The Use of Various Turbidimeter Technologies For Measurement of Turbidity in Water

Designation: D7726 − 11
Standard Guide for

The Use of Various Turbidimeter Technologies for
Measurement of Turbidity in Water1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation D7726; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.
1. Scope same. However, samples comprise of completely different

1.1 This guide covers the best practices for use of various matrices and may measure quite differently among these
turbidimeter designs for measurement of turbidity in waters different technologies.
including: drinking water, wastewater, industrial waters and for 1.4.1 This guide does not provide calibration information
regulatory and environmental monitoring. This guide covers but rather will defer the user to the appropriate ASTM turbidity
both continuous and static measurements. method and its calibration protocols. When calibrated on
1.1.1 In principle there are three basic applications for traceable primary turbidity standards, the assigned turbidity
on-line measurement set ups. The first is the bypass or units such as those used in Table 1. are equivalent. For
slipstream technique a portion of sample is transported from example, a 1 NTU formazin standard is also equivalent in
the process or sample stream and to the turbidimeter for measurement magnitude to a 1 FNU, a 1 FAU, and a 1 BU
analysis. It is then either transported back to the sample stream standard and so forth.
or to waste. The second is the in-line measurement the sensor 1.4.2 Improved traceability beyond the scope of this guide
is submerged directly into the sample or process stream, which may be practiced and would include the listing of the make and
is typically contained in a pipe. The third is in-situ where the model number of the instrument used to determine the turbidity
sensor is directly inserted into the sample stream. The in-situ values.
principle is intended for the monitoring of water during any 1.5 This guide does not purport to cover all available
step within a processing train, including immediately before or technologies for high-level turbidity measurement.
after the process itself. 1.6 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the
1.1.2 Static covers both benchtop and portable designs for standard. The values given in parentheses are for information
the measurement of water samples that are captured into a cell only.
and then measured.
1.7 This standard does not purport to address all of the
1.2 Depending on the monitoring goals and desired data safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the
requirements, certain technologies will deliver more desirable responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-
results for a given application. This guide will help the user priate safety and health practices and determine the applica-
align a technology to a given application with respect to best bility of regulatory limitations prior to use.
practices for data collection. 1.8 This guide does not purport to address all of the safety
1.3 Some designs are applicable for either a lower or upper concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility
measurement range. This guide will help provide guidance to of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and
the best-suited technologies based given range of turbidity. health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory
limitations prior to use. Refer to the MSDSs for all chemicals
1.4 Modern electronic turbidimeters are comprised of many
used in this procedure.
parts that can cause them to produce different results on
samples. The wavelength of incident light used, detector type, 2. Referenced Documents
detector angle, number of detectors (and angles), and optical
pathlength are all design criteria that may be different among 2.1 ASTM Standards:2
instruments. When these sensors are all calibrated with the D1129 Terminology Relating to Water
sample turbidity standards, they will all read the standards the D3977 Test Methods for Determining Sediment Concentra-
tion in Water Samples
1
This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee D19 on Water and is
2
the direct responsibility of Subcommittee D19.07 on Sediments, Geomorphology, For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or
and Open-Channel Flow. contact ASTM Customer Service at [email protected]. For Annual Book of ASTM
Current edition approved May 1, 2011. Published May 2011. DOI: 10.1520/ Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on
D7726–11. the ASTM website.
Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959. United States
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); Sun Aug 7 09:15:34 EDT 2016
1
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D7726 − 11
D6698 Test Method for On-Line Measurement of Turbidity 3.2.7 Forward-scatter-detection angle, n—The angle that is
Below 5 NTU in Water formed between the incident light source and the primary
D6855 Test Method for Determination of Turbidity Below 5 detector, and that is greater than 0 degrees but less than 90
NTU in Static Mode degrees.
D7315 Test Method for Determination of Turbidity Above 1 3.2.7.1 Discussion—most designs will have an angle be-
Turbidity Unit (TU) in Static Mode tween 135 degrees and 180 degrees.
2.2 Other References: 3.2.8 Surface-Scatter Detection, n—A turbidity measure-
United States Geological Survey (USGS), —National Field ment that is determined through the detection of light scatter
Manual for the Collection of Water Quality Dataǁ. Web- caused by particles within a defined volume beneath the
site: http//www.usgs.gov/FieldManual/Chapters6/6.7.htm. surface of a sample.
Wagner, R.J. et al. Guidelines and Standard Procedures for 3.2.8.1 Discussion—both the light source and detector are
Continuous Water-Quality Monitors: Station Operation, positioned above the surface of the sample. The angle formed
Record Computation, and Data Reporting, USGS Enter- between the centerline of the light source and detector is
prise Publishing Network, 2005. (http://pubs.usgs.gov/tm/ typically at 90 degrees. Particles at the surface and in a volume
2006/tm1D3/) below the surface of the sample contribute to the turbidity
reading.
3. Terminology
3.2.9 In-situ nephelometer, n—a turbidimeter that deter-
3.1 Definitions—For definitions of terms used in this mines the turbidity of a sample using a sensor that is placed
method refer to Terminology D1129. directly in the sample.
3.2 Definitions of Terms Specific to This Standard: 3.2.9.1 Discussion—this turbidimeter does not require trans-
3.2.1 Calibration turbidity standard, n——a turbidity stan- port of the sample to or from the sensor.
dard that is traceable and equivalent to the reference turbidity 3.2.10 Nephelometric-turbidity measurement, n—the mea-
standard to within statistical errors; calibration turbidity stan- surement of light scatter from a sample in a direction that is at
dards include commercially prepared 4000 NTU Formazin, 90° with respect to the centerline of the incident-light path. D
stabilized formazin, and styrenedivinylbenzene (SDVB). 3.2.10.1 Discussion—units are NTU (Nephelometric Tur-
3.2.1.1 Discussion—these standards may be used to cali- bidity Units). When ISO 7027 technology is employed units
brate the instrument. are FNU (Formazin Nephelometric Units).
3.2.2 Calibration-verification standards, n——Defined 3.2.11 Pathlength, n—The greatest distance that the sum of
standards used to verify the accuracy of a calibration in the the incident light and scattered light can travel within a sample
measurement range of interest. volume (cell or view volume).
3.2.2.1 Discussion—these standards may not be used to 3.2.11.1 Discussion—the pathlength is typically measured
perform calibrations, only calibration verifications. Included along the centerline of the incident-light beam plus the
verification standards are opto-mechanical light-scatter scattered light. The pathlength includes only the distance the
devices, gel-like standards, or any other type of stable-liquid light and scattered light travel within the sample itself.
standard. 3.2.12 Ratio-turbidity measurement, n—the measurement
3.2.3 Detection Angle, n—The angle formed with its apex at derived through the use of a nephelometric detector that serves
the center of the analysis volume of the sample, and such that as the primary detector, and one or more other detectors used
one vector coincides with the centerline of the incident light to compensate for variation in incidentlight fluctuation, stray
source’s emitted radiation and the second vector projects to the light, instrument noise, or sample color.
center of the primary detector’s view. 3.2.13 Reference-turbidity standard, n—a standard that is
3.2.3.1 Discussion—this angle is used for the differentiation synthesized reproducibly from traceable raw materials by the
of turbidity-measurement technologies that are used in this user.
method. 3.2.13.1 Discussion—all other standards are traced back to
3.2.4 Nephelometric-Detection Angle—the angle that is this standard. The reference standard for turbidity is formazin.
formed between the incident light source and the detector, and 3.2.14 Seasoning, v—the process of conditioning labware
that is at 90 degrees. with the standard that will be diluted to a lower value to reduce
3.2.5 Backscatter-detection Angle, n—The angle that is contamination and dilution errors.
formed between the incident light source and the primary 3.2.15 Slipstream, n—an on-line technique for analysis of a
detector, and that is greater than 90 degrees and up to 180 sample as it flows through a measurement chamber of an
