GENERAL BIOLOGY: (1ST AT)

MODULE #1:
THEORY- is an idea or set of ideas that is intended to explain facts or events.
Divine Creation Theory- The theory of special creation is proposed that life on earth is
created by a supernatural being called God.
*In the book of genesis, it states that God created all life forms on earth within 6 days
and on 7th he rested. Humans were created on the 6th day.
Theory of Catastrophism- It assumes that life originated by the creation and it is
followed by catastrophe due to geographical disturbances. Each round
catastrophe/creation is responsible for the evolvement of different types of organisms
on earth.
Cosmozoic Theory- Life originated from outer space in the form of a resistant
spore (cosmozoa) propelled by radiation pressure, reached earth and started the first
form of life.
Philosophical Theory of Eternity- Life has no beginning and has no end. It further
believes that life has been here right from the beginning of time.
*Infinity ring
Abiogenesis Theory- (also known as Spontaneous Generation Theory) It states that life
can arise from nonliving things.
Biogenesis Theory- This states that life/living things can arise from pre-existing living
things.
*most popular among six theories.
*most favored by the scientists
bio=life, genesis=beginning
Rudolf Virchow, in 1858, had come up with the hypothesis of biogenesis but could not
prove it.
In 1859, Louis Pasteur, set up his demonstrative experiments to prove biogenesis right
down to a bacterial level. By 1861, he succeeded in establishing biogenesis as a solid
theory rather than a controversial hypothesis.
PEOPLE BEHIND THE THEORIES:
 Divine Creation Theory- religion/Christian belief
 Theory of Catastrophism- Bishop James Ussher and Baron George Cuvier
 Philosophical Theory of Eternity- Sir Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold, Sir
Fred Hoyle
 Cosmozoic Theory- Richter and Svante Arrhenius
 Abiogenesis Theory- Alexander Oparin and John Burdon Sanderson
Haldene
 Biogenesis Theory- Louis Pasteur
MODULE #2:
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION:
ATOM- fundamental unit of matter; smallest scale
MOLECULE- chemical structure consists of at least two atoms held together by one or
more chemical bonds
ORGANELLE- structure having a specific function within a cell
CELL- structural and functional unit of life; basic building blocks of all organisms
TISSUE- group of similar cells having common function
ORGAN- collection of tissues grouped together performing common function, present in
animals and in plants
ORGAN SYSTEM- consists of functionally related organs
ORGANISM- living thing consists of different organ systems functioning together
POPULATION- group of organisms of the same species living together in an area
COMMUNITY- group of different species living together and interacting in a certain area
or habitat
ECOSYSTEM- group of organisms interacting to the non-living environment
BIOSPHERE- global sum of all ecosystems and it represents the zones of life on earth
which means a part of the planet that is capable of supporting life
LIVING ORGANISMS are characterized by a highly organized structure and arranged in
a hierarchical pattern.
MACROMOLECULES- molecules that are biologically important. (examples: proteins,
lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acid like your DNA which contains the instructions for
the structure and functioning of your body.)
MITOCHONDRIA- an example of organelle; this can be found in both animals and
plants chloroplast which is present mostly in plants. It is the powerhouse of the cell.
TWO ORGANELLES THAT CARRY OUT INDISPENSABLE FUNCTION:
Mitochondria produce energy to power cells,
Chloroplast enables green plants to utilize energy in sunlight to make sugars
*All organisms are made up of cells. Some organisms consist of single cell and others
are multicellular
TWO CLASSIFICATION OF CELL:
PROKARYOTES: are single-celled organisms that do not have membrane-bound
organelles. (examples are bacteria, some fungus, protozoa, algae, etc.)
EUKARYOTES: have membrane-bound organelles like the nucleus. (eukaryotic
organisms are animals such as humans, plants, and some fungus.)
FOUR MAIN TYPES OF TISSUES:
1. Epithelial tissue,
2. Connective tissue,
3. Muscle tissue, and
4. Nervous tissue
*PLANTS have vascular tissue, dermal tissue, and ground tissue.
