, unilateral commitments,
etc. Further, Pakistan is a party to seven of the nine core human rights
treaties, reproducing in large part the rights enshrined in the International
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) within the chapter on
Fundamental Rights in the Constitution of Pakistan [See Section C of this
Chapter].

The depth and breadth of Pakistan's engagement with international law, as

evidenced by the sheer number of international instruments in which
Pakistan is a participant, would suggest that international law should not be
trivialized. There is little to suggest in Pakistan's domestic legal framework,
including the Constitution, that international law is not a valid source of law to
be considered in enforcing the Rule of Law. For example, “existing laws” are
interpreted by the Constitution of Pakistan in accordance with Article 268(7)
to mean “all laws (including Ordinances, Orders-in-Council, Orders, rules, by-
laws, regulations and Letters Patent constituting a High Court, and
noti cations and other legal instruments having the force of law) in force in
Pakistan or any part thereof, or having extraterritorial validity…” This
de nition may not explicitly mention international law, but the inclusion of
international law within the text is strongly implied.

There is also no strict limitation placed on the superior judiciary during their
oaths of office where they are sworn to perform their duties in accordance
with the Constitution of Pakistan and the “law.” 

The use of law carries only the meaning that may be assigned to it in other
portions of the Constitution or codi ed law. The de nition of “existing laws”
may be indicative of what this use of “law” may mean. Nonetheless, it is not
exclusionary and thus, superior judges in discharging their duties may freely

22 This estimation is derived from a combination of multilateral treaties Pakistan participates in as documented by
the United Nations, along with the treaties included in the Pakistan Treaty Series.
23 PAKISTAN CONST. art. 260(1) (1973).
24 Id. at art. 268(7).
25 Id. at Third Schedule (Oaths of Office).
consider international law as a source of law. The Code of Conduct established
for the superior courts reaffirms this expansive interpretation of law:

The Constitution, by declaring that all authority exercisable by the people

is a sacred trust from Almighty Allah, makes it plain that the justice of this
nation is of Divine origin. It connotes full implementation of the high
principles, which are woven into the Constitution, as well as the universal
requirements of natural justice. The oath of a Judge implies complete
submission to the Constitution, and under the Constitution to the law.

This excerpt demonstrates that Pakistan's domestic law is derived, in part,

from divine principles and universal notions of natural justice. Submission to
the Constitution and its subordinate law is no barrier to this interpretation.
Presumably, any law adopted into a domestic framework must operate in
accordance with the structures already in place. The Code of Conduct
continues:

Subject to these governing obligations, his function of interpretation and

application of the Constitution and the Law is to be discharged for the
maintenance of the Rule of Law over the whole range of human activities
within the nation.

Like the oath of office, the Code of Conduct does not specify what “law” means
in addition to the Constitution, only that it must be applied for the
maintenance of the Rule of Law. Employing international law in the courts as a
secondary source of rights in line with the Constitution plainly follows this
reasoning.

C. Upholding International Law is Fundamental to Upholding the

Domestic Rule of Law

International law is not alien to Pakistan's domestic law. There are signi cant
portions of domestic law text that replicate international law almost verbatim.
As mentioned above, the chapter on Fundamental Rights in the Constitution
of Pakistan echoes many provisions present in the ICCPR. Some of those
provisions are reproduced as follows:

No person shall be deprived of No one shall be deprived of his

life or liberty save in liberty except on such grounds
accordance with law. and in accordance with such
procedure as are established by
Constitution of Pakistan: Art. 9 law.
ICCPR Art. 9(1)

26 Code of Conduct to be Observed by Judges of the Supreme Court of Pakistan and of the High Courts of Pakistan,
SUPREME COURT OF PAKISTAN (2009) available at: http://www.supremecourt.gov.pk/web/page.asp?id=435.
27 Id.
No person who is arrested
shall be detained in custody Anyone who is arrested shall be
without being informed, as informed, at the time of arrest,
soon as may be, of the grounds of the reasons for his arrest and
for such arrest shall be promptly informed of
any charges against him.
Constitution of Pakistan: Art. ICCPR Art. 9(2)
10(1)

Every person who is arrested

Anyone arrested or detained on
and detained in custody shall
a criminal charge shall be
be produced before a
brought promptly before a
magistrate within a period of
twenty-four hours of such judge or other officer
arrest authorized by law to exercise
judicial power
ICCPR Art. 9(3)
Constitution of Pakistan: Art.
10(2)

For the determination of his In the determination of any

civil rights and obligations or criminal charge against him,
in any criminal charge against or of his rights and obligations
him a person shall be entitled in a suit at law, everyone shall
to a fair trial and due process. be entitled to a fair and public
hearing by a competent,
Constitution of Pakistan: Art. independent and impartial
10A tribunal established by law.
ICCPR Art. 14(1)

Slavery is non-existent and

forbidden and no law shall
permit or facilitate its No one shall be held in slavery;
introduction into Pakistan in slavery and the slave-trade in all
any form. their forms shall be prohibited.
ICCPR Art. 8(1)
Constitution of Pakistan: Art.
11(1)
All forms of forced labor and
traffic in human beings are No one shall be required to
prohibited. perform forced or compulsory
labor
Constitution of Pakistan: Art. ICCPR Art. 8(3)(a)
11(2)

No law shall authorize the No one shall be held guilty of

punishment of a person for an any criminal offence on account
act or omission that was not of any act or omission, which
punishable by law at the time
did not constitute a criminal
of the act or omission;
offence […] at the time when it
was committed.
Constitution of Pakistan: Art. ICCPR Art. 15(1)
12(1)(a)

No one shall be liable to be

No person shall be prosecuted tried or punished again for an
or punished for the same offence for which he has
offence more than once already been nally convicted
or acquitted in accordance
Constitution of Pakistan: Art. with the law and penal
13(a) procedure of each country.
ICCPR Art. 14(7)

No one shall be subjected

The dignit y of man and, to arbitrary or unlawful
subject to law, the privacy of inter ference with his
home, shall be inviolable. privacy, family, home or
correspondence, nor to
Constitution of Pakistan: Art. unlawful attacks on his
14(1) honor and reputation.
ICCPR Art. 17(1)
Every citizen shall have the right
to remain in, and, subject to any Everyone lawfully within the
reasonable restriction imposed territory of a State shall, within
by law in the public interest, that territory, have the right to
enter and move freely l i b e r t y o f m ove m e nt a n d
throughout Pakistan and to freedom to choose his
reside and settle in any part residence.
thereof. ICCPR Art. 12(1)
Constitution of Pakistan: Art. 15

The right of peaceful assembly shall be

Every citizen shall have the right recognized. No restrictions may be
to assemble peacefully and placed on the exercise of this right other
without arms, subject to any than those imposed in conformity with
reasonable restrictions the law and which are necessary in a
imposed by law in the interest democratic society in the interests of
of public order. national security or public safety, public
order (ordre public), the protection of
public health or morals or the protection
Constitution of Pakistan: Art. 16 of the rights and freedoms of others.
ICCPR Art. 21

Every citizen shall have the right

to form associations or unions,
Everyone shall have the right
subject to any reasonable
restrictions imposed by law in to freedom of association with
the interest of sovereignty or others, including the right to
integrity of Pakistan, public form and join trade unions for
order or morality. the protection of his interests.
ICCPR Art. 22(1)
Constitution of Pakistan: Art.
17(1)

Every citizen shall have the right to Everyone shall have the right to freedom
freedom of speech and expression, of expression. The exercise of the rights
and there shall be freedom of the provided for in paragraph 2 of this article
press, subject to any reasonable carries with it special duties and
restrictions imposed by law in the responsibilities. It may therefore be
interest of the glory of Islam or the subject to certain restrictions, but these
integrity, security or defense of shall only be such as are provided by law
Pakistan or any part thereof, friendly and are necessary:
relations with foreign States, public ( a ) Fo r r e s p e c t o f t h e r i g h t s o r
order, decency or morality, or in reputations of others;
relation to contempt of court, (b) For the protection of national
commission of or incitement to an security or of public order (ordre public),
offence. or of public health or morals.
ICCPR Art. 19(2)-(3)
Constitution of Pakistan: Art. 19
 Everyone shall have the right to freedom
Subject to law, public order and of thought, conscience and religion. This
morality: every citizen shall right shall include freedom to have or to
have the right to profess, adopt a religion or belief of his choice,
practice and propagate his and freedom, either individually or in
religion community with others and in public or
private, to manifest his religion or belief
Constitution of Pakistan: Art. in worship, observance, practice and
teaching.
20(a)
ICCPR Art. 18(1)

All citizens are equal before law All persons are equal before the
and are entitled to equal law and are entitled without any
protection of law discrimination to the equal
protection of the law.
Constitution of Pakistan: Art. ICCPR Art. 26
25(1)

he States Par ties to the present

Covenant undertake to ensure the equal
r ight of men and women to the
enjoyment of all civil and political rights
There shall be no discrimination set forth in the present Covenant.
on the basis of sex ICCPR Art. 3

Constitution of Pakistan: Art. [ T ]he law shall prohibit any

25(2) discrimination and guarantee to all
persons equal and effective protection
against discrimination on any ground
such as [..] sex…
ICCPR Art. 26

The chapter on Fundamental Rights in the Constitution of Pakistan is only one

example of how international law pervades Pakistan's law. Numerous other
domestic laws, even those codi ed prior to Pakistan's participation in certain
international instruments, closely correspond with treaty provisions to which
Pakistan is currently a party. The following is only a representative sample of
the depth and breadth of these laws:

DOMESTIC LAW RELATED INTERNATIONAL LAW

General Clauses Act, 1897 Vienna Convention on the Law of

Treaties

Carriage of Goods by Sea Act, 1925 United Nations Convention on the

Carriage of Goods by Sea

United Nations (Security Council) Act, Chapter VII of the United Nations
1948 Charter and all subsequent Security
Council Resolutions

Industrial Relations Ordinance, 1969 Freedom of Association and

Protection of the Right to Organize
Convention, 1948 & Right to Organize
and Collective Bargaining Convention,
1949