degrees. instrument.
3.2.6 Attenuation-detection Angle, n—The angle that is 3.2.15.1 Discussion—the sample is transported from the
formed between the incident light source and the primary source into the instrument (for example, a turbidimeter),
detector, and that is at exactly 0 degrees. analyzed, and then transported to drain or back to the process
3.2.6.1 Discussion—this is typically a transmission mea- stream. The term is synonymous with the terms “on-line
surement. instrument” or “continuous monitoring instrument.”
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3.2.16 Stray light, n—all light reaching the detector other technology, plus any inherent criteria used to generate a
than that contributed by the sample. specific turbidity value.
3.2.17 Turbidimeter, n—an instrument that measures light 3.2.25.1 Discussion—the design will typically translate into
scatter caused by particulates within a sample and converts the a specific make or model of an instrument.
measurement to a turbidity value.
4. Summary of Practice
3.2.17.1 Discussion—the detected light is quantitatively
converted to a numeric value that is traced to a light-scatter 4.1 This guide is to assist the user in meeting and under-
standard. See Test Method D7315. standing the following criteria with respect to turbidity mea-
surements:
3.2.18 Turbidity, n—an expression of the optical properties 4.1.1 The selection of the appropriate technology for mea-
of a sample that causes light rays to be scattered and absorbed surement of a given sample with implied characteristics
rather than transmitted in straight lines through the sample. 4.1.2 Help in the selection of a measurement technology
3.2.18.1 Discussion—turbidity of water is caused by the that will help meet the scope of requirements (goals) for use of
presence of matter such as clay, silt, finely divided organic the data.
matter, plankton, other microscopic organisms, organic acids, 4.1.3 Assist in the selection of a technology that is best
and dyes. suited to withstand the expected environmental and sample
3.2.19 Calibration drift, n—the error that is the result of deviations over the course of data collection. Examples of
drift in the sensor reading from the last time the sensor was deviations would be expected measurement range and interfer-
calibrated and is determined by the difference between ences.
cleaned-sensor readings in calibration standards and the true, 4.1.4 Understand both the general strengths and limitations
temperature-compensated value of the calibration standards. for a given type (design) of technology in relation to overcom-
3.2.20 Fouling, v—the measurement error that can result ing known interferences in turbidity measurement.
from a variety of sources and is determined by the difference 4.1.5 Provide general procedures that can be used to deter-
between sensor measurements in the environment before and mine whether a given technology is suitable for use in a given
after the sensors are cleaned. sample or a given application.
4.1.6 Understand the need for the user to include critical
3.2.21 Continuous, adj—the type of automated measure- metadata related to turbidity measurement.
ment at a defined-time interval, where no human interaction is 4.1.7 This guide will help the user select the appropriate
required to collect and log measurements. Discussion - mea- technology for regulatory purposes.
surement intervals range from seconds to months, depending
on monitoring goals of a given site. 5. Significance and Use
3.2.22 Sonde, n—a monitoring instrument that contains two 5.1 Turbidity is a measure of scattered light that results from
or more measurement sensors that share common power, the interaction between a beam of light and particulate material
transmitting, and data logging. in a liquid sample. Particulate material is typically undesirable
3.2.22.1 Discussion— a sonde usually has one end that in water from a health perspective and its removal is often
contains the measurement sensors, which are in close proxim- required when the water is intended for consumption. Thus,
ity to each other and together are submerged in a sample. turbidity has been used as a key indicator for water quality to
3.2.23 Metadata, n—the ancillary descriptive information assess the health and quality of environmental water sources.
that describes instrument, sample, and ambient conditions Higher turbidity values are typically associated with poorer
under which data were collected. water quality.
5.1.1 Turbidity is also used in environmental monitoring to
3.2.23.1 Discussion—Metadata provide information about
assess the health and stability of water-based ecosystems such
data sets. An example is the useful background information
as in lakes, rivers and streams. In general, the lower the
regarding the sampling site, instrument setup, and calibration
turbidity, the healthier the ecosystem.
and verification results for a given set of turbidity data,
(especially when data are critically reviewed or compared 5.2 Turbidity measurement is a qualitative parameter for
against another data set). water but its traceability to a primary light scatter standard
allows the measurement to be applied as a quantitative mea-
3.2.24 Technology, n—a general classification of a turbidi-
surement. When used as a quantative measurement, turbidity is
meter design that incorporates the type and wavelength of the
typically reported generically in turbidity units (TU’s).
incident-light source, detection angles, and the number of
5.2.1 Turbidity measurements are based on the instruments’
detectors used to generate a turbidity measurement and its
calibration with primary standard reference materials. These
defined reporting unit.
reference standards are traceable to formazin concentrate
3.2.24.1 Discussion— in ASTM turbidity methods, the tech- (normally at a value of 4000 TU). The reference concentrate is
nology is based on type and number of light sources, and their linearly diluted to provide calibration standard values. Alter-
respective wavelength, detector angle(s), and number of detec- native standard reference materials, such as SDVB co-polymer
tors used in the technology to generate the turbidity value. or stabilized formazin, are manufactured to match the formazin
3.2.25 Design, n—a more detailed technology description polymer dilutions and provide highly consistent and stable
that will encompass all of the elements making up a values for which to calibrate turbidity sensors.
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5.2.1.1 When used for regulatory compliance reporting, 5.4.1 Table one provides a summary of technologies and
specific turbidity calibration standards may be required. The their respective reporting units that are in the different ASTM
user of this method should check with regulatory entities methods. The reporting unit is a two to four letter-code that has
regarding specifics of allowable calibration standard materials. been assigned to a unique type of technology. The reporting
5.2.2 The traceability to calibrations from different tech- unit follows every reported turbidity measurement and serves
nologies (and other calibration standards) to primary formazin as metadata to the respective measurement.
standards provides for a basis for defined turbidity units. This 5.4.2 The key design features are based on three criteria. 1)
provides equivalence in the magnitude of the turbidity unit Type of light source used; 2) Primary detector angle with
between the different measurement technologies when they are respect to the incident light beam; 3) Number of detectors used.
all calibrated on standards that are traced to primary formazin. 5.4.2.1 If the measurement unit begins with an “F” then the
This means that a TU is equivalent in its magnitude to a light source is a near-IR wavelength. Most designs will
nephelometric turbidity unit (NTU), and all other units as encompass a light source that is in the 860660 nm range. The
described in this guide. See Table 1. strength of this wavelength is that most natural colors do not
5.2.3 Turbidity is not an inherent property of the sample, absorb at this level, which reduces or eliminates color inter-
such as temperature, but in part is dependent on the technology ference. Two things that interfere at the near-IR are carbon
used to derive the value. Even though the magnitude of black and copper sulfate. Second, the incident light beams are
turbidity units are equivalent and are based on turbidity easily collimated, which extends the overall operational range.
standards, the units do not maintain this equivalence when Third, the output of the light source can be regulated to provide
measurement of samples is practiced. Turbidity standards are a stable output over time. The weakness is that longer
generally free of interferences and samples are not. Depending wavelengths are less sensitive to smaller particles with respect
on the type of technology employed for measurement, the to response at very low turbidities.
magnitude of the different interferences on a given sample can
5.4.2.2 If the measurement unit either begins with an “N” or
differ significantly with respect to the different measurement
technologies. The user of a turbidity technology should expect is a two-letter unit (e.g. BU, AU), the incident light source will
to observe a lack of measurement equivalence across different be in the 400-680-nm range. The strength of this wavelength
turbidity measurement designs when common samples are range is increased sensitivity to smaller particles when com-
