Load & Trim Manual Rev 1

Doc Ref: SA-LT
EMB-145LR
Load & Trim
Training Manual
Authority: Director Flight operations

Email: [email protected]
Correspondence Address:
Registered Office: Star Air
Star Air Ghodawat Enterprises Pvt. Ltd.
Ghodawat Enterprises Pvt. Ltd. 2nd Floor, Block No. 3 Sindhu
#204, 28th Cross, 7th Block Logistics Park, No. 34 Nellakunte,
Jayanagar, Bangalore-560082 Bettahalsuru, Hunsemaranhalli (P),
Karnataka Bangalore-562157, Karnataka
Tel: +91 8071884600
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GENERAL ISSUE 01
FOREWORD REVISION 00 14 JUL 18
FOREWORD
GHODAWAT ENTERPRISES PVT. LTD. Shall be herein referred as STAR AIR

and company will operate Scheduled Commuter Airline Transport services
under brand name “STAR AIR”.
Load & Trim Training manual has been prepared on the basis of the
regulatory requirement specified in Civil Aviation Requirement, Section 8 –
Aircraft Operations Series ' D', part “Load and Trim sheet - requirements
thereof & training of concerned personnel”. This is manual is intended for
the Instructors carrying out Load and Trim training.
EMB-145specific information contained in this manual is based on Airplane

Flight Manual (AFM), OEM Weight and Balance Manual. In case of any
conflict in the data or information provided in this manual, data as given in
the AFM and Weight and Balance Manual will prevail.
This training manual will be referred by the Instructors for carrying out
initial, conversion, differences and refresher training. The Load and Trim
Training manual will consists of two parts, Part I & Part II.
Load & Trim Training-Part I deals with Load & Trim Training requirement,
syllabus, and policies.
Load Trim Training Manual-Part II contains the course material for the Load
& Trim Training. Part II will be distributed to Personnel undergoing Load &
Trim Training.
(Accountable Manager)
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GENERAL ISSUE 01
RECORD OF REVISIONS REVISION 01 14 MAY 20
RECORD OF REVISIONS
Responsibility for the content of the various parts of this manual is vested
on Director Flight Operations.
Any revision to the manual shall be shown by a vertical bar to the right
side of the revised data. The page number and revision number of the
effected page must be changed accordingly. The list of effective pages and
the history of revision page must be amended accordingly.
The person carrying our amendment shall append his signature &
designation along with the temporary amendment.
Revision Number Date Entered Revised by

(Signature & Name)
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GENERAL ISSUE 01
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HISTORY OF REVISIONS
Revision
Number Particulars of Revision Revision Date
L&T Manual Part II Ch. 6 Para 6.6 : TRIM SHEET

01 AUTOMATION – ARMS SOFTWARE
14 MAY 2020
L&T Manual Part II Appendix A : GROUND INITIAL &
01 RECURRENT TRAINING CARRICULAM SEGMENT FOR PILOTS
14 MAY 2020
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TRAINING MANUAL
GENERAL ISSUE 01
TABLE OF CONTENTS REVISION 00 14 JUL 18
Table of Contents PAGE

CHAP NO CONTENTS
FOREWORD
HISTORY OF REVISIONS
RECORD OF REVISIONS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
00 DEFINITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS

0.1 UNITS AND DIMENSIONS 01
0.2 LIST OF DEFINITIONS 10
0.3 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 15
LOAD & TRIM TRAINING MANUAL – PART I
01 INTRODUCTION
1.0 STAR AIR ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE 01
1.1 WEIGHT AND BALANCE 02
1.2 WEIGHT AND BALANCE CONTROL OF AIRCRAFT 02
1.3 LOAD & TRIM REQUIREMENTS 03
1.4 DEFINITIONS 03
1.5 GROUND HANDLING 04
02 WEIGHT AND BALANCE

2.0 INTRODUCTION 01
2.1 WEIGHT CONTROL 01
2.2 EFFECTS OF WEIGHT 02
2.3 WEIGHT LIMITATIONS 04
2.4 HOW STRUCTURAL LIMITATIONS AFFECT THE 08
PAYLOAD/CAPACITY
2.5 OPERATIONAL LIMITATIONS 09
2.6 OPERATIONAL WEIGHTS 12
2.7 EFFECTS OF AN OVERLOAD ON PERFORMANCE/SAFETY 14
2.8 INTRODUCTION TO AIRPLANE FLIGHT MANUAL (AFM) 17
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TRAINING MANUAL
GENERAL ISSUE 01
2.9 CAR REQUIREMENTS 22

2.10 DETERMINATION OF CORRECT MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE 25
TAKE-OFF AND LANDING WEIGHTS OF THE AIRCRAFT.
03 EMB-145 DESCRIPTIONS
3.0 EMB-145AIRCRAFT GENERAL DESCRIPTIONS 01
3.1 INTERIOR ARRANGEMENTS 03
3.2 EMB-145 INTERIOR ARRANGEMENTS-BASIC 08
CONFIGURATION
3.3 PASSENGER CABIN CROSS-SECTION 08
3.4 PASSENGERS 09
3.5 BAGGAGE WEIGHT AND LOCATION 10
04 LOAD & TRIM SHEET

4.0 REQUIREMENT OF QUALIFIED PERSONNEL 01
4.1 DUTIES & RESPONSIBILITIES OF QUALIFIED PERSONNEL 02
4.2 LOAD AND TRIM SHEET REQUIREMENTS 02
4.3 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS 06
4.4 REGULATORY REQUIREMENT FOR LOAD AND TRIM SHEET 08
4.5 INTRODUCTION TO LOAD AND TRIM SHEET 08
4.6 GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR PREPARATION OF LOAD 10
AND TRIM SHEET
4.7 PROCESS INVOLVED IN THE MAKING OF LOAD AND TRIM 12
SHEET
4.8 LOADING INSTRUCTION REPORT (LIR) 17
4.9 RECORDS TO BE MAINTAINED AND MANNER OF 21
PRESERVATION
05 LOADING AND SECURING

5.0 LOADING AND SECURING 01
5.1 INSTRUCTIONS FOR SAFE LOADING 01
5.2 ADJUSTMENT OF LOADS AND EFFECT ON CG 02
5.3 EFFECT ON CG WHEN LOAD IS ADDED, REMOVED OR 03
SHIFTED
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TRAINING MANUAL
GENERAL ISSUE 01
5.4 LOADING LIMITATIONS 04

5.5 LOAD SHIFT DURING FLIGHT 05
5.6 TYPES OF RESTRAINING EQUIPMENT 06
5.7 LOAD FACTOR 07
5.8 OVERLOADING OF AIRCRAFT (REF ASC 05 /1997) 07
5.9 RESTRICTION TO HAND BAGGAGE SIZE TO BE CARRIED IN 09
AIRCRAFT CABIN
LOAD & TRIM TRAINING MANUAL – PART II
01 LOAD AND TRIM TRAINING REQUIREMENTS

1.0 TRAINING PROGRAMME 01
1.1 BASIC INDOCTRINATION / INITIAL GROUND TRAINING 02
1.2 CONVERSION / TRANSITION TRAINING 05
1.3 REFRESHER / RECURRENT TRAINING 05
1.4 DIFFERENCES TRAINING 07
1.5 COMPETENCY CHECK FOR PERSONNEL 08
1.6 OPERATING EXPERIENCE 08
1.7 TRAINING INFRASTRUCTURE AND PROGRAMME 09
02 HISTORY OF AVIATION
2.0 HISTORY OF AVIATION 01
2.1 HISTORY OF AVIATION IN INDIA 04
03 THEORY OF FLIGHT
3.0 INTRODUCTION 01
3.1 STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE 01
3.2 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE 03
3.3 EFFECTS OF PRESSURE ON DENSITY 03
3.4 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON DENSITY 04
3.5 EFFECT OF HUMIDITY ON DENSITY 04
3.6 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION AND FORCE 05
3.7 BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE OF PRESSURE 06
3.8 AIRFOIL DESIGN 07
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TRAINING MANUAL
GENERAL ISSUE 01
3.9 FORCES ACTING ON THE AIRPLANE 14

3.10 AXES OF AN AIRPLANE 26
3.11 AIRCRAFT CONTROL SURFACE 28
3.12 COCKPIT (FLIGHT DECK) DESCRIPTIONS 34
04 PRINCIPLES OF WEIGHT & BALANCE

4.0 INTRODUCTION 01
4.1 MOMEMNT, MOMENT ARM 01
4.2 MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD 02
4.3 STABILITY AND BALANCE CONTROL 04
4.4 CALCULATIONS - WEIGHT OF BALANCE 09
4.5 AIRCRAFT CENTRE OF GRAVITY 15
4.6 THE SAFE RANGE – MAC % 18
4.7 EFFECTS OF CG LOCATION AND SHIFT 19
4.8 FACTORS SHIFTING THE CG DURING THE FLIGHT 20
05 WEIGHT & BALANCE COMPUTATION
5.0 INTRODUCTION- BASIC PRINCIPLES OF WEIGHT & 01
BALANCE COMPUTATION
5.1 WEIGHT AND BALANCE RESTRICTIONS 05
5.2 DETERMINING LOADED WEIGHT AND CG 06
5.3 MAXIMUM GROSS WEIGHT AND CENTER OF GRAVITY 10
LIMITS (EMB-145 LR)
5.4 MOMENT/CG CHANGES (EMB-145 LR) 10
5.5 FUEL DATA - EMB-145 12
5.6 MISCELLANEOUS FLUIDS – EMB 145 LR 13
5.7 PITCH TRIM SETTINGS
5.8 FLIGHT CREW ITEMS (EMB-145 LR) 14
5.9 BAGGAGE LOADING PROCEDURES 15
5.10 INDEX SYSTEM 15
5.11 INDEX INFLUENCE 19
5.12 FUEL INDEX VARIATION 21
5.13 OEW/OEI DETERMINATION 22
5.14 CENTER OF GRAVITY CURTAILMENTS 24
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GENERAL ISSUE 01
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5.15 EMB 145 LR – CONSTRAINED CG ENVELOPE 25

5.16 STAR AIR LOAD SHEET - SAMPLE 36
06 LOAD SHEET EXPLANATION
6.1 LOAD CONTROL IATA CODES 01
6.2 SPECIMEN OF AUTOMATED/COMPUTARIZED LOAD-SHEET 02
6.3 EXPLANATION – AUTOMATED LOADSHEET 04
6.4 SPECIMEN OF MANUAL LOAD-SHEET 07
6.5 EXPLANATION – MANUAL LOAD SHEET 08
6.6 TRIM SHEET AUTOMATION – ARMS SOFTWARE 11
07 DANGEROUS GOODS
7.0 DEFINITION OF DANGEROUS GOODS 01
7.1 MAIN CATEGORIES OF DANGEROUS GOODS 02
7.2 CLASSIFICATION OF DANGEROUS GOODS 03
7.3 STORING AND LOADING OF DANGEROUS GOODS 04
7.4 LOADING RESTRICTIONS FOR DANGEROUS GOODS 06
7.5 LOADING RESTRICTIONS FOR DANGEROUS GOODS ON 06
PASSENGER AIRCRAFT
7.6 LOADING OF INCOMPATIBLE DANGEROUS GOODS 07
7.7 INSPECTION OF PACKAGES OF DANGEROUS GOODS 09
7.8 SECURING AND SEPARATING OF DANGEROUS GOODS 10
7.9 STOWAGE OF TOXIC AND INFECTIOUS SUBSTANCES 10
7.10 LOADING OF LIVE ANIMALS WITH DANGEROUS GOODS 11
7.11 LOADING OF PACKAGES CONTAINING LIQUID DANGEROUS 11
GOODS
7.12 LOADING AND STOWAGE OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL 12
7.13 LOADING OF MAGNETIZED MATERIALS 15
7.14 LOADING OF WHEEL CHAIRS WITH SPILL ABLE 15
BATTERIES
7.15 PROCEDURE FOR CARRIAGE OF COMPANY MATERIALS 18
(COMAT)
7.16 MARKING AND LABELING OF PACKAGES 18
7.17 INTRODUCTION TO SPECIAL LOAD NOTIFICATION 25
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GENERAL ISSUE 01 TR 01
TABLE OF CONTENTS REVISION 00 09 JUN 2020
7.18 DANGEROUS GOODS CARRIAGE BY CREW AND 29

PASSENGERS
7.19 TRANSPORTATION OF DRY ICE 32
APPENDIX A PILOTS – GROUND INITIAL & RECURRENT TRAINING

CARRICULAM SEGMENT
1 GROUND INITIAL & RECURRENT TRAINING CARRICULAM 01
SEGMENT FOR PILOTS
APPENDIX B PILOTS - GROUND RECURRENT TRAINING CURRICULUM
SEGMENT –DISTANCE LEARNING
1 GROUND INITIAL & RECURRENT TRAINING CURRICULUM 01
SEGMENT FOR PILOTS
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EMB-145LR
Load & Trim
Training Manual
Part I
Tel: +91 8071884600
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Part I
ISSUE 01 14 JUL 18
COVER REV 00
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Manual
Chapter 00: Definitions and ISSUE 01

Abbreviations
INDEX REVISION 00 14 JUL 18
INDEX
CHP.NO. Contents Page No.
00 DEFINITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS
0.1 UNITS AND DIMENSIONS 01
0.2 LIST OF DEFINITIONS 10
0.3 15
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
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Manual
Chapter 00: Definitions and ISSUE 01

Abbreviations
INDEX REVISION 00 14 JUL 18
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Part I
Chapter 00 ISSUE 01
Definitions and REVISION 00 14 JUL 18

Abbreviations
Definitions and Abbreviations
0.1 Units and Dimensions
Mass
Mass is the measure of the amount of matter contained in a body. It is measured in kg

(in Standard International or SI unit). Mass can neither be created, nor destroyed, but
converted to another form of energy. It, therefore, remains constant. It is different than
the term weight of a body that we are used to, which is explained below later.
Length
Length is the linear dimension of a body or distance between two points and is measured
in meters (SI unit). Other non-SI terms are feet, inches, cm, etc.
Time
The standard unit of time is a second (SI unit). Minutes and hours are multiples of the
basic unit second.
Distance
For the purpose of navigation on the earth, the distance between two points on the
surface of the earth are measured in nautical miles. In aviation, nm is accepted as a
common standard unit, though Statute Mile and kilometres are also used in different
countries. All three are compared below: -
1. Nautical Mile. One nm is the arc distance on the surface of the earth, which
makes one-minute angle at the centre of the earth.
2. Statute Mile. It was an arbitrary distance laid down still carrying on in UK

andUSA.
3. Kilometre. It is another way of measuring the distance. One km is the

1/10,000part of the distance between equator and the pole along the meridian
on the earth. It is equal to 1000 meters.
1 NM = 6080 feet
Doc Ref: SA-LT1-01
Part I
Chapter 00 ISSUE 01
Definitions and REVISION 00 14 JUL 18

Abbreviations
1 SM = 5280 feet
1 KM = 3280 feet
Mutual conversion between NM, SM, KM
1 NM = 1.15 SM;
1 SM = 1.6 KM
1 NM= 1.85 KM
Height
Height is the vertical distance of any object above a given datum or reference. Meter is
the standard unit to measure any length, including height, in physics. But in aviation, in
most of the countries, feet are still carrying on as an acceptable unit for vertical
measurement. Russia, France, China are using meters.
1 meter = 3.28 feet
1 foot = 0.3048 meters

Doc Ref: SA-LT2-00
Part II
Chapter 00 ISSUE 00
Definitions and Abbreviations REVISION 00 14 JUNE 18
Area
Area of regular shapes can be found out by mathematical formulae. Area is measured in
square meters in SI units (or square inches, square miles, etc, can be square of any
length dimensions in other units). Area is a two-dimensional measure such as floor area
of a room or a plot of land. Area of some of the regular shapes is given below: -
Shape Area Units
Rectangle Length x breadth Sq m
Square Side x Side; = square of side Sq m
Circle ∏ R 2; where∏=22/7 and R is

Sq m
radius
Right-angle Triangle ½ x base x height Sq m
Volume
Volume of any solid three-dimensional object, such as a box or a room or a tank, is a

measure of its capacity. It is measured in cubic meters in SI units. Volume of a
rectangular box equals to length x breadth x height. Since length x breadth also equals
to area of its floor, volume is also equal to floor area x height. There are different
formulae to calculate volume of other different solid shapes such as a sphere, cone, etc.
Length x Breadth x Cu m
Volume = Height
Volume = Floor Area x Height Cu m
In aviation, different countries use different units while measuring the volume of the
liquids (fuel and oils). UK still used Imperial Gallon, USA has US gallons (different from
Imp Gals) and Europe uses Litres.
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Chapter 00 ISSUE 00
1 Litre = 1000 cubic centimeters
1 Imp Gallons = 4.546 Litres
1 US Gallon = 3.785 Liters
1 Imp Gallon = 1.2 US Gallon
Scalar Quantity
Those quantities, which have only a magnitude, are termed as scalar quantities. Scalar
quantities do not have any direction. Mass, weight, length, pressure, etc., are scalar
quantities.
Vector Quantity
Those quantities, which have the magnitude as well as direction of the magnitude, are
termed as vector quantities. Wind Velocity is a vector quantity since it has magnitude
(speed) as well as direction along which it is blowing.
Speed
Speed is rate of change of displacement (or distance) of any object. Meters per second
is the SI unit for speed. Speed is a scalar quantity since it does not have a direction,
where as velocity is a vector quantity.
Distance
Speed = m/s
Time
In aviation, most of the aircraft use Knots (Nautical miles per hour) as unit of
speed. Velocity
Velocity of an object is its rate of change of displacement or distance in a particular

direction. Velocity is a vector quantity since it has both speed and direction. Meters
persecond is the SI unit for velocity.
Distance
Velocity = m/s In a given direction
Time
Page 4 of 20
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Part II
Chapter 00 ISSUE 00
Acceleration
Rate of change of velocity is acceleration. It is measures in meters per second square

in SI units. It is synonymous to the “pick-up” that we are used to while driving a car. A
good pick-up means that the acceleration is greater.
Velocity
Acceleration = m/s2In a given direction
Time
Gravity
All planets attract other planets and objects towards its centre. This force of attraction is
termed as gravity. The earth attracts all objects towards its centre due to earth’s gravity.
Force of gravity between any two heavenly bodies is proportional to the mass of two
bodies and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them (Newton’s
Law of gravitation).
Acceleration due to Earth’s gravity
A freely falling object will accelerate towards the centre of a planet due to its gravity
(which depends basically on its mass). On earth’s surface, the acceleration due to
gravity is 9.81 m/s2.
2
Acceleration due to = 9.81 m/s Towards the centre of the
gravity (g) earth
Weight
When you stand on a weighing scale, you get your weight (on earth!!). The weighing
scale offers a reaction, which is equal and opposite (in direction) to the force due to
gravity, which is pulling us towards the centre of the earth. Thus, when you are
stationary on the scale, the weight equals to the force due to gravity, which equals to
mass x acceleration due to gravity. The unit of weight is Newton in SI units. We
wrongly use the term kg for the weight.
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Weight = Mass x g Newton Always acting towards the centre of the earth
Your weight if taken on moon will be one sixth since the moon’s gravity is almost one
sixth that of the earth’s gravity.
Centre of Gravity (CG)
The Centre of Gravity (CG) of a body or an object is point where the entire weight of a
body or an object acts or appears to act. The weight vector, therefore, is always placed
at the CG of an aeroplane. When in flight or in space, all the moments take place about
the CG of the body. For a ring like object, the CG lies outside the object. For a rotating
mass at high speed, such as the car wheels, the CG of the wheel must lie at the axis of
rotation for least vibrations. This is the reason that we carry out the “balancing” of the
wheels.
Density
Density is applicable to the fluids, such as air, gas, etc. Density of the air indicates its
concentration as to how dense or thin is the air. Density is mass per unit volume. The SI
unit is Kg/cu m.
Mass
Density = Kg/cu m or kg / m3
Volume
The density of air at mean sea level is 1.225 kg/cubic meter. It means that in a volume
of one cubic metre, there is 1.225 kg of air. The density reduced with height, means
the mass of air per cubic meter is decreasing.
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Moment of a Force
Turning effect created by a force is termed as its Moment. Moment of a force is

proportional to the magnitude of the force and the perpendicular distance between the
line of action of the force and the pivot point or the point about which the moment is
considered. Newton Metre is the standard unit (SI).
Arm
Moment of a Force = Force x Arm N m
Earth
Shape
Earth is an oblate spheroid. It means that its equatorial diameter is slightly more than
the polar diameter. However, it is to be taken as a perfect sphere for aviation purpose.
Rotation and axis of rotation
The earth rotates from west to east about its axis of rotation once in 24 hours. This
makes the day and night cycle. All the heavenly bodies, such as sun, moon, stars,
therefore, rise in the east and set in the west.
North and South Poles
The two ends of the axis of rotation at the surface of the earth are termed as poles, one
as North (Arctic end) and the other as South Pole (Antarctic end).
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Equator
Equator is an imaginary line on the surface of the earth running in east-west direction
equidistant from both the poles. It divides the earth sphere into two equal halves,
northern hemisphere and the southern hemisphere.
Orbit around the Sun
The earth also orbits around the sun. One orbit of earth around the sun defines one-year
period. The axis of rotation is inclined to the plane of orbit at 66½º angle, and continues
to point (tilt) in one direction in space throughout this orbit. This makes the sun traverse
23½º north and south of equator in a cyclic swing once a year making winters and
summer seasons in both the hemisphere.
Direction
The directional reference is the North Pole, termed as true north. Directions are
measured from the True north in a clockwise direction from 000º to 360º.
Latitude
Latitude of a place in the surface of the earth is the angular difference between the
equator and the place measured along the meridian passing through that place. It is
measured from 0º to 90º North or South depending upon the location of the place in
Northern or Southern hemisphere.
Longitude
Longitude of a place is the angular difference between the Prime Meridian (Meridian
passing through Greenwich, London) and the meridian of the place measured along the
equator. It is measured from 0º to 180º East or West of the Prime Meridian.
Position on Surface
Position of any point on the earth is generally represented in latitude and longitude of
that place. For example, Malacca’s location can be reported in Lat Long as 02º23’02’’N
102º15’02”E. It means that Malacca is 2 degrees 23 minutes 2 seconds north of equator
and is 102 degrees 15 minutes 2 seconds east of Prime Meridian.
Time difference between two countries
Two countries N and D are located diametrically opposite on earth. When there is mid
day at point D, we see that there is mid night at point N. Therefore, we cannot have
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same conditions of either day or night throughout the world at the same time. There will
be a time difference between various countries as long as they are lying at different
meridians around the globe.
LMT
LMT stands for Local Mean Time. LMT at any place is 1200 noon when the sun is
vertically above that place. LMT therefore is related to passage of Sun at any place. As
compared to midday or noon, the Sun will rise about six hour before midday, say 0600
hrs LMT and set after about six hours after noon, say 1800 hrs local mean time. In the
above diagram, when the local time at D is 1200 hrs, the local time at N is 0000 hours
or midnight. LMT is important for local activities in a given area, which are related to
sunrise and sunset.
GMT
GMT stands for Greenwich Mean Time. It is the local mean time of Greenwich Lab at
London. The sun is vertical over Greenwich at 1200 GMT.
UTC
UTC stands for Universal Time Co-ordinate. For global navigation, arrival and
departures, we have to follow ONE common time reference for the all flights world over,
since they all are flying similar routes but from different countries. All flights therefore
have to follow one universally accepted time. We all have accepted GMT as the universal
time in aviation. UTC is therefore same as GMT.
we see that there is mid night at point N. Therefore, we cannot have same conditions of
either day or night throughout the world at the same time. There will be a time
difference between various countries as long as they are lying at different meridians
around the globe.
Standard Time
Depending on the location east or west of the Prime Meridian (at Greenwich), all
countries have their Country’s Standard Time ahead or behind the UTC.
The countries east of Greenwich will be ahead of the UTC. (Fast on UTC)
The countries west of Greenwich will be behind the UTC. (Slow on UTC)
Indian Standard Time is 5½ hours ahead of UTC.
Indian Standard Time = UTC + 5.30 hrs
When it is midnight at Greenwich (0000 hrs GMT or UTC), it is 0530 hrs Indian Standard
time. When it is midday at Greenwich (1200 hrs GMT or UTC), it is 1730 hrs Indian
Standard time.
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All flight plans and position reporting has to be done in UTC. Therefore, pilots must be
fluent in conversion from Standard Time to UTC and vice versa as per the country they
are flying in.
0.2 List of Definitions
TERM DEFINITION
An imaginary point forward of the aircraft from which all

Datum Point Weight and Balance related Measurements are calculated
The point in an object (such as an aero plane) through
Centre of Gravity which all of the weight contained within acts as a
concentrated force.
The safe range within which the Centre of Gravity
may rest in an Aircraft. Outside of this safe range, it is

Safe Range not possible for the aircraft instruments and control
surfaces to compensate for any discrepancy.
The location of the Centre of Gravity, informing the

Trim settings for the Horizontal Stabilizer.
A document that specifies all load on the aircraft by
Load sheet load and distribution.
Unit Load Device A device used to increase the efficiency and safety of
loading aircraft equipped with mechanized holds
and/or compartments.
The Maximum weight that the aircraft may attain
before the addition of fuel. The MZFW is a structural

Maximum Zero Fuel limitation designed to ensure that stress is not placed
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Weight on the wing root that is in excess of the aircraft
structural capability.
The Maximum weight that the aircraft may attain at
the commencement of the Take-Off roll. This is a

Maximum Take-Off structural and performance limitation designed to
Weight
ensure that the load on the aircraft is such that it is
within the performance capability of the aircraft to
become airborne within certified parameters.
The Maximum weight that the aircraft may attain prior

Maximum Ramp to Taxiing
Weight
The Maximum weight that the aircraft may attain at

Maximum Landing Landing. A structural limitation designed to limit the
Weight
stress.
A function that provides for the correct loading of an
aircraft and ensuring that that aircraft is loaded within

Load Control legal limits in terms of load, distribution and centre of
gravity limits.
Load Planning The Load Planning Process involves pre-planning the
load distribution on an aircraft to ensure that the
result of loading will be within the specified limitations
and maxima for that aircraft.
Various restraint devices for Unit Load Devices to
lock them into position on the aircraft, preventing

Restrain Locks and movement during all flight conditions. Restraint is
Latches
normally lateral, longitudinal and/or vertical.
A portion of a flight flown from one departure point to
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Leg the next arrival point directly.
A portion of a flight flown from one departure point to

Segment any arrival point down line, may include several stops
or ‘legs’ along the route.
The amount of weight remaining under the maximum
allowable weight of an aircraft when loaded. Under load
will be based on the limiting weight arrived at during

Under load weight and balance/load control calculations. For
example, if Zero Fuel Weight (ZFW) is the limiting
weight, then under load will be the amount of weight
under the Maximum Zero Fuel Weight (MZFW).
A graphical diagram that indicates the forward, aft
upper and lower limits of allowable trim so that an

Trim Envelope aircraft is with these limits at Take-Off and Zero Fuel
Weight and all points in between, when specific loading
data is calculated on the trim envelope.
Centre of Gravity The point on an aircraft where all of the weight acts
as a concentrated force
Transship Load that is destined for transfer directly between
aircraft at an intermediate point where the transfer
occurs. Such load is accepted from he point of origin to
the final destination and may be ‘transshipped’
between two (2) or more flights.
Load that requires special handling, loading or other
consideration. May include Dangerous Goods (within

Special Load allowable quantities based on the IATA Dangerous
Goods Regulations and applicable national laws) or
other special load such as live animals or food stuffs,
etc.
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Articles or substances which pose a risk to the safe
operation of an aircraft if not packaged, accepted and

Dangerous Goods loaded in accordance with the packaging and
handling/ loading requirements and limits imposed by
ICAO, IATA or national laws and restrictions imposed
by the airline operator.
Load that is being loaded at the current departure
Joining Load station.
Load that is already on the aircraft at the time of

Transit Load arrival and is remaining on board for carriage to
down line destinations.
Refers to a point further along the routing of the flight

Down line in the direction of travel. The next destination of a
flight is therefore down line from the current departure
A departure or arrival point that is along the routing of
the flight prior to the current departure station. The

Up line previous port(s) visited would therefore be up line from
the current departure station.
A unit of measurement that serves to aid in
calculation of centre of gravity and is based on a

Index Unit formula specified by the Weight Control Authority
(WCA) arrived at by multiplication of weight x moment arm.
A position on an aircraft that would normally

NOFIT accommodate a ULD but has been left empty in
accordance with a legal loading configuration
An area that is part of a Hold and is designated for
the loading of cargo. On bulk loaded aircraft,
compartments within a Hold are separated by netting.
On mechanised (ULD carrying) aircraft, the separation
between compartments is usually occurs at a point

Compartment
where certain ULD locks are placed so that load in one
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compartment can be physically determined and
separated from load in the next compartment. Where
an aircraft contains mechanized and non-mechanised
(bulk) compartments, a net or other barrier will
normally separate the compartments.
A device applied to spread load of a heavy object
over an area greater than the surface area of that
object. The use of spreaders is based on a particular

Spreader formula, the result being that the weight is spread
over a greater area, thereby avoiding the possibility of
exceeding floor or running load limits by distributing
weight over a greater area.
Refers to published standard weight constants for
various items of aircraft load, such as but not limited

Standard Weights to, Crew and Pantry Weights, Crew Baggage, ULD Tare
Weights and other common operational items.
The weight of the flying machine with all items of fixed
equipment including electronic equipments and all
furnishing viz. pax seat with life vests and foot rest,
Basic Weight partitions, carpets and curtains, emerge equipment,
portable oxygen bottles, potable water and unusable
quantity of fuel, system oil and fluid and full quantity of
oil and fluids in tanks exception usable fuel.
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0.3 List of abbreviations
The following table provides an explanation of common abbreviations used throughout

this manual along with the IATA codes in general.
Abbreviations Explanations
A/C Aircraft
AC Advisory Circular
AHM Airport Handling Manual (IATA)
A/C Communication Addressing and Reporting