Diplomatic and Consular Privileges Vienna Convention on Diplomatic

Act, 1972 Relations 1961

Antiquities Act, 1975 Convention for the Protection of

Cultural Property in the Event of
Armed Con ict

Territorial Waters and Maritime Zones United Nations Convention on the

Act, 1976 Law of the Sea

Pakistan Prison Rules, 1978 International Covenant on Civil and

Political Rights & United Nations
Standard Minimum Rules for the
Treatment of Prisoners

Civil Aviation Authority Ordinance, Chicago Convention on International

1982 Civil Aviation

Anti-Terrorism Act, 1997 Convention for the Suppression of

Financing of Terrorism, International
Convention for the Suppression of
Terrorist Bombings & Security Council
Resolutions 1267, 1373, 1456
 Environmental Protection Act, 1997 United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change &
Kyoto Protocol

Chemical Weapons Convention Chemical Weapons Convention

Implementation Ordinance, 2000

Prohibition of Smoking and Protection Framework Convention on Tobacco

of Non-Smokers Health Ordinance, Control
2002

Anti-Money Laundering Act, 2010 United Nations Convention against

Transnational Organized Crime,
United Nations Convention against
Corruption & Financial Action Task
Force (FATF) Recommendations

Ac tions (in Aid of Civil Power) Common Article 3 to the Geneva

Regulations, 2011 Conventions & Customary
International Humanitarian Law

Afghanistan-Pakistan Transit Trade Afghanistan-Pakistan Transit Trade

Rules, 2011 Agreement

Anti-Dumping Duties Act, 2015 General Agreement on Tariffs and

Trade

Legislation in Pakistan is comprised of thousands of acts, ordinances, orders

and noti cations, dating back to the 1860s. These laws do not, by and large,
reference international law directly in their text. However, it is estimated that
nearly 60% of these domestic legal documents represent or implement
international law provisions in some capacity.

Legislators, in many cases, now choose to directly reference international

instruments within the actual text of the law. This is also indicative of a
growing acceptance of international law by the legislative branch of the
Government of Pakistan.
D. Domestic Judiciary's Obligation to Implement International Law

The domestic judiciary, while free in the state, is not free from the state and its
obligations. Internally, the judicial branch of government may be distinct
from the executive and the legislative branches. Judicial decisions externally,
however, represent a subsidiary act of the state as a whole. The judiciary is
under equal obligation with the executive and legislative branches to ful ll its
role in the domestic implementation of international law. As a subset of the
federal government, the judiciary may not evade its responsibilities in
maintaining Pakistan's adherence to international agreements. Tacit
acceptance of international law through application of municipal law is also
not enough. The judiciary should practically demonstrate a proactive
approach to determining the scope and depth of application of international
legal provisions upon Pakistan.

The judgments of Pakistan's superior judiciary in particular have

repercussions beyond the parties involved, not just nationally, but
internationally. The following cases demonstrate a diversity of judgments
that express the superior judiciary's interpretation of various aspects of
international law, along with some assessment of the international
repercussions and reactions:

 The Supreme Court in the Zewar Khan case, reaffirmed the status of the
Durand Line as a recognized international border between Pakistan and
Afghanistan. This position reaffirms the stance of the executive with
regards to the legitimacy of the Durand Line and the Government of
Pakistan is able to proactively employ it in this regard.

 The Azad Kashmir Supreme Court found that the Northern Areas, though
part of the state of Jammu and Kashmir, is not a part of Azad Kashmir and
thus the government has no need to take administrative control of these
areas. The Supreme Court of Pakistan, in 1999, issued the following
ruling in response:

“…Northern Areas were constitutional part of the state of Jammu and

28 Ahmer Bilal Soo , Inextricably Linked, DAWN, May 25, 2014, available at: http://www.dawn.com/news/1108468.
29 Id.
30 Id.
31 Superintendent, Land Customs Torkham (Khyber Agency) v. Zewar Khan (1969) PLD SC. 485.
32 Muhammad Fayyez, Pakistan-Azad Jammu & Kashmir Politico-Legal Con ict, PILDAT, 13 (2011) available at:
http://progress.org.pk/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/Pakistan-AJKPoliticoLegalCon ictSep2011.pdf.
 Kashmir… that the people of the Northern Areas are citizens of Pakistan
for all intent and purposes”

The government of Pakistan should ensure that basic human rights and
other political and administrative institutions are provided in the areas
within six months. However, the action should not adversely affect Pakistan's
stand concerning the Kashmir dispute.”

 In a landmark ruling on drone strikes in the Tribal Areas, the Peshawar

High Court employed the United Nations Charter and the Geneva
Conventions to declare drone operations conducted by external forces in
Pakistan a violation of international law. This decision is frequently cited as
support by the Federal Government as part of its own position on drone
strikes.

 The Supreme Court both in 2015 and 2016 issued judgments in relation to
providing licenses to hunt the houbara bustard. The 2015 case placed a
ban on issuing licenses by either the federal or provincial governments.
The Court also directed the Federal Government to adhere to relevant
treaty obligations as required by law. The provinces were required to
amend wildlife laws in line with international treaty obligations and to
prohibit the hunting of species threatened with extinction or categorized
as vulnerable

Only a few months later, the Court initiated a limited review of its own
judgment, nding that the grant of limited licenses to representatives of
Arab states to hunt the houbara bustard was not in violation of Pakistan's
international treaty obligations. The Court also cited the economic
bene ts of a limited lift on the ban, along with acknowledging the
position of the Government of Pakistan and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs
that the invitation to Arab dignitaries to hunt was a “cornerstone of foreign
policy” with these states.

 The Supreme Court judgment upholding the use of military courts

clari ed the notion of “threat of war.” This term is not “super uous and
must be attributed proper meaning and effect” and it includes “a situation

33 Id.
34 Foundation for Fundamental Rights v. Federation of Pakistan (2013) PLD SC. 94.
35 Const. Petition No. 12 of 2010 [hereinafter 2015 Military Court Judgment].
36 Civil Petition No. 842 of 2016.
37 2015 Military Court Judgment, supra note 35.
 where external aggression is threatened and appears to be imminent but
actual hostilities have not commenced.” The judgment further noted
that Article 245(1) of the Constitution of Pakistan requires that the
situation be categorized as a “threat of war” requiring extraordinary
measures through particular action(s). The actions here included the
summoning of the Armed Forces by the executive to “deal with terrorists”
and the enactment of the 21st Amendment of the Constitution by the
legislative branch. The concurring opinion by Justice Umar Ata Bandial
extensively referenced the Geneva Conventions with regards to the rights
of belligerents in custody.

 The Lahore High Court relied upon the expertise of the United Nations
Educational, Scienti c and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the
international law relating to preserving cultural and historical heritage
within its judgment. The Court acknowledged that not only was national
law available and applicable, but also international law:

“Being Member State [to the Convention concerning the Protection of

the World Cultural and Natural Heritage], it mandates Pakistan to
foster respect for international obligations regarding protection and
preservation of heritage sites.”

The Court also explicitly states that the Antiquities Act, 1975 was
established pursuant to the rati cation of the Convention. Both
international and national law restrict construction rights in and around
heritage sites, the implications of any judgment associated with these
actions will be felt internationally.

More in depth examples of Pakistan's engagement with international law may be

found in Annex I.
***

Upholding international law does not require total submission to the

executive. Ideally, the executive and judicial branches of the federal
government express overlapping approaches to international law
obligations. Where an interpretation differs, the judiciary must nonetheless

38 Id. at ¶ 139.
39 Id. at ¶ 144.
40 Id.
41 Kamil Khan Mumtaz v. Government of Punjab (2016) PLD Lah. 699.
42 Id. at ¶ 19.
be free to uphold an international obligation in light of domestic law as it sees
t. This is the quintessential task of the judiciary, distinct from the executive
(the separation of their powers is discussed in Section B of the following
chapter).

The judiciary must, in performing its role, execute a balancing test between
national interests and the parameters of justice to determine the most
appropriate procedures and outcomes for cases that address national
security, in particular. This requires an awareness of the fact that public trials,
hearings, tribunals, etc. related to the adjudication of national security issues
are reproduced and referenced in foreign countries and before international
bodies like the United Nations. For example, where there are questions
regarding the nature and existence of a con ict in the Federally and
Provincially Administered Tribal Areas, the cases both accepted and decided
by the courts may inadvertently in uence the state's position regarding
whether or not it is considered a non-international armed con ict. Another
example may be the Balochistan law and order case regarding the recovery
of missing persons decided by the Supreme Court of Pakistan, later circulated
at the United Nation's European headquarters in Geneva.

E. Where International Law Should Prevail

The current popular interpretation is to disregard public international law

while proclaiming the supremacy of the domestic law. This notion that
domestic law must be explicitly chosen over international law is an
antiquated and archaic interpretation of two systems that, in reality, overlap
and compliment each other extensively. International law in application at
the very least facilitates the interpretation of domestic law. If more proactively
employed, however, international law may even offer a robust prevailing
alternative to encumbered, outdated or nonexistent provisions of domestic
law.

The use of international law as a prevailing alternative in some cases is

referred to as lawfare. A prime example of the use of lawfare is the United
States harnessing international law to advance the unable or unwilling

43 Const. Petition No. 77 of 2010, available at:

http://www.supremecourt.gov.pk/web/user_ les/File/Const.P.77of2010_dt_27-8-2013.pdf.
44 “The still controversial test offers a justi cation for unilateral use of force in self-defense on behalf of a victim
state on the territory of a host state that is unwilling or unable to prevent a non-state actor located on its soil from
carrying out attacks against the victim state.” Dr. Kinga Tibori-Szabo, Fundamental Rights in International and
European Law (2016) at 73.
threshold to bypass the sovereignty of non-cooperating states to unilaterally
use force as needed. A similar notion of lawfare may be used in the domestic
sphere by the superior judiciary as a bold means of upholding the rule of law,
particularly in those areas where domestic laws are underdeveloped. A prime
example of judicial lawfare would be the joint application of international
humanitarian law and human rights law during post-con ict, anti-terrorism
trials. If the judiciary, in light of all the facts, were to verify the existence of an
armed con ict, particularly a non-international armed con ict, application of
the principles of customary international humanitarian law rst and then
limited domestic human rights law second, would potentially provide a
strong framework for adjudication.