analyzed. See Section 6 on interferences. pared to longer wavelengths (such as those in the near infared
(IR) range. The weakness of this wavelength range is that color
5.2.4 Depending on the application, some instruments are
that absorbs at the same wavelengths, as those that are emitted
calibrated on a sample that has been characterized (or defined)
by light source will cause a negative interference. Second, if
by some independent means. The calibration may include one
the source is an incandescent light source, additional optics is
or more samples that have been characterized with respect to
required to maintain collimation and stability over time. The
the application of its use. See Test Method D3977.
light source will typically need to periodic replacement over
5.3 Turbidity is not a quantative measure of any chemical or the life of an instrument.
physical property of water. Different expected interactions 5.4.2.3 If the measurement unit includes an “R” it is a
between a given measurement technology and a given sample nephelometric method that utilizes a 90-degree detector plus
with a unique combination of interferences can significantly one other detector. This is referred to as a ratio metric
impact the final turbidity result. As stated in 5.3, depending on technique and helps to compensate for color interference,
the technology used, the result will differ. It is imperative to regardless of the wavelength of the incident light source. The
provide a linkage of metadata that is reflective of the design technique also helps to linearize the response to turbidity at
type (i.e. technology) used to generate the turbidity values. In higher levels and can provide an extended measurement range.
all ASTM standards, the measurement units are reflective of The technique can also help to stabilize measurement outputs.
the design criteria and the information is presented in Table 1. The technique is the most flexible across different applications
5.3.1 The actual reporting units, signified by a two to because of the combination of sensitivity to low turbidity
four-letter code, are based upon distinguishing design criteria ranges and the ability can measure very high turbidity levels.
for each of the common measurement technologies. The intent 5.4.2.4 If the measurement unit has a “B” it indicates a
of attaching the measurement unit to the determined turbidity backscatter technique. These techniques typically have a wide
value is to indicate the type of technology used. range, but are not sensitive at low turbidities. They are also
5.3.2 Even though various instrument designs may be more susceptible to color and particulate absorbance interfer-
grouped by technology type (i.e. FNU, NTU, FBU, etc. and ences.
refer to Table 1), instruments within a group should not be
5.4.2.5 If the measurement unit has an “A” it indicates an
considered to be identical nor it is proposed that sample values
attenuation or absorbance measurement. The measurement is a
obtained will be alike. Instruments within each technology may
combination of light that is attenuated and absorbed, in
still have other design differences whereby samples give
combination. Color is a significant interference, except for
different results. For example, pathlength differences between
applications that require color to be considered part of the
two instruments with the same reporting units can impact
overall turbidity measurement. The method is very sensitive to
measurements and the relative difference in results.
wavelength and thus, the reporting unit should also include the
5.4 Discussion of Table 1 wavelength of the incident light beam.
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5.4.2.6 If the measurement unit contains an “M” it indicates 5.4.3 The table provides information regarding to the most
a technology in which at least two incident light beams and two prominent applications and discusses interference concerns.
detectors are employed. The method also encompasses a ratio This information is based on technologies that are in the field
technique. These designs are very similar to ratio techniques as at the time this method was written, but does not constitute
are the advantages and limitations. endorsement to any given manufacture of a given technology.
5.4.2.7 Other units In some cases, a design can be successfully used outside of the
(a) mNTU – The technology indicates a monochromatic stated applications in Table 1. The user should perform testing
incident light source in visible wavelength range and a neph- to ensure the technology meets limit of detection, sensitivity,
elometric technique. The technology design allows for an and range requirements that insure representative data can be
improved limit of detection over conventional light sources. Its acquired.
primary use for low turbidity measurements, such the moni-
toring for membrane breaches and ultra-purification processes. 5.4.4 Range of Measurement—Table 1 provides guidance on
(b) SSU – The “SS” portion of the unit indicates a surface the estimated range of use for the different measurement
scatter technique is being used. The technique positions both technologies. A key design criterion is the pathlength of
the light source and detector that are in the same horizontal measurement. This is the actual distance that light travels
plane above the sample. Light that is scattered by particles at or through a sample to generate the scatter that ultimately
very near the surface and detected at an angle that is at 90 becomes detected. It encompasses both the incident light
degrees to the centerline of the incident light beam. The system distance and the receive angles for the scattered light detectors.
has a high detection range, but low sensitivity. It is also The longer the pathlength, the lower the measurement ranges,
susceptible to color interferences, but to a lesser degree than but the better the sensitivity. Shorter pathlengths may provide
techniques that pass light completely through the sample. The a greater range, but a poorer sensitivity and a poorer the limit
technique is valuable for applications where it is desirable for of detection.
the sample not to touch the optics of the instrument.
TABLE 1 Summary of Known Commercialized Technologies, Key Design Features, Prominent Sample Applications, Ranges, and
Reporting Units for Turbidity Measurements
Turbidity Reporting Turbidity Reporting Unit Prominent Application and Suggested Application and
Unit Used in Used in ASTM Methods Major Interference Concerns operating range Ranges
ASTM Methods
Nephelometric The detector is centered at 90 degrees White light turbidimeters. These designs Regulatory for drinking water. The
non- ratio (NTU) relative to the incident light beam. The comply with EPA 180.1 for low level turbidity optimal operating range is
incident light source is a tungsten monitoring. Color is a major negative 0.0 to 40 units if the sample has
filament lamp that is operated at interference and optical variations no color. Best comparability
a color temperature between 2200 cannot be compensated with this technique. will be at turbidities below 5 TU.
and 3000 K.
Ratio White Light This technology applies the same light Complies with the USEPA Interim Regulatory for drinking water
turbidimeters source as the EPA 180.1 design but Enhanced Surface Water Treatment and wastewater (0-40 units). The
(NTRU) uses several detectors in the measurement. Rule regulations and Standard Methods technology can potentially
A primary detector centered 2130B. Can be used for both low and measure up to 10,000 units.
at 90° relative to the incident beam plus high level measurement. Color interference
other detectors located at other angles. (negative) is reduced and lamp
An instrument algorithm uses a variations are compensated for with
combination of detector readings to this technique.
generate the turbidity reading.
Nephelometric, This technology uses a light source in The instrument design is compliant Regulatory compliance in Europe
near- IR the near IR range (860±60 nm). with ISO 7027. The wavelength for drinking water and wastewater
turbidimeters, The detector is centered at 90º is less susceptible to color interferences. (0 - 40 units). The technology can measure
nonratiometric degrees relative to the incident The light source is very stable over time up to 1000 units or more, depending
(FNU) light beam. because its output can be highly controlled. on pathlength.
This technique is applicable for samples
with color and for low level monitoring.
Only highly samples that absorb light
above 800 nm can result in negative
interference.
Nephelometric This technology applies the same light Complies with ISO 7027. This technique Regulatory compliance monitoring
near-IR source that is required by ISO7027. is applicable for samples with high levels in Europe for drinking water and wastewater
turbidimeters, The design uses several detectors of color and for monitoring to high turbidity (0 - 40 units). The technology can potentially
ratio metric(FNRU) in the measurement. A primary detector levels. Samples that absorb light above measure up to 10000 units.
is centered at 90° relative to the 800-nm will result in some negative
incident beam and other detectors are interference.
located at other angles. An instrument
algorithm uses the combination
of detector readings to generate the
turbidity value.
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TABLE 1 Continued
Turbidity Reporting Turbidity Reporting Unit Prominent Application and Suggested Application and
Unit Used in Used in ASTM Methods Major Interference Concerns operating range Ranges
ASTM Methods