MAMMALS HAVE FIVE VITAL ORGANS THAT THEY CAN’T LIVE WITHOUT:
1. Kidney
2. Lungs
3. Liver
4. Heart
5. Brain
IN PLANTS:
1.Leaf
2.Stem
3.Root
4.Reproductive Structure
*Mammals have many organ systems (respiratory system, digestive and excretory
system, circulatory system, urinary system, integumentary system, skeletal system,
muscular system, endocrine system, lymphatic system, nervous system, and
reproductive systems.)
*Organisms are living individual entities, simply defined as any living thing that is
composed of various organ system that function altogether
DEMOCRITUS- Greek philosopher who came up with the history of atom around 450
B.C
-wondered what would happen if you cut a piece of matter, such as an apple, into
smaller and smaller pieces.
-he called these “uncuttable” pieces atomos, where modern term atom comes from
ROBERT HOOKE- he discovered and named the cell in 1665
-he remarked that it looked strangely like cellula or small rooms which monks inhabited,
thus deriving the name. However, it was a dead cell walls of a plant cells (cork)
-hooke’s description of these cells was published in Micrographia.
Anton van Leeuwenhoek- first man to witness a live cell under a microscope
-he described the algae Spirogyra in 1674.
*The discovery of cells was made possible by the discovery of microscope in the 17th
century.
Robert Hooke
-English Scientist, 1665
-he used microscope to examine a thin slice of cork; he described it as “a great mini
boxes” that reminds him of cubicle or “cell” where monks live
Zacharias Janssen and his father Hans Janssen
-Dutch spectacle makers, 1950
-They put several lenses in a tube and made a very important discovery which is the
compound microscope and the telescope.
-The object near the end of the tube is greatly enlarged.
Anton van Leeuwenhoek
-Dutch scientist, 1674
-described algae Spirogyra
-first one who described bacteria
-first man to witness live cell under microscope
-named moving organisms as “animalcules” which means “little animals
Matthias Jakob Schleiden
-German Botanist, 1839
-showed development of all vegetable tissue
-proved that nucleated cell is the first element of the plant embryo
Theodor Schwann
-German Physiologist, 1839
-every structural elements is composed of cell and cell products (in animals)
Schwann and Schleiden
 Worked together and proposed the first two principles of cell theory
Rudolf Virchow
-German Pathologist,1855
-coined the phrase “omnis cellula e cellular” means “cell originates from cell”
-concluded that all cells arise from pre-existing cells which became the third principle of
cell theory
-stated that all diseases involve changes in a normal cell
The 3 principles of cell theory are:
1. All living things are composed of one or more cells,
2. Cell is the basic unit of life and;
3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
MODULE #4:
Cells have often been referred to as “the building blocks of life”
In both animals and plants, cells generally become specialized to perform certain
functions
Cell wall
-the first organelle
-it is the covering of the plant cell which is only present in plants
-it is predominantly made up of cellulose
-has a rigid covering that protects the cell, provides structural and support, and gives
shape to the cell
Plasma membrane
-serves as the guard; gate keeper of the cell
-phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins that separates the internal contents of the
cell from its environment
-is a semi-permeable membrane that controls the passage of organic molecule, ions,
water and oxygen into and out of the cell
-waste such as carbon dioxide and ammonia also leave the cell by passing through this
Endoplasmic Reticulum
-It is a series of interconnected membranous sacs and tubules within the cytoplasm
that collectively modifies proteins and synthesizes lipids. However, these two functions
are performed in separate areas of the ER: the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and
the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER).
-RER: the endoplasmic reticulum becomes rough due to some ribosomes attached to
the membrane; the function is for protein synthesis
-SER: is a network of tubular sacs without ribosomes on the membrane; the function
includes the synthesis of carbohydrates, lipids and steroid hormones.
Cytoplasm
-where all organelles are embedded
-is the entire region of cell between the plasma membrane and the nuclear envelope
-fluid portion of the cell approximately 70%-80% water where all organelles appear to be
floating
Cytosol is the fluid portion of the cytoplasm
-Its main functions are to maintain shape to the cell, bear cell organelles and carryout
different metabolic processes such as glycolysis, cell division, protein synthesis and
many more.