ACARS System
AFT Rear
AFTN Aeronautical Fixed Telecommunications Network
AEP Airport Emergency Plan
AIP Aeronautical information Publications
AOC Air Operator Certificate
AOG Aircraft On Ground (IATA IMP Code)
ASM Additional Security Measures
ATA Actual Time of Arrival
ATC Air Traffic Control
ATD Actual Time of Departure
AVI Live Animal (IATA IMP Code)
BIG Outsized Cargo (IATA IMP Code)
BO Burn Off – Fuel Burned from commencement of
take-off roll to completion of landing roll, also
known as Trip Fuel
C IATA Load Code for Cargo
CAO Cargo Aircraft Only – I.e. Only permitted on
Cargo Aicraft (IATA IMP Code)
CEO Chief Executive Officer
Cm Centimetre
CMM Component Maintenance Manual
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CPM Container/Pallet Manifest or Message
CRM Crew Resource Management
D IATA Load Code for Crew Baggage (Duty)
DCS Departure Control System
DGs Dangerous Goods (also ‘DG’)
DGD Dangerous Goods ‘Shippers Declaration’ (IATA
IMP Code)
DIP Diplomatic Locker or Courier (Industry Code)
Dolly Trailer used to transport Unit Load Device(s)
DOW Dry Operating Weight
EAT Foodstuffs (IATA IMP Code)
EICAS Engine Indication And Crew Alerting System
EDP Electronic Data Processing (System)
EIC Equipment In Compartment
ER Extended Range
ERM Emergency Response Manual
ETA Estimated Time of Arrival
ETD Estimated Time of Departure
ETOPs Extended Range Twin Engine Operations
FAA Federal Aviation Administration (United States of
America)
FD Flight Deck (Cockpit)
FIL Undeveloped Photographic Film (IATA IMP Code)
FL Flight Level
FM Frequency Modulation
FO or F/O First Officer
FOD Foreign Object Debris (also Foreign Object
Damage)
Fore Forward
Ft Foot or Feet (Imperial Measurement)
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GENDEC General Declaration
GMT Greenwich Mean Time
GPU Ground Power Unit
GSE Ground Support Equipment
HEG Hatching Eggs (IATA IMP Code)
HRS Hours (used with 24 hour clock)
HUM Human Remains in Coffins
IATA International Air Transport Association
ICAO International Civil Aviation Organisation
IMP Interline Messaging Procedure (IATA)
LMC Last Minute Change
LDM Load Distribution Message (or ‘Load Message’)
JAA Joint Airworthiness Authority (Europe)
Kg Kilogram
Km Kilometer
Kts Knots
L Liters
L/H Left Hand or Port Side
L1 Cabin Door – Left One
L2 Cabin Door – Left Two, etc. (specify side of
aircraft as L for Left or R for Right and the door
number, forward to rear).
LIR Loading Instruction Report
M Meters
M IATA Load Code for Mail (also used as a Class
Code on some carriers for Economy)
MAG Magnetic Material (IATA IMP Code)
MBRW Maximum Brakes Release Weight – alternative
term for MTOW (Maximum Take-Off Weight)
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RPB Toxic Substances (IATA IMP Code)
RPG Toxic Gas (IATA IMP Code)
RPT Regular Public Transport
RRE Excepted Packages of Radioactive Material(IATA
IMP Code)
RRW Radioactive Material – White Label (IATA IMP
Code)
RRY Radioactive Material – Yellow Label (IATA IMP
Code)
RSB Polymeric Beads (IATA IMP Code)
RSC Spontaneously Combustible (IATA IMP Code)
RXB Explosives Division/Compatibility Group Code
1.4B (IATA IMP Code)
RXC Explosives Division/Compatibility Group Code
1.4C (IATA IMP Code)
RXD Explosives Division/Compatibility Group Code
1.4D (IATA IMP Code)
RXE Explosives Division/Compatibility Group Code
1.4E (IATA IMP Code)
RXG Explosives Division/Compatibility Group Code
1.4G (IATA IMP Code)
RXS Explosives Division/Compatibility Group Code
1.4S
SLS Statistical Load Summary
SMC Surface Movement Control
SMS Safety Management System
SO Second Officer
SOP Standard Operating Procedure(s)
STA Scheduled Time of Arrival
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STD Scheduled Time of Departure
Starboard Right Hand Side of the aircraft when looking
toward the nose from the tail
STF Standard Taxi Fuel
Trip Fuel or TF The Fuel (Burn off) from commencement of the
Take-off roll to the completion of the Landing
TSP Transport Security Program
UHF Ultra High Frequency (Radio Communications)
U/S Unserviceable
UCM ULD Control Message
ULD Unit Load Device
UTC Universal Time Coordinate
VAL Valuable Cargo (IATA IMP Code)
VHF Very High Frequency (Radio Communications)
W&B Weight and Balance
WET Wet Cargo
X IATA Load Code for Empty (or Empty ULD)
XPS Priority Small Package (IATA IMP Code)
ZFW Zero Fuel Weight (see also ETW or Empty Tanks
weight)
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Manual
Chapter 01 ISSUE 01
Introduction REVISION 00 14 JUL 18
INDEX
01 INTRODUCTION
1.0 STAR AIR ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE 01
1.1 WEIGHT AND BALANCE 02
1.2 WEIGHT AND BALANCE CONTROL OF AIRCRAFT 02
1.3 LOAD & TRIM REQUIREMENTS 03
1.4 DEFINITIONS 03
1.5 GROUND HANDLING 04
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CHAPTER 1 ISSUE 01
Introduction
The corporate Address is as follows:
Star Air
Ghodawat Enterprises Pvt. Ltd. (Aviation Division)
2nd Floor,Block No.3 Sindhu Logistics Park,
No.34,Nellakunte,Bettahalsuru,Hunsemaranhalli
Bangalore - 562157, Karnataka
Tel - +91 8071884600
Email : [email protected]
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1.1 Weight and balance
Ref: Rule 58 ,Aircraft rules of 1937
(1) Every aircraft shall be weighed and appropriately marked

and centre of gravity determined. The weight schedule and
the load sheet indicating the calculated centre of gravity
position(s) relating to the required configuration(s) shall be
displayed or carried on board an aircraft subject to such
conditions as may be specified by the Director-General.
(2) (a) An aircraft shall not attempt to take off, fly or land at a
weight in excess of the maximum permissible weight as
specified in the certificate of airworthiness or as authorised
by the Director-General.
(b) The load of an aircraft throughout a flight including take-

off and landing shall be so distributed that the centre of
gravity position of the aircraft falls within the limitations
specified or approved by the Director-General
1.2 Weight and Balance Control of Aircraft.
CAR Section 2 Series X Part II dated 01 Dec 2010 lays down

the frequency of weighment and preparation of weight schedule
and also the requirement about display or carriage of the weight
schedule on board besides the manner of distribution and
securing the load in the aircraft.
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1.3 Load & Trim Requirements
CAR Section 8 Series D Part I dated 20 Dec 2015 states that

“Under sub rule 2 (b) of rule 58 of the Aircraft Rules 1937, it is
stipulated that "The load of an aircraft throughout the flight
including take-off and landing shall be so distributed that the
centre of gravity position of the aircraft falls within the
limitations specified or approved by the Director General." It is
also necessary that the aircraft is loaded within specified limits
to ensure safe operation”
1.4 Definitions
Empty Weight : Means the measured or computed weight of an

aircraft, excluding the weight of all removable equipment and
other items of disposable load, but including the weight of all
items of fixed operating equipment or other equipment which
are mandatory for all operations like fixed ballast, engine
coolant, hydraulic fluid and fuel and oil quantities (both trapped
and unusable) in the aircraft and engine system.
Limits of Centre of Gravity : Means the most forward and most

rearward Centre of Gravity position within which an aircraft
may be operated safely. These limits are specified in Certificate
of Airworthiness/Flight Manual of an aircraft.
Maximum Take-off Weight : Means the maximum weight,

according to its Certificate of Airworthiness or Flight Manual, at
which an aircraft is permitted to take-off.
Removable Equipment : Means items of equipment which are

carried on some of or on all flights, but which are not included in
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Empty weight and which are not mandatory for the type of
operation being conducted.
1.5 Ground Handling
Star Air Ground Handling Procedures Manual(GHM) provides

information , roles and responsibilities to staff associated with
ground handling at Home Base and at destinations. Ground
Handling functions will include the following;.
a. Ramp Operations
b. Passenger Services
c. Baggage Services
d. Cabin Services
e. Weight & Balance Control
f. Ground Support Equipment
g. Fuel Services
1.5.1 Boarding Procedures
After check-in closure, the final figures are passed to the

Dispatcher detailing the number and classification of
passengers checked-in (adults, children, infants), the sequence
numbers used, the total number of pieces and, where
applicable, weight of baggage, as well as details of any special
handling. The final stage of the ground handling process,
boarding, is now ready to commence. Boarding will commence
once all the passengers have disembarked, after the anti
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sabotage check is completed and engineering clearance

obtained.
a) At STD –30, an assembly call is made advising
passengers that flight will shortly be boarding and
requesting them to assemble at their assigned gate.
b) Final figures must be available at the Boarding Gate as
soon as the counter is closed and STD –30.
c) Boarding must commence no later than std-30 for
aircraft originating from your station, and no later than
std-20 on turnarounds.
d) A Pre-Board announcement is made to assemble
families with young children or passengers requiring
assistance to come forward for boarding first.
e) The gate agent greets each passenger as they approach
gate and requests their boarding card.
f) The gate agent checks each boarding card to confirm
correct flight number and date.
g) Staff should watch passengers to ensure that none are

carrying items too large to be stored in the cabin of the
aircraft. Advice any passengers carrying such items (e.g.
buggies or musical instruments) to place the item at the
bottom of the aircraft steps and it will be placed in the
hold.
h) One portion of the boarding card is
detached by the gate agent and the
remainder is returned to passenger who
proceeds through the gate.
i) The sequence numbers of the boarding cards are

crossed off the security cross check sheet by the gate
agent, if the boarding is controlled manually.
j) The boarding card stubs are then counted and arranged

in bundles of 10 for easy reference.
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k) When all passengers have passed through the gate, the

boarding cards are recounted and the security cross
check sheet re-checked to ensure these figures tally
with final figures from check-in.
l) The final TOB through the gate is then passed to the

team leader.
1.5.2 - Provision of seats for passengers. (Reference : ASC 05

/1995
We reproduce below, AIR SAFETY CIRCULAR NO. 5 OF 1995

on the Subject-Provision of seats for passengers.
During a recent accident to an aircraft it was observed that
number of passengers on board were more than the number of
seats with seat belts provided on the aircraft. In the past also,
investigation of some incidents had revealed that the number of
passengers exceeded the number of seats in the aircraft. Further,
it has also been observed that the children are sometimes not
provided with seats to accommodate additional passengers.
Such violations endanger the safety of occupants especially
during critical phases of flight.
2. All operators are, therefore, advised to issue necessary

instructions to their flight crew and commercial staff to
ensure strict adherence to the laid down requirement in this
regard. Operators are also required to monitor the flights for
the compliance of these instructions.
3. All operators engaged in public air transport operations shall

record and manifest the crew, passengers and cargo carried
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on each flight. A copy each of the manifests shall be kept on

board the aircraft and shall also be retained at the departing
station, which shall be preserved at least for 30 days.
Necessary provision in this regard shall be included in the
Operations Manual of the Operator.
1.5.3 : Offloading, Loading of baggage & Securing.

Procedures on offloading
• Service door should be used for baggage/cargo

offloading and loading.
• Start baggage offload from rear compartment soon on

arrival.
• Forward compartment offloading to start after pax

disembarkation
Procedures on loading
• Loading should be in accordance with the load plan.
• Loading should start with forward compartment
• Loading of the AFT compartment should only start

towards the end of pax embarkation
• Appropriate lifting equipment to be used for heavy

baggage/cargo
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Securing of load in the aircraft
• When transporting load in an aircraft:
• It shall be secured so that it cannot move during

the flight, which could dangerously shift the
centre of gravity of the aircraft.
• It shall not cause damage to the aircraft structure or

other important parts of the aircraft.
• In the case of an emergency landing neither passengers

nor crew are injured by the load.
• Load in bulk compartments generally is secured by

door nets and sector divider nets
1.5.4 Carriage of Live Animals
Star Air does not permit carriage of animals, due to aircraft

limitations.
1.5.5 Carriage of Arms and Ammunition
Legal provisions: (Mentioned in Rule 8 of Aircraft Rules

1937)
Personal Security Officers (PSO) of special Protection Group

(SPG) are permitted to carry on their person / hand baggage
fully unloaded arms and ammunitions, both kept separately vide
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BCAS circular number 29/2002 dated 24/09/2002. Sky

Marshals have also been authorized to carry weapon and
ammunition on board the aircraft by the government.
The method for various categories will be as under:
1.5.6 : Carriage of Weapon and ammunition by PSOs in their

hand Baggage or on person
a) Officer will declare the details of the weapon and the total
no. of officers travelling with the protectee to the concerned
Star Air Station / Airport Manager.
b) Security Personnel will check their identity Card and

Authorisation letter Issued by the Commissioner of
Security for carriage of weapon and ammunition on an
aircraft
c) The Pilot-in-Command will be informed as to the number of
armed persons and their seat allocation on board the
aircraft
1.5.7 : Carriage of Weapon and Ammunition by PSOs in their

Registered Baggage.
(a) The PSOs or the persons on duty shall produce their valid
identity Cards and Duty Slips / Movement Order
authorizing them to carry specific weapons and
ammunition while on bonafide duty travelling by air to the
Star Air Security Personnel.
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(b) The Star Air Station / Airport Manager shall be

responsible for authorizing the carriage of weapon
and ammunition.
(c) The Security Personnel should check the identity Card and
Duty Slip / Movement Order and shall ensure their
genuineness. A record of the same would be maintained.
1.5.8 Weapon Baggage Handling Procedure

Passengers are permitted to carry their personal weapon, which
is having valid documents, in their Registered Baggage vide
BCAS circular number 29/2002 dated 24/09/2002.
“Passenger must declare to the airline Security staff, before
placing the baggage on X-ray BIS, that he is carrying a weapon
in his Registered Baggage as per the declaration form. Security
staff on duty must check the credibility of the document the
passenger is carrying.”
Page 10 of 10
Doc Ref: SA-LT-01
Manual
CHAPTER 02 ISSUE 01
WEIGHT AND BALANCE REVISION 00 14 JUL 18
INDEX
02 WEIGHT AND BALANCE
2.0 INTRODUCTION 01
2.1 WEIGHT CONTROL 01
2.2 EFFECTS OF WEIGHT 02
2.3 WEIGHT LIMITATIONS 04
2.4 HOW STRUCTURAL LIMITATIONS AFFECT THE 08

PAYLOAD/CAPACITY
2.5 OPERATIONAL LIMITATIONS 09
2.6 OPERATIONAL WEIGHTS 12
2.7 EFFECTS OF AN OVERLOAD ON 14

PERFORMANCE/SAFETY
2.8 INTRODUCTION TO AIRPLANE FLIGHT MANUAL 17

(AFM)
2.9 CAR REQUIREMENTS 22
2.10 DETERMINATION OF CORRECT MAXIMUM 25

PERMISSIBLE TAKE-OFF AND LANDING WEIGHTS
OF THE AIRCRAFT.
Page 1 of 2
Doc Ref: SA-LT-01
Manual
CHAPTER 02 ISSUE 01
WEIGHT AND BALANCE REVISION 00 14 JUL 18
Page 2 of 2
CHAPTER 02 ISSUE 01
Weight and Balance REVISION 00 14 JUL 18
WEIGHT AND BALANCE
2.0 Introduction
Compliance with the weight and balance limits of any airplane

is critical to flight safety. Operating an airplane above the
maximum weight limitation compromises the structural
integrity of the airplane and adversely affects its performance.
Operation with the centre of gravity (CG) outside the approved
limits may result in control difficulty.
2.1 Weight control
Weight is the force with which gravity attracts a body toward

the centre of the earth. It is a product of the mass of a body
and the acceleration acting on the body.
Weight is a major factor in airplane construction and operation.
The force of gravity continually attempts to pull the airplane

down toward earth. The force of lift is the only force that
counteracts weight and sustains the airplane in flight.
However, the amount of lift produced by an airfoil is limited
by the airfoil design, angle of attack, airspeed, and air density.
Therefore, to assure that the lift generated is sufficient to
counteract weight, loading the airplane beyond the
manufacturer’s recommended weight must be avoided. If the
weight is greater than the lift generated, the airplane may be
incapable of flight.
Page 1 of 26
CHAPTER 02 ISSUE 01
2.2 Effects of weight
Any item aboard the airplane that increases the total weight is
undesirable as far as performance is concerned. Manufacturers
attempt to make the airplane as light as possible without
sacrificing strength or safety.
The pilot of an airplane should always be aware of the

consequences of overloading. An overloaded airplane may not
be able to leave the ground, or if it does become airborne, it
may exhibit unexpected and unusually poor flight
characteristics. If an airplane is not properly loaded, the initial
indication of poor performance usually takes place during
takeoff.
Excessive weight reduces the flight performance of an airplane

in almost every respect.
The most important performance deficiencies of the overloaded

airplane are:
• Higher takeoff speed.
• Longer takeoff run.
• Reduced rate and angle of climb.
• Lower maximum altitude.
• Shorter range.
Page 2 of 26
CHAPTER 02 ISSUE 01
• Reduced cruising speed.
• Reduced manoeuvrability.
• Higher stalling speed.
• Higher approach and landing speed.
• Longer landing roll.
• Excessive weight on the nose wheel or tail wheel.
The pilot must be knowledgeable in the effect of weight on the

performance of the particular airplane being flown. Pre-flight
planning should include a check of performance charts to
determine if the airplane’s weight may contribute to hazardous
flight operations.
Excessive weight in itself reduces the safety margins available to

the pilot, and becomes even more hazardous when other
performance-reducing factors are combined with overweight.
The pilot must also consider the consequences of an overweight
airplane if an emergency condition arises. If an engine fails on
takeoff or airframe ice forms at low altitude, it is usually too late
to reduce the airplane’s weight to keep it in the air.
Page 3 of 26
CHAPTER 02 ISSUE 01
2.3 WEIGHT LIMITATIONS
Weight Limitations are imposed, for safety reasons so that it

does not exceed the maximum operational weight. Therefore,
safety is a crucial factor in order to protect the aircraft from
damage caused by overloading. The allowed traffic load or the
acceptable capacity on a flight means the total capacity available
for carriage of traffic loads i.e. passengers, baggage, cargo and
mail etc. But not fuel. This capacity depends upon various
factors which may be either due to the structural limitations
imposed by the manufacturer or due to the operational
requirements based on runway characteristics or atmospheric
conditions.
The weight limitations are divided into two categories.
1. Structural limitations
2. Operational limitations
2.3.1 STRUCTURAL WEIGHT LIMITATIONS
The manufacturer specifies the following structural limitations

which based on the design criteria for the type airplane and is
given in the Airplane Flight Manual (AFM)
a) Maximum Ramp weight or Maximum Taxi Weight
b) Maximum Take-off Weight
c) Maximum Landing Weight
d) Maximum Zero Fuel Weight
Page 4 of 26
CHAPTER 02 ISSUE 01
MAXIMUM RAMP WEIGHT/MAXIMUM TAXI WEIGHT
It is the maximum weight certified weight by the regulatory

authorities, at which the aeroplane may be loaded at the ramp
or to taxi on ground when fully loaded with Payload, fuel etc.
including its own weight. Exceeding this weight may result in
structural damage.
MAXIMUM TAKE-OFF WEIGHT
This is the maximum weight permitted at commencement of the

take-off run. The performance requirements laid down for take-
off are intended to ensure that a loaded aircraft will be able to
follow a safe flight path out of an airfield. In designing the
aircraft to meet those requirements, the maximum weight at
take-off is established for a specific set of atmospheric
conditions and a specific runway length and the aircraft
structure made strong enough to withstand loads which will be
imposed at this weight.
MAXIMUM LANDING WEIGHT
This is the maximum permitted weight at which the aircraft

may land. The under carriage is required to cushion the impact
sufficiently at touch-down so as to prevent excessive loads
being transmitted into the aircraft structure. The force of
impact can be kept within the capabilities of the landing gear if
the downward velocity is sufficiently reduced by the pilot and if
the weight of the aircraft is within the permissible limit.
Page 5 of 26
CHAPTER 02 ISSUE 01
MAXIMUM ZERO FUEL WEIGHT
It is the maximum weight permitted with zero fuel i.e. without

fuel. The dry operating weight of aeroplane plus the total traffic
load should not exceed maximum zero fuel weight. Exceeding
this weight may again result in structural damage.
Note :In all of the above structural limitations indicated above,
the weight of the aeroplane is included in the maximum limits
prescribed by the manufacturer.
The other terms used for weight and balance purposes not
termed as structural limitations are as under:
i) Operating Empty Weight
ii) Dry Operating Weight
iii) Regulated Take-off Weight
OPERATING EMPTY WEIGHT
Operating empty weight includes the weight of the empty

aeroplane plus the weight of the removable & fixed equipment
as per the inventory given in the weight schedule, the fixed
items of the equipment in the galleys carried for inflight
services plus the weight of the standard crew and their baggage.
(Some carriers do not include the weight of the crew baggage in
the operating empty weight. Likewise, Pantry and ULD weights
are also not included. (This is also called as Basic Empty
Weight).
Page 6 of 26
CHAPTER 02 ISSUE 01
DRY OPERATING WEIGHT
Dry operating weight includes the operating empty weight plus

the weight of such optional items which are kept on-board for
operation of flight like pantry, ULDs (it does not include the
weight of the fuel on-board).
NET WEIGHT.
The weight of the aircraft less the weight of any chocks or
other devices used to hold the aircraft on the scales.
REGULATED TAKE-OFF WEIGHT
It is the maximum weight permitted for take-off for a given

flight taking into consideration both, the structural limitations
and the operational limitations. The Regulated Take-off Weight
(RTOW) can either be equal to maximum take-off weight or less
than maximum take-off weight.
The weight of an aircraft at takeoff is made up of 3 items:-
Dry Operating Weight + Fuel onboard + Payload
A reduction from MTOW to RTOW is normally due to one or

more of the following factors:-
- Length and strength of the runway
- Wind speed and direction in relation to the runway in use
- High temperature (this affects the performance of the
aircraft)
- High altitudes (also affects the performance)
- Airport terrain, high mountains, buildings or other
obstructions
- The slope of the runway and its surface conditions (wet,
water contaminated snow, slush)
- Noise abatement rules
Page 7 of 26
CHAPTER 02 ISSUE 01
The actual RTOW will vary depending on which of the above

limitations apply.
When a reduction from MTOW to RTOW is necessary, it is not

possible to reduce either the SERVICE WEIGHT or FUEL
REQUIRED and therefore the only weight which will be affected
is the PAY LOAD.
2.4: HOW STRUCTURAL LIMITATIONS AFFECT THE

PAYLOAD/CAPACITY
As has been defined the maximum zero fuel weight is the

ultimate restriction on the payload i.e. the maximum loads that
can be carried in the fuselage. The difference between the
maximum take-off weight and maximum zero fuel weight can be
taken as fuel only. However, if the quantity of fuel upliftment is
more than the difference between the maximum take-off weight
and the maximum zero fuel weight, the amount of fuel in excess
to this difference will be taken away from the otherwise
available payload. If the payload is not appropriately reduced,
we may exceed the maximum take-off weight (MTOW).
In order to ensure that MLW is not exceeded at the time of

landing, it must be ensured that MTOW is restricted to the
sum of landing weight plus burn off fuel (trip fuel). If it is not
so, the weight of the aeroplane at the time of landing will be
more than MLW, exceeding one of the structural limitations.
Page 8 of 26
CHAPTER 02 ISSUE 01
2.5 OPERATIONAL LIMITATIONS:
As the structural limitations impose certain restriction on the

weight of the airplane, similarly the limitations imposed by the
characteristics of runway and the atmospheric conditions are
called operational limitations. Broadly the factors affecting the
TOW for the given flight are:
1. Runway length
2. Temperature
3. Atmospheric Pressure
4. Wind Conditions
5. Runway gradient
6. Climb gradient
7. Obstacles
a) Runway length
The weight of the airplane at the time of Takeoff determines the

speed required to be attained before take-off can be made. The
speed required for Takeoff is directly proportional to the weight
of the airplane i.e. if the weight increases, the required speed
also increases or vice-a-versa. Therefore, the airplane takes
longer run at a heavier weight to attain the required higher
speed. So if the runway length is short, the weight has to be
appropriately reduced to enable the airplane to achieve the
required Takeoff speed within the Takeoff distance available.
Thus shorter is the runway; lower is the Takeoff weight.
Therefore this would become a RTOW limit.
Page 9 of 26
CHAPTER 02 ISSUE 01
b) Temperature
The density (mass per unit volume) of the air is inversely

proportional to the temperature i.e. if temperature increases the
density decreases or vice- a-versa. In case the air density is
lower, the airplane will have to travel longer to attain the
required air speed for Takeoff so for a higher temperature for
the same runway length the weight has to be appropriately
reduced. So higher the temperature, lower is the Takeoff weight.
This is another RTOW limit.
c) Atmospheric Pressure
The density of air is directly proportional to the pressure i.e. if

the pressure increases, density also increases and vice-a-versa.
In case pressure is lower, the air density is also lower and
therefore the airplane has to travel longer to achieve the
required speed for Takeoff so for the same runway length at a
lower pressure the weight has to be appropriately reduced. So
lower is the air pressure, lower is the Takeoff weight. This is
another RTOW limit.
d) Wind Conditions
Air speed for the airplane is always in relation to speed of the

air. It is different from the ground speed, which is actually the
speed of the airplane in relation to the ground. The airplane
needs less than Takeoff run under headwind conditions to
achieve the required air speed. However, under tail wind
conditions longer run is required for Takeoff. Therefore, it is
always advantageous to Takeoff under head wind conditions, if
possible, keeping into consideration the other parameters.
Page 10 of 26
CHAPTER 02 ISSUE 01
e) Runway Gradient
Sloping runways affect Takeoff performance. Higher

acceleration is achieved while taking off on a down slope
runway while lower acceleration is achieved while taking off on
an up slope runway. Therefore the runway gradient will affect
the Takeoff weight This is another RTOW limit.
f) Climb Gradient
In order to ensure safety, the airplane is required to

demonstrate certain minimum climb gradient immediately after
Takeoff (critical Takeoff, assuming one engine failure during
Takeoff run). To achieve this gradient the Takeoff weight gets
limited under certain conditions. This is another RTOW limit.
g) Obstacles
In case there is an obstacle in the vicinity of the runway it must

be cleared with a safe vertical distance. To clear the obstacle, a
higher climb gradient would be required and consequently to
achieve this, the available Takeoff weight (RTOW) will have to
be reduced. There are certain other parameters, which affect the
available Takeoff weight (RTOW), which are not being explained
here. However, all these parameters are taken into
consideration by Operations Department while working out
maximum Takeoff weight (RTOW) for a given flight.
Page 11 of 26
CHAPTER 02 ISSUE 01
2.6 OPERATIONAL WEIGHTS
The maximum design take-off and landing weights of an aircraft

may be regulated or reduced by Star Air subject to conditions
prevailing at the airfield of departure or arrival. The maximum
design weights may be regulated by runway length, slope of
runway, elevation of airfield, temperature, wind component,
obstruction and noise abatement rules. All these factors must be
taken into account when determining the take-off and landing
weights of an aircraft. Which in turn will affect the calculations
for performance and the available payload.
Basic Weight
This is the weight of the aircraft prepared for service and

includes the actual weight of the aircraft including its fixed
equipment, unusable fuel and configuration equipment
including galley structures.
Dry Operating Weight
To the basic weight crew, crew baggage and catering weights

are added. The weight of any flight spares carried would also
be added to this total.
Operating Weight
To the dry operating weight is added the weight of usable

take-off fuel plus any engine additive such as demineralised
water.
Page 12 of 26
CHAPTER 02 ISSUE 01
Traffic Load
This is the weight of passengers, baggage, cargo and mail. It

may include the weight of loading equipment as per company
regulations.
Allowed Traffic Load
This is a term which indicates the payload availability. It is

calculated by subtracting the Operating Weight from the
Regulated Take-off Weight as determined by considering local
conditions, fuel quantity required and estimated fuel used in
flight.
Page 13 of 26
CHAPTER 02 ISSUE 01
2.7 EFFECTS OF AN OVERLOAD ON PERFORMANCE/SAFETY
An increase in weight has the following adverse effects on

performance and safety:-
(a) Poor acceleration on Take-off results in longer run.

(b) Higher rotation Speeds needed for higher weights
resulting in increased Run.
Page 14 of 26
CHAPTER 02 ISSUE 01
(c) Acceleration-Stop-Distance Required, in case of

abandoning take-off, is increased.
(d) Higher speeds may impose restrictions on Tire and
Braking.
(e) There is a higher Stress for the same G resulting in
greater airframe stress and failure.
(f) During Climb – gradient is lower, ROC is lesser and
obstacle clearance is poor.
(g) During cruise – performance is poor and ceilings
are lowered. En-route obstacle clearance would
suffer with lowered ceiling heights.
(h) Range is reduced.
(i) Endurance is reduced.
(j) Manoeuvrability and controllability is reduced, due to
higher inertia.
(k) Stalling speed is increased and hence the safety
margins over stalling speed are lesser.
(l) Safety margins for stress limits (G loading) are lesser.
(m) Single Engine Performance is reduced.
(n) During Landing – WAT is higher, Landing Run and
distances are longer. Increased Kinetic Energy and
Momentum may be too much for the brakes to
stop/dissipate heat resulting in brakes fade-out/burn-out
and failure.
Index Definitions
Index : The parameter used to express the variation or

location of CG which is the shortened moment of a certain
weight
Basic index (BI) : The CG of aircraft basic weight expressed
with index
Page 15 of 26
CHAPTER 02 ISSUE 01
Dry Operating Index (DOI) : The CG of aircraft dry

operating weight expressed with index.
Laden Index Zero Fuel Weight : The CG of aircraft zero
fuel weight (LIZFW) expressed with (LIZFW) index.
Laden Index take-off weight : The CG of aircraft take-off
weight expressed with (LITOW) index.
Index of deadload weight (DLI) : The CG of aircraft dead
load weight expressed with (DLI) index
%MAC of Zero Fuel Weight : The CG of aircraft zero fuel
weight (MACZFW) expressed with % MAC
%MAC of take-off weight : The CG of aircraft take-off
weight expressed (MACTOW) with % MAC
%MAC of dead load weight : The CG of aircraft dead load
weight (MACDLW) expressed with %MAC
Take-off fuel : The amount of fuel on board less the taxi
fuel consumed before the take-off run.
Taxi fuel : A standard quantity of fuel to cover engine start
and ground manoeuvres until start of take-off roll, APU
consumption, the amount may be increased when required
by local conditions at the airport.
Trip fuel : Fuel required to fly from the airport of

departure to the planned destination, based on “Planned
Operating Conditions”. This amount shall include fuel for
take-off, acceleration, climb, cruise, descent, approach and
landing
Page 16 of 26
CHAPTER 02 ISSUE 01
2.8 Introduction to Airplane Flight Manual (AFM)
2.8.1 Definition of Aircraft Flight Manual
As per ICAO annex 6, AFM is defined as a manual, associated

with the Certificate of Airworthiness, containing limitations
within which the aircraft is to be considered airworthy, and
instructions and information necessary to the flight crew
members for the safe operation of the aircraft. (ICAO Annex 6)
Description
An aeroplane flight manual (AFM) is a document produced by

the aircraft manufacturer containing detailed information on the
operation of the aircraft. The AFM details the recommended
aircraft operating technique for normal, and emergency
operation together with the Aircraft Performance that should be
achieved when the aircraft is operated in accordance with these
procedures.
The AFM is a vital part of the aircraft inventory and must be

carried on all flights unless the National Airworthiness
Authority (NAA) of the Star Air has formally accepted that the
Operations Manual of the Star Air replicates all relevant AFM
information for an aircraft. The AFM is specific to each aircraft
and reflects the precise equipment and modification state of
that aircraft. In practice, NAA dispensation not to carry the AFM
on board an aircraft is commonly obtained by commercial
aircraft operators.
Page 17 of 26
CHAPTER 02 ISSUE 01
Prompt Amendment of the AFM is an important function of Star

Air's flight operations department and must be carefully
controlled. The control process must also ensure that any
documents dependent upon AFM content such as the Operations
Manual, flight deck copies of the EAC and/or QRH) and crew
training materials are also updated following the publication of
any amendment.
AFM contains the following:
• Limitations - the 'envelope' of maximum speeds;

maximum weights; allowable centre of gravity range;
maximum engine RPM, temperatures and oil pressures,
etc (for the specified power plant); and allowable
manoeuvres and other limits, within which the aircraft
must be operated to be safe.
• Operating procedures - aircraft procedures, speeds

and configurations used to:
• Achieve expected performance and behaviour

in Normal situations.
• Achieve safe outcomes in some specified or
Emergency situations (such as a forced landing
after engine failure).
• Performance - the required variation of the aircraft's

maximum allowable weights, as affected by air pressure
and temperature, in order to:
Page 18 of 26
CHAPTER 02 ISSUE 01
• Take-off or land in available runway distance.

• Climb at the minimum required gradient, or
greater gradient needed to clear obstacles in
the intended flight path following take-off or
missed approach.
• Other information and instructions necessary to safely

operate the aircraft
In this regard AFM pages for EMB-145Weight and CG limitations

are reproduced here and these limitations have been considered
while designing the Load and Trim chart.
2.8.2 Limitations section- Max Weight Limits
Page 19 of 26
CHAPTER 02 ISSUE 01
2.8.3 Center of Gravity Limits
Page 20 of 26
CHAPTER 02 ISSUE 01
2.8.4 EMB145 Regulated Takeoff Weight Tabulations

(RTOW)-Sample charts
Page 21 of 26
CHAPTER 02 ISSUE 01
2. 9 CAR Requirements
Reference : CAR Section 2 Series X Part II dated 28 Apr 2015
2.9.1 Weight Schedule
The Weight Schedule shall contain at least the following

information :-
(i) Type of Aircraft.