Applying international law as a prevailing legal text does not undermine

domestic law. Rather, it simply extends the notion of domestic law to those
international instruments, which Pakistan has fully agreed [the same is
discussed in Section B of this chapter]. Thus, international law is not some
abstract legal doctrine challenging domestic law, it is domestic law
alternatively presented. Pakistan has agreed to uphold obligations under
these instruments and even as a dualist nation, it is not necessarily barred
from considering international law provisions beyond the scope of what
domestic law addresses.

IV. ROLE OF DOMESTIC JUDICIARY IN ENFORCING INTERNATIONAL LAW

A. Increasing Relevance of International Law in Domestic Affairs

Though judges play identical roles as impartial decision-makers in both

domestic and international law, the role of domestic judges has only recently
gained increased relevance within the international law sphere. This is
because the nature of international law is now changing. Where once
international law resided primarily within interactions between states as a
whole, it is now trickling down into the interactions of individuals and
between states and individuals.

International law is now more prevalent in domestic affairs, particularly as

awareness of human rights and states' international obligations increases. It is
not just human rights law that has evolved the nature of international law in
the domestic sphere. As the nature of armed con ict shifts from international
between states to non-international within a state, the decisions of domestic
courts as they relate to these con icts gain substantial relevance.

Globalization and transnational crime both play primary roles in the

diversi cation of international law.

[T]he challenges facing states and the international community alike

demand very different responses from and thus new roles for the
international legal system. The processes of globalization and the
emergence of new transnational threats have fundamentally changed
the nature of governance and the necessary purposes of international law
in the past few years. From cross-border pollution to terrorist training
camps, from refugee ows to weapons proliferation, international
problems have domestic roots that an interstate legal system is often
powerless to address. To offer an effective response to these new
challenges, the international legal system must be able to in uence the
domestic policies of states and harness national institutions in pursuit of
global objectives.

Not only should international legal systems in uence domestic affairs, but the
inverse as well. The line between what is domestic and what is international
law is slowly blurring. Decisions of domestic courts with regards to
international law should thus be equally in uential in combating new
challenges. An individual accused of terrorism is far more likely to be
prosecuted, for example, by a domestic court rather than an international
tribunal. Additionally, threats to international security are more likely to
originate from non-state actors than from states themselves. The application
by domestic courts of human rights and humanitarian law, weighed against
national security issues, should be approached with greater deference
proportionate to that given to international judicial mechanisms, as they are
the next frontier in developing international law.

B. Understanding the Primary Role of the Judiciary

In any democratic society, a separation of power must exist between branches

of government, both on and between the federal and sub-federal level. The
extent of overall separation may vary between presidential and

45 Anne-Marie Slaughter & William Burke-White, The Future of International Law is Domestic (or, the European Way
of Law), 47 HARV. INT'L L.J. 327, 328 (2006).
parliamentary-style democracies, but between the executive and the
judiciary it remains distinct nonetheless. This separation is also present in
Pakistan's state architecture:

The Constitution of Pakistan is based on the principle of trichotomy of powers

where legislature is vested with the functions of law making, the executive
with its enforcement and judiciary of interpreting the law.

The Court is prohibited from assuming the role of policy maker or of law
maker. The Constitution of Pakistan, in Article 175(3), expressly requires the
separation of the judiciary from the executive. The Preamble and the
Objectives Resolution of the Constitution both state “[T]he independence of
the Judiciary shall be fully secured.” Additional laws promulgated by the
legislature and the jurisprudence of the courts further determine the
parameters of this separation of powers beyond the Constitution.

The role of the judiciary is also illuminated within the jurisprudence of the
courts, a sample of which is reproduced below:

[O]ne of the most important differences between developed countries on

one hand and developing or under developed countries on the other is the
respect for adherence to and enforcement of the rule of law. I have no doubt in
my mind that this ideal can only be achieved through an independent and
capable judiciary, which is beyond reach, control and in uence of other
branches of the State. The judicature has to act as a neutral umpire who keeps
a check on the exercise of power by other organs of the State so as to ensure
that the rights of citizens/persons are not affected and trampled contrarily to
law.

However, the Constitution makes it the exclusive power/responsibility of the

Judiciary to ensure the sustenance of system of “separation of powers” based
on checks and balances. This is [the] legal obligation assigned to the
Judiciary. It is called upon to enforce the Constitution and safeguard the
Fundamental Rights and freedom of individuals. The Judiciary in Pakistan is
independent.

46 Rahim Ud Din v. Sabahuddin (2016) MLD Pesh. 20, ¶ 7.

47 Id.
48 PAKISTAN CONST. Preamble & Objectives Resolution (1973).
49 MFMY Industries LTD v. Pakistan (2015) SCMR SC. 1550, ¶ 3.
50 Dr. Asadullah Khan Tareen v. Government of Balochistan Health Department (2016) PLC (C.S.) 195.
C. Expanded Jurisdiction of Domestic Judiciary through International Law

Comity, as a principle of international law, re ects a willingness on the part of

states to give deference or respect to the laws and judicial decisions of other
states. Originally, the term “comity” referred to a narrower interpretation in
which certain con ict cases resulted in foreign law clashing with or being
more pertinent than domestic law. It was therefore applied out of respect for
the foreign state. Now, “comity” has developed in some sense to also refer to
situations in which courts apply or give deference to foreign laws and
judgments for public policy reasons. Thus, comity conceptually operates as
a policy tool as much as a resolution mechanism in cases of con ict of law.
With the more modern interpretation taken into account, comity principally
approaches international law in its broadest sense of both traditional
international law and foreign law originating in other states.

This notion of comity vests squarely within the powers of the judiciary in cases
that involve international and foreign law. Comity is neither an absolute rule
under international law nor an absolute requirement. It may even present a
con ict of interest if deference to foreign law con icts with positions taken by
the executive branch on a particular issue. The judiciary, with regards to
comity as a tool has, nevertheless, a great degree of latitude under the law and
must thus perform a balancing test that takes these considerations into
account.

Nevertheless, the power to employ comity and give deference to

international and foreign law if appropriate to the case is a useful tool that
expands the jurisdiction of the judiciary beyond domestic law alone. Thus, the
role of the judiciary with regards to international law in its broadest sense is
not based solely on the application of legal obligations born out of
international treaties or agreements. There is a certain degree of liberal
discretion that a judge may employ in selecting the most appropriate legal
framework for the case at hand.

D. Judicial Deference to the Executive

There is a tradition amongst the judiciary in many democratic states to defer

51 Joel R. Paul, The Transformation of International Comity, 71 LAW & CONTEMP. PROBS. 19, 20 (2008).
52 Id.
53 Id. at 32.
with regards to issues of national security and international relations to the
judgment of the executive.

One of the core tenets of national security doctrine is that courts play a deeply
modest role in shaping and adjudicating the executive's national security
decisions. In most cases, courts use abstention doctrines and other tools to
decline to hear such cases on the merits. When courts do hear these cases,
they often issue decisions that are highly deferential to executive choices.

The same school of thought promotes absolute deference to the executive in

treaty interpretation as well.

Other schools of thought, however, disregard the absolute deference

approach in nding that the amount of deference given to the executive
branch is a matter of judicial policy. To scholars that support this reasoning,
the executive has ample incentives to promote national security goals over
the rights of individuals and only a strong judiciary can prevent an abuse of
power. Absolute deference to the executive in these matters critically
weakens the mechanism that places a check on the unilateral power exercised
by any single branch of government.

Where the executive is aware that the judiciary is more proactive in reviewing
policies, even in con ict situations, the incentive exists to establish policies
the court is inclined to uphold. If the judiciary, especially with regards to issues
of national security, maintains a strong policy of deference, the executive may
take greater liberties in establishing policies that are more precarious. The
knowledge, for example, that the Supreme Court would most likely review its
policies promoted changes in policy by the executive branch of the U.S.
Government:

[T]he [U.S.] government repeatedly has amended its detention review

procedures in Afghanistan, each time granting detainees increased levels
of procedural protections— even though courts have never mandated

54 Ashley S. Deeks, Observer Effect: National Security Litigation, Executive Policy Changes, and Judicial Deference,
82 FORDHAM L. REV. 827, 829 (2013).
55 See i.e. John Yoo, Politics as Law?: The Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, the Separation of Powers, and Treaty
Interpretation, 89 CAL. L. REV. 851 (2001); John C. Yoo, Treaty Interpretation and the False Sirens of Delegation, 90
CAL. L. REV. 1305 (2002).
56 David Sloss, Judicial Deference to Executive Branch Treaty Interpretations: A Historical Perspective, 62 NYU ANN.
SURV. AM. L. 497, 522 (2006).
57 Deeks, supra note 54, at 830.
58 Id.
 that it do so. […] It has revealed details about the long-classi ed process
by which it determines when and under what conditions it would transfer
security detainees to foreign governments. And it has established more
rigorous procedural hurdles for itself before it will seek to use secret
evidence in deportation cases…

This, again, supports the notion that where judicial review is likely, the
executive will proactively defer to the courts and establish policies that will be
upheld. Where judicial review is unlikely, the executive will be manifestly
concerned with national security and not individual liberties, or upholding
the rule of law or international law.

E. Enforcement of International Law by the Domestic Judiciary

International law is traditionally viewed with suspicion by those with a

conser vative approach to what is de ned as law. The common
misinterpretation is that international law cannot be enforced because unlike
domestic law, it lacks law enforcement bodies to uphold its provisions. While
international law does not entirely replicate the enforcement structures of
domestic law, it is also not without any enforcement. Chapter VII of the United
Nations Charter, for example, empowers the United Nations Security Council
to take action through the imposition of economic, diplomatic or military
sanctions. These sanctions are only imposed in the most extreme cases. Short
of Security Council action, unilateral conduct by one or several states or
mechanisms established by international organizations or regional courts
provides some measure of enforcement.

As the scope of international law expands to cover anything from

environment to labor to armed con ict to human rights, the potential role the
domestic judiciary plays in enforcing international law also expands. Purely
international enforcement mechanisms are bolstered not just by the
interpretation, but also the literal enforcement of international law by
domestic courts within individual states. The domestic judiciary is an equal if
not better position to apply and interpret international law as compared to
their international judicial counterparts:

Unlike international tribunals, which are preoccupied by the constant

threat of further fragmentation and loss of business to competing

59 Id. at 834.
60 Id.
 tribunals […] Judges in national courts are relatively more independent
than judges in international tribunals, and enjoy broader public support
for their decisions. Their independent source of authority – the domestic
constitutions– serves as the basis of an autonomous legal system, one
that no international norm has the authority to affect.