Surface Scatter The technology uses the same white Turbidity is determined through light Sample flows through the instrument. This
Turbidimeters light source as in EPA180.1. scatter from a defined volume of sample is a good watershed monitoring instrument and
(SSU) The detector centered at 90 degrees beneath the surface of a sample. can measure from 0.5 to 10,000 units.
relative Negative color interferences are reduced
to the incident light beam. Both the when compared to the non-ratio
detector an incident light source is nephelometric method.
mounted in a fixed position in the same
plane that is
immediately above the sample.
Formazin Back This design applies a near-IR This technology is not applicable This technology is best suited for insitu
Scatter (FBU) monochromatic light source in the (860±60 for most regulatory purposes. It is best applied measurement, in which a probe is placed in
nm) nm to samples with high turbidity and is commonly a sample for continuous monitoring
range as the incident light source. The used in trending applications. Absorbance purposes. It is best applied to turbidities
scattered light detector is typically and color above 800-nm will result in in the range of 100 - 10,000+ unit range.
positioned at 30±15 ° relative to the negative interference
incident light beam. However,
some designs may have a detection
angle that is approximately 0 °
relative to the incident light beam.
Backscatter The design applies a white light spectral This technology is not applicable for This technology is best suited for insitu
Unit (BU) source (400-680 nm range). most regulatory purposes. It is best applied measurements in which sample color is
The detector geometry is between 90 to samples with high turbidity. part of the turbidity measurement.
and 180 o relative to the incident light The measurement will be susceptible to It is best applied to turbidities in the
beam. any visible color and particle absorbance 100 - 10,000+ unit range.
that will result in a negative interference.
Formazin The incident light beam is at a wavelength The design may be applicable for some This measurement is part of the ISO 7027
attenuation unit of (860±60 nm) nm. The detector is regulatory purposes. The measurement regulation. The optimal turbidity range is
(FAU) geometrically centered at 0° is commonly performed with between 20 and 1000 units.
relative to the incident light beam. This is spectrophotometers.
typically an attenuation measurement. It is best suited for samples with high-level
turbidity. Particle absorption is a prominent
interference.
Light attenuation The wavelength of the incident light This design is not applicable for some This is best applied to samples in which color
unit (AU) is in the 400-680 nm range. The light regulatory applications. This is commonly is part of the turbidity measurement.
scatter detector is geometrically performed with spectrophotometers. The best application is to samples in the
centered at 0 degrees relative to Color and absorption are prominent turbidity range of 20 to 1,000 units.
incident beam. This is an transmission interferences if their respective
measurement. absorptive spectrum is the same as the
output spectrum of the incident light.
Nephelometric The technology consists of two light This technology is compliant to the EPA Regulaotry monitoring at low turbidity levels
Turbidity sources and two detectors. The light regulatory method GLI Method 2 and in the 0.02 to 40 unit range. The technogy
Multibeam sources comply with ISO7027. ISO 7027. It is applicable to regulatory can measure up to 4000 units.
Unit (FNMU) The detectors are geometrically monitoring for drinking water, wastewater,
centered at 90° relative to each and industrial monitoring applications.
incident light beam. The instrument The technology is very stable. This technology
measures in two phases in which the will be immune to color absorbance
detectors are either at 90º or below 800-nm. Above 800-nm, color
180º relative to the incident light and particle absorbance interferences
beam, depending on the phase. An will be reduced.
instrument algorithm uses a combination
of detector readings to calculate the
reported value.
Laser Turbidity The technology consists of an incident This technique complies with the EPA Regulatory monitoring of drinking water
Units (mNTU) laser light source at 660 nm and a detector approved Hach Method 10133. effluent and membrane systems. The range is
that is a high-sensitivity PMT design. The application is for the monitoring about 7 to 5000 mNTU. 1 NTU = 1000 mNTU.
The detector is centered at 90 degrees of filter performance and breakthrough.
relative to the incident light beam. Color interference can occur it absorbs
the same wavelength of light that is emitted
by the incident light source. However, color
is typically significant in filtered samples.
Forward Scatter The technology encompasses The technoligy is sensitive to turbidities as The measurement of ambient waters such as
Ratio Unit (FSRU) a single, light source and two detectors. low as 1 TU. The ratio technology streams, lakes, rivers. The range is typically from
Light sources can vary from single helps to compensate for color interference about 1 – 800 FSRU, depending on
wavelength to polychromatic and fouling. the manufacturer.
sources. The detection angle for the
forward scatter detector is between
0- degrees and 90 degrees relative to the
centerline of the incident light beam.
More commonly, the forward scatter
detection angle will be between
15 and 45 degrees. The second
detector is at exactly 0 degrees.
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6. Interferences in Turbidity mize sensitivity to turbidity on the cleanest of waters. Other
6.1 The measurement of turbidity is subject to a combina- designs minimize the effects of an interference such as color.
tion of different interferences. Some interferences are inherent Many designs have features such as bubble traps or bubble
with the sample itself and others are instrument-based. Table 1 rejection software to minimize bubble interference. Other
summarizes these interferences. methods have been developed to function in a specific type of
application or over a discreet turbidity range. Depending on the
6.2 Turbidity interferences will either cause positive or characteristics within a sample and the measurement technol-
negative bias. Negative bias results in a measurement being ogy that was applied, the various components of the turbidity
below the true turbidity and is typically associated with measurement and the inherent interferences within the sample
measurements greater than 1 TU and can become more can impact the reported value. Different technologies often
significant as the turbidity of a sample increases. Positive bias produce different turbidity values on the same sample.
interferences are typically associated with extremely low
turbidity measurements, where stray light becomes a factor in 6.5 The combination of a sample’s respective
measurement. Stray light and particulate contamination on characteristics, its inherent interferences, and these interactions
optical surfaces can cause positive interferences and is most with a given measurement technology can have a significant
prevalent at levels below 0.1 TU. These levels are representa- impact on resultant turbidity values that are generated. A
tive in applications involving in highly pure waters. sample may contain an interference that will have a strong bias
6.3 Color is sometimes considered an interference, and on a certain technologies and weak to no bias on a different
other times it is not. It is dependent upon the application. For technology. For example, many of the more modern
example, when performing compliance monitoring for drink- technologies, such as those that utilize near IR light sources
ing water, color is considered an interference and certain with ratioing will not be biased by color when compared to
measurement techniques will help to reduce its effects. An mature technologies such as those that utilize the incandescent
application where color is not considered interference would be light sources and single detection systems. However, these
the monitoring of a natural water to determine the effectiveness same technologies may have limited operating ranges that may
on the underwater vision for aquatic predators and prey. In this or may not be acceptable for the required application. Thus, it
application color is considered to be part of turbidity because is important to understand the type of sample and the applica-
the application relates the effectiveness of underwater vision tion of the measurement in order to optimize the performance
for the aquatic species. The majority of applications however, and consistency of the measurements.
color is considered an interference and typically causes false
negative bias. 7. Sample Assessment
6.4 Summary -The minimization of interferences will im- 7.1 Prior to selection of a measurement technology, several
prove measurement reliability. Several different turbidity mea- questions concerning the sample, sampling site and monitoring
surement methods (that is, instrument designs or technologies) goals should be considered. Table 2 includes the questions that
have evolved to address one or a combination of interferences should be considered. In this guide, sample is defined as that
and to meet specific monitoring criteria for a particular portion in view of the optical detectors for a given technology,
application. For example, some designs are intended to maxi- which is measured to generate a result. For a static
TABLE 2 Prework Prior to Technology Selection