(ii) Registration Marking and Serial No. of aircraft.
(iii) (iii) Empty weight including weight of unusable
quantity of fuel and oil (kg.).
(iv) Item wise Weight and details of removable
equipment (kg.) (Including wireless
equipment).
(v) Maximum fuel capacity (Usable) in liters and kg.
(vi) Maximum oil capacity (Usable) in liters and kg.
(vii) Maximum commercial weight with fuel and oil
tanks full.
(viii) MTOW (as per Certificate of Airworthiness/ Flight
Manual) (kg.).
(ix) Empty weight Centre of Gravity.
(x) Centre of Gravity Range and datum.
(xi) Maximum number of passengers.
(xii) Signature of appropriately licensed AME/
Approved person.
(xiii) Date of weighment.
Page 22 of 26
CHAPTER 02 ISSUE 01
2.9.2 DISPLAY OR CARRIAGE IN THE AIRCRAFT AND

PRESERVATION OF RECORDS :
A copy of the approved weight schedule must be displayed at a

suitable and prominent place. When carried on board it should
be easily accessible to the crew/authorized person. All persons
concerned directly with the loading of the aircraft shall be duly
informed of the various weight figures for exercising proper
weight and balance control of the aircraft. A copy of the weight
schedule must be retained along with other documents of the
aircraft or in the aircraft log book, till it is replaced by a fresh
weight schedule.
2.9.3 COMPUTATION OF CENTRE OF GRAVITY:
1. For all flights, it shall be the responsibility of the Pilot-in-

Command to ensure that the aircraft is satisfactorily loaded
with respect to the total load, the distribution of the load and
proper securing of the load in aircraft (lashing of the load).
The distribution of the load shall be such that the C.G.
position will remain within the specified limits at the time of
take off, during the progress of the flight and at the time of
landing.
2. In the case of Star Air operations, the responsibility for

loading, lashing and computing C.G. position, for take-off and
landing phases of flight as stated in the previous paragraph
may be delegated to a person nominated by Star Air, who is
specifically trained and authorised (by Star Air) for the
purpose. However, Centre of Gravity position computed by
the nominated person shall be signed and dated by him and
the same shall be submitted to the Pilot-in-Command of the
Page 23 of 26
CHAPTER 02 ISSUE 01
aircraft for his scrutiny and acceptance; the acceptance

would be denoted by the pilot by affixing the dated signature.
3. In case a method other than the "direct calculating method"

for the purpose of computing C.G. is employed, the same shall
be submitted to the Regional Airworthiness Office for
approval before adoption.
4. Star Air shall prepare load and trim sheet for aircraft where
the manufacturer has provided necessary documentation for
the purpose. The load and trim sheet shall indicate the
composition and the distribution of the total load carried on
board the aircraft as well as the calculated C.G. position for
"take-off and landing" configurations before the
commencement of the flight. Such load sheets shall be
prepared and signed by the Pilot-in-Command or persons
duly trained in accordance with CAR Section 8 Series 'D' Part
I and responsible for supervising the loading of aircraft. In
case the load and trim sheet is prepared by a person other
than the Pilot-in-Command, the same shall be submitted to
the Pilot for his scrutiny and signatures before the
commencement of the flight. One copy of the load sheet shall
be carried on board the aircraft and one copy shall be
retained by Star Air for record purposes for a period of at
least four months from the date of issue.
Page 24 of 26
CHAPTER 02 ISSUE 01
2.9.4 STANDARD WEIGHT OF FLIGHT CREW/ PASSENGERS:
For preparation of load sheet and calculation of Centre of

Gravity as mentioned in para 9.4 above, the minimum
standard weight (including handbag) as given below, shall
be applied in all civil registered aircraft:
1. Crew 85 (75+10) kg. (187 lbs)
2. Adult passenger (both Male & Female) 75 kg. (165 lbs)
3. Child (Between 2 years and 12 years age) 35 kg. (77 lbs)
4. Infant (Less than two years) 10 kg.(22 lbs)
2.10 DETERMINATION OF CORRECT MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE

TAKE-OFF AND LANDING WEIGHTS OF THE AIRCRAFT.
Reference AIR SAFETY CIRCULAR NO 5 OF 1993
We reproduce below, AIR SAFETY CIRCULAR NO 5 OF 1993

on the Subject - Determination of correct maximum
permissible Take-off and Landing weights of the aircraft.
Investigation into a recent accident to a scheduled airlines

aircraft has revealed that the aircraft landing weight was more
that the permissible weight. Furthermore, it has been observed
that on some occasions aircrafts have taken off with aircraft
more than the regulated take-off weight thereby endangering
safety of the aircraft and its occupants. In order to prevent such
occurrences in future, all operators should comply with the
following guidelines in determining the takeoff and landing
weights.
Page 25 of 26
CHAPTER 02 ISSUE 01
a) Take into account fully all factors which limit take-off and
landing weights e.g. loss of runway length in alignment
during take-off, runway length and its gradient, wet/dry
condition of the runway, temperature, altitude, prevailing
wind, QNH and other conditions as laid down in the
approved Aircraft Flight Manual. Under no circumstances
actual take-off and landing weights should exceed the
maximum permissible limits.
b) Air Safety Circular no. 4 of 1993 regarding use of

standard weight of crew and passengers for preparation of
load and trim sheet should be strictly adhered to.
c) Ensure that the load and trim sheet is prepared accurately

and the aircraft is loaded accordingly within the permissible
C.G. limits. Operators are also advised to impart necessary
training, refreshers and checks to all the commercial staff
engaged in preparation of the load and trim sheet to ensure
their continued proficiency in the job.
Page 26 of 26
Doc Ref: SA-LT-01
Manual
CHAPTER 03 ISSUE 01
EMB-145 DESCRIPTIONS REVISION 00 14 JUL 18
INDEX
03 EMB-145 DESCRIPTIONS
3.0 EMB-145AIRCRAFT GENERAL DESCRIPTIONS 01
3.1 INTERIOR ARRANGEMENTS 03
3.2 EMB-145 INTERIOR ARRANGEMENTS-BASIC 08

CONFIGURATION
3.3 PASSENGER CABIN CROSS-SECTION 08
3.4 PASSENGERS 09
3.5 BAGGAGE WEIGHT AND LOCATION 10
Page 1 of 2
Doc Ref: SA-LT-01
Manual
CHAPTER 03 ISSUE 01
EMB-145 DESCRIPTIONS REVISION 00 14 JUL 18
Page 2 of 2
CHAPTER 3 ISSUE 01
EMB-145 REVISION
14 JUL 18
Descriptions 00
EMB-145 Descriptions
3.0 EMB-145 Aircraft General Descriptions
The Embraer ERJ family is a series of twin-engine regional jets

produced by Embraer, a Brazilian aerospace company. The
aircraft is configured to carry 50 passengers in a single-class
configuration, and is operated by a two-pilot crew.
Main characteristics of the EMB145 version are excellent "hot &

high" and short field capabilities. It also features enhancements
to cabin comfort particularly in terms of advanced internal noise
treatment and superior cabin air conditioning.
The airplane is an all-metal semimonocoque-type structure,

low-winged, T-tailed, pressurized airplane featuring a
retractable twin-wheeled, tricycle-type landing gear system and
two high bypass ratio rear-mounted Rolls Royce AE 3007
turbofan engines. The airplane has convenient accommodations
for a pilot, a co-pilot, and a flight observer. The typical passenger
configuration consists of three seats abreast, with front galley
and rear toilet. Accommodation for a second flight attendant is
available as an option.
Page 1 of 12
CHAPTER 3 ISSUE 01
EMB-145 REVISION
14 JUL 18
Descriptions 00
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CHAPTER 3 ISSUE 01
EMB-145 REVISION
14 JUL 18
Descriptions 00
Figure - EMB-145 Airplane General Dimensions

3.1: Interior Arrangements
3.1.1 Standard Interior Arrangement
The standard interior arrangement provides accommodation for

two pilots, one flight observer, one flight attendant, and 50
passengers. One additional flight attendant seat is available as
an option.
3.1.2 Cockpit
The quiet and dark cockpit is designed to accommodate the

pilots with comfort during all flight phases, with minimum
workload and maximum safety. The cockpit is provided with
two pilot seats, a foldable flight observer seat, control columns
and pedals, control pedestal, left, right, and aft consoles, as well
Page 3 of 12
CHAPTER 3 ISSUE 01
EMB-145 REVISION
14 JUL 18
Descriptions 00
as main, overhead, circuit breaker, and glareshield panel. A sun

shade is provided for each pilot and the compartment is
separated from the passenger cabin by a partition with a
lockable door.
3.1.3 Panels
The main instrument panel displays the main navigation, engine,

and systems indications, through the PFD, MFD, and EICAS
displays, ELT reset, the audio selection, and the landing gear and
pedal electric adjustment controls. It also accommodates the
standby instruments and displays reversionary functions. One of
the different possible configurations of the main instrument
panel includes radio management units.
A glare shield panel is located over the main panel, including the
master caution and master warning lights, flight control, display
control, and lighting intensity controls. One of the different
possible configurations of the glare shield panel includes dual
radar control panels.
An overhead panel provides the hydraulic, electrical, power

plant, APU, fire protection, environmental, and external and
internal lighting controls. The circuit breakers, in ordered and
grouped positions, are placed in a panel aft of the overhead
panel.
3.1.4 Left and Right Consoles
The left and right consoles accommodate the nose wheel

steering handle, ashtrays, holders for cups, headset, and
microphone, oxygen masks and oxygen control, a waste
container, rechargeable flashlight, and recesses for crew
publications.
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Descriptions 00
3.1.5 Control Pedestal
The control pedestal, located between the two pilots, presents

the engine control levers, the engine thrust rating panel, the
speed brake lever, the emergency/parking brake lever, flight
control switches (including flap selection), the pressurization
control, the EICAS reversionary panel, radar control panel, HF
control (optional), aileron/elevator disconnect handles,
Autopilot control, SPS, T/O configuration switch, and an FMS
control display unit. One of different possible configurations of
the control pedestal includes radio management units.
3.1.6 Pilot Seat
The pilot seat is provided with longitudinal, vertical (electrically

actuated), seat back, and lumbar adjustments. The seat is
attached to tracks which permit the horizontal adjustments. An
extended longitudinal travel permits pilot rest during long
cruise flights (pilot foot rests are provided at the bottom of the
main instrument panel).
3.1.7 Passenger Cabin

A 0.43 m (17 in) wide aisle, with a recessed floor leaving a 1.82
m (6 ft) height, allows for stand-up walking and the use of
standard catering trolleys. The passenger cabin is 2.10 m (6 ft
11 in) wide and the standard configuration accommodates 50
passengers in 16 double seats on the right side, and 18 single
seats on the left side, with a 31 in pitch. Different cabin layouts
with increased capacity for galley and wardrobe are available as
optional models.
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Descriptions 00
3.1.8 Passenger Seat

The ergonomic reclining seats were designed for a 0.79 m (31
in) pitch, with comfortable leg room. Double seats incorporate
fold-up center arm rests. All seats are offered with snack tables,
magazine pouches, under seat life-vest stowage, seat belts, and
an adequate under seat room for carry-on articles
3.1.9 Passenger Service Unit

The passenger service unit contains gasper air outlets, reading
lights, loudspeakers, attendant calling buttons, warnings, and
oxygen dispensing unit for each seat.
3.1.10 Overhead Bin

The overhead bin is divided into eleven sections and is installed
on the right side of the cabin. The bins have a total volume of
1.90 m3 (67.1 ft3) and is designed for a 290 kg (639 lb) loading.
3.1.11 Wardrobe
A wardrobe with a 0.93 m3 (32.9 ft3) and 70 kg (154 lb) capacity
is offered for carry-on articles on the forward right side of the
passenger cabin between the galley and cockpit partition.
3.1.12 Stowage Compartment
A stowage compartment with a 0.45 m3 (16 ft3) and 40 kg (88
lb) capacity is also offered on the forward right side of the
passenger cabin, close to the service door. Such compartment is
modular so that it can be replaced by one or two half trolleys, as
in the optional models.
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3.1.13 Flight Attendant Station

The standard flight attendant station is positioned at the cockpit
partition, close to the main door. The seat is of the fold-away
type, to avoid interference with the door passageway. A seat for
a second flight attendant is available, as an option, at the aft end
of the aisle, standing in front of the lavatory door. When not in
use, adequate mechanisms allow its sliding against the lavatory
wall, behind the last double-seat row.
The attendant seats are made up of machined parts combined

with flat sandwich panels of graphite and Nomex honeycomb
core.
3.1.14 Lavatory
The lavatory is installed at the aft cabin and contains a

washbasin, waste container, ashtray, mirror, paper dispenser,
automatic fire extinguisher, smoke detection system, and a re-
circulating toilet unit. A toilet shroud and a ventilation system,
at the cabinet and waste tank, assure an odorless environment.
3.1.15 Galley
The galley is installed in the forward passenger cabin.
3.1.16 Baggage Compartment
The baggage compartment complies with the FAR-25 ²class D²

requirements (standard) or FAR-25 ²class C² (optional),
presenting an available volume of 9.21 m3 (325 ft3) and
maximum loading of 1200 kg (2645 lb). The floor is designed for
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390 kg/m2 (80 lb/ft2) uniform distributed loading, and is

provided with anchor plates for high-density load tie-down.
3.2 : EMB-145 Interior Arrangements-Basic Configuration
3.3 : Passenger Cabin Cross-Section
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Descriptions 00
3.4 : Passengers
Passenger Location
The passenger location and respective balance arm are shown in
the applicable Interior Arrangement. Seats are numbered
sequentially from the left to the right, and from the front to the
rear. The seat numbers are for the identification on the Interior
Arrangement list and may not necessarily coincide with the
actual seating identification on the airplane standard
configuration.
Enclosed, it is presented the Standard Configuration, including

the plan view and the Balance Arms.
For other interior configuration options the passenger locations

and the respective Balance Arms are supplied together with the
“Airplane Weighing Form”, inserted in the “FINAL INSPECTION
REPORT”, by the time of the airplane delivering.
Passenger Weight
Actual or average passenger weights may be used to compute
passenger loads.
Actual passenger weights should be used in case of flights
carrying large groups of passengers whose average weight
obviously does not conform with the normal standard weight
such as athletic squads or other groups which are smaller or
larger than the local average. The actual passenger weight may
be either determined by scale weighing of each passenger, or by
asking each passenger their weight and adding there to a
predetermined constant to compensate the hand carried articles
and clothing.
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The following standard average weight may be adopted:
1. Adult passenger (both Male & Female) 75 kg. (165 lbs)
2. Child (Between 2 years and 12 years age) 35 kg. (77 lbs)
3. Infant (Less than two years) 10 kg.(22 lbs)
Children under age 2 are considered "babies-in-arms" and

children over age 12 should be treated as adult passengers for
purposes of standard average weights.
3.5 : Baggage Weight And Location
The baggage weight limits, location and the respective balance

arm may be obtained from the applicable interior arrangement.
The data shown enclosed are applicable to Standard

Configuration. For other interior configuration options the
weight limits, location and the respective balance arm are
supplied together with the “Airplane Weighing Form”, inserted
in the “FINAL INSPECTION REPORT”.
Baggage Loading Procedures:
Refer to weight and balance data associated to each model.
Carry-On Baggage
Carry-on volumes may be stowed in the overhead bins and in

the wardrobe.
There is no specific requirement for under seat carry-on
volumes; however a maximum of 20.0 lb is allowable, provided
the volume is properly restrained to avoid sliding.
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Descriptions 00
BAGGAGE COMPARTMENT
The baggage compartment is designed for a maximum floor

distributed load of 80 lb/ft2 and a total maximum capacity of
2646 lb (EMB-145/140) .
Cargo and baggage loading up to 2182 lb are not required to be

tied down. Loads exceeding this value must be placed under the
cargo restraint net.
Maximum load that can be placed under the cargo restraint net
P/Ns 7162041-501 or -503 is 992 lb.
Maximum load that can be placed under the cargo restraint net
P/N 7162041-505 is limited to the maximum capacity of the
baggage compartment.
For airplanes Post-Mod. SB 145-25-0261 (reinforced liners) or

equipped with an equivalent modification factory incorporated,
the use of the horizontal net is not required.
-
Baggage and cargo should be evenly distributed over the
baggage compartment to avoid load concentration.
Cargo must not become a hazard to the airplane structure or

systems as a result of shifting under operational loads. Sharp
edges (like wooden or metal containers) or dense cargo (objects
significantly more dense than typical passenger baggage) must
be placed under the cargo restraint net to prevent shifting.
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Descriptions 00
Page 12 of 12
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Manual
Chapter 04 ISSUE 01
Load & Trim Sheet REVISION 00 14 JUL 18
INDEX
04 LOAD & TRIM SHEET
4.0 REQUIREMENT OF QUALIFIED PERSONNEL 01
4.1 DUTIES & RESPONSIBILITIES OF QUALIFIED 02

PERSONNEL
4.2 LOAD AND TRIM SHEET REQUIREMENTS 02
4.3 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS 06
4.4 REGULATORY REQUIREMENT FOR LOAD AND 08

TRIM SHEET
4.5 INTRODUCTION TO LOAD AND TRIM SHEET 09
4.6 GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR PREPARATION OF 10

LOAD AND TRIM SHEET
4.7 PROCESS INVOLVED IN THE MAKING OF LOAD 12

AND TRIM SHEET
4.8 LOADING INSTRUCTION REPORT (LIR) 18
4.9 RECORDS TO BE MAINTAINED AND MANNER OF 22

PRESERVATION
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Chapter 04 ISSUE 01
Load & Trim Sheet REVISION 00 14 JUL 18
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Manual-Part I
Doc Ref: SA-LT-01
CHAPTER 4 ISSUE 01
Load & Trim sheet REVISION 00 14 JUL 18
Load & Trim sheet

Reference: CAR Section 8 Series D Part I dated 03 September 2013
4.0 : Requirement Of Qualified Personnel:
Persons deputed by STAR AIR for preparing load and trim sheet of
aircraft shall be:
PIC or co-pilot trained and current on type of aircraft.
Note : In STAR AIR Load & Trim Sheet is prepared by Pilot/Co-

pilot
OR
Possess the following minimum qualification and training
requirements: -
(a) Education- 10+2 level or holder of a flying license.
(b) Basic level courses in Load Control/Ramp

Handling/Dangerous Goods and basic knowledge of
passenger services and Cargo handling.
(c) Experience in areas of Aircraft Loading / Load Control and

Documentation.
(d) Experience within Load Control in providing aircraft Weight

and Balance services and preparing load and trim sheets.
(e) Be conversant with computerized departure control

systems and with producing load sheets manually
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4.1. Duties & Responsibilities Of Qualified Personnel:
1 . Perform all aircraft Weight and Balance and Documentation

activities for the STAR AIR.
2. Ensure the provision of an accurate and punctual service and

that activities conform to legal and safety requirements as
outlined by regulatory bodies such as IATA, DGCA, Aircraft
Manufacturers, Star Air Weight and Balance manuals etc.
3. Review existing operational practices, systems and procedures to

create work/ process efficiencies and source opportunities to
maximize aircraft space utilization and fuel uptake, in order to
exploit maximum revenue capacity and performance capability
per aircraft.
4. Co-ordinate the receipt, record and onward communication of

relevant information from various stakeholders including
outstations required for the preparation of weight and balance
documentation (loading instruction report,load sheet and trim
sheet) for an aircraft.
5. Build and maintain relationships with key stakeholders to

enhance customer service standards and facilitate the exchange
of information & ensure all under the wing activities are carried
out in a safe & effective manner.
4.2. Load and trim sheet requirements:
1. Before starting operation STAR AIR shall prepare a load/trim

sheet and get the same approved from the DGCA (Dte of
Airworthiness).
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2. STAR AIR shall compute the trim either manually or by use of a

computer system in accordance with a procedure approved by
the DGCA.
3. STAR AIR shall ensure that the loading and distribution is in

accordance with the requirement of the Aircraft Rules and any
special direction issued by the DGCA in conformity with the
Rules.
4. It will be the responsibility of STAR AIR to ensure that the

weight of the aircraft at the time of take-off does not exceed the
RTOW.
5. STAR AIR is responsible for the preparation and accuracy of the

load/trim sheet.
6. The load/ trim sheet must be prepared in duplicate and signed

for each flight by Personnel of the STAR AIR who have the duty
of supervising the loading of aircraft and preparing the load and
trim sheet except that the same is not required for each
subsequent shuttle/ leg of a helicopter flight provided:
(a) only passengers and their personal baggage are carried in

each such shuttle/ leg; and
(b) the pilot-in-command calculates and ensures that the

maximum AUW for the prevailing density altitude is not
exceeded; and
(c) the sequence of loading and passenger seating is specified in

the Flight and Operations Manual and is being followed for
the flight.
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7. The load and trim sheet must be signed by the pilot-in-command

unless the load and trim sheet is sent to the aircraft by
electronic data transfer.
8. When the load and trim sheet is sent to the aircraft by electronic
data transfer, a copy of the final load and trim sheet, as accepted
by the pilot-in-command, must be available on the ground. A
load and trim sheet sent by electronic data transfer shall be
annotated as “final” to indicate the version to be accepted by the
PIC.
9. The load and trim sheet should normally contain the following
information:
(a) The aircraft registration and type;

(b) the flight identification number and date;
(c) the identity of the pilot-in-command;
(d) the identity of the person who prepared the document;
(e) the dry operating mass and the corresponding CG of the
aircraft;
(f) the mass of the fuel at take-off and the mass of trip fuel;
(g) the mass of consumables other than fuel;
(h) the components of the load including passengers, baggage,
freight and ballast;
(i) the take-off mass, landing mass and zero fuel mass;
(j) the load distribution;
(k) the applicable aircraft CG positions; and
(l) the limiting mass and CG values.
10. The load/trim sheet and passenger manifest must at least

contain the following information concerning the loading of the
aircraft at take-off time:
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(a) The weight of the aircraft, fuel and oil, cargo and baggage,
passengers and crew members.
(b) The maximum allowable weight for that flight that must not
exceed the least of the following weights:
(i) Maximum allowable take-off weight for the runway

intended to be used (including corrections for altitude,
gradient, wind, and runway surface condition and
temperature conditions existing at the take-off time.
(ii) Maximum take-off weight considering anticipated fuel and

oil consumption that allows compliance with applicable
en route performance limitations.
(iii) Maximum take-off weight considering anticipated fuel and

oil consumption that allows compliance with the
maximum authorized design landing weight limitations
on arrival at the destination airport.
(iv) Maximum take-off weight considering anticipated fuel and

oil consumption that allows compliance with landing
distance limitation on arrival at the destination and
alternate airports.
(c) The total weight computed under approved procedures.
(d) Evidence that the aircraft is loaded according to an

approved schedule that ensures that the centre of gravity
is within approved limits, during the flight.
(e) Names of passenger including breakup of male, female,

child/infant.
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11. If after take-off, any discrepancy is observed in the load

calculation by the concerned personnel on the ground, the same
should be intimated to the Pilot-in-Command immediately using
ACARS (if applicable)
12. The load and trim sheet needs to be updated when:

(a) a modification which changes the aircraft certified limits is
included or
(b) a modification (cabin layout, cargo arrangement.) which
influences the operational limits is made.
13. The form "Special Load – Notification to Captain” (NOTOC) is to

be used whenever it is necessary to inform the Captain of the
presence of specific nature load on board of the aircraft:
(a) dangerous goods,
(b) live animals,
(c) human remains,
(d) perishable cargo,
(e) valuable cargo, and other special load.
Minimum of two copies of NOTOC are required; one for the Captain,
and one for the loading station’s file.
4.3. General Requirements:
1. Before detailing a personnel for preparation of load / trim sheet,

STAR AIR shall confirm to the DGCA that the personnel has
successfully undergone an approved course in accordance to the
requirement laid down in the CAR. They should also ensure that
all such personnel undergo periodic refresher and other training
courses as stipulated in this CAR.
2. Aircraft weight and balance calculations should be conducted

carefully and load and trim sheets should be prepared ensuring
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that the correct data is used. Gross error checks should be made
at every stage.
3. Communications should be established between ground crew

and flight crew, especially where last minute change procedures
are used. Passenger head counts and gender identification
should be conducted carefully in order to achieve accurate
passenger figures.
4. STAR AIR must also ensure that the person responsible for
supervising the loading of the aircraft has inspected the load
and reconciled the actual load distribution with the aircraft
loading instructions or load report, has checked that the load is
properly restrained throughout the cargo compartments and
then confirms, by signature, that the load and its distribution are
in accordance with the load and trim sheet. Sufficient time must
be available for such checks to be carried out properly.
5. STAR AIR should review the instructions they provide to all who
can have responsibility for loading their aircraft, and the
training that is required to ensure that these instructions are
properly understood and implemented to ensure that the risk of
incidents or accidents arising from loading errors is kept to a
minimum.
6. STAR AIR should also review their Quality Systems to ensure that
their audit schedules include aspects of how aircraft are to be
loaded and trims/centre of gravity are to be accurately
calculated in accordance with all relevant requirements.
7. Notwithstanding the above, DGCA may specify additional

requirements, if felt necessary, for safe operation of the aircraft.
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4.4 : Regulatory requirement for Load and Trim Sheet
Requirements Thereof & Training Of Concerned Personnel’,

this CAR stipulates the requirement for load and trim sheet,
training for Staff engaged in load & Trim preparation and their
approval by DGCA.
Under sub rule 2(b) of rule 58 of the Aircraft Rules 1937, it is

stipulated that the “ load of an aircraft, throughout the flight,
including take-off and landing shall be so distributed that the
centre of gravity position of the aircraft falls within the limitations
specified or approved by the Director General.”
A load and trim sheet must be prepared for every departure of
flight. This includes revenue, training, test and ferry flights. After
the document has been prepared and signed by the officer
responsible for preparing it and by the loading supervisor, it has to
be approved by the commander of the aircraft.
4.5 : Introduction to Load and Trim Sheet
a) Mandatory document: All Star Air flights must carry on board a

load and trim sheet correctly prepared and signed by
authorized person concerned.
b) Legal document: A person preparing load and trim sheet shall

not wilfully or negligently make a load and trim sheet or any
entry which is in correct in any material particular or omit any
loads that are travelling on the said aircraft.
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c) Safety document: Person preparing this document must ensure

that the safety of the aircraft at all stages of the flight is within
the safety limits and all information shown on this document
is correct to the best of his/her knowledge.
4.5.1 : Purpose Of Preparing A Load Sheet
a) To ensure the Structural weight limitations are not

exceeded
b) To calculate the Allowed Traffic Load
c) To know the composition of Total Traffic load

carried and how the same is distributed
d) To arrive at the centre of gravity of a loaded aircraft
e) To ensure that the Centre of Gravity is within the specified

limits at all phases of the flight.
f) To ensure actual loading is within given maximum loading

limits in each compartment.
4.5.2 : Information On Load And Trim Sheet
It is a document that satisfies a statutory requirement. It can also

be called as a document that provides a lot of essential information
regarding the flight, which is as follows
1 . Particulars of flight.
2. Calculation of Dry Operating Weight and determine the
weight and capacity available for the traffic load.
3. Nature of traffic load carried its distribution in the cabin

and various compartments.
4. Total fuel carried on board.
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5. Last minute adjustments to traffic load, fuel, etc., if any, and

calculation of adjusted laden weight and laden Index.
6. Trim showing how the takeoff index is arrived at from
operating empty weight index by applying index
corrections for loads at various locations.
7. Centre of gravity of loaded aircraft in terms of index units
and percentage MAC and Load distribution certificate.
4.6 : General Instructions for Preparation of Load and Trim

Sheet
1. Load and trim sheet will be prepared for each sector of

flight.
2. Load and trim sheet will be prepared in three copies; the
original copy will be placed on board with the captain. The
second copy with the departure station records and filing.
The third copy along with the passenger manifest will be
given to cabin crew, to be handed over on arrival at
destination for their reference and record.
3. All weights in kilograms
4. Crew and Passenger weights as given below and shall be

used for Load and Trim computation of passengers & crew
weight for our fleet.
Crew Weight
Flight Deck Crew – 85 kg (along with their cabin baggage)

(187lbs)
In-flight Crew(cabin Crew) – 85 kg (along with their cabin

baggage)
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Passenger Weight
Adult (male/female) – 75kg ( 165lbs)
Child – 35kg (77 lbs)
Infant – 10kgs(less than 2 years) (22 lbs)

The above weight includes weight of the cabin baggage
carried by the Crew and passenger.
5. Passenger check-in baggage weight would be taken on actual

weight basis at the time of check-in.
6. Cargo and mail weights would be taken on actual weight basis

as computed from the cargo manifest.
7. Dry operating weight and index(DOW/DOI) is available in the

Star Air Weight and Balance Manual. A copy of the Weight and
Balance manual is carried onboard the aircraft.
8. Cutting /over – writing on the load and trim sheet is not

permitted.
9. Written loading instructions must be issued to the loading

supervisor and deviations if any, are to be incorporated while
preparing the load and trim sheet.
10. The name and approval number of Load & Trim staff along with
time stamp is indicated on the Loadsheet considered as
digitally signed the document.
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4.7 : Process involved in the making of Load and Trim Sheet
The starting point of preparing the load and trim sheet is reference
to DOW and the DOI. This information is available in the Star Air
Weight and balance manual which kept on board and as well as
with station manager. The DOW and the corresponding DOI is given
against the registration of each and every aircraft in Star Air fleet.
1. For all flights originating from Bangalore, Flight Despatch will
provide the fuel figures for Load and Trim. At all other stations,
Load sheet staff shall get the fuel figures for the flight from the
captain. The load and trim sheet is then prepared accordingly.
2. The pantry weight is given by the catering department.

