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CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
Total Sessions – 06
SESSION – 1
AIM - To introduce the concept of equilibrium
TYPES OF REACTIONS
1. Irreversible Reactions:
The chemical reactions in which the products formed do not combine to give
back the reactants are known as irreversible reaction.
Properties of irreversible reactions
a. Reactions in which reactant react to form product only.
b. Reactions proceed in one single direction.
c. Always proceed to completion.
d. In this type of reactions, if product is gaseous in state, then they can
escape from reacting site and if they are solid in state they will
precipitate.
Examples:
a. Thermal decomposition in open vessel. 2KClO3 ⟶ 2KCl + 3O2
b. All the neutralization reaction of strong acid and strong base.
NaOH + HCl ⟶ NaCl + H2 O
c. Ionic precipitation reaction. AgNO3 + NaCl ⟶ AgCl + NaNO3

d. Oxidation-reduction reaction SnCl2 + 2FeCl2 ⟶ SnCl4 + 2FeCl2

2. Reversible Reactions:
The reactions in which the products can react with one another to give back
the reactants again under suitable conditions called as reversible reaction.
Properties of reversible reactions
a. In these types of reactions, reactant react to form product and product
further react to form reactant.
b. Reactions proceed in both directions.
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c. These types of reactions never complete in nature.

d. Products neither escape nor precipitate.
Examples
a. Thermal dissociation in closed vessel.

PCl5 ⇌ PCl3 + Cl2

b. Salt hydrolysis except strong acid and strong base
NH4 Cl + H2 O ⇌ NH4 OH + HCl
c. All normal gaseous reactions in closed vessel.
N2 + O2 ⇌ 2NO
H2 + I2 ⇌ 2HI
N2 + 3H2 ⇌ 2NH3 2SO3 ⇌ 2SO2 + O2
d. All the reactions of organic hydrolysis.
CH3 C OC2H5 + H OH CH3 C OH + C2H5 OH
O O
Reversible reactions are also of two types:
I. Homogenous Reversible Reactions:
If in a reversible reactions physical state of reactant and product are same
it is called as homogenous reversible reaction.
N2 (g) + O2 (g) ⇌ 2NO(g)
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇌ 2NH3 (g)
2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) ⇌ 2SO3 (g)
CH3 COOC2 H5 (l) + H2 O(l) ⇌ CH3 COOH(l) + C2 H5 OH(l)
Graphite (s) ⇌ Diamond (s)
SRh (s) ⇌ Smono (s)
II. Heterogeneous Reversible Reactions:
If in a reversible reaction physical state of reactant and product are
different it iscalled as heterogeneous reversible reaction.
CaCO3 (s) ⇌ CaO(s) + CO2 (g)
FeO(s) + CO(g) ⇌ Fe(s) + CO2 (g)
3Fe(s) + 4H2 O(g) ⇌ Fe3 O4 (s) + 4H2 (g)
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State Of Equilibrium
In general, reactions (physical and chemical) do not proceed to completion
when they are carried out in a closed container. Consider vaporization of
water, in closed vessel
Liquid water ⇌ Water vapour
• At any temperature, vaporization of water takes place, initially the
concentration of water is much greater than the concentration of vapour, but
with the progress of time, concentration of vapour increases whereas that of
water remains constant and after a certain interval of time, there is no change
in concentration of vapour this state is known as state of physical equilibrium.
• Similarly, in chemical reactions, for exp, when PCl5(g) is heated in a closed
container, its dissociation starts with the formation of PCl3(g)and Cl2(g). Initially,
only PCl5(g) was taken, but with the progress of reaction, PCl3(g) and Cl2(g) are
formed due to dissociation of PCl5(g) . After a certain interval of time, the
concentration ofPCl5(g), PCl3(g) and Cl2(g)each becomes constant.
It does not mean that at this point of time, dissociation of PCl5(g)
and its formation from PCl3(g) and Cl2(g) has been stopped. Actually, the rate
of dissociation of PCl5 and the rate of formation of PCl5(g)becomes equal. This state
is called the state of chemical equilibrium. So, the state of chemical equilibrium is
dynamic.
ex: PCl5 (g) ⇌ PCl3 (g) + Cl2 (g)
This can be shown graphically.