The most effective way to meld international law and domestic law is to have a
domestic court that declares a provision of international law binding as
domestic law. Domestic courts, in acting as an enforcement mechanism of
international law, may also give effect to international law provisions that do
not traditionally operate as domestic law (i.e. ungrati ed treaties, customary
norms and international interpretations of domestic law provisions).
Domestic courts that openly engage with international law in their
judgments nd fertile ground for the interpretation and evolution of the
state's own law.

The diversity of international law must be taken into account to the extent
that the in uence the domestic judiciary is able to exert on enforcing
international law in the domestic sphere may be more signi cant in certain
instances and limited in others. International law, particularly within this
Benchbook, is not to be perceived as a monolithic legal framework. Thus, the
enforcement of international law may be exerted in several ways:

1. “silent application:” where courts apply domestic law derived from

international law without direct reference to the international law
source
2. “indirect application:” where courts apply international law as a guide
to interpreting domestic law
3. “direct application:” where courts apply international law directly

The domestic judiciary plays a very limited role in domestic or international

law making, but they play an expansive role in its interpretation. The
continued engagement of domestic courts with, in many cases, very broad
provisions of international law promote the continued development of both

61 Eyal Benvenisti & George W. Downs, National courts, domestic democracy, and the evolution of international
law, 20 EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL LAW, 59, 68 (2009).
62 David Sloss & Michael Van Alstine, International Law in Domestic Courts, Handbook on the Politics of
International Law, 5 (2015).
63 Id.
64 Id. at 5-6.
65 Id. at 29-30.
domestic and international legal norms, “Determining the meaning of treaties
leaves considerable discretion for domestic courts in their primary duty 'to say
what the law is.'”

V. INTERNATIONAL LAW AND PAKISTAN'S DOMESTIC LEGAL

FRAMEWORK

A. Incorporating International Law into Pakistan's Domestic Law

The scope of the power of the Federal Government is de ned within Article 97
of the Constitution, which states:

Subject to the Constitution, the executive authority of the Federation

shall extend to the matters with respect to which Majlis-e-Shoora
(Parliament) has power to make law, including exercise of rights, authority
and jurisdiction in and in relation to areas outside Pakistan.

The subjects with regards to which Parliament may make laws are
enumerated in the Fourth Schedule of the Constitution. Perhaps the most
relevant portions of the Fourth Schedule Federal Legislative List are items
three and thirty-two as follows:

3. External affairs; the implementing of treaties and agreements, including

educational and cultural pacts and agreements, with other countries;
extradition, including the surrender of criminals and accused persons
to Governments outside Pakistan.

32. International treaties, conventions and agreements and international

arbitration

Regarding Article 97, the Supreme Court held that the Federal Government
has the power to “exercise executive authority” to ratify a treaty, but not the
power to legislate, a role that remains rmly with the Parliament. Article
142(a) of the Constitution also con rms that Parliament has the exclusive
power to make laws with respect to any matter on the Federal Legislative

66 Id. at 25.
67 PAKISTAN CONST. art. 97 (1973).
68 Items 1, 6, 7, 18, 20, 22, 24, 25, 27, 58 of the Fourth Schedule are indirectly relevant as well.
69 PAKISTAN CONST. Fourth Schedule, item 3 (1973).
70 Id. at item 32.
71 Societe General De Surveillance S.A. vs. Pakistan (2002) SCMR SC. 1694, ¶ 26.
List. Thus, items three and thirty-two anchor the power of rati cation and
domestic implementation of international instruments with the executive
and legislative branches of the Government of Pakistan. This is relevant to the
extent that the courts perpetually interpret the legal status of a treaty in a
manner in which the rights and obligations arising directly from these
international instruments may not form a legal cause of action in the domestic
courts unless legislatively adopted.

Domestic courts are, in accordance with this reasoning, constitutionally

limited in their scope to accepting a cause of action that arises from
domestically enacted law. Article 175(2) plainly states that the courts shall
have no jurisdiction save as is or may be conferred by the Constitution or by or
under any law. The jurisdiction of the superior courts, the Supreme Court and
the High Courts is outlined in the Constitution of Pakistan in substantial detail.

The Supreme Court has jurisdiction over the following:

 Inter-governmental disputes (Art. 184(1))
 Enforcement of fundamental rights involving an issue of public
importance (Art. 184(3))
 Appeal from a judgment or order of a High Court in civil and criminal cases
(Art. 185(2))
 Advisory jurisdiction on any question of law involving public importance,
referred by the President (Art. 186)
 Review of a Supreme Court judgment or order (Art. 188)
 Appeal from the Federal Shariat Court (Art. 203F)
 Appeal from administrative courts or tribunals (Art. 212)

The High Courts have jurisdiction over the following:

 Issuing writs: mandamus, prohibition, certiorari, habeas corpus and quo
warranto (Art. 199(1))
 Enforcement of fundamental rights (Art. 199(2))
 Oversight of subordinate courts (Art. 203)
 Appeals in accordance with the Code of Civil Procedure (Sects. 100,114
and 115)
 Appeals in accordance with the Code of Criminal Procedure (Sects. 410,
417, 491)
 Appeals from special courts
 Intra-court appeals and original jurisdiction over civil cases exceeding a
speci ed amount in dispute

72 PAKISTAN CONST. art. 142(a) (1973).

73 Societe General De Surveillance S.A. v. Pakistan, supra note 71, at ¶ 20.
Though the courts are not explicitly directed to exercise jurisdiction over the
enforcement of international instruments to which Pakistan is a party under
the Constitution, there is also little to suggest that they are entirely barred
from considering principles or provisions of international law in issuing a
judgment. For example, the enforcement of fundamental rights involving
issues of public importance directly stems from the Constitution and
indirectly stems from Pakistan's international law obligations. In a judgment
addressing a fundamental right, a holding may be more profound if it takes
into account the state's international obligations and the parameters of such
rights within treaties and accepted treaty interpretations. The Supreme Court,
in Al-Jehad Trust v. Federation of Pakistan, also held:

The Fundamental Rights enshrined in the Constitution in fact re ect what has
been provided in same of the Articles of Universal Declaration of Human
Rights. Supreme Court, while construing the former, refer to the latter if there
is no inconsistency between the two with the object to place liberal
construction as to extend maximum bene ts to the people and to have
uniformity with the comity of nations.

This holding indicates recognition of the same by the Supreme Court. Where
international law is viewed as consistent with the principles of the
Constitution, it may serve as a source of further interpretation or support for
enforcing fundamental rights.

The de nition of “existing laws” within the Constitution [See Chapter III,
Section B] reinforces this interpretation of the role of international law within
the domestic system. As previously mentioned, “existing laws” are de ned in
the Constitution of Pakistan in accordance with Article 268(7) to mean “all
laws (including Ordinances, Orders-in-Council, Orders, rules, by-laws,
regulations and Letters Patent constituting a High Court, and an noti cations
and other legal instruments having the force of law) in force in Pakistan or any
part thereof, or having extraterritorial validity…” The inclusion of “other legal
instruments having the force of law” and laws “having extraterritorial validity”
in the de nition of existing laws at the very least implies that international
instruments to which Pakistan is a party and accepted customary
international law formulate soft law, which may be considered by courts when
executing judgments. A bolder interpretation would suggest that this

74 PAKISTAN CONST. art. 260(1) (1973).

75 Id. at art. 268(7).
de nition supports the notion that international legal instruments to which
Pakistan is a party and accepted customary international law are domestic law
as they are in monist countries because they may be considered “legal
instruments having the force of law.” Countervailing arguments promoting
the exclusive power of Parliament to legislate may be assuaged with the
knowledge that where Parliament has the exclusive power to make
legislation, the executive has the power to introduce ordinances and enter
into international instruments, which need not be made at all.

The executive comprised of the Prime Minister, President and the Cabinet
actually exercises a great deal of authority with respect to adopting
international law in Pakistan. The Government of Pakistan is to take all action
in the name of the President as regards the “authentication of orders and
instruments in connection with the representation of Pakistan in foreign
countries or at international conferences and of international agreements and
treaties.” No order is to be issued without the approval of the Prime Minister
when a proposal arises for the implementation of an international agreement
in the provinces. The Cabinet is required to approve all proposals for
entering into any cultural or other agreements with any foreign government
prior to any negotiations. The Federal Rules of Business also extensively
document the areas of work in which the various divisions of the Cabinet
exercise authority:

AREAS OF CABINET WORK

DIVISION AREA OF WORK

The following provisions are taken from Schedule II on the Distribution of Business
Among the Divisions under Rule 3(3) of the Federal Rules of Business

Commerce Imports and exports across customs frontiers

including: treaties, agreements, protocols and
conventions with other states and international
agencies bearing on trade and commerce (Sect.
2(1)(i))

76 Rules of Business § 7(3) (1973).

77 Id. at § 15(1)(c).
78 Id. at § 16 (proviso).
 Defence Geneva Conventions so far as they effect
belligerents; air service agreements with other
states; liaisoning with the International Civil
Aviation Organization and other international
agencies concerned with aviation; international
aspects of matters arising with concern to the law of
the sea and maritime affairs including international
negotiations, agreements and treaties (Sects.
5(6),(21),(28)(i)-(ii))

Economic Affairs International organizations and agreements

relating to tourism; dealings and agreements with
other states and international organizations
relating to health, drugs and medical facilities;
dealings and agreements related to labor and
security (Sects. 7(14),(21),(24))

Finance Negotiations with international organizations and

other states and implementation of subsequent
agreements (Sect. 11(27))

Foreign Affairs Matters relating to agreements and treaties with

other countries (Sect. 13(2))

Human Rights Initiatives for harmonization of legislation,

regulations and practices with the international
human rights covenants and agreements to which
Pak istan is a par ty and monitoring of
implementation (Sect. 15A(3))