Measurement Considerations Questions to consider
The purpose for the turbidity Process Control? Regulatory Compliance and / or Assessment?
measurement Natural event monitoring?
The physical location of the Outdoors versus indoors? Remote versus a local site?
instrumentation
Frequency of site attendance Does the monitoring require a specific level of attentiveness?
What is the necessary level of frequency?
The measurement sensor Is the measurement in the environment, in-situ, in-line, or
application and location in process (on-line)?
Additional desired What other parameters are required? E.g. pH, DO, temperature,
measurement parameters flow, etc. Will a Sonde be used?
Sample disposal How will the sample be disposed? Sanitary drain? Run the sample
back to the source?, Sample treatment prior to disposal? Secondary processing?
Special considerations What are those considerations that should be addressed to insure
accurate and reliable measurement?
Ambient light considerations Will ambient light interfere? Will sunlight/moonlight impact the site?
Will reflections cause interference? What is the direction of the
interference (positive or negative)?
Biological Activity Will my sample be prone to biological activity? What will the impacts
of the biology in the sample be on the sensor? Will a sensor with
compensating features (e.g. a wiper) be needed?
Temperature What are the expected sample and ambient temperature changes?
Will the technology meet the ambient and sample temperature ranges?
Regulatory Compliance Is the measurement subject to regulatory reporting? And if so, to
what regulatory reporting method.?
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measurement, is that portion of a sample stream or process that must be removed for most accurate measurements. Longer
is collected for measurement. sample pathlengths (between 2.0 and 10 cm) are common
7.2 Empirical Sample Assessment - Whenever possible, the typically meet the sensitivity criteria for low-level measure-
sample should be assessed to help determine the best technol- ments.
ogy fit for monitoring a sample. Empirical characterization 8.3.1.3 Common Uses—Regulatory compliance reporting
helps to identify interferences that may be reduced or elimi- for USEPA or ISO requirements in drinking water. Sample
nated. Table 3 provides a general list of questions that focus on measurement accuracy and sensitivity is necessary to measure
potential interferences from a sample. Table 3 also provides turbidities at least down to 0.1 units. It is common to match to
general guidance on the type of technology that may or may static measurements and matching technologies are common
not be suitable for a given interference. for laboratory, portable and process configurations.
8.3.1.4 Technology Configurations—To achieve compliance
8. Equipment Technologies uses as stated in 8.3.1.3, process (on-line) technologies are
8.1 Table 1 provides a summary of availably technology typically used. This is necessary to reduce stray light interfer-
configurations. This section provides figures for each general ences and bubble removal of samples. In-situ and in-line
design type and discusses best use applications. sensors are also available, but typically have shorter pathlength
that prevents high performance at the turbidity levels men-
8.2 The descriptions are based on field knowledge provided tioned in 8.3.1.3.
by both users and manufacturers of the technologies. These 8.3.1.5 ASTM Reference Documents—For low-level
descriptions are an expansion of Table 1. turbidity, please refer to D6698 and D6855.
8.3 Turbidity Technologies 8.3.1.6 Reporting Units: NTU, FNU, mNTU.
8.3.1 Nephelometric Non-Ratio Technologies 8.3.2 Ratio Nephelometric Technologies
8.3.1.1 Description—This is a single detector technology 8.3.2.1 Description—The technology encompasses a single
with a single light source. The angle between the centerline of light source and at least two detectors. One detector is
the light source and the centerline of the view angle of the positioned at the 90 degrees relative to the centerline of the
detector is 90 degrees. See Fig. 1. incident light beam. The sum of light scatter from all of the
8.3.1.2 Sample applications—Samples of low turbidity and detectors is ratioed against the light scatter of the 90-degree
no color most frequently use this configuration. If samples detector to generate the turbidity value. See Fig. 2.
have some color, then a light source with a wavelength greater 8.3.2.2 Sample applications—Samples of a wide range of
than 800-nm is typically used. Bubbles are an interference and turbidity and with color most frequently use this configuration.
TABLE 3 Empirical Sample Assessment