Reactant
Forward Rate
Mole/litre
Concentration

Rate

Backward Rate
Product
Equilibrium
Equilibrium
Time Time

So, state of chemical equilibrium in a reversible reaction at which both forward and
can be defined as the state backward reactions occur of the same speed.
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Classification of equilibrium:
A. Equilibrium in Physical Process:
1. Solid - Liquid equilibrium:- Certain amount of ice & water are taken in
a thermo flask. Exp- H2 O(s) ⇌ H2 O(L)
When temperature remains constant, the mass of ice & water remains
constant. Some liquid molecules adhere to ice and simultaneously some
molecules of ice enter into liquid. The no. of molecules of water forming ice &
no. of molecules of ice forming water are same i.e., eq. is attained ∴ no
change in mass of ice & water.
The temperature at which the solid & the liquid phase are at equilibrium at
atmospheric pressure is called freezing point.
2. Liquid – Vapour equilibrium:- Liquid water is taken in closed vessel at
room temp, it starts evaporating.
Exp- H2 O(l) ⇌ H2 O(g)
As process continuous, more water molecules escape & pressure increases
later, condensation takes place. Finally, rate of evaporation becomes equal
to rate of condensation.
The pressure exerted by the vapour over the liquid when it is in equilibrium
with it is called vapor pressure of the liquid.
The temperature at which the Vapour Pressure of liquid is equal to
atmospheric Pressure, is called Boiling Point.
Different liquids have different vapour pressure. At the same temperature,
the liquid which has a higher Vapour Pressure is more volatile or boils at a
lower temperature.
3. Solid – Vapour equilibrium:- This exists when solid sublimes to vapour.
I2(s) ⇌ I2(g)
When we heat some I2 in a closed vessel, it sublimes & vessel filled with
violet vapours. After sometime, intensity of violet colour remains constant. At
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this state equilibrium is attained i.e., Rate of sublimation of solid I2 to form

vapour is equal to rate of condensation of I2 vapour to give solid I2 .
4. Solid – Solution equilibrium:
Sugar (in solution) ⇌ Sugar(Solid)
When more and more amount of sugar is added into a fixed volume of water
at room temperature, after sometime no more sugar dissolves and settles at
the bottom. The solution is now said to be saturated and the concentration
of sugar in the solution remains constant.
This indicates that a state of equilibrium has been reached
between the undissolved sugar & dissolved sugar.
5. Gas – Solution equilibrium: In carbonated drinks,
CO2(g) ⇌ CO2 (in solution)
At a given temperature, a liquid can dissolve only a
certain definite mass of the gas. This suggests that a state of equilibrium
exists between the molecules in the gaseous state and the molecules dissolved
in the liquid.
The solubility of a gas in the liquid depends on the pressure.
It is explained by Henry’s law.
i.e., the mass of a gas dissolved in a given mass of solvent at a particular
temp is directly proportional to the pressure of the gas above the solvent.
m ∝ p ⟹ m = kp

B. Equilibrium in Chemical Process:

Ex 1. Decomposition of 𝐂𝐚𝐂𝐎𝟑:
When CaCO3 is heated in a closed vessel at 8000 C, it decomposes into
CaO & CO2 . Due to production of CO2 , pressure will increases in the vessel.
After sometime, it is observed that pressure becomes constant at constant
temperature, even though some CaCO3 is still present. This constancy confirms
that equilibrium has been reached.
CaCO3 (s) ⇌ CaO(s) + CO2 (g)
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Ex 2. Reaction between 𝐇𝟐 & 𝐈𝟐:

When H2 & I2 are heated in a closed vessel, HI is formed. At the beginning
the reaction mixture is deep violet in colour due to presence of I2 . As the
reaction proceeds the intensity of the colour decreases due to decrease in
concentration of I2 and increase in concentration of HI . After some time,
the intensity of colour remains constant. This confirms that equilibrium has
been attained.
H2 + I2 ⇌ 2HI
Characteristics of Chemical Equilibrium:
1. Equilibrium is attained for reversible reactions only in a closed vessel.
2. At equilibrium, the rate of forward reaction is equal to rate of backward
reaction.
3. For a reversible reaction, the equilibrium constant for the forward reaction is
inverse of the equilibrium constant for the backward reaction.
In general, K forward reaction = K′ 1
backward reaction