Interior Internal security and matters relating to public

security arising out of dealings and agreements
with other states and international organizations
(Sect. 18(1))

Law and Justice Dealings and agreements with other countries and
international organizations in judicial and legal
matters (Sect. 21(4))

Narcotics Control Policy on all aspects of narcotics and dangerous

drugs in conformity with national objectives, laws
and international conventions and agreements;
bilateral and multilateral cooperation with foreign
countries against narcotics trafficking and all other
international aspects of narcotics including
negotiations for bilateral and multilateral
agreements for mutual assistance and cooperation
in enforcement (Sect. 21D(1),(3))
 International agreements and commitments in
National Harmony respec t of all religious communities and
subsequent implementation (Sect. 22(2))

Coordination, monitoring and implementation of

Climate Change environmental agreements with other states,
international agencies and forums (Sect. 22A(7))

International agreements and assistance in the eld

National Heritage and of arcaeology, national museums and historical
Integration monuments declared to be of national importance
(Sect. 22C(3))

All matters relating to oil, gas and mineral at the

Petroleum and Natural national and international levels, including policy,
Resources legislation, planning regarding exploration,
development and production and matters related
to international aspects (Sects. 23(1)(i),(iii))

International shipping and maritime conferences

Ports and Shipping and rati cation of their conventions (Sect. 25A(8))

Negotiations with international organizations and

Railways other states and implementation of subsequent
agreements (Sect. 26(4))

Promotion of scienti c and technological contacts

Scienti c and and liaisoning nationally and internationally,
Technological Research including through dealings and agreements with
other countries and international organizations
(Sect. 28(9))

These excerpts from the Federal Rules of Business serve to also demonstrate
the lack of exclusive authority the Parliament has over the domestic treatment
of international law. The roles are clearly divided and where they are so heavily
divided between the executive and the legislature, it makes little sense to
exclude the judiciary. It appears inconsistent with the spirit of the separation
of powers for the judiciary to so vehemently attempt to restrict itself to
considering only legislation enacted by the Parliament as domestic law where
the other branches of federal government exercise some authority over
international law.
B. International Law versus Domestic Law: The Traditional Legal
Interpretation

Pakistan traditionally operates as a dualist state. Dualism approaches national

and international law as separate entities that only overlap when
international law is incorporated through legislative action into national
law. In a strict dualist system, for international instruments to have the same
status as domestic law, implementation through legislation or executive
action is required. For the courts, in many instances, executive action is not
enough. The Supreme Court found that where treaty provisions are not
incorporated through legislation into the formal law of the state, they do not
“have the effect of altering the existing laws,” which means “rights arising
therefrom called treaty rights cannot be enforced” and “the Court is not vested
with the power to do so.” In support of this statement, the courts reference
Article 175(2) of the Constitution of Pakistan, “no Court has any jurisdiction
unless conferred by or under any law or the Constitution.”

A litany of domestic judgments, a sample of which is provided below, support

this conventional notion that international law is domestically unenforceable,
save for legislative incorporation in domestic law:

It is well settled proposition of law that international treaties and convention,

unless incorporated in the municipal laws, the same cannot be enforced
domestically.

It is established principle of law that any agreement award not approved by

the Parliament does not have the force of law and cannot be executed
through process of Court.

An international agreement between the nations, if signed by any country, is

always subject to rati cation, but it can be enforced as a law only when
legislation is made by the country through its legislature. Without framing a
law in terms of the international agreement of covenants of such agreement
cannot be implemented as a law nor do they bind down any party.

79 SGS Societe Generale v. Pakistan (2002) CLD Lah. 790.

80 Id.
81 Societe General De Surveillance S.A. v. Pakistan, supra note 71, at ¶ 23.
82 Govt. of Punjab v. Aamir Zahoor-ul-Haq (2016) PLD SC. 421.
83 Ministry of Inter Provincial Coordiantion v. Maj. (R) Ahmad Nadeem Sadal (2014) CLC Isb. 600.
84 Shehla Zia v. WAPDA (1994) PLD SC. 693.
 Where there is a con ict between a municipal law and any provisions of an
international convention, which has not been legislated or enacted, the
provisions of municipal law shall prevail.

Other similar judgments promote the superiority of municipal law over

international law obligations accepted by Pakistan, based on the dubious
assumption that both do not in some capacity comprise domestic law.

We are not to lose sight of the established legal principal prevalent in our legal
jurisdiction that when international obligations and bilateral commitments
come in con ict with municipal laws, the later are to prevail.

A government, which is a party to an international convention, cannot

enforce it like a municipal law unless it has been enacted and codi ed by the
legislature in a proper manner. However, if a government is a party to a
Convention it is morally bound to observe the provisions of the Conventions.
But if it is in con ict with any provision of law, the law shall prevail over such
Convention.

We are inclined to hold that the absence of any provisions in the relevant
[domestic] law, the Pakistani courts are not entitled to take note of the factum
of violation of any provisions of international agreement or law, the Pakistani
courts are bound to give effect to the municipal law as they are.

B. International Law versus Domestic Law: A Progressive Legal Approach

The Constitution of Pakistan speci cally refers to the power of Parliament to

“make” laws. The word “make” is broad and is repeatedly construed as such
when measuring the powers of the Parliament. While it is undoubtedly true
that the Constitution protects the exclusive power of Parliament to make
legislation with regards to the Federal Legislative List, “make” may refer to the
actual process of creation of law. It need not be assumed that to make, or even
its synonym to enact, also speci cally refer to the process of formal

85 Commander Aziz Khan v. Director General, Ports and Shipping (1991) CLC 362.
86 Presumably any con ict within international law is addressed through declaration during accession or
rati cation, negating any con ict within the international instrument to the extend of the discrepancy with
municipal law.
87 Ahtabar Gul v. State (2014) PLD Pesh. 10.
88 Commander Aziz Khan v. Director General, Ports and Shipping, supra note 85.
89 Indus Automobile v. Central Board of Revenue (1988) PLD Kar. 99.
90 PAKISTAN CONST. arts. 97 & 142(a) (1973).
incorporation of international instruments or provisions the Government of
Pakistan has already accepted as binding.

Incorporating international law into domestic law is not necessarily

lawmaking per se. It may alternatively be understood as a weaving process,
blending accepted international law obligations within the fabric of
Parliamentary municipal law [without any actual making involved]. This
approach re ects the view that a constitution is something of a living
organism that adapts over time to changes in law and society. Justice Oliver
Wendell Holmes, a chief proprietor of this theory of living constitutionalism,
stated:

[W]e must realize that they have called into life a being the development of
which could not have been foreseen completely by the most gifted of its
begetters. It was enough for them to realize or to hope that they had created
an organism; it has taken a century and has cost their successors much sweat
and blood to prove that they created a nation. The case before us must be
considered in the light of our whole experience, and not merely in that of what
was said a hundred years ago.

Justice Holmes adamantly expresses his disdain for heavy reliance on rigid or
traditional interpretations of areas of constitutional ambiguity. In the
incorporation of international law into domestic law, the same approach may
be applied. The Constitution of Pakistan does not explicitly prohibit the
judicial branch of government from engaging with international law as a
branch of domestic law and thus this is an area of legal ambiguity.

Where the traditional judicial approach [see Section B of this Chapter] very
rigidly construes the application of international law by courts, there is little to
prohibit a change in interpretation now to re ect changing domestic
perceptions of international law. To this end, the superior courts are neither
explicitly bound nor do they bind themselves through the principle of stare
decisis. The Supreme Court has con rmed as much in numerous judgments,
including the following:

[T]here is no Article in the Constitution which imposes any restriction or bar

91 Missouri v. Holland, 252 U.S. 416, 433 (1920).

92 Article 189 of the Constitution of Pakistan binds all other courts in Pakistan by judgments on any question of law
decided by the Supreme Court. Article 188, on the other hand, empowers the Supreme Court to review any
previous judgment or order.
 on this Court to revisit its earlier decision or even to depart from them, nor the
doctrine of stare decisis will come in its way so long as revisiting of the
judgment is warranted, in view of the signi cant impact on the fundamental
rights of citizens or in the interest of public good.

[T]he Courts are not slaves of the doctrine of stare decisis. A Court may change
or modify its view with the passage of time. The development of jurisprudence
is an on-going process.

It is the policy of the Courts to stand by the ratio decidendi, that is, the rule of
law and not to disturb a settled point. This policy of the Courts is conveniently
termed as the doctrine or rule of stare decisis. The rationale behind this policy
is the need to promote certainty, stability, and predictability of the law. This,
however, does not mean that this rule is in exible.
In spite of a Judge's fondness for the written word and his normal inclination
to adhere to prior precedents one cannot fail to recognize that it is equally
important to remember that there is a need for exibility in the application of
this rule, for law cannot stand still nor can courts become mere slaves of
precedents.

The rule of stare decisis does not apply with the same strictness in criminal,
scal and constitutional matters where the liberty of the subject is involved or
some other grave injustice is likely to occur by strict adherence to the rule.

Courts regard the use of precedent as an indispensible foundation upon

which to decide what is the law and its application to individual cases. It
provides at least some degree of certainty upon which individuals can rely in
the conduct of their affairs, as well as a basis for orderly development of legal
rules.

Too rigid adherence to precedent may lead to injustice in a particular case and
also unduly restrict the proper development of the law.

For resolving a con ict of judicial opinion, the Supreme Court noted several
considerations, including obviously that the “Supreme Court is not bound by
the principle of stare decisis,” though any “departure from the precedent

93 Khalid Iqbal v. Mirza Khan (2015) PLD SC. 50, ¶ 13.

94 Hitachi Limited v. Rupali Polyester (1998) SCMR SC. 1618, ¶ 14.
95 Pir Bakhsh v. Chairman, Allotment Committee (1987) PLD SC. 145.
should be well reasoned, proper and in accordance with the established
principles of law. The Court, like Justice Holmes, also noted that the “law is a
living organism which adapts to societal change.” The role of a judge was also
enumerated:

A judge's role is to interpret the law and to correct its mistakes. The twin role of
a developer in law and an earnest interpreter of legislation, though
challenging, is in accord with the role the Supreme Court has in the
constitutional scheme as also consistent with society's perceptions of the role
of judiciary in a liberal democracy.