Cytoskeleton
Ribosomes
-appears as cluster (polyribosomes) or single, tiny dots that float freely in cytoplasm
-function is for protein synthesis
-PROTEIN SYNTHESIS is an essential function of all cells including enzymes,
hormones, antibodies, pigments, structural components and surface receptors.
-particularly abundant in cells that synthesize large amounts of protein
-if not present or does not function properly in cell, there will be no production of
proteins which are the most important macromolecules in the body to support daily
activity of the organisms.
Golgi body or Golgi apparatus
-another important organelle in cell has a series or stacks of flattened membrane bound
organelle that forms a complex structure called Golgi apparatus
-were named for Camilo Golgi, an Italian physician who first identified them.
-sorting, tagging packing, and distribution of lipids and proteins destined to leave the cell
and for use within the cell
-has a front and back
-the FRONT or the RECEIVING END is called CIS FACE, and the BACK is
called TRANS FACE, where lipids and proteins enter and exit to allow further
modification
Lysosomes
-a membrane bound digestive vesicle that arise from Golgi apparatus
-contain high levels of degrading enzymes, which catalyze the rapid breakdown of
proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and carbohydrates.
-can only be found in animal cells.
-use their hydrolytic enzyme to destroy pathogens that might enter to the cell
through phagocytosis or endocytosis
-called suicidal bag of cell because it contains hydrolytic enzymes that capable of
degrading or breaking down macromolecules, destroying pathogens that may enter to
the cell and breaking down old organelles and apoptosis to recycle
Peroxisomes
-are small, round organelles enclosed by single membranes
-it carries out enzymes which involved oxidation reactions that break down fatty acids
and amino acids
-detoxify many poisons that may enter the body
-enzymes safely breakdown the toxic H2O2 into water and oxygen
Lysosomes and Peroxisomes
-both used enzyme for degradation and breaking down of chemical components
-Lysosomes are responsible for the digestion of cells while peroxisomes are responsible
for the protection of cells against hydrogen peroxide.
Mitochondria
-called as the powerhouse of the cell or energy factories because they are responsible
for making adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
-ATP is the cell's main energy carrying molecule. It represents the short-term stored
energy of the cell. It is produced through cellular respiration, the process of making ATP
using the chemical energy found in glucose and other nutrients.
-oval-shaped, double membrane organelles that have their own ribosomes and DNA
-Has two membrane layer: an OUTER MEMBRANE and an intricately folded INNER
MEMBRANE that encloses the mitochondrial matrix (within the mitochondrial matrix is
the DNA that encodes protein essential for mitochondrial function.
-CRISTAE are the folds in the inner membrane which houses the enzymes that catalyze
the reactions of cellular respiration
Chloroplast
-also have their own DNA and ribosomes
-plant cells that carry out photosynthesis
-contains photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll that gives most plants their green color
that used in photosynthesis
-PHOTOSYNTHESIS is the series of reactions that use carbon dioxide, water, and light
energy to make their own food in form of glucose
-PLANTS ARE AUTOTROPHS that can make their own food. ANIMALS ARE
HETEROTROPHS that must ingest food.
-also have inner and outer membrane, which lie in close association with each other
-GRANA is the closed compartments of stacked membranes which lie inside the
membrane
-may contain a hundred or more grana and each granum may contain from a few to
several dozen disk-shaped structures called THYLAKOIDS
-surrounding the thylakoid is fluid matrix called the STROMA which you can find the
enzymes used to synthesize glucose during photosynthesis
Centrioles
-responsible for cellular division
-not present in plant cells
Vacuole
-90% of the cell volume
-If large vacuole shrinks, it will result to wilted appearance of plant
-Not present in animal cell
-TONOPLAST is the membrane surrounding vacuole; it contains channels for water that
are used to help maintain tonicity, or osmotic pressure