4. At Equilibrium, all observable or measurable properties such as pressure,

concentration, colour and density etc remains constant.
5. It is dynamic in nature i.e. reaction takes place in both the directions at
same speed although appears to be stopped.
6. At equilibrium, concentration of reactants and products remains constant.
7. Catalyst has no effect on the position of chemical equilibrium, but it helps to
attain the Equilibrium state rapidly.
A catalyst has the same effect on both forward and backward reactions.
8. Change in pressure, temperature or concentration favours either forward or
backward reaction and thus shifts the equilibrium point in one direction.
11. Equilibrium can be attained in either
9. Change in free energy is equal to zero at equilibrium. direction. the value of an equilibrium
constant tells the extent to which a rxn
10. Equilibrium can be homogeneous or heterogeneous. proceeds in the frwd or reverse direction.
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SESSION – 2AND 3
AIM - To introduce rate or velocity, active mass, equilibrium constant through Law
of Mass Action.
Rate or Velocity of a reaction – is the change in molar concentration of the
reactants or products in unit time.
𝐝𝐱
It is denoted by , where dx is the change in concentration of the reactants or
𝐝𝐭
products in a given time dt.
For a reaction R ⟶ P
−𝐝𝐑
Rate = ,where -dR indicates the decrease in the concentration id reactants.
𝐝𝐭
𝐝𝐏
For product, Rate = , +dp indicates the increase in concentration of products.
𝐝𝐭
Unit of the rate of reaction is mol L-1 s-1
Active Mass- is also known as molar concentration.It is shown by square brackets [ ].
The number of g molecules present in unit volume (say 1 litre) is called active
mass.
Weight of subs tance in g
g molecule = Molecular weight

gram molecule
Active mass = Volume (in liter)

Weight of subs tance in g

or Active mass = Molecular weight  Volume

The unit of active mass is g molecule/Litre

The active mass or partial pressure of solids is regarded as unity because molecules
are closely packed in solids
Example: What should be the respective active masses in g mole/litre when 4g of
H2 and 128g of HI are present in a two-litre container
4g
Solution : (a) Active mass of H2 = = 1 gm mol/lit
2 2

(Molecular weight of H2 = 2)
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128
(b) Active mass of HI = = 0.5g mole/litre
128  2

(Molecular weight of HI = 1 + 127 = 128)

Remember -
1 g molecule H2 = 2g
1 g molecule O2 = 32g
1 g molecule N2 = 28g
1 g molecule NH3 = 17g
1 g molecule I2 = 254g

Example: If 4g molecule of H2 is present in a two-litre container, the active mass

will be
g molecule 4
Solution: Active mass = Volume = 2 = 2 g mole/litre

LAW OF MASS ACTION

Guldberg and Waage in 1807 gave this law and according to this law, “At
constant temperature, the rate of a reaction is directly proportional to the
product of active masses(molar concentrations) of the reactants”.
For a reactation, A ⟶ Product
𝐝𝐱
Rate,
𝐝𝐭
= K[A] where K is Rate constant.
For a reaction, A + B ⟶ Product
Rate = K [A] [ B]
For a reaction, 2A + 3B ⟶ Product
Rate = K [A] [A] [ B] [B] [B]
Rate = K [A]2 [ B]3
aA + bB ⟶ Product
Rate = K [ A]a [ B]b
EX.1: 8.5grams of ammonia are dissolved to form 4L aqueous solution. Calculate
the active mass.
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Equilibrium Constant Kc in terms of concentration:

Consider the following reversible reaction
aA + bB ⇌ cC + dD
Rate of forward reaction, R f ∝ [A]a [B]b
R f = k f [A]a [B]b --------(i)
Where k f =rate constant of forward reaction
Rate of reverse reaction, R b ∝ [C]c [D]d
R b = k b [C]c [D]d --------(ii)
Where k b =rate constant of reverse reaction
At equilibrium,
Rate of forward reaction = Rate of reverse reaction
i.e .R f = R b
So, from equations (i) and (ii) we get
k f [A]a [B]b = k b [C]c [D]d
kf [C]c [D]d
or, = [A]a [B]b
kb
kf [C]c [D]d
= Kc =
kb [A]a [B]b

Where, 𝐊 𝐜 is the equilibrium constant in terms of molar concentration.