Normally a fixed weight is taken for all EMB-145flights.
3. The load and trim staff is also given the details of any company
store that is scheduled to be put on board that particular flight.
The department generating the store informs in writing the
details of the goods to be moved to the airport services
department giving details of the goods, number of packages,
method of packing contents, weight of the packages, consignor
and consignee department and sector.
4. The load and trim staff gets the number of passengers booked
for the flight and estimates the total traffic load on the basis of
booked load. Based on the number of passenger booked, an
estimate of baggage weight is made by assuming one piece of
check-in baggage per PAX (approx weight per piece at 15 kg ).
Plus the weight of cargo mail and company stores if any, load
planning is done along with load distribution.
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5. Based on the above, the load and trim sheet staff issues the
loading instruction to the loading supervisor to supervise the
loading of the aircraft. The figures indicated in the loading
instructions are normally rounded of to the nearest hundred.
6. After all passengers and their baggage are checked in the check-
in counter is closed and the passenger manifest, showing the
total number of passenger checked in, with the breakup of
adults, children and infants and the total weight of baggage is
generated by the check-in counter staff. These figures are then
passed on to the load and trim staff, who computes the weight of
the passengers as per set standard weight computation as adult
75kgs, child 35kgs and infant 10kgs. The actual weight of
passenger baggage, cargo, mail and company store if any and the
total dead load is computed. The total traffic load is computed
by adding the passenger weight with the weight of the items
carried in Cargo compartment.
7. The load and trim staff then prepare the load and trim sheet
following the process given as guide to prepare load and trim
sheet.
8. In the event there are any special instructions like live animal,
human remains, arms and ammunition etc, the same along with
the loading instructions for the same is given in writing to the
loading supervisor and it is also mentioned in the load and trim
sheet, in the SI column which is meant for such information.
Note : Star Air is not approved for dangerous goods carriage.
10. In case there is any situation where the aircraft is being cleared
under MEL which has an effect on the positioning or loading of
passenger in the cabin, dead or live load in the cargo
compartments, the information is passed to the load and trim
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staff by the engineering department. In case this information is

received at the last minute then the process of LMC (Last
Minute Change) is followed to either load or to offload and the
same is recorded in the load and trim sheet in the relevant
column.
4.7.1 : Last Minute Changes (LMC)
The load sheet has to reflect the actual loading state of the
aeroplane prior to take-off. In order to comply with this
requirement, it is often necessary to adjust the load sheet after
completion. Such adjustments are called last-minute changes
(LMC).
The load sheet staff are responsible for the timely reporting of
LMCs to the flight crew. Max permitted LMC change in terms
weight is 200 kg (440 lbs), This weight can include Passenger or
Baggage or cargo or mail or any combination of these.
Whenever the LMC exceeds 200kg (440 lbs),, a fresh load sheet to
be prepared.
While making the LMC change load sheet staff to ensure the
following;
• ZFW, TOW & LW are not exceeded

• No loading limitation is exceeded
• ZFW CG and TOW CG remain within allowed limit
• LMC changes are reflected in the load sheet.
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An Example of LMC changes:
Addition of 2 Pax with baggage weight of 50kg.
With reference to the above table and based on Pax loads, one pax
will seated in Zone B and one in Zone C. Baggage of 50 kg will be
loaded in cargo. This arrangement will give a net index variation of
-1 and Weight increase of 200kg. LMC changes shall be reflected in
the Load sheet.
Note : While carrying out the LMC changes care should be taken to
ensure that net change in index shall be minimal and net LMC
weight change does not exceed 200kg (440 lbs),
Further changes to crew configuration (Cockpit or Cabin crew)
shall be part of DOW/DOI adjustments and it will not be part of
LMC.
4.7.2 : Operational Loading Documents
The main documents used in operations are:
• Loading Instruction / Report form (LIR)
• Container/Pallet distribution message (CPM) ( Not

applicable as EMB-145cargo is for bulk loading only and
in the main deck)
• Load sheet
• Load message (LDM)
• Balance chart( Trim chart).
In these different documents, IATA codes are used and they are
listed below.
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4.7.3 : Load Information Codes

The following codes enable to define the type and priority of
dead load transported in the cargo holds. To be used on the LIR
and the CPM.
4.7.4 : Additional baggage load information codes
The codes listed below shall be used to distinguish different

baggage categories and to give information in connection with
the handling of baggage e.g. BT for transfer baggage.
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4.8 : Loading Instruction Report (LIR)
This form is a means of communication between the Load Planner

and the Loading Supervisor. On the one hand, it allows the Load
Planner to give loading and off-loading instructions to the Loading
Supervisor, and on the other hand, it allows the Loading Supervisor
to know everything about the shipment (nature, distribution, etc…)
and to report the loading distribution is effectively performed.
The Loading Instruction / Report form (LIR), is prepared and filled
in by the Load Planner once he knows how much load can be
transported. To determine this data, the load planner needs
information from :
a. Passenger booking : to calculate the forecasted passenger

weight and associated
b. Baggage weight (number of containers required in case of
CLS)
c. Dispatch : to know what is the available payload according

to the fuel required for the flight
d. Incoming LDM/CPM: to know the cargo distribution and if

there is transit cargo/mail in case of multi-sector flights
e. to know if cargo is available for the flight
f. Aircraft type: weight limitations, CG limitations, cargo

options (ventilation, heating)
Once the load is known, the Load planner determines its

distribution into the cargo holds, taking into account several
constraints such as Zero Fuel CG position, weight limitations,
loading/off-loading rules, incompatibilities, specific loading
constraints (dangerous goods, live animals, perishable goods…).
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A sample of Star Air Load Instruction Report(LIR) for EMB-145 is

given below and following information is to filed in the Report.
1- Heading: Station, Flight number, Aircraft registration,
Destination(s), Local date, name of the Load Planner who
prepared it.
2 - Weight limitations for FWD and AFT cargo hold are indicated.
3 – On-load Instructions (planning): Gives indications on where

the load must be stowed, and of any change in the transit load
position in case of multi-sector flights. In this case, te
destination must be clearly indicated by the 3-letter IATA
airport codes.
4 - Loading reports: completed by the Loading Supervisor, it is
used to confirm that the aircraft has been loaded in accordance
with the given instructions. Information shown in this section
reflects the exact state of the shipment loaded in the aircraft
before departure. Any deviations from the original Loading
Instructions must be noted or transmitted before the flight
departure to the load sheet agent.
5 - Special instructions: gives any information that might be
considered as important or useful by the Load Planner, such as
dangerous goods, live animals, lashing of heavy items,
relocation of some cargo to balance the aircraft, airway bill of
dangerous goods…
6 - Signatures: Two names and two signatures are required:
The Load planner who prepared the Loading Instructions. The

Loading Supervisor, who performed the Loading, to confirm
that the aircraft is loaded in accordance with the instructions or
to advise of any deviations.
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The Load Planner has to fill in the header part, the arrival part from
the incoming LDM/CPM (in case of multi-sector flights) as well as
the Loading Instructions part. To give its loading instructions, the
load planner must use, for each hold section, the following items:
a. destination of the shipment (3-letter IATA code)

b. ULD type and ID code (for ULDs aircraft)
c. content of the section (Baggage, cargo, mail…) through

a one letter code (as per AHM 510)
d. estimated weight of the load
e. nature of shipment in case of special loading (as per
AHM 510)
f. available volume in the section (as per AHM 510)
A signed copy of the loading instruction report form, incorporating

the deviations if any, must be placed on board along with the load
and trim sheet.
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CHAPTER 4 ISSUE 01
LOAD SHEET
The load sheet is a document prepared and signed by the load sheet
agent at the departure airport. This form gives information about
the weight of the aircraft as well as the distribution of the load in
the different cargo holds. In case of multi-sector flights, the weight
that must be unloaded at the different stations is indicated.
The load sheet allows checking, before each departure, that the
weight of the shipment is consistent with the structural limitations
of the aircraft. The load sheet must reflect the actual state of the
aircraft before takeoff. It is often necessary to adjust it after
completion to take into account “Last Minutes Changes” (LMC).
The load sheet must be issued as follows:
− one copy for the aircraft

− one copy for the departure station file
− one copy for Destination
4.9 : Records to be maintained and manner of preservation
1 Aircraft Documents:
a. Passenger manifest.
b. Load and trim sheet.
c. Loading instruction report form.
d. Cargo manifest.
e. Original airway bills pertaining to the cargo manifest.
2 Details recorded on aircraft documents must be accurate and

legible on all copies.
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3 Passenger manifest: Each station must prepare a passenger

manifest in the form approved. Normally the printed passenger
manifest is generated after closing of counters by use of the
departure control system. In event the departure control system
is not in use then each station must prepare passenger manifest
in the serially numbered approved format of passenger
manifest. The passenger manifest must be prepared destination
wise and must be type written or neatly handwritten in block
capitals.
Where there are no passengers embarking a NIL manifest must be
completed for the destination station. Each page of the manifest
must contain a page total showing adults, children and infants
joining together with baggage pieces and weight.
Cargo Manifest, Airways Bills – STAR AIR at the present carries
only general cargo. The dead load like company stores etc., which is
put on flight must be manifested in two copies, one to put on board,
second copy for flight file.
4.9.1 : Mandatory Requirement
A load sheet staff must not be nominated to perform load sheet

functions for an aircraft type if he/ she is not qualified to perform.
Similarly a Ramp/Load officer must be qualified for the aircraft
type that he/she is supervising the flight loading. Copy of each
manual load sheet (of each load sheet staff) must be kept on record
for DAW/DGCA inspection.
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4.9.2: Flight Files

1. As part of requirements, complete flight documentation must be
kept for record for a period of six months. The complete flight
documentation comprises.
2. A copy of the load sheet for the flight
3. A copy of the original loading instruction. If there are any

deviations/ they must be signed for by both the load sheet staff
and the ramp agent/load officer.
4. A copy of the passenger manifest. If there are gate no-show

passengers, they must be offloaded first before the passenger
manifest is printed.
5. A copy of the cargo manifest. If there is any last minute cargo

offloading, amendments must be made to the manifest and the
total amended.
6. A copy of the notification to Captain only when issued.
7. A copy of the post flight reports.
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Page 24 of 24
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Chapter 05 ISSUE 01
Loading And Securing REVISION 00 14 JUL 18
INDEX
05 LOADING AND SECURING
5.0 LOADING AND SECURING 01
5.1 INSTRUCTIONS FOR SAFE LOADING 01
5.2 ADJUSTMENT OF LOADS AND EFFECT ON CG 02
5.3 EFFECT ON CG WHEN LOAD IS ADDED, REMOVED 03

OR SHIFTED
5.4 LOADING LIMITATIONS 04
5.5 LOAD SHIFT DURING FLIGHT 05
5.6 TYPES OF RESTRAINING EQUIPMENT 06
5.7 LOAD FACTOR 07
5.8 OVERLOADING OF AIRCRAFT (REF ASC 05 /1997) 07
5.9 RESTRICTION TO HAND BAGGAGE SIZE TO BE 09

CARRIED IN AIRCRAFT CABIN
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Chapter 05 ISSUE 01
Loading And Securing REVISION 00 14 JUL 18
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LOADING AND
REVISION 00 14 JUL 18
SECURING
LOADING AND SECURING
5.0 : LOADING AND SECURING
Baggage and cargo should be evenly distributed over the cargo

compartment to avoid load concentration. Baggage/Cargo must
not become a hazard to the airplane structure or systems as a
result of shifting under operational loads. Therefore, sharp edge
volumes (like wooden or metal containers) and/or dense cargo
(objects significantly more dense than typical passenger
baggage) must be arranged with adjacent soft volumes or
protections thus preventing airplane damage in case of
baggage/cargo shifting due to operational loads.
During loading, it must be ensured that aircraft cabin floor

loading limitations are not exceeded. The load must be securely
tied so that there is no possibility of the load shifting in flight
and disturbing the calculated C.G. position.
5.1 : Instructions For Safe Loading:
1. Specific seats shall be allotted to all passengers boarding at

originating stations of flights so that centre of gravity of the
aircraft can be calculated accurately and the C.G. is kept
within the permissible limits.
2. During loading, it must be ensured that aircraft cabin floor

loading limitations are not exceeded.
3. The load must be securely tied so that there is no possibility

of the load shifting in flight and disturbing the calculated C.G.
position.
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4. The load must be tied at the specified places provided in the

aircraft and the tying ropes must be of sufficient strength to
withstand the loads imposed on it in flight.
5. While placing cargo in the passenger cabin during mixed

version (passenger cum freight) operation, the load must be
placed ahead of the passengers in the cabin, the load must
not block "emergency exit" meant to be used by the
passengers
5.2 : Adjustment of Loads and effect on CG
After calculations and preparation of Load and Trim Sheet, one

of the following situations will occur:-
1. ZFW, Landing Weight and Takeoff weight are within limits.
This is the only condition when flight can be released.
2. Intentional Shifting of Load. We may have to resort to

intentional shifting of load in case of ZFW, Landing Weight
or Takeoff weight are within limits but CG is outside the
forward or aft limit operational limt and falls in shaded
region. Some load can be shifted from rear hold to forward,
or vice versa, to shift the CG and to bring it within limits.
Forward shift of load will shift the CG forward and vice
versa.
3. CG is within limits but AUW is in excess of MTOW. The only

solution is to remove the excess weight in order to get
airborne. We will have to re-calculate the CG location after
removal of excess load and ensure it is still within limits.
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4. Intentional Removal of Load. A last minute intentional

removal of any load (a sick passenger not wanting to go
now, or a passengers baggage is being off-loaded since he is
missing after check-in) also will involve a similar effect and
procedure as given in Para 3 above.
5. Intentional Addition of Load. Some more load/pax arrives

last minute and are to be taken on board. If addition of such
a load does not exceed the weight limits, one has to re-
calculate the AUW and CG locations before getting airborne
5.3 : Effect on CG when load is added, removed or shifted.
Rearrangement of loads, addition or removal has impact on

weight and CG of the aircraft and careful consideration shall be
given during the load planning stage to ensure proper
distribution loads. In an event if the CG values falls outside the
operational CG envelope, the following shall be kept in mind.
1. If the CG falls outside the AFT Operational envelope, then

moving the Cargo from Aft cargo compartment to forward
will move the CG forward.
2. If the CG falls outside FWD Operational envelope, then

moving the Cargo from FWD cargo compartment to AFT
will move the CG Aft.
The required amount of Index unit shift to bring the of CG
within the operational envelope can be ascertain from the CG
grid in the Trim chart and accordingly considering the Cargo
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LOADING AND
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compartment load limits, rearrangements shall be made to

ensure CG for Takeoff, ZFW and landing are within Limits.
5.4 : Loading Limitations
All loading stations or holds have the following basic

limits:-
(a) Maximum Load (in Newton, or kg or lb) that can be

positioned in a holds area. It depends on the structural
limits of that hold area as well as the overall load
distribution plan, hence CG location, of the entire aircraft.
(b) Maximum floor loading intensity (in N/sq m, or kg/ sq cm,

or lb / sq in) that can be placed on the floor. This depends
on the strength of the floor material and arrangement of
its supporting structures below.
(c) Maximum volume (length x width x height combinations)

that can be loaded. This depends on the geometry, door
sizes, and cargo/load piece sizes and shapes. It is a
physical geometric limitation only and the other two
limitations above are over riding this limit.
Floor Loading Intensity
It is the actual load distribution per unit area of the floor

when a load is placed on it. It will depend on the total weight
of the load and the total contact area between the floor and
the load. The floor has a maximum floor intensity limit, which
if exceeded; the floor will give away structurally (material
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failure) causing permanent damage to floor/aircraft

structures.
5.5 : Load Shift During Flight
Shifting of any load, intentionally or un-intentionally will cause a

shift in the CG of the aircraft. The shift in CG of the aircraft at a
critical time of the flight may be fatal resulting in a crash. CG shift
during the flight in any direction beyond limits is not permitted.
The load, during a shift, may pick up momentum enough to go
through the hold walls causing severe damage to aircraft
structures. Therefore, the loads have to be secured to the aircraft
structures, generally the floor strong lashing points with
restrainers. An un-restrained load will shift under the following
occasions:-
On Take-off. During the take-off run, the forward acceleration

will cause the load to shift rearwards due to its inertia.
On and After the Rotation. When the aircraft is put in a nose

high attitude after rotation, the load will tend to slip rearwards
due to the gravity and rearward floor slope (in relation to earth
horizon).
On Commencement of descent. When the aircraft attitude is

lowered, the load will tend to move forward under gravity and
forward slope (in relation to earth horizon) of the floor.
During Approach and Landing Run. When the aircraft is

decelerating on approach, flare out and landing, specially the
braking, the load will tend to move forward due to its inertia.
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The tendency of the forward movement of the load during the

landing run deceleration is the largest that one can expect when
compared to other phases of flight.
5.6 : Types of Restraining Equipment
The following types of restraint equipment are used for securing

the load, normally to the floor points, specially designed for this
purpose.
(a) Lashing chains or ropes.
(b) Floor shackles. To attach the restraint (rope
or chain) to floor point.
(c) Tensioners. To tighten the restraints.
(d) Cargo Net. To group smaller, comparatively
lighter load together and tie it down with a
net. The net is lashed to floor, holding all the
pieces of item.
(e) Grab Hooks. To hold the cargo nets down to
the floor.
(f) Containers. Containers are loaded with

small pieces of baggage and secured to
the floor.
The aircraft cargo holds have impact strips on sidewalls, roof,

etc., which protect the aircraft structures from getting damaged
by the frequent load hits. These are generally rubber runners.
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5.7 : Load factor
Load factor experienced by any load, like a passenger, is the

ratio of Applied force in any direction and the basic weight of
the load.
LF = Applied Force (in Newton) / Weight (in Newton)
Load Factor = F/W = ma / mg = a / g

Where a is acceleration in flight and g is the acceleration due to
gravity (9.81 m/sec2 or 32.2 ft/ sec2). Therefore, the load factor
is measured in multiples of g.
The load factor has a direction and a magnitude in multiples of
weight, which is a vector quantity. The plus and minus signs on
any load factor only indicate its direction in relation to datum
direction (pilots up-right position) along the normal axis of the
aircraft, positive being downwards (towards pilots feet or
aircraft floor).
The load factor may also be experienced in any other direction,
downward during a positive pitching manoeuvre, upward
during a negative manoeuvre or a bunt or inverted flight,
forward during deceleration, rearward during acceleration,
sideways during skidding turn, or a crash/ belly landing swing.
5.8 : Overloading of Aircraft (Ref ASC 05 /1997)
In accordance with the Civil Aviation Requirement section 2

Series F Part XXII and Air Safety Circular 5 of 1993, it has been
inter-alia stressed that Star Air should ensure that the weight of
the aircraft at the time of the take-off does not exceed the
Regulated Take-off Weight. In spite of above instructions, it has
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come to the notice that aircraft of some airlines are loaded

beyond the permissible limits which is a cause of great concern
for aviation safety. It has also been observed that in some cases,
the load and trim sheets of concerned flights are fudged
deliberately to show as if the aircraft is loaded within the
permissible weight limits. Further, a court of Inquiry while
investigating an accident had also concluded that the involved
aircraft has overloaded, even though in that particular instance
the accident was not attributed to overloading.
The dangers of overloading aircraft are well known.

Notwithstanding the high safety margins of modern aircraft
during normal operations, overloading of aircraft can
compromise safety in case of partial power loss due to engine
failure, bird strike, etc. It is, therefore, essential that all-up-
weight limits of aircraft must be observed meticulously. Proper
education of the personnel involved would also go a long way
in solving this problem. Senior officers should be made
responsible to intensify surveillance on loading of aircraft and
strict action should be taken against the defaulters. Star Air
should also evolve appropriate enforcement strategies to
ensure the end of such infringements of aviation safety.
The above instructions are for information and strict

compliance by all the concerned. Star Air should ensure that
these instructions are meticulously followed.
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5.9 : Restriction to Hand Baggage size to be carried in

aircraft cabin.
Reference : AIR SAFETY CIRCULAR NO. 3 OF 1999
We reproduce below, AIR SAFETY CIRCULAR NO. 3 OF 1999 on

the Subject: Restriction to Hand Baggage size to be carried in
aircraft cabin.
The risk of overloading of aircraft needs no emphasis. In the
recent past there have been instances wherein the aircraft had
taken off with its take-off weight in excess of Regulated Take-off
weight (RTOW). Though checked-in baggage is weighed and
accounted, hand baggage is not weighed and its size is also
normally not found to be monitored. Monitoring the size and
weight of hand baggage would, therefore, avoid the risk of
overloading of the aircraft.
Overweight and oversized hand baggage is one of the factor

which contribute towards overloading since extra weight is
likely to be carried because of its over size. The oversized hand
baggage may also create safety hazards in an emergency by
obstructing passenger evacuation as oversized hand baggage
cannot be accommodated inside the bins and also below the
passenger seats. The size of the hand baggage should, therefore,
be restricted as per the dimensions of the overhead bins or
available space under the seats in the aircraft. The maximum
limit of size of 115cms. (Sum of length, breadth and height) as
contained in the passenger ticket jacket needs to be reinforced
by Star Air. A basket, measured to the size be provided/utilized
near the airline check-in counters to determine the oversize
baggage being carried into the passenger cabin by the
passengers as hand baggage.
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LOADING AND
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Star Air should ensure that in order to ensure safety, the above
instructions on permitting carriage of hand baggage with the
specified size into the cabin, are meticulously followed by the
ground staff, cabin crew and other related Star Air’s personnel.
Frequent monitoring should also be carried out by safety
personnel of Star Air for compliance of instructions in the
matter.
Page 10 of 10
Doc Ref: SA-L&T-01
EMB-145LR
Load & Trim
Training Manual
Part II
Tel: +91 8071884600
Page 1 of 2
Load & Trim
Training Manual Doc Ref: SA-L&T-01

Part II
ISSUE 01 14 JUL 18
COVER REV 00
Page 2 of 2
Doc Ref: SA-LT-01
Manual
CHAPTER 1 ISSUE 01
Load and Trim

Training REVISION 00 14 JUL 18
Requirements
INDEX
01 LOAD AND TRIM TRAINING REQUIREMENTS
1.0 TRAINING PROGRAMME 01
1.1 BASIC INDOCTRINATION / INITIAL GROUND 02

TRAINING
1.2 CONVERSION / TRANSITION TRAINING 05
1.3 REFRESHER / RECURRENT TRAINING 05
1.4 DIFFERENCES TRAINING 07
1.5 COMPETENCY CHECK FOR PERSONNEL 08
1.6 OPERATING EXPERIENCE 08
1.7 TRAINING INFRASTRUCTURE AND PROGRAMME 09
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CHAPTER 1 ISSUE 01
Load and Trim

Training REVISION 00 14 JUL 18
Requirements
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Load and Trim Training
Requirements
Load and Trim Training Requirements
1.0. Training Programme:
1. The training programme for the persons engaged in preparing

load and trim sheet and supervising loading shall comprise of:
(a) Basic / Initial ground training,
(b) Conversion/Transition training,
(c) Refresher/Recurrent training,
(d) Differences training.
2. Each training shall include practical demonstration as

applicable.
3. Each training should cover the differences between aircraft of

the same type operated by Star Air to ensure that such
personnel are adequately trained to perform their assigned
duties on different aircraft being operated.
4. Upgrade training programme as required from time to time.
5. In addition to initial, transition, upgrade, recurrent and

differences training, each training programme must also
provide specific ground training, instruction and practice as
necessary to ensure that each personnel :-
(a) Remains adequately trained and currently proficient with

respect to each aircraft and type of operation in which the
personnel is involved.
(b) Qualifies in new equipment, facilities, procedures and
techniques, including change in loading / weight
procedures as applicable to personnel.
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Requirements
1.1. Basic indoctrination / initial ground training:
1. Where type trained pilots are entrusted preparation of load &

trim sheet, the initial ground training requirements may be
undertaken as a part of the type training syllabus. Such syllabus
shall be for a minimum of 2 programmed hours including the
following topics;
(a) Review of the company procedures and Star Air ground
handling manual /equivalent document including procedures
Supervision of loading/unloading, baggage handling, ramp
equipment, ramp safety, boarding and disembarkation of
passengers, restricted articles, dead load, documentation and
record keeping, etc.
(b) Requirements for personnel involved in supervision of
loading and preparing load and trim sheets including the
provisions of the Aircraft Rules 1937 Rule 58 sub rule 2(b),
CAR Section 8 Series D Part I etc.
(c) AFM/POH/FCOM principles of performance and weight &
balance including limitations, regulated take off weights,
take-off and landing performance charts, principles of
loading, preparation of load and trim sheets etc.
(d) Specific loading limitations, movement of centre of gravity
and hazards of incorrect loading.
(e) ACARS load and trim sheet (if applicable)
(f) Last minute changes.
The training shall include a practical demonstration followed by

a competency check.
2. The basic indoctrination/initial ground training for newly

hired personnel (other than type trained pilots) to be used
for preparing load & trim sheet shall include a minimum of
40 programmed hours of instruction in at least the
following:
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Requirements
(a) History of Aviation.

(b) Introduction to the Star Air organizational structure and
scope of operations.
(c) Introduction to the contents of the Star Air’s certificate,
difference between scheduled operations and non-scheduled
operations, type of aircraft permitted for operations,
limitations and their significance thereof, validity of the
permit.
(d) Introduction to the Star Air manual with respect to baggage
handling, ramp equipment used and ramp safety boarding
and disembarkation of passengers, loading and unloading of
cargo, restricted articles.
(e) Introduction of Aircraft Rules 1937 Rule 58 sub rule 2(b),
CAR, Section 8 Series D Part I, on the subject – Load & Trim
sheet and requirements thereof necessary training of
personnel engaged in its preparation and the process of their
approval by DGCA.
(f) Company procedures regarding loading and unloading of
aircraft with respect to passengers and dead load, ramp
handling documentation and record keeping as specified in
the relevant portion, if any in operations manual.
(g) Aircraft flight manual, the need for mandatory
documentation including their significance. Turnaround
times and the general procedures for ground handling.
(h) Basic theory of Flight-Aerofoil theory. The concepts of Lift,
Drag, Thrust and Weight.
(i) Conditions of equilibrium – Introduction to Longitudinal,
Normal and Lateral axis, the motions of Rolling, Pitching and
Yawing.
(j) Principles of Weight and Balance of Aircraft – The concepts of
Weight, Centre of Gravity, Centre of Pressure, Moment, Arm
and Fulcrum, Law of moment and Datum.
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Requirements
(k) Weight and Balance computation, and calculations of centre

of gravity of aircraft – the application of the law of moments,
Index units, Basic Index, Index equation. Weight and balance
in an aeroplane, Mean Aerodynamic Chord.
(l) Limitations – Structural and operational limitations. The
concepts of Maximum Ramp, Take-off, Landing weight, Zero
fuel Weight, regulated take-off weight, laden weight, aircraft
index, dry operation weight, net operation weight. Factors
causing operational limitations like runway length,
temperature, pressure, wind conditions, climb gradient,
obstacles, Effect on payload due structural and operational
limitations.
(m) Calculation of Centre of gravity of aircraft. – Application of

the index equation to compute the centre of gravity of the
aircraft.
(n) Introduction to important parts of the aircraft – fuselage,
wings, power plant or engines. Tail assembly or empennage,
rudder, elevator, flaps, ailerons, undercarriage and flight
deck and their significance in controlling the aircraft.
(o) Introduction to the type of aircraft, Technical description and
details of flight deck, power plant, cabin configuration, design
dimensions and weight.
(p) Loading and unloading procedure for type of aircraft,
limitations thereof, precautions to be followed.
(q) Use of RTOW and take-off and landing performance charts,
preparation of load and trim sheet including practical
training.
(r) Regulation pertaining to carriage of arms / ammunition,
dangerous goods, dead body, live animals, perishable goods
etc.
(s) ACARS load and trim sheet (if applicable).
(t) Last minute changes
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Requirements
3. Initial ground training for such officers/ staff must include a

competency check given by appropriate supervisor or
ground instructor acceptable to the DGCA that
demonstrates knowledge and ability with the subjects
Note: Refer CAR Section 2 Series X Part II Weight and

Balance of Aircraft for aspects related to weighing of
aircraft
1.2 : Conversion / Transition Training:
1. The personnel performing regular duty on one type of

aircraft cannot perform duties on any other type of
aircraft until he/she has undergone an approved course
of conversion training.
2. The conversion training shall be conducted by an
approved instructor who is familiar with the type of
aircraft including various procedures. The instructor
shall conduct the written and practical test, in
coordination with DGCA(Director of Airworthiness of
the Region).
1.3 : Refresher / Recurrent Training:
1. Recurrent training ensure that such personnel are adequately

trained and currently proficient with respect to the type of
aircraft (including differences training if applicable).
Refresher training for pilots may be undertaken as a part of
their annual technical / performance refresher in a 0.5 hour
load and trim sheet module.
2. Recurrent ground training for personnel must include at least

the following:-
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Requirements
(a) A quiz or other review to determine the state of the officers

personnel's knowledge with respect to the aircraft;
(b) Weight and Balance computation and calculations of center
of gravity of aircraft – the application of the law of moments.
Index units, Basic Index, Index equation, Weight and balance
in an aero plane, Mean Aerodynamic Chord.
(c) Limitations – Structural and operational limitations. The
concepts of Maximum Ramp, Take-off, landing and Zero
Weight, Factors causing operational limitations like runway
length, temperature, pressure, wind conditions, climb
gradient, obstacles, effect on payload due to structural and
operational limitations.
(d) Definition and meaning of maximum take-off weight, landing
weight, regulated take of weight , zero fuel weight empty
weight laden weight, aircraft index, maximum landing
weight, dry operating weight, net operating weight.
(e) Introduction to the Aircraft and its important parts –
fuselage, wings, power plant or engines, Tail assembly or
empennage, rudder, elevator, flaps, ailerons, undercarriage
and flight deck and their significance in controlling the
aircraft.
(f) Technical description and details of flight deck, power plant,
cabin configuration, hold configuration, design dimensions
and weight.
(g) Loading and unloading procedure for aero plane fleet,
limitations thereof, precautions to be followed.
(h) Use of RTOW and take-off and landing performance charts,
preparation of load and trim sheet.
(i) Regulation pertaining to carriage of arms, ammunition,
dangerous goods, dead body, live animals, perishable goods
etc.
(j) Emphasis on practical application and making of load and
trim sheet for normal single sector flight, multi sector, transit
flight, ferry flight and training flights.
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Requirements
(k) ACARS load and trim sheet (if applicable)

(l) Last minute changes
3. A competency check as specified in para 7.3 of CAR Section 8

series D Part 1.(Ref. Star Air Load and Trim Training
Manual, Part II, Chap 1,Para 1.1 (3) )
4. Recurrent ground training for personnel must consist of at
least 10 programmed hours.
5. Recurrent training shall also be conducted for personnel who
have not conducted supervision of loading and preparation
of load and trim due long sickness change of job etc. The
course shall mainly consist of familiarization with subjects
mentioned in para 7.1 of CAR Section 8 series D Part 1 and
also with DGCA circulars, AICs and review of
accidents/incidents due to loading problems
6. The instructor under whom such personnel has undergone

recurrent training shall submit a certificate of successful
completion of training to the Star Air
1.4 : Differences Training:
1. Differences training for such personnel must consist of

instructions in each appropriate subject or part thereof
required for initial ground training in the aircraft.
2. The number of programmed hours for the differences ground

training shall be 10 hours, if not included with other training
courses.
3. Differences training must include the relevant topics defined

in paragraph 7 and in addition the following:
(a) Introduction to variations.
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(b) Instructions on each aspect of variations.