Sample Description Impact on Technology Best Case Scenario for Technology
Expected sample Few technologies can measure accurately across all For low-level samples, use a technology that
range through ranges. It is very important to understand primary incorporates a 90-degree detection angle and
the duration of the study range of measurement for the sample. a longer pathlength. One-inch pathlengths are
typically suitable for measurements below 5 TU.
For high level samples, a ratio technology and
technologies with backscatter detection will provide
better high range sensitivity.
Does the sample White samples are highly reflective and are most Samples with no color that appear to be clear or
have any apparent easily measured. Non-transparent samples with dark white can be measured with single detector
color other than white colors can interfere significantly if the absorbance systems that measure at 90 degrees. If any color is
spectra of the sample overlap that of the incident suspected, then a ratio technique should be incorporated,
light source. and / or a light source that is not absorbed by the
interference can be considered. Light sources that emit
wavelengths in excess of 800-nm are often suitable.
Does the sample The sample will absorb nearly all wavelengths of Select a technology that is both a ratio technique
have black absorbing light, which will cause readings to bias negative. and incorporates an incident wavelength that
particles exceeds 800-nm.
Does the sample Are bubbles expected to be present? A technology that incorporates a bubble trap may
have excessive be necessary for process applications. If the sample
outgassing is pressurized, it should be run through the instrument
prior to degasification takes place.
For in-situ measurements, the position of the sensor
is critical to insure bubbles do not form on the
measurement face of the instrument. For these applications,
the activation of any signal averaging and bubble
reject software will help reduce the impact of bubble
interferences on the measurement.
Does the sample Pumping can be a source of bubble formation. Insure the pump does not cavitate. If cavitation takes
require pumping? place, a bubble trap device may be needed to condition
the sample prior to measurement.
Will the environmental Temperature and humidity can result in the fouling of Be sure the instrument can operate within the expected
challenges include large optical surfaces. sample and ambient ranges. If a technology cannot,
temperature swings and then additional effort, such as a protective enclosure
humidity may be necessary to meet the monitoring goals of the study.
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FIG. 1 Technology Diagram of a Nephelometric Non-Ratio Technology. The pathlength through the sample is shown in red and the
shortest scattered light path is in blue. The longer this distance, the better the measurement sensitivity.
FIG. 2 Technology Diagram of a Nephelometric Ratio Technology
The ratio technique still utilizes the nephelometric detection compliance reporting for USEPA or ISO methods for drinking
angle that can detect low level turbidities as described in water. Sample measurement accuracy and sensitivity is neces-
7.3.1.3, but can also detect turbidity up to a very high range. sary to measure turbidities at least down to 0.1 units. Most
Some instruments read as high as 10,000 TU. The ratio configurations are in a laboratory or portable design, but
technology allows for an array of different light sources to be process designs are available. The range of application is broad
used. Bubbles are an interference and must be removed for with this technique.
most accurate measurements. Longer sample path lengths 8.3.2.4 Technology Configurations—The most common
between 2.0 and 10 cm are common for laboratory and portable configurations are for benchtop and portable designs. For
applications, which is necessary to obtain low-level sensitivity. on-line designs, configurations are available that incorporate
8.3.2.3 Common Uses—The ratio technique helps to stabi- solid-state incident light sources, with most of these being at or
lize optical systems and is commonly used for regulatory above the 800 nm wavelength range.
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8.3.2.5 ASTM Reference Documents—For low-level typically not used in regulatory applications. The techniques
turbidity, please refer to D6698 and D6855. For high-level are typically easy to install, but must be monitored for fouling
turbidity, please refer to Test Method D7315. on any optical surfaces. Measurements typically will not
8.3.2.6 Reporting Units: NTRU, and FNRU compare closely to other techniques because of its different
8.3.3 Backscatter Technologies design. Thus, calibration or verification against a bench or
8.3.3.1 Description—The technology encompasses a single portable instrument of a different design is not recommended.
light source and a single detector. The detector is positioned at 8.3.3.4 Technology Configurations—The most common
an angle that is between 90 and 180 degrees relative to the configurations are for in-situ or in-line designs. This technol-
centerline of the incident light beam. The most common ogy can also be found as a probe design. The most common
designs incorporate a solid-state light source and are of a probe designs will incorporate an incident solidstate incident light
design. See Fig. 3. source, with most of these being at or above the 800 nm
8.3.3.2 Sample applications—The measurement technique wavelength range.
requires that the sample be able to scatter light back to the 8.3.3.5 ASTM Reference Documents—Refer to the ASTM
detector. This requires higher minimum sample turbidities, high-level turbidity methods, which include D7315.
which usually needs to exceed 100 TU. Most path lengths are 8.3.3.6 Reporting Units: BU and FBU. FBU is most com-
typically small which may further raise the minimum turbidity mon.
limit. The techniques typically have range that can exceed 8.3.4 Attenuation Technologies
10,000 TU. Color can interfere and is best remedied through 8.3.4.1 Description—The technology encompasses a single
the use of a longwavelength light source that is greater than light source and a single detector. The detector is positioned at
800-nm. Bubbles will interfere in the measurement, especially 0 degrees relative to the centerline of the incident light beam.
in applications where significant outgassing of air is prevalent. See Fig. 4.
8.3.3.3 Common Uses—The backscatter technique can typi- 8.3.4.2 Sample applications—The measurement technique
cally detect a change in turbidity for high-level samples, but is very susceptible to both light scatter and light attenuation.
lacks the sensitivity at low turbidity levels. Thus, they are Color and absorbance interferences are most significant when
FIG. 3 Technology Diagram of a Backscatter Technology. In the design shown, pathlength varies, depending on the turbidity of the
sample.
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FIG. 4 Technology Diagram of an Attenuation Technology. The scatter path is the same as the incident light path.
using this technique. The technique is most useful if the user of angle to the surface to provide an overall 90-degree angle
the application requires that color to be part of the turbidity relative to the incident light beam. Both the detector and light
measurement. source are positioned above the horizontal surface of the
8.3.4.3 Common Uses—The attenuation is used when both sample. Pathlength does change as the turbidity of the sample
color and light scatter are to be combined into a single changes, with the pathlength shrinking with increasing turbid-
measurement. The technique is to higher levels, typically ity. This technology allows the pathlength to self adjust, which
above 40 units. The measurement range can be modified provides a wide range of measurement. See Fig. 5.
through using a shorter or longer pathlength. These sensors are 8.3.5.2 Sample applications—The measurement technique
used in some regulatory compliance applications. The tech- based on the ability to detect light that is scattered by particles
nique is very susceptible to fouling and bubble interferences at or near the surface of a sample. The technique has a broad
and steps must be taken to insure that these are removed. For range of use, from about 0.5 to 10, 000 TU. The technique
samples with color, this technology is commonly found to requires a flowing sample to generate a horizontal surface,
deviate significantly when compared to traditional 90-degree where turbidity is measured. Only flow-through designs are
scatter technologies available. Color will interfere, but not to the same degree as a
8.3.4.4 Technology Configurations—The most common non-ratio technique that requires the light to pass through the
configurations are for in-situ designs and are sometimes sample. Turbidity samples that require continuous monitoring
referred to as a transparency measurement. Similar configura- without directly contacting any optical components with the
tions can be made on benchtop and portable configurations sample are most suited for this technique. Bubbles and flow-
through the use of spectrophotometers and colorimeters. This cell fouling can interfere in measurements and need to be
technology can also be found as a probe design. The most addressed.
common designs will incorporate an incident solid-state inci- 8.3.5.3 Common Uses—The surface scatter technique can
dent light source, with most of these being at or above the 800 typically detect a change in turbidity across a wide range of
nm wavelength range. There are no known on-line, benchtop, sample types. It is commonly used in process applications
or portable designs. where optical fouling needs to be eliminated. The technique of
8.3.4.5 ASTM Reference Documents—Refer to the ASTM often used for regulatory reporting, usually on wastewater
high-level turbidity methods, which include D7315. effluents. The technology is typically used in the assessment of
8.3.4.6 Reporting Units: AU and FAU. When using AU, it is raw waters and on corrosive samples such as in pulp and paper
recommended that the wavelength of the measurement also be applications. Since there are no matching benchtop or portable
reported. designs, the calibration or verification of this technology to a
8.3.5 Surface Scatter Technologies laboratory or portable instrument is not recommended.
8.3.5.1 Description—The detector centered at 90 degrees 8.3.5.4 ASTM Reference Documents—Refer to the ASTM
relative to the incident light beam. Both the detector and the high-level turbidity methods, which include D7315.
incident light source are mounted in a fixed position that is in 8.3.5.5 Reporting Units: SSU.