The equilibrium constant, at a given temperature, is the ratio of rate constant of
forward and backward reactions. Or
𝐊 𝐜 is defined as the ratio of the product of molar concentration of
the products and to the product of the molar concentration of the reactants in
which concentration terms raised to the power of respective stoichiometric
coefficient in a balanced chemical equation at constant T.
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n
From ideal gas equation PV = nRT or, P = V RT
𝐧
At constant temperature, 𝐏 ∝ 𝐕
In a mixture of gases, Partial pressure of any component (say A)
PA ∝ [A]
Similarly, PB ∝ [B]
Pc ∝ [C]
PD ∝ [D]
So, equation (1) can be rewritten as
Pcc × PDd
Kp =
PAa × PBb

Relationship between KP & KC

aA(g) + bB(g) ⇌ cC(g) + dD(g)
[C]c [D]d PcC ×Pd
D
K c = [A]a [B]b and, K p =
PaA ×Pb
B

From the ideal gas equation,

PV = nRT
n
P = RT
V
So, PA = [A]RT ; PB = [B]RT; PC = [C]RT ; PD = [D]RT
Substituting the values of PA, PB, PC and PD, we get
[C]c (RT)c × [D]d (RT)d
Kp =
[A]a (RT)a × [B]b (RT)b
[C]c [D]d (RT)(c+d)
Or K p = [A]a [B]b × (RT)(a+b)
Or K p = K c (RT)Δn
Where, Δn = (c + d) − (a + b)
i.e., Δn =no of moles of gaseous products - no. of moles of gaseous reactants.
Case (i): If Δn = O; K c = K p
Ex: H2(g) + I2 (g) ⇌ 2HI(g)
Case (ii): If Δn is positive; K p > K c
Ex: PCl5(g) ⇌ PCl3(g) + Cl2 (g)
Δn = 2 − 1 = 1
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Factors determining the value of equilibrium constant:

The value of equilibrium constant depends in the following factors:
1. The mode of representation of the reaction:
A+B⇌ C+D
The equilibrium constant for the reaction,
[C][D]
K c = [A][B] …(i)
Now, for backward reaction,
C+D⇌A+B
The equilibrium constant for the reaction is
[A][B]
K ′c = … … … … . (ii)
[C][D]
1
The equilibrium constant, K ′c is the reciprocal of K c i.e., K ′c = K
c

2. Stoichiometry of the chemical equation:

Example 1 :
2NO2 ⇌ N2 + 2O2 … (i)
1
Or NO2 ⇌ N2 + O2 ….(ii)
2
[N2 ][O2 ]2
For equation (i), the value of Kc = [NO2 ]2
1
[N2 ]2 [O2 ]
For equation (ii), the value of K ′c = [NO2 ]

Thus, the two constants are related as

𝐊 ′𝐜 = √𝐊 𝐜
In general, when a given reversible system is divided by n , the numerical
value of equilibrium constant is obtained by taking n√k of the original system.
Example 2:
1 1
H2 + I2 ⇌ HI … (i)
2 2
H2 + I2 ⇌ 2HI …(ii)
1 1
[H2 ]2 [I2 ]2
For equation (i), the value of Kc = [HI]
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[H2 ][I2 ]
For equation (ii), the value of K ′c = [HI]2
Thus, the two constants are related to each other
𝐊 ′𝐜 = 𝐊 𝟐𝐜
In general, when a balanced equation having equilibrium constant K c , is
multiplied by a certain value n, the equilibrium constant for the new equation
will be equal to (K c )n .

3. Use of partial pressures instead of concentrations: When the reactants and

products are in gaseous state, the partial pressures can be used instead of
concentrations at a definite temperature, as the partial pressure of a
substance is proportional to its concentration in the gas phase.
K p = K c (RT)Δn
K p can be equal or less than or greater than Kc, depending upon the
chemical reaction.
4. Temperature: According to Arrhenius equation,
E
−
K = A. e …(i) RT

Where, k = rate constant,

E = activation energy,
R= gas constant.
T = absolute temperature and e = exponential constant.
k2 −E 1 1
log = [ − ] …. (ii)
k1 2303R T2 T1