(c) Impact on loading and unloading due differences.
(d) Precautions and limitations.
(e) Impact on payload due differences.
(f) Procedure to prepare load and trim sheet.
1.5 : Competency Check For Personnel:
1. Written test / Examination:

Each trainee after having undergone the prescribed training
shall appear in a written examination conducted by an
instructor in co-ordination with the DGCA.
The examination shall consist of:-
(a) General subjects,

(b) Specific on type of aircraft.
2. Oral and Practical test:
The personnel after having successfully undergone written test

are required to demonstrate their drill and skills. The
assessment in this regard shall be done by an instructor.
1.6 : Operating Experience:
The personnel must perform the assigned duties of preparing

load and trim sheet on at least two flights under the supervision
of an authorised instructor, who shall personally observe the
performance of these duties. However, such check is not
required for personnel who have previously acquired
experience on any large passenger carrying aircraft of the same
group.
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Requirements
1.7 : Training Infrastructure And Programme:
1. For the purpose of training Star Air must obtain approval

from FSD, DGCA for their training course. For this purpose
Star Air shall submit to the DGCA
(a) A training programme for each type of aircraft which shall
include:-
(1) A list of principal training subjects covering the syllabus;
(2) A list of all the training devices, methods and procedures to
be followed for the proposed training;
(3) The programmed hours of training that will be applied to
each training;
(4) List of properly qualified instructors as required for the
training.
(b) Additional information which may be required by the DGCA.
2. Star Air shall provide and keep current with respect to each
aircraft type and, if applicable, the particular variation within
that aircraft type, appropriate training material, examination
form, instructions, printed material, instructions and
procedures for use in conducting the training and checks
required.
3. If the proposed training programme or revision complies

with this part of the CAR, FSD, DGCA may grant initial
approval after which Star Air may conduct training in
accordance with such approved programme. DGCA will then
evaluate the effectiveness of the training programme and will
advise Star Air of deficiencies, if any, that must be corrected.
4. DGCA may grant final approval of training programme or

revision if the Star Air shows that the training conducted
under initial approval ensures that each person that
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successfully completes the training is adequately trained to

perform his/her assigned duty.
5. Whenever DGCA finds that revisions are necessary for

continued adequacy of training programme that has been
granted final approval, Star Air shall make changes in the
programme that are found necessary by the DGCA.
6. Instructor: The instructor detailed to impart training to the

personnel must possess sufficient aviation experience and
knowledge of Air Safety Circulars, AICs, CAR, Aircraft Rules
and other instructions issued by the DGCA from time to time.
STAR AIR Load & Trim Sheet instructor will Possess the
following minimum qualification and experience:
(a) Graduate in any discipline

(b) 02 - 03 Years of aviation experience as a loadsheet staff or in
commercial / Flight operations department.
(c) Knowledge of air safety circulars, AICs, CAR, Aircraft Rules and other
instructions issued by the DGCA
(d) Deliver effective training designed to encourage the performance of
trainees.
(e) Strong Communication and interpersonal skill.
Duties & Responsibilities :-
•Prepare course Schedule

•Conduct classroom training & Examination in coordination with
regulatory authority.
•Ensure training materials are up to date and readily available •Update
training records and conduct L&T audit across the network.
An yearly assessment of Load & Trim instructor will be carried out by

Director Training – Star Air & DGCA may monitor the training
programme from time to time. Page 10 of 10
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Chapter 02 ISSUE 00
History of Aviation REVISION 00 14 JUL 18
INDEX
02 HISTORY OF AVIATION
2.0 HISTORY OF AVIATION 01
2.1 HISTORY OF AVIATION IN INDIA 04
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History of Aviation
2.0 : History of Aviation
From prehistoric times, humans have watched the flight of

birds, longed to imitate them, but lacked the power to do so.
Logic dictated that if the small muscles of birds can lift them
into the air and sustain them, then the larger muscles of humans
should be able to duplicate the feat. No one knew about the
intricate mesh of muscles, sinew, heart, breathing system, and
devices not unlike wing flaps, variable-camber and spoilers of
the modern airplane that enabled a bird to fly. Still, thousands of
years and countless lives were lost in attempts to fly like birds.
The identity of the first “bird-men” who fitted themselves with

wings and leapt off a cliff in an effort to fly are lost in time, but
each failure gave those who wished to fly questions that needed
answering. Where had the wing flappers gone wrong?
Philosophers, scientists, and inventors offered solutions, but no
one could add wings to the human body and soar like a bird.
During the 1500s, Leonardo da Vinci filled pages of his
notebooks with sketches of proposed flying machines, but most
of his ideas were flawed because he clung to the idea of birdlike
wings. By 1655, mathematician, physicist, and inventor Robert
Hooke concluded the human body does not possess the strength
to power artificial wings. He believed human flight would
require some form of artificial propulsion.
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The quest for human flight led some practitioners in another

direction. In 1783, the first manned hot air balloon, crafted by
Joseph and Etienne Montgolfier, flew for 23 minutes. Ten days
later, Professor Jacques Charles flew the first gas balloon. A
madness for balloon flight captivated the public’s imagination
and for a time flying enthusiasts turned their expertise to the
promise of lighter-than-air flight. But for all its majesty in the
air, the balloon was little more than a billowing heap of cloth
capable of no more than a one-way, downwind journey.
Balloons solved the problem of lift, but that was only one of the
problems of human flight. The ability to control speed and
direction eluded balloonists. The solution to that problem lay in
a child’s toy familiar to the East for 2,000 years, but not
introduced to the West until the 13th century. The kite, used by
the Chinese manned for aerial observation and to test winds for
sailing, and unmanned as a signaling device and as a toy, held
many of the answers to lifting a heavier-than-air device into the
air.
One of the men who believed the study of kites unlocked the
secrets of winged flight was Sir George Cayley. Born in England
10 years before the Mongolfier balloon flight, Cayley spent his
84 years seeking to develop a heavier-than-air vehicle
supported by kite-shaped wings. The “Father of Aerial
Navigation,” Cayley discovered the basic principles on which the
modern science of aeronautics is founded, built what is
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recognized as the first successful flying model, and tested the

first full-size man-carrying airplane.
For the half-century after Cayley’s death, countless scientists,

flying enthusiasts, and inventors worked toward building a
powered flying machine. A dream turned into reality by Wilbur
and Orville Wright at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, on December
17, 1903.
The bicycle-building Wright brothers of Dayton, Ohio, had

experimented for 4 years with kites, their own homemade wind
tunnel, and different engines to power their biplane. One of their
great achievements was proving the value of the scientific,
rather than build-it-and-see approach to flight. Their biplane,
The Flyer, combined inspired design and engineering with
superior craftsmanship.
By the afternoon of December 17th, the Wright brothers had

flown a total of 98 seconds on four flights. The age of flight had
arrived.
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2.1 : History of Aviation In India
On 18 February, 1911 the first commercial civil aviation flight

took place in India between Allahabad and Naini, a distance of 6
miles when Henri Piquet carried 6500 mails on a Humber
biplane. This is considered to be the world’s first airmail service
and the beginning of civil aviation in India.
In December 1912, the Indian State Air Services in collaboration

with UK based Imperial Airways introduced the London -
Karachi - Delhi flight, the first International flight to and from
India.
In 1915 Tata Sons Ltd. started regular air mail services between
Karachi and Madras and on January 24, 1920 Royal Airforce
started regular airmail services between Karachi and Bombay.
Construction of Civil Airports in India started in 1924.

Constructions began in Calcutta at Dum Dum, Allahabad at
Bamrauli and in Bombay in Gilbert Hill.
April 1927 saw the setting up of a separate Department of Civil
Aviation to look after all civil aviation matters. That year also
saw the establishment of Aero Club of India.
In February 1929, JRD Tata was awarded the first pilot license
by Federation Aeronautique International on behalf of the Aero
Club of India and Burma. The same year Aga Khan announced a
solo air race between London and Bombay. There were three
participants - JRD Tata, Man Mohan Singh and Aspy Merchant .
The race was won by Man Mohan Singh.
Lt.Col. Shelmerdine was appointed first Director general of Civil

Aviation(DGCA) in 1931 to look after civil aviation regulatory
issues.
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In 1932 Tata Airlines came to being as a division of Tata Sons

Limited. It started Air Mail services on the Karachi, Ahmedabad,
Bombay, Bellary, Madras routes on 15 October. The same year,
1932 also saw the first Indian woman, Urmila K. Parikh get a
pilot’s license.
Between 1933 and 1934 a number of Indian airlines – Indian

Trans Continental Airways, Madras Air Taxi Services, Indian
National Airways etc., commenced operations.
The Indian Aircraft Act was promulgated in 1934 and was
formulated in 1937.
Hindustan Aeronautics Limited(HAL) set up by Walchand

Hirachand in association with the then Mysore Government in
1940 at Bangalore.
India’s first aircraft, the Harlow trainer was rolled out for test
flight in July 1941.
In 1945 the Deccan Airways was founded - jointly owned by the

Nizam of Hyderabad and Tatas. Its first flight began in July 1946.
In 1946 ‘Air India’ came into being when Tata Airlines changed
its name to Air India.
In 1948 Air India signed an agreement with the Government to

operate international services under the name Air India
International Ltd. On June 8 the same year Air India inaugurated
its international services with a weekly flight between Bombay
and London via Cairo and Geneva.
In 1948 Prem Mathur became the first woman commercial pilot

and started flying for Deccan Airways. She obtained her
commercial pilot’s license in 1947.
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In March 1953 the Indian Parliament passed the Air

Corporations Act, and Indian Airlines and Air India International
were set up after nationalisation of the entire airline industry. At
this time eight formerly independent domestic airlines: Deccan
Airways, Airways India, Bharat Airways, Himalyan Aviation,
Kalinga Air Lines, Indian National Airways, Air India, Air
Services of India were merged.
1953 also saw the introduction of India’s Civil Helicopter

Services.
Later till the mid 1990's government-owned airlines dominated

Indian aviation industry. When the government adopted the
Open-sky policy in 1990 and other liberalization policies the
Indian Aviation Indian made underwent a rapid and dramatic
transformation.
By the year 2000 several private airlines have entered into the
aviation business in succession and many more were about to
enter into the arena. Indian aviation industry today is
dominated by private airlines and low-cost carriers.
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Chapter 03 ISSUE 01
Theory Of Flight REVISION 00 14 JUL 18
INDEX
03 THEORY OF FLIGHT
3.0 INTRODUCTION 01
3.1 STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE 01
3.2 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE 03
3.3 EFFECTS OF PRESSURE ON DENSITY 03
3.4 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON DENSITY 04
3.5 EFFECT OF HUMIDITY ON DENSITY 04
3.6 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION AND FORCE 05
3.7 BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE OF PRESSURE 06
3.8 AIRFOIL DESIGN 07
3.9 FORCES ACTING ON THE AIRPLANE 14
3.10 AXES OF AN AIRPLANE 26
3.11 AIRCRAFT CONTROL SURFACE 28
3.12 COCKPIT (FLIGHT DECK) DESCRIPTIONS 34
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Theory of Flight
3.0 Introduction
Attempts to produce people-carrying flying machines have been

recorded since round 850 BC. Unfortunately, attempts to
emulate birds focused on flapping wings rather than producing
lift. Flying 'took off' in the late 1800s with the development of
person-carrying kites, balloons and simple gliders.
Wilbur and Orville Wright made the world's first recognised
powered, heavier-than-air flight on December 17, 1903, at Kill
Devil Hills, near Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, USA. It was the
culmination of several years of testing and calculation, as they
had to develop an aircraft as well as the knowledge and skills
required.
In September 1903, they established a camp and erected a
building to house their new powered aircraft, making the first
successful powered, sustained, controlled flight on December 17
1903.
To understand the principles of flight, one must first become
familiar with the fundamental physical laws governing the
forces acting on an airplane in flight, and what affect these
natural laws and forces have on the performance characteristics
of airplanes.
3.1 Structure Of The Atmosphere
The atmosphere in which flight is conducted is an envelope of

air that surrounds the earth and rests upon its surface. It is as
much a part of the earth as the seas or the land. However, air
differs from land and water inasmuch as it is a mixture of gases.
It has mass, weight, and indefinite shape.
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Air, like any other fluid, is able to flow and change its shape
when subjected to even minute pressures because of the lack of
strong molecular cohesion. For example, gas will completely fill
any container into which it is placed, expanding or contracting
to adjust its shape to the limits of the container.
Because air has mass and weight, it is a body, and as a body, it
reacts to the scientific laws of bodies in the same manner as
other gaseous bodies. This body of air resting upon the surface
of the earth has weight and at sea level develops an average
pressure of 14.7 pounds on each square inch of surface, or 29.92
inches of mercury—but as its thickness is limited, the higher the
altitude, the less air there is above. For this reason, the weight of
the atmosphere at 18,000 feet is only one-half what it is at sea
level. [Figure 1]
Fig 1 : Standard Sea Level Pressure.
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3.2 Atmospheric Pressure
Though there are various kinds of pressure, this discussion is

mainly concerned with atmospheric pressure. It is one of the
basic factors in weather changes, helps to lift the airplane, and
actuates some of the important flight instruments in the
airplane. These instruments are the altimeter, the airspeed
indicator, the rate-of-climb indicator, and the Manifold pressure
gauge. Though air is very light, it has mass and is affected by the
attraction of gravity.
Therefore, like any other substance, it has weight, and because
of its weight, it has force. Since it is a fluid substance, this force is
exerted equally in all directions, and its effect on bodies within
the air is called pressure. Under standard conditions at sea level,
the average pressure exerted on the human body by the weight
of the atmosphere around it is approximately 14.7 lb./in.
The density of air has significant effects on the airplane’s
capability. As air becomes less dense, it reduces
(1) power because the engine takes in less air,
(2) thrust because the propeller is less efficient in thin air, and
(3) lift because the thin air exerts less force on the airfoils.
3.3 Effects Of Pressure On Density
Since air is a gas, it can be compressed or expanded. When air is

compressed, a greater amount of air can occupy a given volume.
Conversely, when pressure on a given volume of air is
decreased, the air expands and occupies a greater space. That is,
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the original column of air at a lower pressure contains a smaller

mass of air. In other words, the density is decreased. In fact,
density is directly proportional to pressure. If the pressure is
doubled, the density is doubled, and if the pressure is lowered,
so is the density. This statement is true, only at a constant
temperature.
3.4 Effect Of Temperature On Density
The effect of increasing the temperature of a substance is to

decrease its density. Conversely, decreasing the temperature
has the effect of increasing the density. Thus, the density of air
varies inversely as the absolute temperature varies. This
statement is true, only at a constant pressure. In the
atmosphere, both temperature and pressure decrease with
altitude, and have conflicting effects upon density. However, the
fairly rapid drop in pressure as altitude is increased usually has
the dominating effect. Hence, density can be expected to
decrease with altitude.
3.5 Effect Of Humidity On Density
The preceding paragraphs have assumed that the air was

perfectly dry. In reality, it is never completely dry. The small
amount of water vapor suspended in the atmosphere may be
almost negligible under certain conditions, but in other
conditions humidity may become an important factor in the
performance of an airplane. When humidity increases, the
density of the air decreases.
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3.6 Newton’s Laws Of Motion and Force
In the 17th century, a philosopher and mathematician, Sir Isaac

Newton, propounded three basic laws of motion. It is certain
that he did not have the airplane in mind when he did so, but
almost everything known about motion goes back to his three
simple laws. These laws, named after Newton, are as follows:
3.6.1 Newton’s first law:
states, in part, that: A body at rest tends to remain at rest, and a
body in motion tends to remain moving at the same speed and
in the same direction. This simply means that, in nature, nothing
starts or stops moving until some outside force causes it to do
so. An airplane at rest on the ramp will remain at rest unless a
force strong enough to overcome its inertia is applied. Once it is
moving, however, its inertia keeps it moving, subject to the
various other forces acting on it. These forces may add to its
motion, slow it down, or change its direction.
3.6.2 Newton’s second law

implies that: When a body is acted upon by a constant force, its
resulting acceleration is inversely proportional to the mass of
the body and is directly proportional to the applied force. What
is being dealt with here are the factors involved in overcoming
Newton’s First Law of Inertia. It covers both changes in
direction and speed, including starting up from rest (positive
acceleration) and coming to a stop (negative acceleration, or
deceleration).
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3.6.3 Newton’s third law:

states that: Whenever one body exerts a force on another, the
second body always exerts on the first, a force that is equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction. The recoil of a gun as it is
fired is a graphic example of Newton’s third law. The champion
swimmer who pushes against the side of the pool during the
turnaround or the infant learning to walk—both would fail but
for the phenomena expressed in this law. In an airplane, the
propeller moves and pushes back the air; consequently, the air
pushes the propeller (and thus the airplane) in the opposite
direction—forward. In a jet airplane, the engine pushes a blast
of hot gases backward; the force of equal and opposite reaction
pushes against the engine and forces the airplane forward. The
movement of all vehicles is a graphic illustration of Newton’s
third law.
3.7 BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE OF PRESSURE
A half century after Sir Newton presented his laws, Mr. Daniel
Bernoulli, a Swiss mathematician, explained how the pressure of
a moving fluid (liquid or gas) varies with its speed of motion.
Specifically, he stated that an increase in the speed of movement
or flow would cause a decrease in the fluid’s pressure. This is
exactly what happens to air passing over the curved top of the
airplane wing. A practical application of Bernoulli’s theorem is
the venture tube. The venture tube has an air inlet which
narrows to a throat (constricted point) and an outlet section
which increases in diameter toward the rear.
The diameter of the outlet is the same as that of the inlet. At the
throat, the airflow speeds up and the pressure decreases; at the
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outlet, the airflow slows and the pressure increases. [Figure 2] If

air is recognized as a body and it is accepted that it must follow
the above laws, one can begin to see how and why an airplane
wing develops lift as it moves through the air.
Fig 2: Air Pressure decreases in venture
3.8 AIRFOIL DESIGN
An airplane wing has a special shape called an airfoil. Usually the

bottom of the wing is flat or nearly flat. The top of the wing is
curved, with the wing being thicker at the front edge of the wing,
and tapering to a thin surface at the trailing edge of the wing.
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The shape of an airfoil is such that wind can pass both above and
below it. The shape of the top is designed so that, as air passes
over it, it speeds up, decreasing the air pressure in that region
according to Bernoulli’s principle.
Terminology
Figure 3: Side view of an aircraft wing, Projection indicating the

airfoil shape (Left)
A reference line often used in discussing the airfoil is the chord

line, an imaginary straight line connecting the leading and
trailing edges. The distance from this chord line to the upper
and lower surfaces of the wing denotes the magnitude of the
upper and lower camber at any point. Another reference line,
drawn from the leading edge to the trailing edge, is the “mean
camber line.” This mean line is equidistant at all points from the
upper and lower contours.
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Relative wind is the air flowing opposite and parallel to the

direction of airfoil motion (Flight Path). The angle which the
wing chord makes with this Relative Wind is called Angle of
Attack. An increase in angle of attack increases both lift and
drag.
Lift
Bernoulli stated, “In an ideal streamlined flow of non-viscous

fluid, the sum of pressure, kinetic and potential energy is a
constant“ In other words, “As the velocity of a fluid increases, its
pressure decreases.”
Pressure + Kinetic + Potential = Constant
Airplane wings are shaped to take advantage of the fact that an

airflow traveling faster will have a smaller pressure. The
curvature on top of the wing causes the airflow on top of the
wing to accelerate. This acceleration leads to a higher velocity
air on top of the wing than on the bottom. This creates a lower
pressure area on top of the wing than on the bottom.
Air with a higher pressure tends to move towards air with a

lower pressure, and this difference in pressure causes force to
be exerted beneath the airfoil, generating lift. The faster the air
is moving – or the faster the airplane is moving through the air –
the greater the difference in air pressure, and therefore the
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greater the pressure being exerted. At a certain speed, enough

force is being exerted that an object – such as a plane – will
overcome the force of gravity and lift off of the ground.
Newton’s Third Law—for every action there is an equal an

opposite reaction.
The passing of the airfoil through the air is an action. We can

expect, then, that the air will act upon the wing, this is the
reaction. The lower surface of the wing meets the air at a slight
angle (the angle of attack). The air flowing past the lower
surface is slightly deflected downward. The wing exerts a force
on the air in order to do this; the air, meanwhile, exerts an equal
and opposite (upward) force on the wing. This force of the air
(the reaction force) causes lift which is called dynamic lift.
PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
From experiments conducted on wind tunnel models and on full

size airplanes, it has been determined that as air flows along the
surface of a wing at different angles of attack, there are regions
along the surface where the pressure is negative, or less than
atmospheric, and regions where the pressure is positive, or
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greater than atmospheric. This negative pressure on the upper

surface creates a relatively larger force on the wing than is
caused by the positive pressure resulting from the air striking
the lower wing surface. Figure 5 shows the pressure distribution
along an airfoil at three different angles of attack. In general, at
high angles of attack the
Fig 5 : Pressure distribution on an airfoil.
Center of pressure moves forward, while at low angles of attack

the center of pressure moves aft. In the design of wing
structures, this center of pressure travel is very important, since
it affects the position of the airloads imposed on the wing
structure in low angle-of-attack conditions and high angle-of-
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attack conditions. The airplane’s aerodynamic balance and

controllability are governed by changes in the center of
pressure.
The center of pressure is determined through calculation and

wind tunnel tests by varying the airfoil’s angle of attack through
normal operating extremes. As the angle of attack is changed, so
are the various pressure distribution characteristics. [Figure 2-
8] Positive (+) and negative (–) pressure forces are totaled for
each angle of attack and the resultant force is obtained. The total
resultant pressure is represented by the resultant force vector
shown in figure 6.
Fig 6: Force vectors on an airfoil.
The point of application of this force vector is termed the

“center of pressure” (CP). For any given angle of attack, the
center of pressure is the point where the resultant force crosses
the chord line. This point is expressed as a percentage of the
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chord of the airfoil. A center of pressure at 30 percent of a 60-

inch chord would be 18 inches aft of the wing’s leading edge. It
would appear then that if the designer would place the wing so
that its center of pressure was at the airplane’s center of gravity,
the airplane would always balance. The difficulty arises,
however, that the location of the center of pressure changes
with change in the airfoil’s angle of attack. [Figure 7]
Fig 7: CP Changes with angle of attack
In the airplane’s normal range of flight attitudes, if the angle of

attack is increased, the center of pressure moves forward; and if
decreased, it moves rearward. Since the center of gravity is fixed
at one point, it is evident that as the angle of attack increases,
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the center of lift (CL) moves ahead of the centre of gravity,

creating a force which tends to raise the nose of the airplane or
tends to increase the angle of attack still more. On the other
hand, if the angle of attack is decreased, the centre of lift (CL)
moves aft and tends to decrease the angle a greater amount. It is
seen then, that the ordinary airfoil is inherently unstable, and
that an auxiliary device, such as the horizontal tail surface, must
be added to make the airplane balance longitudinally.
The balance of an airplane in flight depends, therefore, on the

relative position of the center of gravity (CG) and the center of
pressure (CP) of the airfoil. Experience has shown that an
airplane with the center of gravity in the vicinity of 20 percent of
the wing chord can be made to balance and fly satisfactorily. The
tapered wing presents a variety of wing chords throughout the
span of the wing. It becomes necessary then, to specify some
chord about which the point of balance can be expressed. This
chord, known as the mean aerodynamic chord (MAC), usually is
defined as the chord of an imaginary unhampered wing, which
would have the same center of pressure characteristics as the
wing in question. Airplane loading and weight distribution also
affect center of gravity and cause additional forces, which in
turn affect airplane balance.
3.9 FORCES ACTING ON THE AIRPLANE
In some respects at least, how well a pilot performs in flight

depends upon the ability to plan and coordinate the use of the
power and flight controls for changing the forces of thrust, drag,
lift, and weight. It is the balance between these forces that the
pilot must always control. The better the understanding of the
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forces and means of controlling them, the greater will be the

pilot’s skill at doing so.
The following defines these forces in relation to straight-and-

level, uncelebrated flight.
Thrust is the forward force produced by the power plant/

propeller. It opposes or overcomes the force of drag. As a
general rule, it is said to act parallel to the longitudinal axis.
However, this is not always the case as will be explained later.
Drag is a rearward, retarding force, and is caused by disruption

of airflow by the wing, fuselage, and other protruding objects.
Drag opposes thrust, and acts rearward parallel to the relative
wind.
Weight is the combined load of the airplane itself, the crew, the
fuel, and the cargo or baggage. Weight pulls the airplane
downward because of the force of gravity. It opposes lift, and
acts vertically downward through the airplane’s center of
gravity.
Lift opposes the downward force of weight, is produced by the

dynamic effect of the air acting on the wing, and acts
perpendicular to the flight path through the wing’s center of lift.
In steady flight, the sum of these opposing forces is equal to
zero. There can be no unbalanced forces in steady, straight flight
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(Newton’s Third Law). This is true whether flying level or when

climbing or descending. This is not the same thing as saying that
the four forces are all equal. It simply means that the opposing
forces are equal to, and thereby cancel the effects of, each other.
Often the relationship between the four forces has been

erroneously explained or illustrated in such a way that this
point is obscured. Consider figure 8, for example. In the upper
illustration the force vectors of thrust, drag, lift, and weight
appear to be equal in value. The usual explanation states
(without stipulating that thrust and drag do not equal weight
and lift) that thrust equals drag and lift equals weight as shown
in the lower illustration. This basically true statement must be
understood or it can be misleading. It should be understood that
in straight, level, flight, it is true that the opposing lift/weight
forces are equal, but they are also greater than the opposing
forces of thrust/drag that are equal only to each other; not to
lift/weight. To be correct about it, it must be said that in steady
flight:
• The sum of all upward forces (not just lift) equals the sum
of all downward forces (not just weight).
• The sum of all forward forces (not just thrust) equals the
sum of all backward forces (not just drag)
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Fig 8 : Relationship of forces acting on an airplane.
Maintaining a steady flight requires a balance, often described

as an equilibrium of all the forces acting upon an airplane.
Weight, lift, thrust and drag are the acting forces on an airplane.
Assuming a straight and level flight, lift must be equal to weight
and drag must be equal to thrust. This is what happens if this
equilibrium is violated:
• If lift becomes greater than weight, then the

plane will accelerate upward. [Figure 9]
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• If the weight is greater than the lift,

then the plane will accelerate
downward.
• When the thrust becomes greater than the

drag, the plane will accelerate forward.
• If drag becomes greater than the thrust a

deceleration will occur.
Fig 9 : Force vectors during a stabilized climb
The opposite forces of flight are not always equal.
For instance, as a plane climbs, its weight is equal to a portion

of the lift force and a portion of the thrust force. In this
situation, the opposite forces of flight are no longer equal to
one another. However, according to Newton's 3rd Law, the
force of air pushing on the plane is still equal to the force of
the plane pushing through the air.
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Though the forces acting on an airplane have already been

defined, a discussion in more detail to establish how the pilot
uses them to produce controlled flight is appropriate.
THRUST
Before the airplane begins to move, thrust must be exerted. It

continues to move and gain speed until thrust and drag are
equal. In order to maintain a constant airspeed, thrust and drag
must remain equal, just as lift and weight must be equal to
maintain a constant altitude. If in level flight, the engine power
is reduced, the thrust is lessened, and the airplane slows down.
As long as the thrust is less than the drag, the airplane continues
to decelerate until its airspeed is insufficient to support it in the
air.
Likewise, if the engine power is increased, thrust becomes
greater than drag and the airspeed increases. As long as the
thrust continues to be greater than the drag, the airplane
continues to accelerate. When drag equals thrust, the airplane
flies at a constant airspeed.
Straight-and-level flight may be sustained at speeds from very

slow to very fast. The pilot must coordinate angle of attack and
thrust in all speed regimes if the airplane is to be held in level
flight. Roughly, these regimes can be grouped in three
categories: low-speed flight, cruising flight, and high-speed
flight.
When the airspeed is low, the angle of attack must be relatively
high to increase lift if the balance between lift and weight is to
be maintained. [Figure 10] If thrust decreases and airspeed
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decreases, lift becomes less than weight and the airplane will
start to descend. To maintain level flight, the pilot can increase
the angle of attack an amount which will generate a lift force
again equal to the weight of the airplane and while the airplane
will be flying more slowly, it will still maintain level flight if the
pilot has properly coordinated thrust and angle of attack.
Fig 10. Angle of attack at various speeds.
Straight-and-level flight in the slow speed regime provides

some interesting conditions relative to the equilibrium of forces,
because with the airplane in a nose-high attitude, there is a
vertical component of thrust that helps support the airplane. For
one thing, wing loading tends to be less than would be expected.
Most pilots are aware that an airplane will stall, other conditions
being equal, at a slower speed with the power on than with the
power off. (Induced airflow over the wings from the propeller
also contributes to this.) However, if analysis is restricted to the
four forces as they are usually defined, one can say that in
straight-and-level slow speed flight the thrust is equal to drag,
and lift is equal to weight.
During straight-and level-flight when thrust is increased and
the airspeed increases, the angle of attack must be decreased.
That is, if changes have been coordinated, the airplane will still
remain in level flight but at a higher speed when the proper
relationship between thrust and angle of attack is established.
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If the angle of attack were not coordinated (decreased) with this

increase of thrust, the airplane would climb. But decreasing the
angle of attack modifies the lift, keeping it equal to the weight,
and if properly done, the airplane still remains in level flight.
Level flight at even slightly negative angles of attack is possible
at very high speed. It is evident then, that level flight can be
performed with any angle of attack between stalling angle and
the relatively small negative angles found at high speed.
DRAG
Drag in flight is of two basic types: parasite drag and induced

drag. The first is called parasite because it in no way functions
to aid flight, while the second is induced or created as a result of
the wing developing lift.
Parasite drag is composed of two basic elements: form drag,
resulting from the disruption of the streamline flow; and the
resistance of skin friction. Of the two components of parasite
drag, form drag is the easier to reduce when designing an
airplane. In general, a more streamlined object produces the
best form to reduce parasite drag.
Skin friction is the type of parasite drag that is most difficult to
reduce. No surface is perfectly smooth. Even machined surfaces,
when inspected through magnification, have a ragged, uneven
appearance. This rough surface will deflect the streamlines of air
on the surface, causing resistance to smooth airflow. Skin
friction can be minimized by employing a glossy, flat finish to
surfaces, and by eliminating protruding rivet heads, roughness,
and other irregularities.
Another element must be added to the consideration of parasite
drag when designing an airplane.
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This drag combines the effects of form drag and skin friction
and is called interference drag. If two objects are placed
adjacent to one another, the resulting turbulence produced may
be 50 to 200 percent greater than the parts tested separately.
The three elements, form drag, skin friction, and interference
drag, are all computed to determine parasite drag on an
airplane.
Shape of an object is a big factor in parasite drag. However,
indicated airspeed is an equally important factor when speaking
of parasite drag. The profile drag of a streamlined object held in
a fixed position relative to the airflow increases approximately
as the square of the velocity; thus, doubling the airspeed
increases the drag four times, and tripling the airspeed
increases the drag nine times. This relationship, however, holds
good only at comparatively low subsonic speeds. At some higher
airspeed, the rate at which profile drag has been increased with
speed suddenly begins to increase more rapidly.
The second basic type of drag is induced drag. It is an
established physical fact that no system, which does work in the
mechanical sense, can be 100 percent efficient. This means that
whatever the nature of the system, the required work is
obtained at the expense of certain additional work that is
dissipated or lost in the system. The more efficient the system,
the smaller this loss.
In level flight the aerodynamic properties of the wing produce a
required lift, but this can be obtained only at the expense of a
certain penalty. The name given to this penalty is induced drag.
Induced drag is inherent whenever a wing is producing lift and,
in fact, this type of drag is inseparable from the production of
lift. Consequently, it is always present if lift is produced.
The wing produces the lift force by making use of the energy of
the free air stream. Whenever the wing is producing lift, the
pressure on the lower surface of the wing is greater than that on
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the upper surface. As a result, the air tends to flow from the high
pressure area below the wingtip upward to the low pressure
area above the wing. In the vicinity of the wingtips, there is a
tendency for these pressures to equalize, resulting in a lateral
flow outward from the underside to the upper surface of the
wing.
This lateral flow imparts a rotational velocity to the air at the

wingtips and trails behind the wing. Therefore, flow about the
wingtips will be in the form of two vortices trailing behind as
the wings move on.
When the airplane is viewed from the tail, these Vortices will
circulate counter clockwise about the right wingtip and
clockwise about the left wingtip.[Figure 11] Bearing in mind the
direction of rotation of these vortices, it can be seen that they
induce an upward flow of air beyond the wingtip, and
downwash flow behind the wing’s trailing edge. This induced
downwash has nothing in common with the downwash that is
necessary to produce lift. It is, in fact, the source of induced drag.
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Fig 11: Wing vortices
In any case, as angle of attack increases, induced drag increases

proportionally.
To state this way—the lower the airspeed the greater the angle
of attack required to produce lift equal to the airplane’s weight
and consequently, the greater will be the induced drag. The
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amount of induced drag varies inversely as the square of the

airspeed.
From the foregoing discussion, it can be noted that parasite drag

increases as the square of the airspeed, and induced drag varies
inversely as the square of the airspeed. It can be seen that as
airspeed decreases to near the stalling speed, the total drag
becomes greater, due mainly to the sharp rise in induced drag.
Similarly, as the airspeed reaches the terminal velocity of the
airplane, the total drag again increases rapidly, due to the sharp
increase of parasite drag.
As seen in figure 3-5, at some given airspeed, total drag is at its
maximum amount. This is very important in figuring the
maximum endurance and range of airplanes; for when drag is at
a minimum, power required to overcome drag is also at a
minimum.
WEIGHT
Gravity is the pulling force that tends to draw all bodies to the
center of the earth. The center of gravity (CG) may be
considered as a point at which all the weight of the airplane is
concentrated. If the airplane were supported at its exact center
of gravity, it would balance in any attitude. It will be noted that
center of gravity is of major importance in an airplane, for its
position has a great bearing upon stability.
The location of the center of gravity is determined by the

general design of each particular airplane. The designers
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determine how far the center of pressure (CP) will travel. They
then fix the center of gravity forward of the center of pressure
for the corresponding flight speed in order to provide an
adequate restoring moment to retain flight equilibrium.
LIFT
The pilot can control the lift. Any time the control wheel is more
fore or aft, the angle of attack is changed. As angle of attack
increases, lift increases (all other factors being equal). When the
airplane reaches the maximum angle of attack, lift begins to
diminish rapidly. This is the stalling angle of attack, or burble
point.
Before proceeding further with lift and how it can be controlled,

velocity must be interjected. The shape of the wing cannot be
effective unless it continually keeps “attacking” new air. If an
airplane is to keep flying, it must keep moving. Lift is
proportional to the square of the airplane’s velocity. For
example, an airplane traveling at 200 knots has four times the
lift as the same airplane traveling at 100 knots, if the angle of
attack and other factors remain constant.
3.10 AXES OF AN AIRPLANE
Whenever an airplane changes its flight attitude or position in