This concept of a twin role supports the progressive approach towards the
domestic incorporation of international law through the judiciary. The judge,
in performing this role, has enough exibility to recognize that international
law is not a monolithic, rigid or uniform construct. International legal
obligations arising out of treaties or customary law are an additional tool
within the domestic legal framework to enforce the rule of law. It would be
shortsighted to enforce a sweeping rejection of all of international law or
anything that may be classi ed as international law in domestic courts for fear
that individuals may attempt to secure rights under particular international
legal instruments. International law is multi-faceted and dynamic. There are
different kinds of instruments that comprise international law with differing
levels of obligation that a state may undertake.

It is not necessary that the courts must allow for a cause of action to arise
under all international instruments to which Pakistan is a party in order to
uphold its duty in considering international law while enforcing the domestic
rule of law. Nuanced judicial opinions in line with this type of reasoning are
already present in domestic jurisprudence:

International agreements, which are a part of foreign policies of the

Government, cannot be called in question in exercise of power of judicial
review and commitments made thereunder are necessarily to be honored as
per mandate of the Constitution itself, and injunctions of Islam.

We are of the view that nations must march with international community
and the municipal law must respect rules of international law, even as nations
respect international opinion. The comity of nations requires that rules of

96 Pakistan Defence Officers' Housing Authority v. Lt. Col. Syed Jawaid Ahmed (2013) SCMR SC. 1707, ¶ 55.
97 M.D. Tahir v. Pakistan (1995) CLC Lah. 1039.
 international law may be accommodated in the municipal law even without
express legislative sanction provided they do not run into con ict [with acts of
Parliament].

The Fundamental Rights enshrined in our Constitution in fact re ect what has
been provided in [the] Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It may be
observed that this Court while construing the former may refer to the latter if
there is no inconsistency between the two with the object to place liberal
construction as to extend maximum bene ts to the people and to have
uniformity with the comity of nations.

Every statute is to be so interpreted and applied as far as its language admits,

as not to be inconsistent with the comity of nations, or with the established
rules of international law…

National courts should strive for uniformity in the interpretation of

treaties/conventions and therefore the case-law developed in other
jurisdictions can and ought to be taken into consideration by courts of the
states party to such treaties.

It is by now settled that International Law, unless in direct con ict with the
municipal law, ought to be applied and respected by municipal courts in
deciding matters arising therefrom.

Courts have also appreciated the responsibility of courts to uphold the

international obligations of the state, including recognizing the potential
consequences of disregarding such obligations:

Indeed we agree with learned counsel for the respondents to the extent that
terrorism is a fast growing phenomena and it is in the wider public interest
that all civilized States should make laws and take appropriate measures
within their Constitutional system to combat it. We also agree […] that
international obligations to the State ought to be duly honoured.

[T]he domestic courts must take account of the consequences that can ow

98 Najib Zarab Ltd. V. Pakistan (1993) PLD Kar. 93.

99 Al-Jehad Trust v. Federation of Pakistan (1999) SCMR SC. 1379.
100 Hanover Fire Insurance Co. v. Muralidhar Banechand (1958) PLD SC. 138.
101 Abdullah v. Cnan Group Spa (2014) PLD Kar. 349.
102 Haji Lal Muhammad v. Pakistan (2014) PLD Pesh. 199.
103 Suleman v. Manager Domestic Banking, Habib Bank (2003) CLD Kar. 1797.
 from the “legal obligation,” namely, that any breach of [the provisional
measures recommended by the international (ICSID) tribunal] may be taken
into consideration by the tribunal […] the domestic courts should be
cognizant that a breach or disregard of the “legal obligation” could,
ultimately, result in severe consequences for their State on the international
plane.

These judgments are a re ection of the recognition by the judiciary of the

relevance of international law as a dynamic element within domestic law.
Correspondingly, sweeping exclusion of any international law to which
Pakistan is a party results in discord with other nations and international
organizations, interference with foreign policy and even violates the spirit of
the Constitution of Pakistan and the enforcement of fundamental rights.

The approach of the domestic judiciary towards international law should

re ect the development that international law has endured. Even the
Parliament now periodically references international law and international
organizations within laws. The Public Procurement Rules, 2004, for example,
allow international obligations to prevail over municipal law provisions:

Whenever these rules are in con ict with an obligation or commitment of the
Federal Government arising out of an international treaty or an agreement
with a State or States, or any international nancial institution the provisions
of such international treaty or agreement shall prevail to the extent of such
con ict.

Numerous newly enacted or proposed laws now include references to

organizations like the Organization of Islamic Cooperation and the World
Trade Organization. There are also legislative references to treaties like the
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and the Convention against
Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman and Degrading Treatment or
Punishment. Where Parliament now accepts on some level the in uence of
international law on domestic law and integration of both frameworks in

104 Lakhra Power Generation Company v. Karadeniz Powership Kaya Bey (2014) CLD Kar. 337.
105 Public Procurement Rules, S.R.O. 432(I)/2004, Rule 5.
106 Pakistan Halal Authority Act, Act. No. VIII (2016).
107 Anti-Dumping Duties Act, Act No. XIV (2015).
108 Anti-Dumping Duties Act, supra note 107; Countervailing Duties Act, Act XIII (2015).
109 Torture, Custodial Death and Custodial Rape (Prevention & Punishment) Act, proposed (2014) available at:
http://www.na.gov.pk/uploads/documents/1415360249_881.pdf.
domestic law, the judiciary should also be keen to take a progressive approach
in marshaling international law to enforce the domestic rule of law.

Reference Annex II for further information on additional approaches to

international law within the domestic legal framework of states that include the
United Kingdom, the United States and India.

C. Appreciating International Law in Domestic Judgments

The conventional view of international law within a state, motivated by lack of

awareness, operates somewhere between dismissal, ignorance and fear.
International law is viewed as alien to the domestic system, a representation
of foreign or external in uence to be dealt with only in a limited and evasive
capacity. Many states harbor ill will towards any representation of power that
does not organically originate within the state itself. However, international
law is a global system of compromise that seeks to collectively imbue a basic
set of rights and protections to all persons regardless of their background.
Obligations accepted by a state with regards to these rights and protections
no longer remain alien to the domestic law of that state when a legitimate arm
of government has accepted the agreement. These rights and protections do
not displace the laws of a state or challenge them; rather they enhance the
state through ensuring basic guarantees for all people.

The importance of international law as an element of domestic law may only

be appreciated when it is understood what it means to accept obligations
under international law. A basic example of this appreciation is the distinction
between signature and rati cation of a treaty or convention. Though the
de nitions of both signature and rati cation were previously references
within Section B of Chapter II within the explanation of international
conventions recognized between states, for emphasis, the same shall be
clari ed further. Signature upon a treaty is different from rati cation. A state
only agrees to take on the legal obligations of an international instrument
when such instrument is rati ed by the state, bearing in mind any written
reservations raised at the time. After signature, a state only displays its
eventual intent to ratify a treaty and therefore seeks not to violate its
provisions, but it is not legally bound. A domestic judge, in considering any
point of law relevant to international law must possess a solid awareness of
those international agreements that the state has rati ed and those that it has
signed or has taken no action on and employ the correct language in their
decision if necessary. The appreciation of this distinction allows for further
recognition of other nuances within international law. This includes, for
example, understanding what is customary international law and where the
elements of human rights and humanitarian law overlap and where they
differ.

A Case Study on “Torture”

The following case study represents one distinct example of a lack of domestic
recognition towards a term that within international law has a legal connotation,
but in domestic law is used more diversely and without any particular legal
meaning inherited from law. Though Pakistan is a state party to the Convention
against Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or
Punishment, which de nes “torture,” the obligation assigned thereunder have by
and large failed to trickle down into domestic law. The domestic judiciary has also
largely ignored the legal density of the term “torture” as shall be explained in the
following.

Those in the legal profession are able to appreciate the distinction between
the colloquial use of a term and the legal use of a term. The term “person” is one
such example. A generic, non-legal de nition of person generally refers to a
human being. However, in law, a person may refer to a human being, but also
to a “legal person,” which would include a business entity or public
organization. The term “torture,” legally speaking, refers to a speci c act that is
distinct from its generic de nition. The Convention against Torture and other
Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment de nes torture as:

[A]ny act by which severe pain or suffering, whether physical or mental, is

intentionally in icted on a person for such purposes as obtaining from him or
a third person information or a confession, punishing him for an act he or a
third person has committed or is suspected of having committed, or
intimidating or coercing him or a third person, or for any reason based on
discrimination of any kind, when such pain or suffering is in icted by or at the
instigation of or with the consent or acquiescence of a public official or other
person acting in an official capacity. It does not include pain or suffering
arising only from, inherent in or incidental to lawful sanctions.

Pakistan rati ed the Convention in 2010 and is subsequently obligated to

adhere to the provisions thereunder. However, there is no municipal law

110 Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, 10 December
1984, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1465, art. 1(1).
currently in application that de nes torture. Domestic laws that include the
Constitution of Pakistan, the Police Order, 2002, the Pakistan Prison Rules,
1978, the Pakistan Penal Code, 1860, the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898
and the Actions (in Aid of Civil Power) Regulations, 2011 criminalize torture or
acts that amount to torture, but never de ne the parameters of what is
considered torture. Without any de nition within traditional domestic law,
the judiciary is free to exercise its own judgment with regards to what may or
may not amount to torture.

The Convention limits its de nition of torture to acts committed by or at the

instigation of a public official or anyone acting in an official capacity. However,
judgments in Pakistan, without appreciating Pakistan's status as a state party
under the Convention, have deviated from this limited understanding of
torture. The term “mental torture” is commonly used in judgments addressing
domestic violence and suits seeking punitive damages for suffering caused by
the wrongdoing of others. The use of this term in this haphazard manner
dilutes the force of the de nition and defeats the purpose of Pakistan's
acceptance of obligations under the Convention.