When, T2 > T1
For forward reaction,
kf Ef 1 1
log ( 2 ) = − [ − ] … . (iii)
k f1 2.303R T2 T1
For backward reaction,
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kb Eb 1 1
log ( 2 ) = − [ − ] … … … . . (iv)
k b1 2.303R T2 T1
Subtracting eq. (iii) from eq. (iv), we get
Kf2
Kb (Ef − Eb ) 1 1
log ( k 2 ) = − [ − ]
f1 2.303R T2 T1
k b1
k2 ΔH 1 1
log ( )=− [ − ] … … . (v)
k1 2.303R T2 T1
Where, ΔH is the heat of reaction at constant volume and K1 and K2 are the
equilibrium constants of a reaction at temperatures T1 and T2 (T2 > T1 )
The effect of temperatures can be studied in the following three cases
First Case:- ΔH = 0, i.e. neither heat is evolved, not absorbed.
k2 ΔH 1 1
log ( )=− [ − ]
k1 2.303R T2 T1
So, log K 2 − log K1 = 0
Or log k 2 = log k1
Or K 2 = K1
Thus, equilibrium constant remains the same at all temperatures.
Second case:- When, ΔH = +ve , i.e., heat is absorbed endothermic reaction. The
temperature T2 is higher than T1 .
k ΔH 1 1
log ( 2) = − [ − ]
k 2.303R T
1 T 2 1
1 1
Thus,(𝑇 − 𝑇 ) is negative,
2 1
So, logK2 − logK1 = +ve
Or logK2 > logK1
Or K 2 > K1
The value of equilibrium constant increases with increase in temperature in the
case of endothermic reactions.
Third case:- When ΔH = −ve , i.e, heat is evolved in exothermic reaction. The
temperature T2 is higher than T1 (T2 > T1)
k ΔH 1 1
log ( 2) = − [ − ]
k 1 2.303R T T 2 1
1 1
Thus (𝑇 − 𝑇 ) is positive,
2 1
So, log K 2 − logK1 = −ve
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= 1.404  10 − 5 m 4

(8.314 )2  N 2 m 2 (773 K )2
N2 K 2 .mol 2
5.798  10 −10 m 6 5.798  10 −8
= =
mol 2 mol 2 / m 6
= 5.79810-8C-2
where C = conc. in mol/m3

Units of Equilibrium Constant- The units of equilibrium constant vary in case of

different reactions.
- ‘K’ has no units for a reaction in which total number of moles of
reactants and products are the same.
For exp , for dissociation of nitric oxide, Kc has no units.
2NO ⇌ N2 + O2
[N2 ][O2 ]
Kc =
[NO]2
- 𝐊𝐜will have units for a reaction in which the total number of moles of
reactants and products are different.
For exp, for decomposition of PCl5, the Kc has mol/litre units.
PCl5 ⇌ PCl3 + Cl2
[PCl3 ][Cl2 ]
Kc =
[PCl5 ]
In the formation of ammonia,
N2 + 3H2 ⟶ 2NH3
[NH3 ]2
K c = [N 3
Kc has 𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐫𝐞𝟐 𝐦𝐨𝐥−𝟐 units
2 ][H2 ]

In general; unit of K c = [M]Δn

Where, M = mol litr −1
Δn =no, of gaseous moles of products – no, of gaseous moles of reactants.

Note: (i) The above relation can be used in homogeneous liquid system.
(ii) Similarly, the unit of K p = [atm]Δn
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NOTE
• If Kc > 103 , products predominate over reactants. If Kc is very large, the
reaction proceeds almost all the way to completion.
• If Kc < 10−3 , reactants predominate over products. If Kc is very small, the
reaction proceeds hardly at all.
• If Kc is in the range 10−3 to 103 , appreaciable concentration of both
reactants and products are present.
Kc
Reaction proceeds Reaction proceeds to
hardly at all 10–3 103 completion
Both reactants and products
are present at equilibrium

Reaction Quotient OR Mass Action Ratio

Let us consider a reaction:
A + B ⇌C + D
[C][D]
Q = [A][B]
Q is denoted as Qc or Qp depending upon whether the concentration is taken
in terms of moles per litre or partial pressures respectively.
With the help of mass action ratio we can determine whether the reaction is
at equilibrium or not.
I. When, 𝐐𝐜 = 𝐊 𝐜 𝐨𝐫 𝐐𝐩 = 𝐊 𝐩 , then the reversible reaction is at equilibrium,
i.e, the rate of forward and backward reaction becomes equal.
II. When, 𝐐𝐜 < 𝐊 𝐜 𝐨𝐫 𝐐𝐩 < 𝐊 𝐩 . The reaction will be fast in forward direction,
i.e, reaction has tendency to form product/products.
Rate of forward reaction > Rate of backward reaction.
III. When, 𝐐𝐜 > 𝐊 𝐜 𝐨𝐫 𝐐𝐩 > 𝐊 𝐩 . The reaction will be fast in backward direction,
i.e, have a tendency to form reactants.
Rate of forward reaction < Rate of backward reaction.