flight, it rotates about one or more of three axes, which are
imaginary lines that pass through the airplane’s centre of
gravity. The axes of an airplane can be considered as imaginary
axles around which the airplane turns, much like the axle
around which a wheel rotates. At the point where all three axes
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intersect, each is at a 90° angle to the other two. The axis, which
extends lengthwise through the fuselage from the nose to the
tail, is the longitudinal axis. The axis, which extends crosswise
from wingtip to wingtip, is the lateral axis. The axis, which
passes vertically through the center of gravity, is the vertical
axis [Figure 12].
Fig 12: Axis of an aeroplane
The airplane’s motion about its longitudinal axis resembles the

roll of a ship from side to side. In fact, the names used in
describing the motion about an airplane’s three axes were
originally nautical terms. They have been adapted to
aeronautical terminology because of the similarity of motion
between an airplane and the seagoing ship.
In light of the adoption of nautical terms, the motion about the
airplane’s longitudinal axis is called “roll”; motion about its
lateral axis is referred to as “pitch.” Finally, an airplane moves
about its vertical axis in a motion, which is termed “yaw”—that
is, a horizontal (left and right) movement of the airplane’s nose.
The three motions of the airplane (roll, pitch, and yaw) are
controlled by three control surfaces. Roll is controlled by the
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ailerons; pitch is controlled by the elevators; yaw is controlled

by the rudder.
3.11 Aircraft Control surface
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The main control surfaces of a fixed-wing aircraft are attached

to the airframe on hinges or tracks so they may move and thus
deflect the air stream passing over them. This redirection of the
air stream generates an unbalanced force to rotate the plane
about the associated axis. A brief description of the control
surfaces are given below.
Aileron:
Ailerons are mounted on the trailing edge of each wing near the
wingtips and move in opposite directions. When the pilot moves
the stick left, or turns the wheel counter-clockwise, the left
aileron goes up and the right aileron goes down. A raised aileron
reduces lift on that wing and a lowered one increases lift, so
moving the stick left causes the left wing to drop and the right
wing to rise. This causes the aircraft to roll to the left and begin
to turn to the left. Centering the stick returns the ailerons to
neutral maintaining the bank angle. The aircraft will continue to
turn until opposite aileron motion returns the bank angle to
zero to fly straight.
Elevators
An elevator is mounted on the trailing edge of the horizontal

stabilizer on each side of the fin in the tail. They move up and
down together. When the pilot pulls the stick backward, the
elevators go up. Pushing the stick forward causes the elevators
to go down. Raised elevators push down on the tail and cause
the nose to pitch up. This makes the wings fly at a higher angle
of attack, which generates more lift and more drag. Centering
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the stick returns the elevators to neutral and stops the change of
pitch.
Rudder
The rudder is typically mounted on the trailing edge of the

vertical stabilizer, part of the empennage. When the pilot pushes
the left pedal, the rudder deflects left. Pushing the right pedal
causes the rudder to deflect right. Deflecting the rudder right
pushes the tail left and causes the nose to yaw to the right.
Centering the rudder pedals returns the rudder to neutral and
stops the yaw
Flaps
Flaps are mounted on the trailing edge of each wing on the

inboard section of each wing (near the wing roots). They are
deflected down to increase the effective curvature of the wing.
Flaps raise the Maximum Lift Coefficient of the aircraft and
therefore reduce its stalling speed. They are used during low
speed, high angle of attack flight including take-off and descent
for landing.
Slats
Slats, also known as leading edge devices, are extensions to the

front of a wing for lift augmentation, and are intended to reduce
the stalling speed by altering the airflow over the wing. Slats
provide reduced stalling speed for take-off and landing, but are
retracted for cruising.
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Air brakes
Air brakes are used to increase drag. Spoilers might act as air
brakes, but are not pure air brakes as they also function as lift-
dumpers or in some cases as roll control surfaces. Air brakes are
usually surfaces that deflect outwards from the fuselage (in
most cases symmetrically on opposing sides) into the airstream
in order to increase form-drag. As they are in most cases located
elsewhere on the aircraft, they do not directly affect the lift
generated by the wing. Their purpose is to slow down the
aircraft. They are particularly useful when a high rate of descent
is required or the aircraft needs to be retarded. They are
common on high performance military aircraft as well as civilian
aircraft, especially those lacking reverse thrust capability.
Spoiler
Spoiler (sometimes called a lift dumper) is a device intended to

reduce lift in an aircraft. Spoilers are plates on the top surface of
a wing which can be extended upward into the airflow and spoil
it. By doing so, the spoiler creates a carefully controlled stall
over the portion of the wing behind it, greatly reducing the lift of
that wing section. Spoilers differ from airbrakes in that
airbrakes are designed to increase drag making little change to
lift, while spoilers reduce lift as well as increasing drag.
Horizontal Stabilizer
Horizontal stabilizers are movable surfaces that help to adjust

the wing's aerodynamics. When Aircraft takes off, its Stabilizer
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trim must be set by the pilot so that it is within the fore and aft
safety limits, considering the gross weight and CG (center of
gravity) of the airplane. The stabilizer trim value is derived from
the SATB TRIM Setting table given in the Balance chart for a
given Takeoff CG MAC and the flap setting.
Empennage
The empennage also known as the tail or tail assembly, of most

aircraft gives stability to the aircraft, in a similar way to the
feathers on an arrow, the term derives from the French for this.
Most aircraft feature an empennage incorporating vertical and
horizontal stabilising surfaces which stabilise the flight
dynamics of yaw and pitch, as well as housing control surfaces.
Structurally, the empennage

consists of the entire tail
assembly, including the fin, the
tailplane and the part of the
fuselage to which these are
attached. On an airliner this
would be all the flying and
control surfaces behind the rear
pressure bulkhead.
The front, usually fixed section of the tailplane is called the

tailplane or horizontal stabiliser and is used to provide pitch
stability. The rear section is called the elevator and is usually
hinged to the horizontal stabiliser. The elevator is a movable
aerofoil that controls changes in pitch, the up-and-down motion
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of the aircraft's nose. Some aircraft employ an all-moving

stabiliser and elevators in one unit, known as a stabilator
The vertical tail structure (or fin) has a fixed front section called
the vertical stabiliser, used to restrict side-to-side motion of the
aircraft (yawing). The rear section of the vertical fin is the
rudder, a movable aerofoil that is used to turn the aircraft in
combination with the ailerons.
Some aircraft are fitted with a tail assembly that is hinged to
pivot in two axes forward of the fin and stabiliser, in an
arrangement referred to as a movable tail.
The entire empennage is rotated vertically to actuate the
horizontal stabiliser, and sideways to actuate the fin.
The aircraft's cockpit voice recorder and flight data recorder are
often located in the empennage, because the aft of the aircraft
provides better protection for these in most aircraft crashes.
Landing Gear
Landing gear is the undercarriage of an aircraft. For aircraft, the

landing gear supports the craft when it is not flying, allowing it
to take off, land and usually to taxi without damage. Aircraft
landing gear usually includes wheels equipped with shock
absorbers for solid ground, but some aircraft are equipped with
skis for snow or floats for water, and/or skids or pontoons
(helicopters).
The undercarriage is a relatively heavy part of the vehicle, it can

be as much as 7% of the takeoff weight, but more typically is 4–
5%.
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3.12 Cockpit (Flight Deck) Descriptions
A cockpit or flight deck is the area, usually near the front of an

aircraft, from which a pilot controls the aircraft. Most modern
cockpits are enclosed, except on some small aircraft. In most
airliners, a door separates the cockpit from the passenger
compartment.
Ergonomics and human factors concerns are important in the
design of modern cockpits. The layout and function of cockpit
displays controls are designed to increase pilot situation
awareness without causing information overload.
In most cockpits the pilot's control column or joystick is located
centrally (centre stick), although in some military fast jets the
side-stick is located on the right hand side. In some commercial
airliners (i.e.: Airbus—which features the glass cockpit concept)
both pilots use a side-stick located on the outboard side, so
Captain's side-stick on the left and First-officer's seat on the
right.
The layout of control panels in modern airliners has become
largely unified across the industry. The majority of the systems-
related controls (such as electrical, fuel, hydraulics and
pressurization) for example, are usually located in the ceiling on
an overhead panel. Radios are generally placed on a panel
between the pilot's seats known as the pedestal. Automatic
flight controls such as the autopilot are usually placed just
below the windscreen and above the main instrument panel on
the glare shield. A central concept in the design of the cockpit is
the Design Eye Position or "DEP", from which point all displays
should be visible.
Most modern cockpits will also include some kind of integrated
warning system.
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In the modern electronic cockpit, the electronic flight

instruments usually regarded as essential are MCP, PFD, ND,
EICAS, FMS/CDU and back-up instruments.
MCP A mode control panel, usually a long narrow panel
located centrally in front of the pilot, may be used to control
heading, speed, altitude, vertical speed, vertical navigation and
lateral navigation. It may also be used to engage or disengage
both the autopilot and the auto throttle. The panel as an area is
usually referred to as the "glare shield panel". MCP is a Boeing
designation (that has been informally adopted as a generic
name for the unit/panel) for a unit that allows for the selection
and parameter setting of the different auto flight functions, the
same unit on an Airbus aircraft is referred to as the FCU (Flight
Control unit).
PFD The primary flight display is usually located in a
prominent position, either centrally or on either side of the
cockpit. It will in most cases include a digitized presentation of
the attitude indicator, air speed and altitude indicators (usually
as a tape display) and the vertical speed indicator. It will in
many cases include some form of heading indicator and
ILS/VOR deviation indicators. In many cases an indicator of the
engaged and armed auto flight system modes will be present
along with some form of indication of the selected values for
altitude, speed, vertical speed and heading. It may be pilot
selectable to swap with the ND.
ND- A navigation display, which may be adjacent to the PFD,
shows the current route and information on the next waypoint,
current wind speed and wind direction. It may be pilot
selectable to swap with the PFD.
EICAS/ECAM The Engine Indication and Crew Alerting
System (used for Boeing) or Electronic Centralized Aircraft
Monitor (for Airbus) will allow the pilot to monitor the
following information: values for N1, N2 and N3, fuel
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temperature, fuel flow, the electrical system, cockpit or cabin

temperature and pressure, control surfaces and so on. The pilot
may select display of information by means of button press.
ew
FMS The flight management system/control unit may be

used by the pilot to enter and check for the following
information: flight plan, speed control, navigation control, and
so on.
Back-up instruments In a less prominent part of the cockpit, in
case of failure of the other instruments, there will be a set of
back-up instruments, showing basic flight information such as
speed, altitude, heading, and aircraft attitude.
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Chapter 04 ISSUE 04
Principles Of Weight & REVISION 00 14 JUL 18

Balance
INDEX
04 PRINCIPLES OF WEIGHT & BALANCE
4.0 INTRODUCTION 01
4.1 MOMEMNT, MOMENT ARM 01
4.2 MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD 02
4.3 STABILITY AND BALANCE CONTROL 04
4.4 CALCULATIONS - WEIGHT OF BALANCE 09
4.5 AIRCRAFT CENTRE OF GRAVITY 15
4.6 THE SAFE RANGE – MAC % 18
4.7 EFFECTS OF CG LOCATION AND SHIFT 19
4.8 FACTORS SHIFTING THE CG DURING THE FLIGHT 20
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Principles Of Weight & REVISION 00 14 JUL 18

Balance
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Principles of REVISION 00 14 JUL 18
weight & balance
Principles of weight & balance
4.0 INTRODUCTION
There are many factors that lead to efficient and safe operation of
aircraft. Among these vital factors is proper weight and balance control.
The weight and balance system commonly employed among aircraft
consists of three equally important elements: the weighing of the
aircraft, the maintaining of the weight and balance records, and the
proper loading of the aircraft. An inaccuracy in any one of these
elements nullifies the purpose of the whole system.
4.1 MOMEMNT, MOMENT ARM
A study of physics shows that a body that is free to rotate will always
turn about its centre of gravity. In aerodynamic terms, the mathematical
measure of an airplane’s tendency to rotate about its centre of gravity is
called a “moment.” A moment is said to be equal to the product of the
force applied and the distance at which the force is applied. (A moment
arm is the distance from a datum [reference point or line] to the applied
force.
The term arm, usually measured in inches or in meters, refers to the
distance between the centre of gravity of an item or object and the
datum. Arms ahead of, or to the left of the datum are negative(-), and
those behind, or to the right of the datum are positive(+). When the
datum is ahead of the aircraft, all of the arms are positive and
computational errors are minimized. Weight is normally measured in
KGs.
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When weight is removed from an aircraft, it is negative(-), and when added, it

is positive (+). The manufacturer establishes the maximum weight and range
allowed for the CG, as measured in inches from the reference plane called the
datum. Some manufacturers specify this range as measured in percentage of
the mean aerodynamic chord (MAC), the leading edge of which is located a
specified distance from the datum. The datum may be located anywhere the
manufacturer chooses; it is often the leading edge of the wing or some specific
distance from an easily identified location. One popular location for the datum
is a specified distance forward of the aircraft, measured in inches or meters
from some point, such as the nose of the aircraft, or the leading edge of the
wing, or the engine firewall.
4.2 MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD
The width of the wing on an airplane is known as the chord. If the leading
edge and trailing edge of a wing are parallel to each other, the chord of the
wing is the same along the wing’s length. Business jets and commercial
transport airplanes have wings that are tapered and that are swept back, so
the width of their wings is different along their entire length. The width is
greatest where the wing meets the fuselage and progressively decreases
toward the tip. In relation to the aerodynamics of the wing, the average length
of the chord on these tapered swept-back wings is known as the mean
aerodynamic chord (MAC), see figure 13. Airplane designers locate the fore
and aft position of the airplane’s centre of gravity as nearly as possible to the
20 percent point of the mean aerodynamic chord (MAC).
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Fig 13 : Mean Aerodynamic chord of a swept back wing.
If the thrust line is designed to pass horizontally through the centre of

gravity, it will not cause the airplane to pitch when power is changed,
and there will be no difference in moment due to thrust for a power-on
or power-off condition of flight. Although designers have some control
over the location of the drag forces, they are not always able to make the
resultant drag forces pass through the centre of gravity of the airplane.
However, the one item over which they have the greatest control is the
size and location of the tail. The objective is to make the moments (due
to thrust, drag, and lift) as small as possible; and, by proper location of
the tail, to provide the means of balancing the airplane longitudinally for
any condition of flight.
The pilot has no direct control over the location of forces acting on the
airplane in flight, except for controlling the centre of lift by changing the
angle of attack. Such a change, however, immediately involves changes in
other forces. Therefore, the pilot cannot independently change the
location of one force without changing the effect of others. For example,
a change in airspeed involves a change in lift, as well as a change in drag
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and a change in the up or down force on the tail. As forces such as

turbulence and gusts act to displace the airplane, the pilot reacts by
providing opposing control forces to counteract this displacement.
Some airplanes are subject to changes in the location of the centre of
gravity with variations of load. Trimming devices are used to counteract
the forces set up by fuel burn off, and loading or off-loading of
passengers or cargo. Elevator trim tabs and adjustable horizontal
stabilizers comprise the most common devices provided to the pilot for
trimming for load variations. Over the wide ranges of balance during
flight in large airplanes, the force which the pilot has to exert on the
controls would become excessive and fatiguing if means of trimming
were not provided.
4.3 STABILITY AND BALANCE CONTROL
Balance control refers to the location of the CG of an aircraft. This is of

primary importance to aircraft stability, which determines safety in
flight. The CG is the point at which the total weight of the aircraft is
assumed to be concentrated, and the CG must be located within specific
limits for safe flight. Both lateral and longitudinal balance are important,
but the prime concern is longitudinal balance; that is, the location of the
CG along the longitudinal or lengthwise axis.
An airplane is designed to have stability that allows it to be trimmed so
it will maintain straight and level flight with hands off the controls.
Longitudinal stability is maintained by ensuring the CG is slightly
ahead of the centre of lift. This produces a fixed nose-down force
independent of the airspeed. This is balanced by a variable nose-up
force, which is
produced by a downward aerodynamic force on the horizontal tail
surfaces that varies directly with the airspeed. [Figure 14]
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Fig14. Longitudinal forces acting on an airplane in flight.
If a rising air current should cause the nose to pitch up, the airplane
will slow down and the downward force on the tail will decrease. The
weight concentrated at the CG will pull the nose back down. If the nose
should drop in flight, the airspeed will increase and the increased
downward tail load will bring the nose back up to level flight. As long
as the CG is maintained within the allowable limits for its weight, the
airplane will have adequate longitudinal stability and control. If the CG
is too far aft, it will be too near the centre of lift and the airplane will be
unstable, and difficult to recover from a stall. [Figure 15] If the unstable
airplane should ever enter a spin, the spin could become flat and
recovery would be difficult or impossible.
Fig 15. If the CG is too far aft at the low stall airspeed, there might not
be enough elevator nose-down authority to get the nose down for
recovery
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If the CG is too far forward, the downward tail load will have to be
increased to maintain level flight. This increased tail load has the same
effect as carrying additional weight; the aircraft will have to fly at a
higher angle of attack, and drag will increase.
A more serious problem caused by the CG being too far forward is the
lack of sufficient elevator authority. At slow takeoff speeds, the
elevator might not produce enough nose-up force to rotate and on
landing there may not be enough elevator force to flare the airplane.
[Figure 16] Both takeoff and landing runs will be lengthened if the CG
is too far forward.
Fig 16 : If the CG is too far forward, there will not be enough elevator
nose-up force to flare the airplane for landing
The basic aircraft design assumes that lateral symmetry exists. For each
item of weight added to the left of the centreline of the aircraft (also
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known as buttock line zero, or BL-0), there is generally an equal weight

at a corresponding location on the right. The lateral balance can be
upset by uneven fuel loading or burnoff. The position of the lateral CG is
not normally computed for an airplane, but the pilot must be aware of
the adverse effects that will result from a laterally unbalanced condition.
[Figure 17]
Fig 17: Lateral imbalance causes wing heaviness, which may be

corrected by deflecting the aileron. The additional lift causes
additional drag and the airplane flies inefficiently
This is corrected by using the aileron trim tab until enough fuel has
been used from the tank on the heavy side to balance the airplane. The
deflected trim tab deflects the aileron to produce additional lift on the
heavy side, but it also produces additional drag, and the airplane flies
inefficiently. Figure 17 Lateral imbalance causes wing heaviness, which
may be corrected by deflecting the aileron. The additional lift causes
additional drag and the airplane flies inefficiently. Helicopters are
affected by lateral imbalance more than airplanes. If a helicopter is
loaded with heavy occupants and fuel on the same side, it could be out
of balance enough to make it unsafe to fly. It is also possible that if
external loads are carried in such a position to require large lateral
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displacement of the cyclic control to maintain level flight, the fore-and-

aft cyclic control effectiveness will be limited. Swept wing airplanes are
more critical due to fuel imbalance because as the fuel is used from the
outboard tanks, the CG shifts forward, and as it is used from the inboard
tanks, the CG shifts aft. [Figure 18] For this reason, fuel-use scheduling
in swept wing airplanes operation is critical and fuel usage procedure is
clearly specified for in the Airplane Operations Manual.
Fig 18 : Fuel in the tanks of a sweptwing airplane affects both lateral and
longitudinal balance. As fuel is used from an outboard tank, the CG shifts
forward
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4.4 CALCULATIONS - WEIGHT OF BALANCE:
The effect of weight on balance depends on its distance from a datum.

This is most easily explained in terms of simple weighing equipment.
When a weight and a distance (ARM) are multiplied, the result is a

moment.
FIG.1
When the total value of the moments tending to rotate a beam in the
clockwise direction equals the value of the moments tending to rotate
the beam in the anti-clockwise direction then the beam is in balance.
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In a beam weigher the beam and pans are in balance prior to use. For
simplicity in Figs 2 and 3 only the moments associated with the loads in
the pans are considered.
FIG.2
The following figure shows how balance can be achieved with two
different weights. It is very clear that the balancing can be achieved by
having equal moments i.e., clockwise and anti-clockwise. Even though
the weights are different the product of weight and distance i.e., moment
is kept equal. This is possible by varying the distance to achieve equal
moments.
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The loading of the aircraft is gone by the same principle of equal

moments clockwise to anti-clockwise about the lift of the wing.
By convention the arms measured forward (fwd) of the lift are called
negative (--) and arms aft of the lift are called positive (+). The negative
and positive moments must be equal to maintain balance.
If an aircraft is pictured with its nose to the left, then:
Negative moments correspond to anti-clockwise.
Positive moments correspond to clockwise.
FIG.4
In Fig 4 the aircraft is assumed to be in balance before the two holds are
loaded.
FWD HOLD 200 Kg x – 15 m = - 3000 kgm
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AFT HOLD 300 Kg x + 10 m = + 3000 kgm
The aircraft is satisfactorily balanced after loading.
In practice it will usually not be possible to achieve a perfect balance for

each flight.
For each aircraft type therefore the designers specify a ‘Safe Loading
Range’ or Safe Loading Limits’. Provided the loading is controlled within
these limits any resulting ‘nose up’ or nose down’ tendency can be
corrected in flight, by a force from the Horizontal Stabilizer.
FIG 5
This could be represented with the beam scales as shown in Fig 6 where
the application of the trader’s finger could restore an unsatisfactory
balance.
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The extent to which the horizontal stabilizer can maintain balance

depends on its size and its distance from the lift of the wing.
The centre of gravity of a body is defined as the point at which its total
weight may be considered to act as a concentrated force.
In a beam the total of the moments on one side of the centre of gravity
will equal the total of the moments on the other side.
If the beam is supported by a pivot directly under the C of G the beam
will be in balance. If the C of G and pivot do not coincide the C of G will
be to one side of the pivot and that side will sink.
4.4.1 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE MOVEMENT OF THE C OF G.
For simplicity in the following diagrams the weight of the beam itself has
been ignored.
a) Beam in balance with C of G exactly over the pivot.
b) A larger weight has been placed to the left of the pivot.
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The C of G moves to the left and the beam tips. If the pivot was to be
moved 1 m to the left, balance could be restored.
An aircraft can have a safe loading range, rather than a single point
of balance. This principle may be illustrated as follows:
c) The beam can be given a loading range by replacing the
single pivot by two pivots A and B.
In illustration © the weight and the C of G are the same as

in illustration (b) but as the C of G is between the pivots the
beam is stable and does not tip.
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d) If, however, a much heavier load is placed on the left of the

beam the C of moves further left and beyond pivot A
causing the beam to tip.
4.5 AIRCRAFT CENTRE OF GRAVITY:
The same principle applies to aircraft loading. This is illustrated in the

following figures 8 a),b), c) and d).
a) Empty Aircraft:
This shows an aircraft with a safe range within which the C of G must
always lie. The C of G of the empty aircraft is within the limits prior to
loading the two holds.
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b)Movement of C of G when load is put in the holds.
Any load placed in Hold 1 will cause the C of G to move forward and the
distance moved per 1000 kg can be calculated. Similarly, the movement
aft per 1000 kg in Hold 4 can be determined. In this drawing scales have
been added to the empty aircraft shown in a) above to illustrate how the
C of G moves forward or aft when load is placed in either of the holds.
If the load was light, up to 1000 kg could be placed in Hold 1 without

exceeding the forward limit or 2000 kg in Hold 4 without exceeding the
aft limit. With more load, say 7000 kg, both holds would have to be used
and the load distributed to keep the C of G within limits.
FIG 8(b)
c) Combined Effect of using forward and Aft Holds.
This drawing shows the scales used to record 3000 kg in Hold 1, taking
the C of G forward of limits and from this point adding the effect of 4000
kg in Hold 4; the resulting aft movement bringing the C of G back into
safe limits. This combination of Hold loads gives a safe loading and is
acceptable.
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d)Wrong Distribution of Load – Unsafe Aircraft.
This drawing show what would happen if the load for Hold 1 was
wrongly loaded into Hold 4 and vice-versa. The result would be an
unsafe aircraft with the C of G substantially forward of the safe limits.
4.6 THE SAFE RANGE – MAC %
The safe Range for a particular aircraft type is specified by the

manufacturer and is usually expressed in terms of percentage of MAC
(Mean Aerodynamic Chord).
The MAC is a reference line used in the design of the wing and its
position relative to the wing and the fuselage is accurately known.
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Fig 9 shows an aircraft with a safe loading range of 3.00 m. The forward
limit is measured 31.00 m from the aircraft nose and
the aft limit 34.00 m from the nose. Dimensions measured from the nose
are generally referred to as “stations”.
The safe range could be quoted as being between Stations 31 and 34.
Fig 9 also shows the MAC as a line 10.00 m long starting at Station 30.
If the safe limits are extended to cut the MAC line then the safe range
can be expressed as 10% - 40% MAC where the full length of the MAC
line is 100%.
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4.7 Effects of CG Location and shift
The following table gives the effects of shift in location of CG on the

aircraft performance and behaviour. The effects become unsafe and
dangerous beyond the max permissible limits.
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4.8 Factors Shifting the CG during the Flight
1. Fuel Consumption. It is the largest and very significant factor

shifting the CG in flight longitudinally as well as laterally.
Consumption of fuel from tip tanks as compared to root tanks in a
swept back wing, will shift the CG forward. The fuel consumption
sequence laid down in AFM by the manufacturer will ensure that the
shift remains within permissible limits of CG.
2. Undercarriage Operation. With the nose wheel, the CG will shift in
the direction of movement of nose undercarriage wheels. Folding of
main undercarriage will not shift the CG. Forward and backward
shifting of legs in a sweepback wing along the main spar will shift
the CG along the direction of the wheels movement.
3. Passenger / load movement. The CG will shift in the direction of
movement of the passengers/ load. To avoid unnecessary shift in
CG, the pax are kept fastened to their seats with belts during
turbulence, bad weather and critical operations. The load is
always kept tied down to the floor to avoid any shift during the
flight.
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Computation
INDEX
05 WEIGHT & BALANCE COMPUTATION
5.0 INTRODUCTION- BASIC PRINCIPLES OF WEIGHT & 01

BALANCE COMPUTATION
5.1 WEIGHT AND BALANCE RESTRICTIONS 05
5.2 DETERMINING LOADED WEIGHT AND CG 06
5.3 MAXIMUM GROSS WEIGHT AND CENTER OF 10

GRAVITY LIMITS (EMB-145 LR)
5.4 MOMENT/CG CHANGES (EMB-145 LR) 10
5.5 FUEL DATA - EMB-145 12
5.6 MISCELLANEOUS FLUIDS – EMB 145 LR 15
5.7 FLIGHT CREW ITEMS (EMB-145 LR) 16
5.8 BAGGAGE LOADING PROCEDURES 17
5.9 INDEX SYSTEM 17
5.10 INDEX INFLUENCE 19
5.11 FUEL INDEX VARIATION 21
5.12 OEW/OEI DETERMINATION 22
5.13 CENTER OF GRAVITY CURTAILMENTS 24
5.14 EXAMPLE - (EMB-145 LR) 25
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Computation
5.15 BALANCE CHART 36
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WEIGHT & BALANCE COMPUTATION
5.0 Introduction- Basic Principles of Weight & Balance

Computation.
This Chapter provides an insight to the basic principles of

weight and balance determination. The following method of
computation can be applied to any object or vehicle for which
weight and balance information is essential.
By determining the weight of the empty aircraft and adding the

weight of everything loaded on the aircraft, a total weight can be
determined—a simple concept. A greater problem, particularly
if the basic principles of weight and balance are not understood,
is distributing this weight in such a manner that the entire mass
of the loaded aircraft is balanced around a point (CG) that must
be located within specified limits.
The point at which an aircraft balances can be determined by

locating the CG, which is, as stated in the definitions of terms,
the imaginary point at which all the weight is concentrated. To
provide the necessary balance between longitudinal stability
and elevator control, the CG is usually located slightly forward of
the centre of lift. This loading condition causes a nose-down
tendency in flight, which is desirable during flight at a high
Angle of Attack and slow speeds.
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As mentioned earlier chapter 3, a safe zone within which the

balance point (CG) must fall is called the CG range. The
extremities of the range are called the forward CG limits and aft
CG limits. These limits are usually specified in inches or meters,
along the longitudinal axis of the airplane, measured from a
reference point called a datum reference. The datum is an
arbitrary point, established by aircraft designers, which may
vary in location between different aircraft. [Figure -1]
The distance from the datum to any component part or any

object loaded on the aircraft, is called the arm. When the object
or component is located aft of the datum, it is measured in
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positive inches; if located forward of the datum, it is measured

as negative inches, or minus inches.
The location of the object or part is often referred to as the

station. If the weight of any object or component is multiplied by
the distance from the datum (arm), the product is the moment.
The moment is the measurement of the gravitational force that
causes a tendency of the weight to rotate about a point or axis
and is expressed in inch-kilogram( in-kg) or meter kilogram (m-
kg).
To illustrate, assume a weight of 50 kilogram is placed on the

board at a station or point 100 inches from the datum. The
downward force of the weight can be determined by multiplying
50 kg by 100 inches, which produces a moment of 5,000 in-kg.
[Figure-2]
Note: Datum is assumed to be located at the same point as

Fulcrum
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To establish a balance, a total of 5,000 in-kg must be applied to

the other end of the board. Any combination of weight and
distance which, when multiplied, produces a 5,000 in-kg
moment will balance the board. For example (illustrated in
Figure-3), if a 100-kilogram weight is placed at a point (station)
25 inches from the datum, and another 50-kilogram weight is
placed at a point (station) 50 inches from the datum, the sum of
the product of the two weights and their distances will total a
moment of 5,000 in-kg, which will balance the board.
Fig 3
Moment Left of Datum = 50 X 50 + 100*25 = 2500 +2500 =

5000 In-kg balancing the moment right of datum of 5000 in kg.
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5.1 Weight and Balance Restrictions
An aircraft’s weight and balance restrictions should be closely

followed. The loading conditions and empty weight of a
particular aircraft may differ from that found in the AFM/Pilot
Operating Handbook because modifications or equipment
changes may have been made. Sample loading problems in the
AFM/POH are intended for guidance only; therefore, each
aircraft must be treated separately. Although an aircraft is
certified for a specified maximum gross takeoff weight, it will
not safely take off with this load under all conditions. Conditions
that affect takeoff and climb performance, such as high
elevations, high temperatures, and high humidity (high density
altitudes) may require a reduction in weight before flight is
attempted. Other factors to consider prior to takeoff are runway
length, runway surface, runway slope, surface wind, and the
presence of obstacles. These factors may require a reduction in
weight prior to flight.
Some aircraft are designed so that it is difficult to load them in a

manner that will place the CG out of limits. These are usually
small aircraft with the seats, fuel, and baggage areas located
near the CG limit. Pilots must be aware that while within CG
limits these aircraft can be overloaded in weight. Other aircraft
can be loaded in such a manner that they will be out of CG limits
even though the useful load has not been exceeded. Because of
the effects of an out-of-balance or overweight condition, it
should always be sure that an aircraft is properly loaded.
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5.2 : Determining Loaded Weight and CG
There are various methods for determining the loaded weight

and CG of an aircraft. There is the computational method, as well
as methods that utilize graphs and tables provided by the
aircraft manufacturer.
Computational Method
The following is an example of the computational method

involving the application of basic math functions.
Aircraft Allowances:
Maximum gross weight...................... 1700 Kg
CG range............................................. 78–86 inches
Given:
Weight of front seat occupants............. 150 Kg
Weight of rear seat occupants.............. 150 kg
Fuel........................................................... 220kg
Weight of baggage in area 1.................... 40 kg
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1. List the weight of the aircraft, occupants, fuel, and baggage.
2. Enter the moment for each item listed. Remember “weight x

arm = moment.”
3. Find the total weight and total moment.
5. To determine the CG, divide the total moment by the total

weight.
NOTE: The weight and balance records for a particular aircraft

will provide the empty weight and moment, as well as the
information on the arm distance. [Figure-4]
The total loaded weight of 1560 kg does not exceed the

maximum gross weight of 1600 kg, and the CG of 84.8 is within
the 78–86 inch range; therefore, the aircraft is loaded within
limits.
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Graph Method
Another method for determining the loaded weight and CG is

the use of graphs provided by the manufacturers. The same
steps should be followed as in the computational method except
the graphs provided will calculate the moments and allow the
pilot to determine if the aircraft is loaded within limits.
Weight and Balance for Large Aircraft.
For large Aircraft, either a computational method or graphical

method is used. In both the cases the effect of Loading of
operational items( Crew, Catering, etc.,), Fuel, Passenger, cargo,
mail etc., is considered location wise or zone wise on the
Aircraft Basic CG and Weight to arrive at the Aircraft CG and
Weight for Take-off. These values are compared with the
Certified Weight limits and CG limits.
5.2.1 : BALANCE REFERENCE SYSTEM (EMB-145 LR)
BALANCE ARMS/BODY STATION
Longitudinal location of the Centre of Gravity (CG) identified

throughout this Manual regarding airplane and components will
be referred to as Balance Arms. Balance Arms are the distance in
inches from the Airplane Datum which is located at the zero
station of the fuselage.
Balance Arms (BA) are equivalent to Body Station (BS) on the
EMB-145 models.
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AIRPLANE DATUM
The Airplane Datum is a plane, perpendicular to the fuselage

centreline, located at 535.47 in ahead of the wing stub front spar.
For external reference, the Datum is located at 649.61 in ahead of the
wing jack points.
WING MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD (MAC)
The length of the MAC is 112.80 in.