the same plane and immediately above the sample. The 8.3.6 Multi-Beam Ratio Technologies
incident light beam is projected upon the sample at approxi- 8.3.6.1 Description—The technology consists of two light
mately a 45-degree angle and is both scattered and reflected by sources and two detectors. The light sources comply with
particles to a detector. The view volume is beneath the surface ISO7027. The detectors are geometrically centered at 0º and
of the sample. The detector is positioned at the complementary 90º relative to each incident light beam. The instrument
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FIG. 5 Technology Diagram of a Surface Scatter Technology
measures in two phases in which the detectors are either at 0º ratio technique with a similar light source and can provide
or 90º relative to the incident light beam, depending on the good comparability for uses in verification.
phase. An instrument algorithm uses a combination of detector 8.3.6.4 Technology Configurations—The most common
readings that are ratioed to deliver the turbidity value. See Fig. configurations are for on-line and in-situ designs. Both appli-
6. cations use a solid-state light sources in the 860660-nm range.
8.3.6.2 Sample applications—Samples of low turbidity There are no known laboratory or portable designs.
commonly favor this configuration. The combination of the 8.3.6.5 ASTM Reference Documents—For low-level
long wavelength light source and the ratio technique provide turbidity, please refer to D6698 and D6855.
for color interference minimization. The technique is primarily 8.3.6.6 Reporting Units: FNMU.
process or in-situ based. It is commonly used for regulatory
8.3.7 Forward Scatter Technologies
compliance. Bubbles are an interference and must be removed
for most accurate measurements. Longer sample pathlengths 8.3.7.1 Description—The technology encompasses a single,
are available (between 2.0 and 10 cm) and provide for solid-state light source and either a single detector or multiple
low-level sensitivity. detectors (ratio). The detection angle for the forward scatter
8.3.6.3 Common Uses—This incorporates a ratio technique detector is between 0 and 90 degrees relative to the centerline
that provides for a stable optical system and is commonly used of the incident light beam. See Fig. 7. A second ratioing
for regulatory compliance reporting for USEPA or ISO meth- detector is typically used and will have a detection angle
ods. Sample measurement accuracy and sensitivity is necessary exactly at 0 degrees.
to measure turbidities below 0.1 units. All configurations are 8.3.7.2 Sample Applications:
either to an on-line or in-situ design. Currently, there are no 8.3.7.3 Common Uses: Drinking water, lakes, rivers,
laboratory or portable designs. The design is very close to a groundwater, oceans.
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FIG. 6 Diagram of a Multi-Beam Ratio Technology. The blue traces show the paths of the scattered light.
FIG. 7 Diagram of a Forward Scatter Ratio Technology
8.3.7.4 Technology Configurations: Portable and in-line de- tions are typically determined using standard materials that can
signs that use flow cell are available. In designs are typically be reproducibly prepared and introduced into the measurement
submersed in the sample for water quality measurements. scheme of the instrument.
8.3.7.5 Reporting Units: FSU for non-ratio and FSRU for 9.1.2 Performance specifications are typically derived under
ratio. controlled conditions using standard calibration materials.
These calibration materials typically have low color and
9. Turbidimeter Specifications absorbance interferences, which distinguishes them from most
9.1 The basis for performance specifications samples. Because of this difference, it is difficult to assess how
9.1.1 Definition—performance specifications are those an instrument will perform in the field when based solely upon
specifications that assess the instrument for analytical measure- performance specifications. Further, performance specifica-
ment capabilities. The four important performance specifications are normally derived under a given set of standardized
tions for turbidity include: accuracy, repeatability, sensitivity, conditions. These conditions typically include temperature and
and limit of detection (LOD). These performance specifica- humidity. These standardized conditions will often differ from
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the actual field conditions for a given instrument and it should ity of each concentrate Y-axis (vertical) is prepared. See Fig. 8.
not be assumed that they will transfer to any set of ambient or Areas with a positive slope will indicate instrument sensitivity
sample conditions in the field. and areas with a zero slope or negative slope will indicate poor,
9.1.2.1 It should never be expected for a given technology no sensitivity, or negative sensitivity (see Fig. 9).
that has specifications determined on calibration standards to (a) Fig. 8 displays three different sensor responses to
perform equally well on real world samples. Interferences such dilutions of a sample. After the data was plotted (as instructed
as those described in this practice will typically impact in 9.1.3.2) the slope of each sensor can be calculated. The
measurement technologies to some level. sensor with the highest slope (the blue trace) is the most
9.1.3 This guide recommends that testing be conducted as sensitive and would be the most appropriate technology to
close to field conditions as possible. This guide also recom- measure the turbidity of the sample. The sensor that represents
mends that the technology be evaluated using a range of real a more moderate slope (the pink trace) represents a positive
world samples that are expected from a given site. From this correlation and may or may not be adequate for sample
field evaluation, a more realistic assessment of instrument measurement, depending on the performance goals of the
performance can be determined. It may be impractical to derive application. The third sensor response (the red trace) shows
many of the specifications in the field, but two key criteria poor sensitivity and virtually no sensitivity at the higher
should be considered for most practical purposes in the field. concentrations of the sample. This sensor would likely fail to
These include sensitivity and stability.
meet the performance objectives for this sample.
9.1.4 Sensitivity—In turbidity, sensitivity is the ability for a
(b) Fig. 9 represents a generic response curve that is
given technology to detect a change in turbidity in a given
observed with turbidity sensors with a single detector system,
sample that is indeed due to turbidity. It is the turbidity change
the most common of which are nephelometric detectors. In this
is that observed above all instrument noise, and beyond all
figure, the response is typically linear at lower turbidity levels.
interference that may be present in the given sample. At
low-level turbidities, sensitivity is often tested through a limit The linearity continues until incident light penetration through
of detection test (LOD) or method detection limit test (MDL). the entire view volume of the sample begins to decrease,
This provides information on the bottom end of the measure- thereby reducing available light scatter. This results in non-
ment range, where turbidity detectability actually begins. For linearity though the correlation between turbidity and light
measurements above the LOD, sensitivity is very important to scatter is still positive. This positive response will eventually
determine if an instrument will adequately respond to a change diminish at a critical turbidity level when either the detector
in turbidity over an extended measurement range. This guide becomes saturated or light penetration into the sample begins
presents one common test that can be used to determine if a to decrease. At turbidity levels above this critical no response
given sensor’s responsiveness to changes for a given sample is level (the peak of the curve), the response may even begin to
adequate. The test is to prepare different dilutions of the sample decrease as light penetration into the sample continues to
under assessment and determine if instrument response corre- diminish. The graphs shows that a sensor that has a similar
lates to the different dilutions. profile will have an upper working limit, that can only be
9.1.4.1 The sample dilutions technique determines a given identified through a series of dilutions as described in 9.1.3.
sensor’s responsiveness to changes in given sample. Several (c) The procedure provided to determine sensor sensitivity
dilutions of the sample, that range from full strength (100 is intended to provide the user with an early assessment of a
percent concentrated) down to a dilution that meets or exceeds sensor’s performance for a given sample. In most cases, it
the low end turbidity that would be expected. Each dilution is would be expected that each assessment would need to be
prepared with low turbidity water. Each dilution starting with tailored to the respective application so it is in alignment with
the lowest expected turbidity (lowest percent of sample in a its monitoring goals. The procedure is not intended to deliver
dilution) is then measured. Table 4 provides an example of the highly accurate results nor is it intended to deliver a correlation
dilutions to be prepared in quantities of 1-liter Record several that would be expected to translate to other samples or sites.
measurements for each dilution, and then generate an average 9.1.5 System and Measurement Stability - Stability can
turbidity the dilution. refer to several conditions that include a sensor’s exposure to
9.1.4.2 A plot between the concentrations of the sample different sample and ambient temperatures, sample flow
(usually as a percentage of the most concentrated form of the variations, and environmental conditions.
sample) on the x-axis (horizontal) versus the measured turbid-
9.1.5.1 Ambient temperature stability generally infers that a
given measurement system (the sensor and supporting technol-
TABLE 4 Preparation of Dilutions to Determine Measurement ogy not vary in measurement (to within a given set of limits)
Sensitivity for a Given Sample Type over a given operational temperature range. The user should
Percent of Sample mL of Sample mL of Dilution Water consult the manufacturer for best practices to insure expected
(to make 1-Liter) (to make 1-Liter) performance criteria will be met. These best practices typically
10 100 900
20 200 800
cover calibration, installation, and maintenance to minimize
40 400 600 the impact of changing ambient temperatures. If extreme