Where the state has agreed to be bound by the Convention and by association
its de nition of torture, the functionaries of the state, including the judiciary,
may also be empowered by what the Convention contains. In those cases
where public officials or persons acting in an official capacity are accused of
committing acts of torture, judicial officials may reinforce their judgment with
a reference to the provisions of the Convention, including the de nition of
torture. This application of international law also coincides with the restrictive
traditional approach to international law, in that the Convention would not
give rise to a cause of action independently, because municipal law already
generically criminalizes torture. What amounts to torture in the judgment,
however, could be in uenced in part by the de nition of torture provided in
the Convention. At the very least, the judiciary may be mindful in their
decisions to refrain from any violation of the Convention or any other
international law obligation.
The above may only be achieved where international law is appreciated as an
entity of domestic law, rather than avoided or dismissed. An appreciation for
the nuances of international law does not hinder the enforcement of
domestic law. Understanding international law empowers domestic judges in
making their decisions.
VI. CONCLUSION

The purpose of the Benchbook was to demonstrate the current nature of

engagement of Pakistan's domestic courts with international law and to
encourage further incorporation in a manner sanctioned by domestic law.
The Book is intended to acquaint all readers with the nature and relationship
of international law in Pakistan's courts, but was speci cally created for
members of the superior judiciary to review the nature of their understanding
and engagement with the subject matter.

The Benchbook provided an introduction to basic tenants of international law

and discusses the importance of applying international law within the
domestic rule of law. It also addresses the role of the domestic judiciary in
enforcing international law, including an overview of the actual process of
incorporating international law provisions into domestic law. The Benchbook
discusses the relative importance of considering international law within
domestic judgments and maintaining a exible approach to its relative
applications. It also subsequently furnishes examples from Pakistan's
jurisprudence as well as that of other states within the Annexes.

It is hoped that this book may provide some measure of perspective on a

dynamic body of law, the consideration of which may only serve to bolster
(and not encumber) domestic jurisprudence. The traditional view of
international law as entirely alien to domestic law is quickly becoming
outdated and as such a more nuanced approach is needed. The domestic
judiciary of any state is often at the helm of progressive legal thought and in
this matter it must be as well. The international legal obligations of a state,
whether derived from custom or an international instrument, are part of the
domestic legal framework of a state and should be proactively employed by
the domestic judiciary.

VII. ANNEX I: INTERNATIONAL LAW IN PAKISTAN'S COURTS

A. Deferral to the Executive: Durand Line

Superintendent, Land Customs Torkham (Khyber Agency) v. Zewar Khan

Declaration by the Council of Foreign Ministers of the South-East Asia Treaty

Organization:

“The members of the Council severally declared that their Governments

recognized that the sovereignty of Pakistan extends up to the Durand
Line, the international boundary between Pakistan and Afghanistan…”

Both under the international law as well as the Municipal Law, the tribal
territories became part and parcel of Pakistan and were duly recognized as
such by the United Kingdom and the member Nations of the South East Asia
Treaty Organization. The Dominion of Pakistan through its Constitutional
Assembly also formally accepted it as such. In the circumstances it was not for
the Municipal Courts to hold otherwise. It is important to remember that in
such matters of a political nature, namely accession or cession of territory it is
not for the Courts to take a different view. The executive authority of the State
has in the exercise of its Sovereign power the right to say as to which territory
it has recognized as a part of its State and the Courts are bound to accept this
position. Indeed this was the principle that was given statutory effect in
section 4 of the Foreign Jurisdiction Act, 1890 and section 6 of the Governor-
General's Order No. 5 of 1949. If the Courts felt any doubt with regard to the
status of such a territory then it was incumbent upon them to make reference
to the Government and to accept its opinion.

***

The Supreme Court, under the circumstances, declined to exercise a

judgment differing from that of the executive in recognition of Pakistan's
treaty rights and obligations that secured the Durand line as the international
border. The Court, in support of the executive's foreign policy stance, held that
it was not appropriate in the speci c circumstances of the case to diverge in
interpretation of the treaty. The Zewar Khan case represents one of the many
circumstances in which the superior courts must exercise their judgment in
evaluating the soundness of the executive's action vis-à-vis a treaty or treaty
obligations as a part of domestic law. However, this case is not to be taken as
an example of the courts signaling their lack of domain with regards to
international law in deferring to the executive's power. That interpretation
would frustrate the spirit of the Constitution of Pakistan, which marshals the
independence of the courts as a chief tenant.

111 Superintendent, Land Customs Torkham (Khyber Agency) v. Zewar Khan (1969) PLD SC. 485.
B. Defend the State's Rights through International Law: Drone Attacks

Foundation for Fundamental Rights v. Federation of Pakistan

[N]either the Security Council nor the [United Nations] in general at any point
of time has permitted the U.S. Authorities particularly the CIA to carry out
drone attacks within the territory of Pakistan, a sovereign State…

The huge loss to life and property […] is thus, strictly prohibited not only be
the Charter of the UNO but also by the Geneva Conventions of 1949. 

[N]either any municipal law nor international law including the [United
Nations] Charter and the provisions of the Geneva Conventions […] permit
these drone strikes […] in the sovereign territory of Pakistan, which is
unlawful and illegal.

Under the international law and conventions of the UNO, no State can choose
and hit its enemy, hiding in another State, unless the latter State consents to it
in writing and with mutual collaboration the same is carried out but strictly
under the sanction of the UN Security Council which is not granted [in this
instance]…

[T]he drone strikes […] are absolutely illegal and blatant violation of the
sovereignty of the State of Pakistan because frequent intrusion is made on its
territory/airspace without its consent rather against its wishes despite of the
protests lodged by the Government of Pakistan…

***

The Peshawar High Court ambitiously employed Article 2(4) of the United
Nations Charter, the Geneva Conventions, General Assembly resolutions and
the scholarly works of international academics to support its holding
regarding the international illegality of the drone strikes in Pakistan. The
scope and breadth of the international law referenced within the decision is
tenacious and in some ways amounts to an act of lawfare. The Court not only
aggressively uses international law to declare the acts unlawful, but it also

112 Foundation for Fundamental Rights v. Federation of Pakistan (2013) PLD SC. 94, ¶ 7.
113 Id. at ¶ 11.
114 Id. at ¶ 16.
115 Id. at ¶ 19.
116 Id. at ¶ 22(ii).
strongly recommends international legal steps to be taken to combat the
issue. This case is, at the very least, is symbolic of the potential power of
proactively harnessing international law to reach a just decision.

C . Ap p l i c at i o n o f I nte r n at i o n a l Le g a l Pr i n c i p l e s : E n fo rce d
Disappearances

Human Rights Case No.29388-K of 2013

It is pertinent to note that Pakistan has also not rati ed this [Convention for
the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearances]. The Supreme
Court of Nepal applied the principles of the 2006 Convention in light of the
right to life guaranteed in the Interim Constitution of Nepal, 2007. Our
Constitution at Article 9 lays down the right to life, which has received an
expansive interpretation from this Court. Moreover, Article 10 provides direct
protection from enforced disappearances. Thus, the crime against humanity
of enforced disappearances is clearly violative of the Constitution of Pakistan.
Therefore, this Court can also apply the principles enshrined in the 2006
Convention in order to achieve the ends of justice. Likewise, there are cases
from international tribunals such as the UN Human Rights Committee, the
Inter-American Court of Human Rights and the European Court of Human
Rights as well as other national courts […] where the Courts were forced to
issue directions to the concerned authorities for effecting recovery of the
missing persons and also dealing with those persons who are responsible for
their enforced disappearance.

***

The Supreme Court embraced the application of international law to interpret

a domestic provision of law. The overtly progressive nature of this application
must be recognized. The Court used an international legal instrument to
which Pakistan is not a party to interpret domestic law and “achieve the ends
of justice.”

117 Human Rights Case No.29388-K (2013) ¶ 17.

D. International Law Implications of Recognizing Another State:
Bangladesh

Pakistan Services Limited v. Commissioner of Income Tax (Revision) Karachi

Bangladesh was recognized as an independent country by the Government

of Pakistan in 1974.

The fact of recognition of Bangladesh as an independent State has more than one
implication […] Recognition is a political act, which when accorded by the
authorized political department, will be accepted as conclusive by the Courts.

The international law on the subject of recognition of a State…

Among the more important consequences which ow from the recognition of

a new Government or State are these: (1) it thereby acquires the capacity to
enter into diplomatic relations with other States and to make treaties with
them; (2) within limitations which are far from being clear, former treaties (if
any) concluded between two states, assuming it to be an old state and not a
newly-born one, are automatically revived and come into force; (3) it thereby
acquires the right, which, at any rate according to English law, it did not
previously possess, of suing in the Courts of law of the recognizing state; (4) it
thereby acquires for itself and its property immunity from the jurisdiction of
the Courts of law of the State recognizing it and the ancillary rights which are
discussed later-an immunity which, according to English law at any rate, it
does not enjoy before recognition; (5) it also becomes entitled to demand and
receive possession of property situate within the jurisdiction of a recognizing
state, which formerly belonged to the preceding Government at the time of its
supersession; (6) Recognition being retroactive and dating back to the
moment at which the newly-recognized Government established itself in
power, its effect is to preclude the courts of law of the recognizing state from
questioning the legality or validity of the acts both legislative and executive,
past and future, of that Government; it therefore validates, so far as concerns
those courts of law, certain transfers of property and other transactions
which before recognition they would have treated as invalid.

The effect of the law so far discussed is that the acquisition of the properties of

118 Pakistan Services Limited v. Commissioner of Income Tax (Revision) Karachi (1993) SCMR SC. 1406, ¶ 10.
119 Id. at ¶ 13.
120 Id. at ¶ 15.
the assesse will be taken to be compulsory and by the competent authority,
and the cause of action for claiming relief in respect of such properties will
arise not retroactively from the date Bangladesh declared independence […]
but from the date it was recognized by the Government of Pakistan.

***

International law is also indirectly applicable or ancillary to domestic legal

disputes in many instances. What it means to recognize Bangladesh as a state
is pertinent to the discussion of how and if the property in the above instance
was discarded. Thus, international law, including the scholarly works of
international jurists assists in addressing what recognition actually requires or
entails. As such, international legal provisions assist the Court in arriving at a
conclusion under traditional municipal law, meaning that international law is
something to be explored and harnessed rather than ignored or feared.

VIII. ANNEX II: USE OF INTERNATIONAL LAW IN THE COURTS OF OTHER

STATES

Judges from around the world cite international legal materials to explain
their decisions as international law primarily relies on domestic legal and
political structures for implementation. The blend of international law in
domestic courts is therefore, becoming a thriving sub eld overlapping
comparative and international law.