The leading edge of the MAC (LEMAC) is Balance Arm 574.80 in.
Percentage of MAC is obtained using the following formula:
%MAC = (X –574.80) *100
112.80
where X = Balance Arm of airplane CG measured in inches.
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5.3 : MAXIMUM GROSS WEIGHT AND CENTRE OF GRAVITY

LIMITS (EMB-145 LR)
When performing an approved loading schedule, ensure that the

airplane weight and centre of gravity remains within the Weight
x CG Envelope by accounting for airplane weight and balance
with all load conditions.
For maximum structural weights, refer to Airplane Flight

Manual (AFM-145/1153).
5.3.1 : CG CONSTRAINTS
When performing the airplane weighing and balancing,
appropriate constraints must be established and applied in
order to assure that the centre of gravity limits are not exceeded
in any airplane operating condition, due to:
- Fuel density variation.

- Passenger seat variation.
- Cargo location variation.
- Landing gear inflight movement.
- Passenger and crew member inflight movement.
5.4 : MOMENT/CG CHANGES (EMB-145 LR)

5.4.1 : DUE TO ANY PASSENGER OR CREW MEMBER
INFLIGHT MOVEMENT
A person moving from the front to the rear of the
cabin or vice-versa causes the following CG travel:
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- For 28660 lb: CG moves aft or forward in a

maximum range of 3.7% of MAC.


5.4.2 : DUE TO LANDING GEAR CONFIGURATION
When the landing gear is retracted, there is a reduction of or

10762 lb.in (MR and LR models) of the moment in respect to
the airplane datum.
- For 28660 lb: CG moves forward 0.3% of MAC.
5.4.3 : DUE TO FUEL CONSUMPTION AND DENSITY

VARIATION TEMPERATURE
The fuel CG variation with the consumption is shown in the

Fuel Distribution Table (the fuel CG changes for different fuel
volumes). The variation of fuel density with temperature has
negligible effects in the airplane CG.
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5.5 : FUEL DATA - EMB-145

5.5.1FUEL DEFINITIONS
- USABLE FUEL - Is the fuel to be effectively consumed by

the engines.
- UNUSABLE FUEL - Is the fuel remaining after total usable

fuel has been consumed.
- DRAINABLE FUEL - Is that portion of fuel which can be

drawn off through fuel drains with the airplane levelled.
- UNDRAINABLE FUEL - Is that portion of fuel which can

not be drawn off by standard draining procedures.
5.5.2 : FUEL QUANTITIES
EMB-145 LR :
VOLUME WEIGHT CG BALANCE ARM
FUEL CATEGORY (US Gal) (lb) (in)
UNUSABLE
UNDRAINABLE 2.6 17.6 580.31
UNUSABLE DRAINABLE 9.0 60.8 580.31
TOTAL UNUSABLE 11.6 78.4 580.31
USABLE 1689.8 11434.8 596.57
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NOTE: The values above have been determined for an adopted

fuel density of 6.767 lb/US Gal.
5.6 : MISCELLANEOUS FLUIDS – EMB 145 LR

WEIGHT BALANCE ARM
FLUID
(lb) (in)
ENGINEOIL (1) 53.0 879.13
APU OIL (1) 4.4 1070.47
HYDRAULC (2)
• WITH THRUST REVERSER 79.4 735.43
• WITHOUT THRUST
REVERSER 72.8 716.54
LAVATORY CHEMICAL FLUID 15.4 810.24
LAVATORY RINSE WATER 44.1 813.39
NOTE: (1) Adopted engine oil density (ref. MIL-L-7808): 8.17

lb/US Gal.
(2) Adopted hydraulic fluid density (ref. SAE AS 1241A
TYPE IV): 8.26 lb/US Gal.
5.7 : PITCH TRIM SETTING
For takeoff when setting pitch trim to 8, first select 7 and stop
trimming immediately when the value 8 is displayed. When
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setting pitch trim to 4, first select 5 and stop trimming

immediately when the value 4 is displayed.
EMB-145 MODELS
LESS ABOVE
CG THAN OR 27.6 32.6 36.6 OR
POSITION EQUAL UP TO UP TO UP TO EQUAL
(%) TO 27.5 32.5 36.5 41.5 TO 41.6
PITCH
TRIM 8 7 6 5 4
UNITS
5.8 : FLIGHT CREW ITEMS (EMB-145 LR)

WEIGHT BALANCE ARM
ITEM
(lb) (in)
PILOT 187 142.91
COPILOT 187 142.91
OBSERVER 187 165.35
FORWARD ATTENDANT 187 188.98
CREWMEMBER ROLLER BAG 30 196.85
PILOT FLIGHT BAG 20 155.51

FLIGHT ATTENDANT KIT 10 196.85
AFT ATTENDANT 187 782.68
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NOTE: - The adopted flight crew items are in accordance with

the approved average weight, not including the
respective carry-on baggage.
5.9 : BAGGAGE LOADING PROCEDURES
To load the baggage compartment above 2205 lb (for airplane

without Thrust Reverser) or above 1764 lb (for airplane with
Thrust Reverser), the following simultaneous conditions shall
be observed:
− Airplane shall be with a minimum required fuel of 2000 lb.
− No more than one person can be at the airplane cone either

inside the baggage compartment or inside the rear electronic
compartment.
CAUTION: IF THE CONDITIONS ABOVE ARE NOT BSERVED,

AN AIRPLANE TILTING (TAIL DOWN) MAY
OCCUR
5.10 : INDEX SYSTEM
When determining the airplane centre of gravity position it is

necessary to make calculations adding and/or subtracting the
moment caused by each individual item loaded in the airplane.
Moment, per definition, is weight multiplied by the distance to a

reference point. If the moment of the airplane and of the items
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loaded on it are computed in reference to the airplane datum,

very long numeric expressions would result.
As the operational usage of long numeric expressions may result

in safety problems (since personnel may get confused with the
long numbers), airlines usually adopt an Index System for
weight and balance purposes.
The Index System is just a convention for presenting airplane or

body moments on a different measuring system. When using the
Index System, short numeric expressions result.
The Index System formula is presented below:
where:
I = Index
W = Airplane or body weight
Arm = Airplane or body centre of gravity
A = Reference arm. Selected arm around which all index

values are calculated. On the balance chart CG envelope,
the Reference Arm CG% line is the only vertical CG% line.
(*)
B = Constant used as a denominator to convert moment

values into index values. On the balance chart CG
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envelope, B controls the CG% lines splay (splay decreases

with increasing B). (*)
C = Constant used as a plus value to avoid negative index

figures. It is only used when computing the airplane
Operating Empty Weight Index (OEI), and is not used
when computing individual bodies index influence. On
the balance chart CG envelope, the Reference Arm CG%
vertical line is at C index units. (*)
(*) - Values for A, B and C may be chosen at the Star Air

discretion.
5.11 : INDEX INFLUENCE
Index influence is the variation of index when a body is loaded

or unloaded from the airplane. It is usually referred in index
units per kilogram for variable weight bodies (cargo, catering,
etc.), index units per passenger when computing passenger
influence or index units for fixed weight bodies (flight attendant,
cockpit observer, etc.).
The following tables show the index influence for various items:
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(*) The galley and wardrobe arms are for the standard
configuration. Check the airplane actual configuration arms
in the AOM Loading Section.
(**) For the purposes of this table, the passenger cabin was
divided in three sections. On a standard configuration (50
seats) airplane, section A refers to rows 1 to 6, section B
refers to rows 7 to 12 and section C refers to rows 13 to 18.
Example: Computation of cargo index influence for the EMB-

145.
The EMB-145 cargo compartment centroid is located 889.76

inches from the airplane datum.
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So, for each lb of cargo loaded in the cargo compartment, the

index increases by 0.017 index units.
5.12 : FUEL INDEX VARIATION
EMB-145 LR MODEL
Weight Arm Index

(lb) (in) (IU)
335 570.00 -0.4
670 570.89 -0.7
1005 571.77 -1.1
1340 572.55 -1.3
1675 573.34 -1.6
2010 574.01 -1.8
2345 574.78 -2.1
2680 575.44 -2.2
3015 576.01 -2.4
3350 576.77 -2.5
3685 577.33 -2.7
4020 577.89 -2.8
4355 578.44 -2.9
4690 579.00 -3.0
5025 579.66 -3.0
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5360 580.22 -3.0

5695 580.89 -3.0
6030 581.55 -2.9
6365 582.12 -2.9
6700 582.78 -2.8
7035 583.34 -2.7
7370 584.00 -2.5
7705 584.66 -2.4
8040 585.22 -2.2
8375 585.88 -2.0
8710 586.55 -1.7
9045 587.33 -1.4
9380 588.33 -0.9
9715 589.44 -0.3
10050 590.66 0.4
10385 591.99 1.2
10720 593.44 2.1
11055 595.04 3.2
11323 596.58 4.3
NOTE: Adopted fuel density of 6.7 lb/US Gal
5.13 : OEW/OEI DETERMINATION
The OEW (Operational Empty Weight) is the BEW plus the

weight of the operational items (crew, catering, lavatory fluid,
etc.). The OEI (Operational Empty Index) is the index for the
OEW.
In order to determine the OEW and OEI, it is necessary to add to
the BEW all the weight and moment variations referent to the
operational items. The BEW is obtained from the airplane
weighting record.
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Computation of OEW/OEI for the EMB-145.
For a BEW equal 26891.30 lb and BEW moment equal

16844368.29 lb.in:
Item Weight Arm Moment

(lb) (in) (lb.in)
BEW 26891.30 626.39 16844368.29
44.1 813.39 35870.50
Lavatory fluid
15.4 810.24 12477.70
Pilot & Co-Pilot 374 142.91 53448.34
Flight attendant (fwd) 187 188.98 35339.26
crewmember roller bag
30 196.85 5905.50
pilot flight bag 20 155.51 3110.20
flight attendant kit 10 196.85 1968.50
OEW (not including 27571.8 16992488.29
catering)
Airplane arm = 16992488.29/27571.8 = 616.29 inches
NOTE: - Catering weight was not considered above because its

weight is not constant. Here we are considering
catering as a separate item (see Index Influences).
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Unusable fuel, hydraulic fluid, engine and APU oil are

considered included in the BEW.
5.14 : CENTRE OF GRAVITY CURTAILMENTS
The airplane weight and balance calculations are normally

performed assuming that passengers are evenly distributed
along the airplane cabin and that the crew, passengers and
movable items are fixed in a pre-determined position.
For all practical purposes, however, it is known that passengers

may not be evenly seated; flight attendants move along the
cabin, the landing gear retracts, etc. All these movements, not
previously expected in the weight and balance calculations, may
result in deviations from the assumed load distribution.
For these reasons, some aeronautical authorities require that

airlines use an Operational CG envelope, which is the AFM
certified CG envelope reduced by a CG margin to account for the
possible deviations from the assumed load distribution. This
process is known as Centre of Gravity Curtailment.
There are 3 basic types of CG curtailments:
Takeoff and landing allowances: These are the deviations that

affect the CG position for takeoff and landing. Uneven
distribution of passengers, flap and landing gear movement and
cargo/baggage shift are considered takeoff and landing
allowances.
Flight allowances: These are the deviations that affect the CG

position in flight. All takeoff and landing allowances plus flight
attendant and catering service movement are considered in-
flight allowances.
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Fuel allowances: If the airline does not wish to check the CG

position at the landing weight, it is necessary to consider a fuel
allowance due to CG shift caused by the reduction of fuel
quantity during the flight. In addition, it may be necessary to
consider an allowance due to variations in the fuel density.
The CG curtailment process is a critical procedure because the

amount of CG margin (curtailment) depends on the possible
deviations considered by the airline. If excessive deviations
(allowances) are considered by the airline, a very thin
Operational CG envelope may be obtained, resulting in huge
difficulties to balance the airplane during airline operations. On
the other hand, if few deviations (allowances) are considered, a
large Operational CG envelope is obtained, but safety may be
jeopardized by CG deviations from the assumed load
distribution.
5.14 :EMB-145 LR - Constrained CG Envelope.
For the EMB-145LR on a standard configuration (50 seats) with

the passenger cabin divided in three sections.
Section A refers to rows 1 to 6, section B refers to rows 7 to 12

and section C refers to rows 13 to 18.
Considering the window and aisle seating concept, the first seat
to be occupied is window-row 1, then window-row 2, then
windows-row 3, then windows-row 4, ..., then windows-row 18,
then aisle-row 3, then aisle-row 4, ..., then aisle-row 18.
When window-row 1 is occupied, there is a moment margin of

the passenger weight times the distance between cabin A
centroid and row 1 centroid. When window-row 2 is occupied,
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the moment margin is increased by the passenger weight times

the distance between cabin A centroid and row 2 centroid. The
moment margin keeps increasing until the seats aft of the cabin
centroid start being filled and then moment margin decreases.
When cabin B starts being filled, the moment margin starts

increasing again and then decreases when the seats aft of cabin
B centroid are filled. The same occurs with cabin C.
The forward seating allowance to be used in the determination

of the constrained CG envelope is the summation of the most
negative moment change of each cabin section.
For the aft seating allowance, a very similar procedure is

performed, but considering the aircraft being loaded from the
aft portion of the cabin, and considering the most positive
moment change of each cabin section.
The following tables show the determination of the forward and

aft seating allowances:
FORWARD SEATING ALLOWANCE:

Seat type & Arm Cab Arm Weight PAX Moment Accumul. Maximum
row number (in) (in) (lb) Total (lb.in) (lb.in) Accumul.
Windows 01 245.87 341.89 190 1 -18243.21 -18243.21
Windows 02 277.11 341.89 190 1 -12306.71 -30549.92
Windows 03 308.40 341.89 380 2 -12725.36 -43275.28
Windows 04 339.64 341.89 380 2 -852.38 -44127.66
Windows 05 370.93 341.89 380 2 11035.69 -33091.97
Windows 06 402.17 341.89 380 2 22908.67 -10183.31 -44127.66
Aisle 03 308.40 341.89 190 1 -6362.68 -16545.99
Aisle 04 339.64 341.89 190 1 -426.19 -16972.18
Aisle 05 370.93 341.89 190 1 5517.84 -11454.33
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Aisle 06 402.17 341.89 190 1 11454.33 0.00

Windows 07 433.42 513.10 380 2 -30278.36 -30278.36
Windows 08 464.70 513.10 380 2 -18390.30 -48668.66
Windows 09 495.94 513.10 380 2 -6517.32 -55185.98
Windows 10 527.23 513.10 380 2 5370.75 -49815.23
Windows 11 558.47 513.10 380 2 17243.73 -32571.49
Windows 12 598.81 513.10 380 2 32571.49 0.00
Aisle 07 433.42 513.10 190 1 -15139.18 -15139.18 -55185.98
Aisle 08 464.70 513.10 190 1 -9195.15 -24334.33
Aisle 09 495.94 513.10 190 1 -3258.66 -27592.99
Aisle 10 527.23 513.10 190 1 2685.38 -24907.61
Aisle 11 558.47 513.10 190 1 8621.87 -16285.75
Aisle 12 598.81 513.10 190 1 16285.75 0.00
Windows 13 630.05 708.22 380 2 -29702.57 -29702.57
Windows 14 661.34 708.22 380 2 -17814.50 -47517.07
Windows 15 692.58 708.22 380 2 -5941.52 -53458.59
Windows 16 723.87 708.22 380 2 5946.55 -47512.04
Windows 17 755.11 708.22 380 2 17819.53 -29692.51
Windows 18 786.36 708.22 380 2 29692.51 0.00
Aisle 13 630.05 708.22 190 1 -14851.28 -14851.28 -53458.59
Aisle 14 661.34 708.22 190 1 -8907.25 -23758.53
Aisle 15 692.58 708.22 190 1 -2970.76 -26729.29
Aisle 16 723.87 708.22 190 1 2973.27 -23756.02
Aisle 17 755.11 708.22 190 1 8909.76 -14846.26
Aisle 18 786.36 708.22 190 1 14846.26 0.00
Forward Seating Allowance -152772.23
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AFT SEATING ALLOWANCE:

Seat type & Arm Cab Arm Weight PAX Moment Accumul. Maximum
row number (in) (in) (lb) Total (lb.in) (lb.in) Accumul.
Windows 18 786.36 708.22 380 2 29692.51 29692.51
Windows 17 755.11 708.22 380 2 17819.53 47512.04
Windows 16 723.87 708.22 380 2 5946.55 53458.59
Windows 15 692.58 708.22 380 2 -5941.52 47517.07
Windows 14 661.34 708.22 380 2 -17814.50 29702.57
Windows 13 630.05 708.22 380 2 -29702.57 0.00
Aisle 18 786.36 708.22 190 1 14846.26 14846.26 53458.59
Aisle 17 755.11 708.22 190 1 8909.76 23756.02
Aisle 16 723.87 708.22 190 1 2973.27 26729.29
Aisle 15 692.58 708.22 190 1 -2970.76 23758.53
Aisle 14 661.34 708.22 190 1 -8907.25 14851.28
Aisle 13 630.05 708.22 190 1 -14851.28 0.00
Windows 12 598.81 513.10 380 2 32571.49 32571.49
Windows 11 558.47 513.10 380 2 17243.73 49815.23
Windows 10 527.23 513.10 380 2 5370.75 55185.98
Windows 09 495.94 513.10 380 2 -6517.32 48668.66
Windows 08 464.70 513.10 380 2 -18390.30 30278.36
Windows 07 433.42 513.10 380 2 -30278.36 0.00
Aisle 12 598.81 513.10 190 1 16285.75 16285.75 55185.98
Aisle 11 558.47 513.10 190 1 8621.87 24907.61
Aisle 10 527.23 513.10 190 1 2685.38 27592.99
Aisle 09 495.94 513.10 190 1 -3258.66 24334.33
Aisle 08 464.70 513.10 190 1 -9195.15 15139.18
Aisle 07 433.42 513.10 190 1 -15139.18 0.00
Windows 06 402.17 341.89 380 2 22908.67 22908.67
Windows 05 370.93 341.89 380 2 11035.69 33944.35
Windows 04 339.64 341.89 380 2 -852.38 33091.97
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Windows 03 308.40 341.89 380 2 -12725.36 20366.61

Windows 02 277.11 341.89 190 1 -12306.71 8059.90
Windows 01 245.87 341.89 190 1 -18243.21 -10183.31 33944.35
Aisle 06 402.17 341.89 190 1 11454.33 1271.03
Aisle 05 370.93 341.89 190 1 5517.84 6788.87
Aisle 04 339.64 341.89 190 1 -426.19 6362.68
Aisle 03 308.40 341.89 190 1 -6362.68 0.00
Aft Seating Allowance 142588.92
FUEL ALLOWANCES:
There are some conditions under which it is possible to have

both ZFW-CG and TOW-CG located inside the CG envelope and
the LW-CG outside of the CG envelope (see Figure 1).
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In order to prevent the LW CG from being located outside of the

CG envelope, the idea is to determine a constrained ZFW
envelope.
CONSTRAINED ZFW LIMITS
In order to determine the constrained ZFW CG envelope, it is

necessary to convert the constrained CG envelope to the index
system and then apply the fuel allowances.
Converting the previously defined forward and aft limits to the
index system using the formula:
Forward limits
Weight Arm CG Index
(lb) (in) (%) (IU)
27337 608.64 30.0 42.3
29542 588.34 12.0 10.2
34170 588.34 12.0 9.7
38000 588.34 12.0 9.4
48501 595.56 18.4 28.5
Aft limits
Weight Arm CG Index
(lb) (in) (%) (IU)
27337 608.64 30.0 42.3
29542 623.30 43.0 69.5
34170 623.30 43.0 78.4
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38000 619.36 39.5 77.1

48501 619.36 39.5 94.8
Drawing the fuel index lines over the constrained CG envelope

and searching for the tangency points, we determine the
following constrained ZFW CG points (see Figure 2):
Weight Index
(lb) (IU)
29414 27.7
31252 28.7
39462 38.5
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CONSTRAINED CENTRE OF GRAVITY LIMITS
In order to determine the constrained CG envelope, the

allowances must be added to the certified CG envelope.
The table below shows the determination of the forward

constrained limit for the EMB-145LR.
For Takeoff & Landing & In-flight limits the allowance used was:
-10155.15 lb.in (landing gear)
-4017.00 lb.in (forward flight allowance)
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-152772.23 lb.in (forward seating allowance)
-166944.38 lb.in = total fwd allowance
NOTE: The allowance at 27337 lb is -10155.15 lb.in , because in

this range of weight it is impossible to have passengers
loaded, so the seating allowance was disregarded and
also the flight allowance.
For Takeoff & Landing limits the allowance used was:
-152772.23 lb.in (forward seating allowance)
Forward Centre of Gravity Limits:
AFM values Allow- Constrained values

Wt. CG arm Mom. ance Mom. arm CG
(lb) (%) (in) (lb.in) (lb.in) (lb.in) (in) (%)
Takeoff & Landing & In-flight limits:
27337 30.0 608.64 16638392 -10155 16648547 9.01 30.3
29542 12.0 588.34 17380740 -166944 17547684 593.99 17.0

34170 12.0 588.34 20103578 -166944 20270522 593.23 16.3
Takeoff & Landing limits:
38000 14.0 588.34 22356920 -152772 22509692 592.36 15.6 *
48501 18.4 595.56 28885256 -152772 29038028 598.71 21.2 *
In-flight limit:
38000 12.0 588.34 22356920 -166944 22523864 592.73 15.9
48501 16.2 595.56 28885256 -166944 29052200 599.00 21.5
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* points disregarded because of the existence of more limiting

points at the same weight.
The table below shows the determination of the aft constrained

limit for the EMB-145LR.
For Takeoff & Landing & In-flight limits the allowance used was:
• +192360.00 lb.in (aft flight allowance)

• +142588.92 lb.in (aft seating allowance)
• +334948.92 lb.in = total aft allowance
NOTE: The allowance at 27337 lb is zero because in this weight

range it is impossible to have passengers loaded, so the
seating allowance was disregarded and also the flight
allowance.
Aft Centre of Gravity Limits:
AFM values Allow- Constrained values

Wt. CG arm Mom. ance Mom. arm CG
(lb) (%) (in) (lb.in) (lb.in) (lb.in) (in) (%)
Takeoff & Landing & In-flight limits

27337 30.0 608.64 16638392 0.0 16638392 608.64 30.0
29542 43.0 623.30 18413529 334948 18078581 611.96 32.9
37698 43.0 623.30 23497163 334948 23162215 614.41 35.1
42594 39.5 619.36 26381020 334948 26046072 611.50 32.5
48501 39.5 619.36 30039579 334948 29704631 612.45 33.4
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STAR AIR - LOAD SHEET
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Chapter 06 ISSUE 01
LOAD SHEET REVISION 01 14 MAY 20

EXPLANATION
INDEX
06 LOAD SHEET EXPLANATION
6.1 LOAD CONTROL IATA CODES 01
6.2 SPECIMEN OF AUTOMATED/COMPUTARIZED 02

LOAD-SHEET
6.3 EXPLANATION – AUTOMATED LOADSHEET 04
6.4 SPECIMEN OF MANUAL LOAD-SHEET 07
6.5 EXPLANATION – MANUAL LOAD SHEET 08
6.6 TRIM SHEET AUTOMATION – ARMS SOFTWARE 11
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Chapter 06 ISSUE 01
LOAD SHEET REVISION 01 14 MAY 20

EXPLANATION
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Load Sheet REVISION 00 14 JUL 18
Explanation
6.1 : Load Control IATA Codes
All specials and special load, such as AVI, HUM, AOG has to be indicated with the
respective IATA code.
AOG : Spare parts required for aircraft on ground followed by loading position
and weight. Example : AOG/1/150
AVIH : Live animals loaded in hold.
BAL : Ballast loaded in hold.
BED : Stretcher installed in cabin followed by the number of seats occupied.
BCW : Crew bags.
CAO :Cargo aircraft only. Dangerous goods loaded in a compartment with access
visit able in flight. Not permitted with passengers on board.
CAT : Cargo Attendant.
COM : Comail. Company mail followed by loading position and weight.
CSU : Catering equipment loaded in holds not used on flight.
DAA : Delivery at aircraft. Example : baby strollers.
DHC : Dead head crew. Crew positioning to / from duty occupying passenger
seats travelling with free ticket. Also a PRF, but not PAD.
EIC : Equipment in compartment, not included in DOW/DOI followed by loading

position and weight.
EXP : Expedite ( rush bags ) followed by loading position and pieces.
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Explanation
FKT : Flight kit.
HUM : Human remains in coffin.
NIL : No items loaded.
PAN : Pantry.
PER : Perishable cargo.
PAD : Passenger Available for Disembarkation. Industry staff travelling with free
ticket or reduced fare.
PRF : Industry staff travelling with free ticket or reduced fare.
VAL : Valuable cargo.
6.2 : SPECIMEN OF AUTOMATED/COMPUTARIZED LOAD-SHEET
An Example of a computer generated load sheet is explained below:
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6.3 : Explanation – Automated Load sheet
CHECKED : Loadsheet staff's signature.
APPROVED: Captain's signature accepting all the loadsheet data.
DATABASE month/year : Version of the loadsheet program.
EDNO : Loadsheet edition number.
FROM/TO : Departure station and first destination of the flight.
FLIGHT : Flight number.
VERSION : Flight configuration.

CREW : Number crew : in cockpit / in cabin, excluding crew travelling as
passengers.
DATE : Date of issue.
TIME : Local time of issue.
LOAD IN COMPARTMENTS : Total WEIGHT in compartments ( baggage

weight, cargo, E.I.C. and mail ), excluding all items included in the DRY
OPERATING WEIGHT, followed by their DISTRIBUTION percompartment.
PASSENGER : In the WEIGHT field, the total passenger weight calculated

according to company procedures. In the DISTRIBUTION field, their distribution
by gender : total number of males/females/children/infants. Some company
procedures request only information about total number of
adults/children/infants. Just below, the passenger distribution per class (
Bussines / economic, etc. ) exluding infants not occupying seats.
TTL : Total number of passengers + infants.
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Explanation
CAB : Weight of personal belongings carried in the cabin when were not included
in PASSENGER WEIGHT.
TOTAL TRAFFIC LOAD : Total weight of passengers, baggage, cargo, mail and
E.I.C. ( any equipment in compartment ) not included in the DRY OPERATING
WEIGHT.
DRY OPERATING WEIGHT ( D.O.W. ) : Weight of the aircraft ready to flight prior
to load the traffic load and fuel. The Dry Operating Weight is the Basic Weight
plus any operational item : crew, crew bags, flight equipment, pantry ( catering
equipment, food, beverages, etc. ).
GRP : Code of the pantry to be used in the flight. NOTE : GRP : MOD means a
D.O.W. or a D.O.I. modified and normally not in use. The reason of that must be
reflected at the end of the loadsheet in the supplementary information for crew
and operations knowledge.
ZERO FUEL WEIGHT ACTUAL : Weight of the aircraft without fuel. Summary of
Dry Operating Weight and total Traffic Load.
TAKE-OFF FUEL : Fuel at Take-Off. Amount of fuel on board less the fuel
consumed before Take-Off. Taxi fuel is not included.
TAKE-OFF WEIGHT ACTUAL : Actual weight at take-off. Taxi fuel has been
burned and it is not included.
TRIP FUEL : The estimated fuel consumption between take-off and intended
landing.
LANDING WEIGHT ACTUAL : The estimated weight at the time of landing. Actual
Take-Off Weight less the Trip Fuel.
MAX : Maximum structural weights permitted at : Zero Fuel Weight, Take-Off

Weight and Landing Weight.
ADJ : Actual weights adjusted after L.M.C. ( Last Minute Changes ).