60 600 400 ambient temperatures are expected to exceed the manufactur-
80 800 200
100 1000 0 er’s specifications, the user should take appropriate actions to
remedy the situation. An example would be to provide an
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FIG. 8 Scenarios for Turbidity Sensor Sensitivity
FIG. 9 Generic Response Curve for a Single Detector Turbidimeter System
external enclosure for the necessary components of a system settling within the sensor body, thereby compromising results.
that would be exposed to the temperature extremes. For in-line or in-situ applications, the position and depth of a
9.1.5.2 Sample flow stability can impact measurements and sensor into a sample stream (or sample line) can impact
is highly dependent on the application and is most critical in measurements as well.
on-line or slipstream instruments. In theory, a specified range (a) The tolerance to variations in flow rate on a given
of sample flow should be independent of the measurement for sample should be evaluated when using an on-line or slip-
a given sensor. However, excessive flow through a sensor can stream turbidimeters. The instrument should be installed with a
impact the efficiency of bubble removal systems these turbidi- flow control valve that can be used to change the flow as
meters. Conversely, too low of a flow could result in particle necessary. Some instruments require control of the flow prior
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to the sample reaching the instrument and others control the ment is used to verify a continuous monitoring instrument,
flow after the sample passes through the instrument, the measurement variability will be used when calibration is
selection of which is dependent upon the sensor design. Select performed using the same type of calibration materials.
the middle of the published flow range a given instrument to 10.3.3.2 Calibration of continuous instrumentation is can be
establish a measurement baseline. Then change the flow rate, performed using the same make and models of the instruments
by no more than 10 percent increments in either the positive or in the laboratory. Verification should then follow calibration.
negative direction, monitoring the baseline after each change. After the verification step is complete, the instruments are
Continue until a change in the baseline is observed that placed in their respective field sites. Once they are set up and
contributes to unacceptable measurement error. operational, re-verification of the deployed instruments should
9.1.5.3 Particulate stability is the ability for a sample to also be performed to confirm the instrumental performance
remain homogeneous as it passes through an instrument. At remained integral throughout the transportation to the site and
lower flow rates particles will may settle and cause a sample to subsequent installation. Once verification is confirmed, the
stratify. At high flow rates, bubbles may become a significant instrument can be expected to perform as expected from this
interference. point forward.
(a) Particulate settling can cause critical measurement (a) Refer to the Wagner, R.J. et al. for more information
errors for on-line or slipstream sensors. Inspect the flow-cells regarding this type of calibration.
for any evidence of settling. If settling is observed, clean the (b) A site maintenance schedule should be established for
flow cell and return sample flow to the sensor. Continue to each monitoring site that is in accordance with monitoring
incrementally increase the sample flow until particulate settling goals. The schedule should include the tasks for verification
no longer observed. and maintenance if deemed necessary. If maintenance was
9.1.6 Summary—The user should not expect any technology performed which could impact the measurement performance,
to perform equally over all temperatures and flow conditions. It then a final verification should be performed on the sensor prior
is important to identify the optimal boundaries that will yield to ending the visit.
consistent and meaningful results. Manufacturers typically 10.3.4 The technologies should be calibrated using the same
offer guidance on optimal operational conditions that can serve type of standards, if possible.
as a basis for evaluating sensor performance across expected 10.3.5 In many cases, the portable instrument may not have
monitoring conditions. the range of the continuous monitoring instrument. If this is the
case the range of verification is limited to the range of the
10. Calibration and Verification:
portable instrument.
10.1 Depending on the application and monitoring goals the 10.3.6 If possible, analyze samples in the field where
frequency of calibration and verification for a given technology numerous aliquots are possible if necessary.
may differ. It is important to consult the manufacturer’s
recommendations for calibration and verification practices and 10.4 Field Calibration of Sensors—If field calibration of a
protocols. sensor is performed, refer to the manufacturer’s instructions for
feasibility and recommendations. In addition, ASTM SSC
10.2 In the absence of manufacturer recommendations, refer Method, D3977, and Chapter 6.7 of the national field manual,
to the respective ASTM turbidity procedure for details on the and Wagner’s field manual.
calibration and verification procedures.
10.3 Comparative calibration and verification. It is common 11. Record Keeping
to compare measurements from a continuous or in-situ turbi- 11.1 Introduction—Metadata is very important when con-
dimeter to a portable or bench turbidimeter for the purpose of ducting a study. Metadata should be to the level of detail that
either calibration or to verify operational performance of the a post project review of a monitoring site or study could be
continuous monitoring turbidimeter. If this practice is conducted to a level to confirm data integrity. Metadata can
conducted, several precautions are warranted. help ensure a comprehensive overview of the history of the site
10.3.1 The bench or portable instrument that is used to and can help explain data deviations that were unexpected.
verify the continuous monitoring instrument should use a
similar measurement technology. Ideally, the technologies have 11.2 At a minimum, the metadata should contain site notes,
the same reporting units, as are those that are derived and instrument logs, calibration logs, verification logs, and records
described Table 1 and Section 7. of maintenance. Any unexpected observations with the site, the
10.3.2 For continuous monitoring technologies that do not sensors, or the ancillary support systems should also be longed.
have a technology laboratory or portable equivalent, the light The person performing the log entries should also be recorded.
source should be matched first, followed by the detection 11.2.1 Legible, detailed, and in-depth field notes and instru-
angle. Ratio designs will typically read higher because they ment logs are essential for accurate and efficient record
compensate more effectively for interferences. processing. Metadata is essential when examining old data and
10.3.3 Calibration of continuous field monitors assessing an unexpected change in measurement.
10.3.3.1 Consult manufacturer’s recommendations and in- 11.2.2 A dedicated, bound instrument log book or electronic
structions for performing calibrations on any turbidimeter. Any document should be maintained for each instrument used and
deviations from these procedures should be under consultation should document the use, calibration, and maintenance of all
with the manufacturer. When a laboratory or portable instru- equipment used in the collection of the optical readings.
16
D7726 − 11
Consideration should be made to insure the integrity of the turbidity) and whether the application requires static or con-
logged information is maintained. tinuous monitoring. From this information, refer to the refer-
11.2.3 Calibration information can be recorded initially on enced ASTM turbidity methods’ respective P&B
field forms or in field notebooks, but the information then must 12.1.2 Refer to ASTM research reports for details regarding
be copied into the instrument logbook. Repair or replacement sample descriptions to determine if a comparable matrix was
of sensors, meters, or modification to the software must be tested. Note: research reports are available from ASTM head-
recorded in the instrument logbook. The instrument logbook
quarters upon request.
should contain a complete record of all maintenance in the
field, the laboratory, or by the manufacturer. Permanent instru- 12.1.3 It is important to note that many of the ASTM P&B
ment logs contain critical calibration and maintenance infor- studies may not be sorted by measurement technology.
mation that documents instrument performance throughout the However, the existing data is still helpful in estimating the
service life of the instrument. Calibration information that is performance for a given application.
important to log for record processing includes: 12.1.4 The high-level and low-level static and in-situ meth-
Sensor repair or replacement; ods have more comprehensive round robin P&B and this may
Calibration dates, times, time datum, and temperatures; be helpful in ascertaining an appropriate technology.
Calibration standard values, expiration dates, and lot num-
bers; 13. Keywords
Initial and final monitor-calibration data; and
Field meter calibration values. 13.1 back-scatter; benchtop turbiditylight-scattering; con-
tinuous monitoring turbidity; in-situ turbidity; nephelometer;
12. Precision and Bias on-line turbidity; portable turbidity; ratio turbidity; sediments;
12.1 General Comments: turbidimeter; turbidity; turbidity application; turbidity interfer-
12.1.1 For a specific application, refer to Section 5. Esti- ences; turbidity meter; turbidity technology; turbidity units;
mate the expected range of measurement (high versus low water monitoring
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The Use of Various Turbidimeter Technologies For Measurement of Turbidity in Water

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Designation: D7726 − 11

Standard Guide for

1. Scope same. However, samples comprise of completely different

TABLE 2 Prework Prior to Technology Selection

TABLE 3 Empirical Sample Assessment

FIG. 2 Technology Diagram of a Nephelometric Ratio Technology

FIG. 5 Technology Diagram of a Surface Scatter Technology

FIG. 7 Diagram of a Forward Scatter Ratio Technology

FIG. 8 Scenarios for Turbidity Sensor Sensitivity

FIG. 9 Generic Response Curve for a Single Detector Turbidimeter System

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