Article 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice as well as

multiple treatises that address sources of international law, emphasize
treaties, custom, and general principles as primary sources of international
law. The most widely used amongst domestic judges is the application of
treaties since they are more concrete and accessible as compared to customs
and general practices.

121 Id. at ¶ 18.

122 Wayne Sandholtz, How Domestic Courts Use International Law, 38 FORDHAM INT'L L.J. 595 (2015).
123 Statute of the International Court of Justice, 18 Apr. 1946, Art. 38. The Court, whose function is to decide in
accordance with international law such disputes as are submitted to it, shall apply:
a. international conventions, whether general or particular, establishing rules expressly recognized by the
contesting states;
b. international custom, as evidence of a general practice accepted as law;
c. the general principles of law recognized by civilized nations;
d. subject to the provisions of Article 59, [i.e. that only the parties bound by the decision in any particular case]
judicial decisions and the teachings of the most highly quali ed publicists of the various nations, as
subsidiary means for the determination of rules of law.
124 Sandholtz, supra note 122, at 596.
The application of international law in municipal law is quite widespread as
courts from every major legal tradition and from every part of the world draw
on international legal norms in deciding domestic disputes. The Oxford
Electronic Database, International Law in Domestic Courts, for example,
includes more than 1,300 decisions from ninety countries, covering all regions
of the world.

Human rights litigation comprises the greatest share of citations within

international legal materials in domestic courts. Domestic judges nd the
interpretation of international human rights law to be more uid as
fundamental human rights is already a part of domestic legislation. Other
rights, jus cogens, for example, are widely incorporated under domestic law,
including the prohibition of torture, slavery, crimes against humanity and
genocide.

In states including Canada, the Netherlands and Australia, national courts

have invoked treaties and other international law materials as aids in the
interpretation of domestic laws because they nd it useful and the quality of
judgments has improved over time. States like Venezuela, Austria, the
Netherlands, Nigeria and Poland have gone as far as applying treaty law as
persuasive authority without being a party to the treaty.

In Slaight Communications v. Davidson, the Supreme Court of Canada,

invoking the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights
(ICESCR), declared that it could refer to international law, both treaty and
custom, to determine the substance of constitutional rights.

Similarly, in Bangladesh, treaty law may be used to interpret fundamental

rights in the constitution and to develop common law on the matter.

In 2012, the Constitution of Mexico was revised to declare that, all persons
shall enjoy the human rights recognized in this Constitution and in
international treaties to which Mexico is a party. Article 1 of the
Constitution requires that norms concerning human rights always be
interpreted in conformity with the constitution and with international treaties

125 Id.
126 Id. at 600.
127 Id. at 607.
128 Id. at 599.
129 Slaight Communications Inc. v. Davidson, (1989) 1 S.C.R 1038 (Can.).
130 Sandholtz, supra note 122, at 610.
in the manner that offers the broadest protection. Thus, in Mexico, judges
are obligated to interpret rights in light of international law.

A. United Kingdom

Lord Bingham of the House of Lords observed that international law used to
be seen as an “esoteric preserve” that did not feature signi cantly in the work
of “ordinary practitioners and national courts,” He also provided the
following:

“Times have changed. To an extent almost unimaginable even thirty years

ago, national courts in this and other countries are called upon to consider
and resolve issues turning on the correct understanding and application of
international law, not on an occasional basis, now and then, but routinely,
and often in cases of great importance”

Historically, the courts of the United Kingdom have developed the application
of international law in various decisions, just as long as its incorporation was
not inconsistent with the statutes. Where the provisions of a statute are
unambiguously written with those of an earlier treaty, the courts must apply
the statute in preference to the treaty. However, if the statute is ambiguous,
there is a presumption that the court is required to refer to a treaty to nd the
true meaning and purpose of the statute.

After the incorporation of the European Convention on Human Rights in 1950,

the Parliament enacted the Human Rights Act, 1998 which gave domestic
legal effect to the core articles of the European Convention on Human Rights.
The judgment in A v. Secretary of State for the Home Department held that
legislation must be read and given effect in a way that is compatible with
rights provided in the Convention.

131 Article 1 of the Constitution of Mexico, 1917: The provisions relating to human rights shall be interpreted
according to this Constitution and the international treaties on the subject, working in favor of the broader
protection of people at all times.
132 Sandholtz, supra note 122, at 610.
133 Anthea Roberts, Comparative international law? The role of National Courts in Creating and Enforcing
International Law, CAMBRIDGE JOURNALS, [ICLQ vol. 60, January 2011] at 57.
134 Dr. Braham A Agarwal. Enforcement of International Legal Obligations in a National Jurisdiction, LAW
COMMISSION OF INDIA, New Delhi, at 11.
135 (2004) UKHL 56.
One of the most celebrated cases involving the use of international law by the
House of Lords was the Pinochet Case in which the House of Lords found that a
former head of State could not claim immunity for acts of torture.

B. United States of America

At the time of the American Revolution, increased international trade and

colonization of the new world made international law and its application an
issue of daily importance. The founding fathers recognized this fact by
including treaties along with the Constitution and domestically originating
federal laws as a part of “the supreme law of the land”.

Where a treaty and a subsequent statute con ict, the “last in time” doctrine
applies. This theory derives from the fact that the Supremacy Clause, by its
wording, affords equal weight to both treaties and federal statues. The
Supreme Court stated in Whitney v. Robertson:

Congress may modify such provisions so far as they bind the United States, or
supersede them altogether. By the Constitution, a treaty is placed on the same
footing, and made of like obligation, with an act of legislation. Both are
declared by that instrument to be the supreme law of the land, and no
superior efficacy is given to either over the other. When the two relate to the
same subject, the courts will always endeavor to construe then so as to give
effect to both, if that can be done without violating the language of either; but
if the two are inconsistent, the one last in time will control the other.

The judiciary is required to determine whether a con ict actually exists when
the two provisions are read in their utmost consistent light. Only if the two
cannot be reconciled should the court apply the last in time doctrine.

The role of customary international law in the United States courts has
likewise evolved through federal court decisions. Custom, from the inception
of a body of international law, plays a role in de ning the duties and
obligations of nations. References of the applicability of customary

136 R v. Bow Street Metropolitan Stipendiary Magistrate Ex parte Pinochet Ugarte (No.3) [2000] AC 147.
137 Margaret Hartka, The Role of International Law in Domestic Courts: Will the legal Procrastination End? MD. J.
INT'L. 99, 106 (1990).
138 Article VI, Paragraph 2 of the U.S. Constitution is commonly referred to as the Supremacy Clause. It establishes
that the federal constitution, and federal law generally, take precedence over state laws, and even state
constitutions.
139 124 U.S. 190, 194 (1888).
international law can be traced as far back as 1793 when the Supreme Court
stated:

[T]he United States had, by taking a place among the nations of the earth,
become amenable to the law of nations; and it was their interest as well as
their duty to provide, that those laws should be respected and obeyed; in their
national character and capacity, the United States were responsible to
foreign nations for the conduct of each state, relative to the laws of nations
and the performance of treaties…

By the end of the nineteenth century, the Courts repeatedly indicated that
customary international law was binding upon the federal government. The
limits of its applicability were further explained in The Paquete Habana
case:

International law is part of our law, and must be ascertained and

administered by the courts of justice of appropriate jurisdiction, as often as
questions of right depending upon it are duly presented for their
determination. For this purpose, where there is no treaty, and no controlling
executive or legislative act or judicial decision, resort must be had to the
customs and usages of civilized nations…

C. India

India is also quite familiar with the domestic application of international law.
Under Article 51(c), the Constitution of India incorporates international law as
an integral part of the domestic legal framework.

The State shall endeavor to foster respect for international law and treaty
obligations in the dealings of organised people with one another

Indian courts have managed to move from a “transformationalist” approach

(requiring international law to be transformed into municipal law through the
constitutional processes) to an “incorporationalist” approach (recognizing
international law as a part of the municipal law without the intervention of
domestic constitutional processes). The Supreme Court and High Courts are

140 Chisolm v. Gerogia, 2 U.S. (2 Dall.) 419 474 (1793).

141 175 U.S. 677 (1900).
142 Id. at 700.
143 Article 51(c) of the Constitution of India, 1949.
more inclined to take international treaties, custom and general practice
especially with regards to Human Rights and environmental law into
account.

One of the landmark cases decided by the Supreme Court of India,

Gramaphone Company of India v. Birendra Pandey, stated the following:

The comity of nations requires that rules of international law may be

accommodated in the municipal law even without express legislative
sanction provided they do not run into con ict with Acts of Parliament. But
when they do run into such con ict, the sovereignty and the integrity of the
Republic and the supremacy of the constituted legislatures in making the
laws may not be subjected to external rules except to the extent legitimately
accepted by the constituted legislatures themselves. National courts cannot
say yes if Parliament has said no to a principle of international law. National
courts will endorse international law but not if it con icts with national
law.

Many of the superior court judgments in India tilt towards applying

international law as long as it is not inconsistent with domestic law. The
dissenting judgment of Justice Khanna given in A.D.M., Jabalpur v. Shivakant
Shukla held the view that if two constructions of municipal law are possible,
the courts should lean in favor of adopting such construction as would make
the provisions of municipal law to be consistent with international law or
treaty obligations. In this case, the construction of municipal law was not in
con ict with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Articles 8 and 9 –
right to 'an effective remedy' and 'no arbitrary arrest'). The Declaration itself
is not binding per se, but much of its content may be considered to be an
integral part of customary international law. Justice Khanna's opinion was
later followed in Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum v. Union of India.

144 Chintan Chandrachud, International Humanitarian Law in Indian Courts: Application, Misapplication and Non-
application, In Applying International Humanitarian Law in Judicial and Quasi-Judicial Bodies 389-413, TMC
Asser Press (2014).
145 2 SCC 1984 534 (5).
146 Id.
147 Agarwal, supra note 134, at 15.
148 AIR 1976 SC 1207, 1291.
149 Agarwal, supra note 134, at 15.
150 Id. at 15.
151 Id.
152 AIR 1996 SC 2715.