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Explanation
L : Indicator showing which of the maximum weight values is limiting the allowed
traffic load.
UNDERLOAD : Margin of load that remains. Difference between maximum and

actual gross weight indicated by L.
BI = Basic Index. Moment index corresponding to the Basic Weight of the aircraft.
DOI = Dry Operating Index. Moment index to a given D.O.W.
LIZFW = Loaded Index at Zero Fuel Weight. Index referring to the actual Zero
Fuel Weight.
LITOW = Loaded Index at Take - Off Weight. Index referring to the actual Take -
Off Weight.
LILAW = Loaded Index at Landing Weight. Index referring to the actual Landing
Weight.
MACTOW = Center of gravity at take-off in % MAC.
MACLAW = Center of gravity at landing in % MAC.
MACZFW = Center of gravity at zero fuel in % MAC.
STAB TO = Stabilizer trim setting at take-off.
MACTOW LIMITS = Balance limits at TOW in % MAC.
LIZFW LIMITS = Balance limits at ZFW in index units.
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Explanation
6.4 : SPECIMEN OF MANUAL LOAD-SHEET :
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Explanation
6.5 : Explanation – Manual Load-sheet
1 – Flight No
2 – Departure station
3 – Destination Station
4 – Date Of Operation
5 – Aircraft Registration
6 - No of pilots & cabin crew (Eg.2/1 – 02 pilots & 01 cabin crew)
7 - Name of Pilot-In command
8 – Name of co-pilot
9 – Operational Empty weight (Weight of all operational items including
minimum crew i.e 02 pilots + 01 Cabin crew)
10 – Count & Weight of Observer,aft flight attendant and galley (catering)
11 – Corrected operational empty weight –sum of operational empty weight
+ Weight of Observer,aft flight attendant and galley (catering)
12 – Step 3 fuel data :=

• TOTAL FUEL := The weight of the usable fuel uplifted on board before
push back.
• TAXI FUEL := Weight of fuel used during taxi
• Take off fuel = Total fuel –Taxi fuel
• TRIP FUEL := Weight of the pre-calculated fuel consumption from
takeoff to touchdown at the next point of landing.
• FUEL AT LANDING - The difference between take off fuel and trip
fuel.
• OPERATING WEIGHT - The sum of corrected operational empty
Weight & Take off Fuel
13 – In step 4 calculating the allowed take off weight with reference of 03
conditions
• A- Max Zero fuel weight + Take off fuel
• B- Max take off weight or RTOW
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Explanation
• C- Max landing weight + Trip fuel

• ALLOWED TAKE OFF WEIGHT (LOWEST OF A,B & C) – The weight at
which the pilot is allowed to attempt to take off, due to structural or
other limits such as Zero Fuel,RTOW & Landing Weight. Use lowest of
A,B & C.
• ALLOWED TRAFFIC LOAD - The total mass of passengers, baggage
and cargo, including any non-revenue load possible to carry for the
particular operation. i.e the difference between Allowed take off
weight & Operating weight
14 – Count & Weight of Passengers classified as Adult,Child & Infant as per
CAR Sec 2 series X part 2
15 – BAGGAGE/CARGO COMPT:= Total Weight of the Baggage/cargo loaded
in the aft baggage/cargo hold. (From Table 3)
16 -TOTAL TRAFFIC LOAD : = The total weight of passengers ,baggage

,cargo,and other operational items not included in Corrected OEW.
17 – ZERO FUEL WEIGHT := Total weight of the airplane and all its contents,
minus the total weight of the usable fuel on board.Actual Zero Fuel Weight is
the sum of point 15,16,17 & 18.
18 – RAMP WEIGHT := The maximum weight authorised for manoeuvring an

aircraft on the ground as limited by aircraft strength and airworthiness
requirements. The actual Ramp weight is the sum of point 19 & 20
19 – TAKE OFF WEIGHT := The maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) maximum

takeoff mass (MTOM) of an aircraft is the maximum weight at which the
pilot is allowed to attempt to take off, due to structural or other limits.
Here actual takeoff weight is the difference between point 21 and 22.
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Explanation
20 - LANDING WEIGHT := The maximum aircraft gross weight due to design

or operational limitations at which an aircraft is permitted to land. Here
Actual landing weight is the difference between point 23 and 24.
21 – Step 6 :Finding the UNDERLOAD (Difference between allowed traffic

load & total traffic load)
22 – PAX SEATING CONDITION – The number of Passengers sitting in aircraft

cabin section A(Max 14),B(Max18) & C(Max18).
23 – Step 8 : INDEX CALCULATION TABLE
1. OEI ( Operational Empty weight Index) := Centre of gravity at

Operational Empty weight expressed as an index value.
2. OBS := Center of gravity at Observer weight expressed as an index
value
3. AFT ATT := Center of gravity at Aft Attendant cabin crew weight
expressed as an index value.
4. FWD Galley & AFT Galley : Center of gravity at catering weight of
each galley expressed as an index value.
5. Corrected OEI : Sum of the Above
6. Cargo & Baggage := Center of gravity at Baggage / Cargo weight
expressed as an index value.
7. Centre of gravity at PAX weight of Cabin section A,B & C expressed
as an index value.
8. LIZFW (Loaded Index at Zero fuel weight) := Dead load index (DLI)
corrected for the influence of passengers in cabin (fuel not
included).Here the sum of point 5,6,&7.
9. Centre of gravity at take off fuel weight expressed as an index value
10. LITOW (Loaded Index at take-off fuel weight):= Centre of gravity at

takeoff weight expressed as an index value.i.e the sum of point 8 & 9.
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Load Sheet REVISION 01 14 MAY 2020
Explanation
11. Centre of gravity at fuel at landing weight expressed as an index value

12. LILW (Loaded Index at landing weight):= Centre of gravity at landing
weight expressed as an index value. i.e the sum of point 08 & 11).
24 – Constrained CG envelope of EMB145 LR Aircraft To find out the CG of
ZFW , Take Off & Landing
25 – Finding the Pitch Trim unit from the Constrained CG envelope using the
MAC% value of take off
26 – Table for ARM & Index Reference
27 – Table for Fuel index reference
28- Field to Mention the name of person who prepared the loadsheet
29 – Name of the person who approved the loadsheet (PIC)
30 - L.M.C. ( Last Minute Changes ) :- The load sheet has to reflect the actual
loading state of the aircraft prior to departure. Any small discrepancy can be
corrected by personnel with experienced in load control checking the
tolerances given by the under load, balance conditions and the L.M.C.
Company procedures.
6.6: Trim Sheet Automation – ARMS Software
Star Air Load & trim sheet documentation is generated by a computerized weight
& balance software system called “ARMS”. Star Air has establish a system to
verify the integrity of the system and to check the amendments of input data are
incorporated properly in the system and that the system is operating correctly on
a continues basis by verifying the output data through Quality System.
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Explanation
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Explanation
The Operational Empty weight(OEW) and Operational Empty weight Index

(OEI) are automatically upon selecting additional crew and pantry inputs.
After calculating the input data, the Zero fuel ,Take off and Landing weights will
be calculated and displayed along with the CG% and Trim Position.
Detailed Step-by-Step instructions giving below;
6.6.1:Generate Trim Sheet For A Specific Flight
To access the Load & Trim module ,

• ARMS main button → FDPS →LnT →LoadTrim Sheet
The Scheduled flights information will be displayed at the top of the Aircraft
Load and Trim Sheet form for that day.
Step 1: Input the Crew and Pantry values for operating compartments.
• Select the respective flight from the list by double click.

• Checked in pax details of selected flight & CG Envelope for the respective
aircraft will be displayed.
• Select Observer / Aft cabin crew based on the crew count from additional
crew field or can be remove the existing cabin crew also
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Explanation
Step 2: Add fuel Details and Galley weight.
• The Weights And Index adjustments are calculated automatically and

carried forward.
Step 3: PAX Data and Baggage/cargo weight field.
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Explanation
These details will be retrieved from DCS system while selecting the flight itself or
we can add manually also with the help of Fly out option.
Special instructions/remarks can be mentioned here in case of any.
Step 4: Caompute
Click the button to calculate the CG% and Trim Postion.After

calculating the input data, the Zero fuel ,Take off and Landing weights will be
calculated and displayed along with the CG% , respective index.
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Explanation
Trim Position value and underload will be displayed separately .
Any violations in Weight Max Limits, Index Limits pop-up will be displayed on
screen while computing and the input Values can be modified and need to
compute again.
Step 5: Generate Final Report
Once the Compute is done and finalized the report in IATA format can be
generated with “Report” option and can be transmitted to e mail addresses if
required using “send report” option. The same for LIR & LDM.
The system will record the date and time stamp, and the user who completed the
Trim Sheet for the flight. The Trim sheet edition number will be incremented.
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Manual
Chapter 07 ISSUE 01
Dangerous goods REVISION 00 14 JUL 18
INDEX
07 DANGEROUS GOODS
7.0 DEFINITION OF DANGEROUS GOODS 01
7.1 MAIN CATEGORIES OF DANGEROUS GOODS 02
7.2 CLASSIFICATION OF DANGEROUS GOODS 03
7.3 STORING AND LOADING OF DANGEROUS GOODS 04

ON PASSENGER AIRCRAFT
7.6 LOADING OF INCOMPATIBLE DANGEROUS GOODS 07
7.7 INSPECTION OF PACKAGES OF DANGEROUS GOODS 09
7.8 SECURING AND SEPARATING OF DANGEROUS 10

GOODS
7.9 STOWAGE OF TOXIC AND INFECTIOUS 10

SUBSTANCES
7.10 LOADING OF LIVE ANIMALS WITH DANGEROUS 11

GOODS
7.11 LOADING OF PACKAGES CONTAINING LIQUID 11

DANGEROUS GOODS
7.12 LOADING AND STOWAGE OF RADIOACTIVE 12
MATERIAL
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Chapter 07 ISSUE 01
Dangerous goods REVISION 00 14 JUL 18
7.13 LOADING OF MAGNETIZED MATERIALS 15
7.14 LOADING OF WHEEL CHAIRS WITH SPILL ABLE 15

BATTERIES
7.15 PROCEDURE FOR CARRIAGE OF COMPANY 18

MATERIALS (COMAT)
7.16 MARKING AND LABELLING OF PACKAGES 18
7.17 INTRODUCTION TO SPECIAL LOAD NOTIFICATION 25
7.18 DANGEROUS GOODS CARRIAGE BY CREW AND 29

PASSENGERS
7.19 TRANSPORTATION OF DRY ICE 32
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CHAPTER 7 ISSUE 01
Dangerous Goods REVISION 00 14 JUL 18
Dangerous Goods
7.0 Definition Of Dangerous Goods
Dangerous Goods are articles or substances which are capable

of posing a significant risk to health, safety or property, when
transported by air. These goods are classified in Section III of
IATA Dangerous Goods Regulations (DGR). Star Air is not
approved to carry Dangerous goods and information contained
in this chapter is for reference and guidance.
Note: Star Air is not approved to carry Dangerous Goods.
Regulations for the safe transportation of Dangerous Goods
Annex 18 to the Chicago Convention on International Civil

Aviation entitled "The Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by
Air" was developed in response to a need expressed by
Contracting States for an internationally agreed set of
provisions governing the safe transport of dangerous goods by
air. The broad provisions of Annex 18 are elaborated in the
International Civil Aviation Organizations Technical
Instructions(TI) for the Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by
Air (DOC 9284).
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Annex 18 and the TI became the legal basis of the new IATA
publication called Dangerous Goods Regulations / DGR. The
IATA Dangerous Goods Regulations are published in order to
provide procedures for the shipper and the operator by which
articles and substances with hazardous properties can be safely
transported by air on all commercial air transport. The DGR
contains all rules, regulations and variations regarding
Classification, Identification, Packaging, Marking and labeling as
well as Documentation and Handling of Dangerous Goods is
applied as the Practical working tool by all
airlines/shipper/agents worldwide.
7.1 Main Categories of Dangerous Goods:
Dangerous Goods PERMITTED:
A great many dangerous goods may be carried on the aircraft as

Cargo provided they are properly prepared for Transport as per
IATA Dangerous Goods Regulations of Carriage. These goods
acceptable provided all requirements of the above Regulations
are compiled with.
Dangerous Goods Forbidden
These are FORBIDDEN for transport by air. Certain dangerous

goods are considered to be dangerous for transport by air.
Special care is to be taken to ensure that such goods are not
accepted for transportation. These are clearly defined in IATA
Dangerous Goods Regulations Manual and must be strictly
followed
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Dangerous Goods Exempted
These are accepted from the provisions of the regulations.

Certain goods which would normally be considered as
dangerous are exempted from the provisions of the DGR when
carried by a passenger in their registered baggage or hand
baggage or person. These are allowed subject to the quantity
being limited Examples: Alcoholic beverages Perfumes and
colognes Medicinal or toiletry items such as hair spray ETC.
Small gaseous oxygen cylinders required for medicinal use, with
the approval of the airline.
Small carbon dioxide cylinders worn by passengers for the
operation of mechanical limbs with the approval of the airline,
as checked baggage only, securely packaged, safety cartridges
for sporting purposes in quantities not exceeding 5 kg, for
personal use. Personal smoking materials intended for use by an
individual when carried on his person. However, lighter fuels
refills and lighters containing unabsorbed liquid fuel are not
permitted. Surgically implanted cardiac pacemakers containing
radioactive material such as plutonium batteries. Wheel chairs
with non‐spill able batteries provided that the battery is
disconnected, the battery terminals are insulated to prevent
accidental short circuits and the battery is securely attached to
the wheelchair. A table given in page details the provisions for
Dangerous Goods Carried by Passengers or Crew (IATA
Subsection 2.3) is given at 9.19 the end of this chapter.
7.2 Classification of Dangerous Goods
There are 9 Classes of Dangerous Goods
1. Explosives Gun Powder, fire crackers

2. Gases Compressed, Liquefied, Refrigerated or toxic
3. Flammable Liquids Spirit, Petrol, Kerosene, Paints, thinner
etc.
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4. Flammable solids Phosphorous, Sulphur, or substances

when in contact with water emit flammable gases.
5. Oxidizing Substances Ammonium Persulopahte,

Potassium Perchlorate Potassium Bromate & Organic
Peroxide
6. Toxic and Infectious Substances which are liable to cause

death or injury or to harm human health if swallowed,
inhaled or contacted by skin e.g. Tik 20, Pesticides etc.
7. Radioactive Material Materials or substances which

spontaneously, continuously emit certain types of
radiation which can be harmful to health. Hydrogen – 3
Fissile materials, Uranium, Thorium
8. Corrosives Substances which in the event of leakage can

cause severe damage by chemical action when in contact
with living tissue or any material damage other freight or
aircraft parts e.g. Acids and Mercury.
9. Miscellaneous Substances and articles when carried in

small quantity are accepted and are covered in
dangerous goods Exempted categories are related to
this class.
7.3 Storing and loading of dangerous goods
Method of loading to protect from accidental damage through

incorrect handling i.e. dragging and mishandling. These are
important factors, which must be applied during storage and
loading. Certain types of dangerous goods require special
handling when stored in the cargo terminal following
acceptance, during transport and after carriage. For example
self reactive substances of Division 4.1 and 5.2 must be
protected from heat and direct sunlight and stored in a well-
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ventilated area. Packages and over packs must not be loaded

into or on a unit load device or into an aircraft unless they have
been:
Inspected immediately prior to loading and found free from

any visible damage or leakage.
Unit load devices must be inspected and free from any
evidence of leakage or damage that would cause the ULD to
be unserviceable.
During unloading it is important that packages and
over packs containing dangerous goods must be
Inspected for damage or leakage and;
The position where the ULD was stowed on the aircraft
must be inspected for damage or contamination and;
Any hazardous contamination removed by authorized

personnel. Any package which appears to be damaged or
leaking must be removed from the aircraft and:
Safe disposal arranged in accordance with company

procedures, airport authorities and Governmental
departments, and for,
Radioactive material or infectious substances, the

appropriate national authority must be advised.
Note : In EMB-145 aircraft of Star Air no ULD’s are carried and

loading of baggage is in the AFT section.
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7.4 : Loading Restrictions For Dangerous Goods
Dangerous goods must never be loaded on the flight deck of an

aircraft;
Carried in the cabin occupied by passengers, except as

permitted in passengers or crew baggage and those in Star Air’s
property, which are required onboard the aircraft for
operational purposes or for inflight services.
7.5 Loading Restrictions For Dangerous Goods On

Passenger Aircraft
Dangerous goods may be carried in a main deck cargo

compartment of a passenger aircraft provided that the
compartment meets all the certification requirements for a Class
B or Class C aircraft cargo compartment. Packages and over
packs, which have the “Cargo aircraft only” label affixed, must
not be loaded on passenger aircraft under any circumstances.
• For articles and substances not acceptable on a

passenger aircraft
• For articles and substances packed according to

packing Instruction shown in subsection 4.2
A passenger aircraft is defined in the IATA DGR, Appendix A as

“an aircraft that carried any person other than a crew member,
an operator's employee in an official capacity, an authorized
representative of an appropriate national authority or a person
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accompanying a consignment or other cargo. A cargo aircraft is

defined in Appendix A as “any aircraft, other than a passenger
aircraft, which is carrying goods or property."
7.6 Loading Of Incompatible Dangerous Goods
Packages containing dangerous goods, which might react

dangerously with each other, must not be stowed on an aircraft
(or in a warehouse) next to each other, or in any position that
would allow interaction between when in the event of a leakage.
To maintain acceptable segregation between packages
containing dangerous goods having different hazards, the
segregation requirements shown in the table illustrated below
(DGR Table 9.3.A) must be observed. The segregation
requirements apply based on all hazard labels applied to the
package, irrespective of whether the hazard is the primary or
subsidiary risk. The extent to which explosives may be stowed
together in an aircraft is determined by their "compatibility".
Explosives are considered to be compatible if they can be
stowed together without significantly increasing either the
probability of an accident or, for a given quantity, the magnitude
of the effects of such an accident. Compatibility Group criteria
are found in DGR Table 3.1.A. Full details of the loading
restrictions are shown in DGR 9.3.2.2.2. Only explosives in
Division 1.4 compatibility group S are permitted to be
transported on passenger aircraft.
Dangerous goods requiring segregation must be physically

separated by non-dangerous cargo, or separately tied down on
the pallet or aircraft floor.
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Segregation of packages (IATA DGR Table 9.3.A)
1. An “x” at the intersection of a row and a column indicates

that packages containing these classes / divisions of
dangerous goods must be segregated. A “—“at the
intersection of a row and a column indicates that packages
containing these classes / divisions of dangerous goods do
not require segregation.
2. Division 4.1 and classes 6, 7, and 9 are not included in Table

of segregation (IATA DGR Table 9.3.A) as they do not require
segregation from other classes of dangerous goods.
3. Packages containing dangerous goods with multiple hazards

in the class or division that require segregation in
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accordance with IATA DGR Table 9.3.A need not be

segregated from packages bearing the same UN number.
Some dangerous goods may also be incompatible with some

types of non-dangerous cargo.
The following sections of this training manual will provide

further discussion on this.
7.7 Inspection of Packages of Dangerous Goods
Packages or over packs must not be loaded onto an aircraft or

into a unit load device unless they have been inspected
immediately prior to loading and found free from visible leaks
or damages.
On unloading, packages and over packs containing dangerous

goods must be inspected from damage or leakage. If evidence of
damage or leading is found, the position where the dangerous
goods or the unit load device was stowed on the aircraft must be
inspected for damage or contamination and hazardous
contamination removed.
Any package, which appears to be damaged or leaking, must be

removed from the aircraft and safe disposal arranged in
accordance with company, airport and governmental
procedures. This may require the services of specialist
personnel. In the case of spillage of radioactive material or
infectious substances, the appropriate national authority must
be advised. In the case of leakage, the operator must ensure the
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remainder of the consignment is undamaged and that no other

load has been contaminated.
7.8 : Securing And Separating Of Dangerous Goods

Packages of dangerous goods must be protected from damage
and secured to prevent any movement in flight that would
change the orientation of the packages. Packages containing
dangerous goods, which might react dangerously with each
other, must be PHYSICALLY SEPARATED when loaded on pallets
or loaded in the aircraft hold. This is achieved by:
EITHER
Separating tie-down of the packages
OR
Locating ordinary non-dangerous packages between

incompatible packages
For packages or over packs containing Radioactive Material the

securing must be adequate to ensure the separation
requirements of DGR 9.3.10.6 and 9.3.10.7 are met at all times.
7.9 Stowage Of Toxic And Infectious Substances
Packages having a Division 6.1 or a Division 6.2 label must

not be stowed in the same compartment with:
(a) Animals,
(b) Food stuffs
(c) Feed; or
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(d) Other edible substances intended for

consumption by humans or animals' except
where:
• the dangerous goods are loaded in one closed

unit load device and the foodstuff or animals
are loaded in another closed unit load device
or,
• Where open unit load devices are used; the

ULDs must not be stowed adjacent to each
other.
7.10 Loading of Live Animals with Dangerous Goods
Live animals should not be loaded in close proximity to

cryogenic liquids or dry ice. Live animals should be stowed a
level above packages containing dry ice. They must be separated
from packages of Category II-Yellow radioactive materials by at
least 0.5 m (1 ft 8 in) for journeys of 24 hours or less and by at
least 1 m (3 ft 4 in) for longer journeys.
7.11 Loading of Packages Containing Liquid Dangerous

Goods
Packages bearing the package orientation "This Way up" label

must be loaded, stowed and handled at all times in accordance
with such a label. Single packaging’s with end closures
containing liquids must be stowed with such closures upwards.
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7.12 Loading and Stowage of Radioactive Material
Radioactive material in Categories I – White, II-Yellow or III-

Yellow must not be loaded in a compartment occupied by
passengers or crew. To keep exposure to radiation as low as
reasonably achievable, packages of radioactive material should
be loaded on the floor of under floor compartments or in the
furthermost end of the main check compartments.
"Transport Index" is a convenient unit for indicating the
radiation level of a package containing radioactive materials. It
is used for controlling the accumulation of such packages that
may be loaded on an aircraft. The Transport Index is shown on
Radioactive Category II--Yellow and Category III-Yellow labels.
Packages labeled Category I-White may be loaded in unlimited
quantities with no separation requirements. These shipments
do not have a Transport Index.
Packages labeled as Category II-Yellow or Category III-Yellow
must be separated from the passenger cabin and flight deck. The
Transport Index appearing on the label determines the
separation distances for radioactive packages based on their
Transport Index, appear in the table reproduced below. These
separation distances must also be used where radioactive
materials are stored within a warehouse.
Packages containing fissile material, which are rarely
transported by air, must bear a label identifying the Criticality
Safety Index (CSI). The CSI is assigned to a package, over pack or
freight container containing fissile material (other than fissile
exempt). It is a number that is used to provide control over the
accumulation of packages, over packs and freight containers
containing fissile material.
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Separation of Radioactive Material – Passenger and Cargo

Aircraft
If more than one package, over pack or freight container is

placed in the aircraft, the minimum separation distance for each
individual package, over pack or freight container must be
determined in accordance with the above table, on the basis of
the sum of the transport indices of the individual packages, over
pack or fright containers. Alternatively, if the packages, over
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packs or freight containers are separated into groups, minimum

distance from each group to the nearest inside surface of the
partitions of floors of the flight deck or other areas occupied by
personnel is the distance applicable to the sum of the transport
indices within the individual groups, provided that the group is
separated from each other group by at least three times the
distance applicable to the one that has the larger sum of
transport indices.
Operators are required to provide information, in
the operations and/or other appropriate
manuals, with regard to:
(a) Details of the location and identification of cargo holds.

This should also include the dimensions of the holds;
and
(b) Instructions on the loading of radioactive material,

based on the requirements of DGR 9.3.10.
Example:
Package 1 = 5.5 T1
needs 1.15 m separation from the top of the package to the

nearest Inside surface of the floor of the aircraft cabin. If
the height of package 1 is 50 cm, then the cargo hold must
be at least 1.65 m high. i.e. 1.15m + 50cm.
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Package 2 = 4.2 T1
= needs 1.00 m separation

from the top of the package
to the nearest inside surface
of the floor of the aircraft.
• Package 1 has the larger sum of T1s

• Therefore, the minimum distance between Package
1 and Package 2
= 1.15 x 3
= 3.45 m
7.13 Loading of Magnetized Materials
Magnetized materials must not be loaded in such a position that

they will have a significant effect on the direct‐reading magnetic
compasses or on the master compass detector units of the
aircraft.
7.14 Loading of Wheel chairs with Spill able batteries
Provided that the wheelchair or mobility aid can be loaded,

stowed, secured and unloaded always in an upright position and
that the battery is disconnected, the battery terminals are
protected from short circuits and the battery is securely
attached to the wheelchair or mobility aid.
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If the wheelchair or mobility aid cannot be loaded, stowed,

secured and unloaded always in an upright position, the battery
must be removed and the wheelchair or mobility aid may then
be carried as checked baggage without restriction. The removed
battery must be carried in strong, rigid packaging as follows:
• These packaging must be leak tight, impervious to

battery fluid and be protected against upset by securing
to pallets or by securing them in cargo compartments
using appropriate means of securement (other than by
bracing with freight or baggage) such as by use of
restraining straps, brackets or holders;
• Batteries must be protected against short circuits,

secured upright in these packaging and surrounded by
compatible absorbent material sufficient to absorb
their total liquid contents; and
• These packaging must be marked “Battery, wet, with

wheelchair” or “Battery, wet, with mobility aid” and be
labelled with a “Corrosive” label and with a package
orientation (This Way Up) label.
• The pilot-in‐command must be informed of the location

of a wheelchair or mobility aid with an installed battery
or the location of a packed battery.
It is recommended that passengers make advance arrangements

with each operator; also unless batteries are non‐spill able they
should be fitted with spill‐resistant vent caps when feasible.
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To assist the handling of wheelchairs and mobility aids with

batteries. The figure below shows an example of a label which
may be used to assist in identifying whether or not a wheelchair
has had the battery removed. The label is in two parts; Part A
remains with the wheelchair and indicates whether or not the
battery has been removed. In the particular case where the
battery is separated from the wheelchair, Part B may be used to
assist in identifying the battery and also in reconciling the
battery and its wheelchair
Wheel Chairs with spill able batteries are not accepted on our
network
Primarily dangerous Goods shipments can be identified by

way of the different types of Hazard Labels required to be
displayed on the shipments.
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7.15 Procedure for carriage of company Materials (COMAT)
Procedure for transportation of company materials are

described in GHM.
7.16 Marking and Labeling of Packages
Articles and substances meeting the dangerous goods

classification criteria are assigned a ‘UN Number’ under the
United Nations classification system. This consists a four-digit
number preceded by the capital letters ‘UN’. Packages of
dangerous goods must be marked with the UN Number(s)
applicable to their contents.
Packages containing dangerous goods can also be identified by

labels indicating the hazard of the goods by their class or
division or by the presence of certain handling labels/markings.
Note 1: As no approval for the transport of dangerous

goods is held, dangerous goods bearing any UN
Number, hazard label; the radioactive material,
exempted package handling label; the lithium
battery handling label; the environmentally
hazardous substances marking; or the excempted
or limited quantities marking must not be loaded
on an aircraft.
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Note 2: When dangerous goods markings or labels are seen

on items not declared as dangerous goods it is
often an indication that they do contain such
goods. Undeclared dangerous goods must not be
loaded on an aircraft and reporting procedures
must be implemented.
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7.17 Introduction to Special Load Notification
In airline parlance NOTOC refers to Special Load Notification

to Captain or simply Notification to Captain, The NOTOC is
divided into 2 parts: Dangerous Goods (Dangerous Goods)
and Other Special Load (other special loads, dangerous goods
transported by air with Passenger Aircraft and/or Cargo
Aircraft only.
Special Load Notification must be given to the Captain of all

aircraft carrying Dangerous Goods. This takes the form of a
(NOTOC). This document has to provide all relevant
information about each Dangerous Goods shipment on that
particular flight. It is entirely up to the pilot in command
whether he/she accepts the Dangerous Goods onboard and in
the case of spontaneously combustible materials, it is not
unusual for the pilot to refuse these articles onboard.
A NOTOC is a is record of who handled the Dangerous Goods

and who is responsible for its correct handling and storage.
Warehouseman has to sign if it is put into a ULD to say it was
placed/secured safely. The loader in charge of loading the
flight has to sign to say the ULD was loaded safely and the
pilot has to sign to say he has accepted that the handling and
acceptability meets with their approval.
A copy of the NOTOC form is given in this page for reference.

An explanation of the NOTOC form is given in the table below.
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7.18 Dangerous goods carriage by Crew and Passengers

Regulations permit passengers or crew members to carry
dangerous goods as carry-on or checked baggage as listed in the
IATA Dangerous Goods Regulations Manual as per the table
‘Provisions for carriage of Dangerous Goods carried by
passengers or crew members’ which is given in the following
two pages.
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7.19 Transportation of Dry Ice
17.19.1 General Recommendations For Transportation Of

Dry Ice
It is not recommended to transport dry ice in the cabin and in
the galleys. If small quantities are present in the galley, it is
required to be added to the dry ice mass in the calculation of the
total dry ice.
17.19.2 Dry Ice Load Limitations
Significant concentration of gaseous CO2 by sublimation of dry

ice in airplanes may affect the breathing of passengers and crew.
For this reason, it is necessary to establish dry ice carriage
limits.
Dry ice sublimation rates may be affected by many factors,
which include:
– Amount of insulation surrounding the dry ice; - Type of

container;
– Compartment ambient temperature;
– Amount of dry ice surface area;
– Cargo temperature being cooled by the dry ice.
Sublimation rates may be obtained from shippers or may be

calculated from service experience by measuring the percentage
of dry ice sublimated over time.
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17.19.3 : Star Air Policy On Carriage Of Dry Ice
In EMB-145aircraft the maximum recommended Dry Ice load

shall not exceed 05 kg.
17.19.4 : Loading of Solid Carbon Dioxide (Dry Ice)
Star Air must ensure that ground staff is informed that Carbon
dioxide, solid (dry ice) is being loaded or is on board the aircraft.
Star Air after acceptance adds additional dry ice, then ensure
that the information provided to the pilot in command reflects
that revised quantity of dry ice.
As required by the Regulations, crew and passenger checked
baggage containing dry ice must be marked to identify that the
baggage contains dry ice and shows the quantity of dry ice or
identifies that there is 2.5 kg of dry ice or less. To assist with the
handling of passenger and crew checked baggage containing dry
ice.
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LOAD & TRIM MANUAL-PART II DOC REF: SA/LT/01
APPENDIX - A ISSUE 01 TR 01
PILOTS - GROUND INITIAL
& RECURRENT TRAINING REVISION 00 09-JUN-2020
CURRICULUM SEGMENT
GROUND INITIAL & RECURRENT TRAINING CURRICULUM SEGMENT FOR PILOTS
1. The ground initial & annual recurrent training curriculum segment for
pilots consists of the following modules with duration.
Day LOAD & TRIM RECURRENT TRAINING SYLLABUS Ground

• Aircraft Specifics, Limitations and Index calculations –0:15
• Use of RTOW charts , Factors causing operational
limitations –00:10
• Loading & Unloading procedures – 00:05
01
Day • Preparation of Manual Load & Trim & LMC – 00:20 Hour
1 • Assimilation Test – 00:10
• Introduction – The ARMS Electronic L&T Module – 00:05

• Familiarization to the L&T input interface – 00:10 01
• Generating a simple Load & Trim report ( Exercise) –00:30 Hour
• Assimilation Test – 00:15
Total 02
Hours
Page 1 of 2
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PILOTS - GROUND INITIAL
& RECURRENT TRAINING REVISION 00 09-JUN-2020
CURRICULUM SEGMENT
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Page 2 of 2
APPENDIX - B ISSUE 01 TR 01
PILOTS GROUND RECURRENT
TRAINING CURRICULUM SEGMENT – REVISION 00 09-JUN-2020
DISTANCE LEARNING
GROUND INITIAL & RECURRENT TRAINING CURRICULUM SEGMENT FOR PILOTS
1. The ground initial & annual recurrent training curriculum segment for
pilots consists of the following modules with duration.
Day LOAD & TRIM RECURRENT TRAINING SYLLABUS Ground

• Aircraft Specifics, Limitations and Index calculations – 0:15
• Use of RTOW charts , Factors causing operational
limitations – 00:10
• Loading & Unloading procedures – 00:05
01
Day • Preparation of Manual Load & Trim & LMC – 00:20 Hour
1 • Assimilation Test – 00:10
• Introduction – The ARMS Electronic L&T Module – 00:05

• Familiarization to the L&T input interface – 00:10 01
• Generating a simple Load & Trim report ( Exercise) 00:30 Hour
• Assimilation Test – 00:15
Total 02
Hours
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PILOTS GROUND RECURRENT
TRAINING CURRICULUM SEGMENT – REVISION 00 09-JUN-2020
DISTANCE LEARNING
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Authority: Director Flight operations

INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

FOREWORD REVISION 00 14 JUL 18

GHODAWAT ENTERPRISES PVT. LTD. Shall be herein referred as STAR AIR

EMB-145specific information contained in this manual is based on Airplane

FOREWORD REVISION 00 14 JUL 18

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RECORD OF REVISIONS REVISION 01 14 MAY 20

Revision Number Date Entered Revised by

RECORD OF REVISIONS REVISION 01 14 MAY 20

LIST OF EFFECTIVE REVISION 00 14 JUL 2018

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CHAPTER PAGE REVISION EFFECTIVE CHAPTER PAGE REVISION EFFECTIVE

LIST OF EFFECTIVE REVISION 00 14 MAY 2020

CHAPTER PAGE REVISION EFFECTIVE CHAPTER PAGE REVISION EFFECTIVE

HISTORY OF REVISIONS REVISION 01 14 JUL 20

L&T Manual Part II Ch. 6 Para 6.6 : TRIM SHEET

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TABLE OF CONTENTS REVISION 00 14 JUL 18

Table of Contents PAGE

00 DEFINITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS

LOAD & TRIM TRAINING MANUAL – PART I

02 WEIGHT AND BALANCE

TABLE OF CONTENTS REVISION 00 14 JUL 18

2.9 CAR REQUIREMENTS 22

04 LOAD & TRIM SHEET

05 LOADING AND SECURING

TABLE OF CONTENTS REVISION 00 14 JUL 18

5.4 LOADING LIMITATIONS 04

LOAD & TRIM TRAINING MANUAL – PART II

01 LOAD AND TRIM TRAINING REQUIREMENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS REVISION 00 14 JUL 18

3.9 FORCES ACTING ON THE AIRPLANE 14

04 PRINCIPLES OF WEIGHT & BALANCE

TABLE OF CONTENTS REVISION 01 09 JUN 2020

5.15 EMB 145 LR – CONSTRAINED CG ENVELOPE 25

TABLE OF CONTENTS REVISION 00 09 JUN 2020

7.18 DANGEROUS GOODS CARRIAGE BY CREW AND 29

APPENDIX A PILOTS – GROUND INITIAL & RECURRENT TRAINING

Training Manual Doc Ref: SA-L&T-01

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Chapter 00: Definitions and ISSUE 01

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0.1 UNITS AND DIMENSIONS 01

0.2 LIST OF DEFINITIONS 10

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Definitions and REVISION 00 14 JUL 18

Definitions and Abbreviations