Q Kc Q Kc Q Kc

Reactants → Products Equilibrium Reactants  Products

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SESSION – 6
AIM - To introduce LeChateleir’s Principle, to explain factors which can change
the state of equilibrium in a reversible system.
LE CHATELIER’S PRINCIPLE
Three main factors which can change the state of equilibrium in a reversible
system i.e., concentration, pressure and temperature.
Le Chatelier explained the effect of change in concentration, pressure and
temperature on any reversible system whether physical or chemical.
According to him, if a system at equilibrium is subjected to a change of
concentration, pressure or temperature, the equilibrium shifts in the direction
that tends to undo the effect of the change,
(OR)
If a system at equilibrium is subjected to a change in concentration,
pressure or temperature, the system adjusts itself in such a way as to
nullifies the effect of that change.

1. Change in concentration: If an additional amount of reactant or product is

added to the system, the stress is relieved as the reaction that consumes
the added substance occurs more rapidly than its reverse reaction,
i.e., in general, increasing the concentrations of the
reactants results in shifting the equilibrium towards products while increasing
concentrations of the products results in shifting the equilibrium towards
reactants.
2. Change of pressure: At equilibrium, when medium consists of gases, then the
concentrations of all the components can be altered by changing the
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pressure. When the pressure on the system is increased, the volume decreases
proportionately.
i.e., If pressure is increased, then process will move in that
direction where number of moles of gaseous species are fewer and vice versa.
3. Change in temperature: In a reversible chemical reaction, if one reaction is
endothermic, other will be exothermic in nature.
When heat energy is added by raising temperature, the system can
relieve itself from the stress if the reaction which absorbs heat moves faster,
i.e, endothermic reaction is always favoured with increase of temperature.
So for exothermic process - increase in temperature favours backward
reaction and vice versa.
For endothermic process - increase in temperature favours forward reaction
and vice versa.
4. Addition of an inert gas: When inert gas added to a system at
equilibrium, inert gas neither reacts with reactants nor with products.
Case I: Addition of inert gas at constant pressure process will move in
that direction where number of moles of gaseous species are greater.
Addition of inert gas will increase the total volume at equilibrium. Now
• When Δn = 0 e.g., 2HI ⇌ H2 + I2
x2
For this equilibrium Kc = Kp =
4(1−x)2
; where x is the degree of
dissociation
The equation is independent of P and V terms and thus there is no effect
of addition of inert gas to this type of equilibrium.
• When Δn > 0; eg., PCl5 ⇌ PCl3 + Cl2
Moles at t = 0 1 0 0
Moles at equilibrium (1–x) x x
x2
Kc =
V(1 − x)
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Where x is the degree of dissociation

Since V increases and thus to keep 𝐾𝑐 constant, ‘x’ must increase i.e.,
degree of dissociation of PCl5 increases or [PCl3 ] and [Cl2] increases at equilibrium and
the [PCl5 ]decreases at equilibrium
Case II: Addition of inert gases at constant volume to an equilibrium will increase
the pressure at equilibrium. Now
• Δn = 0, 2HI ⇌ H2 + I2
x2
For the equilibrium Kc = Kp =
4(1−x2 )

Where x is the degree of dissociation.

Since the equation is independent of P and V terms and thus no effect of
addition of inert gas to this type of equilibrium.
• Δn = 0 PCl5 ⇌ PCl3 + Cl2
x2
For this equilibrium Kc =
V(1−x)

Where ‘x’ is the degree of dissociation.

Since volume remains constant during the change and the addition of inert
gas at constant volume will also have no influence on the equilibrium
concentration for this type of equilibrium.
Conclusions:
1. Increase in concentration of any substance favours the reaction in which it is used up.
2. High pressure is favourable for the reaction in which there is decrease in volume.
3. A rise in temperature favours the endothermic reaction.
4. Effect of inert gas addition:
Condition Effect
ΔV = 0, V = ConstantΔn ≠ 0, Δn = 0, +ve or − ve No effect
= Constant Δn = 0 No effect
ΔV ≠ 0, V ≠ ConstantΔV ≠ 0, V Δn > 0 Forward shift
≠ Constant Δn < 0 Backward shift