12 Global and International Issues

Learning objectives
After studying this chapter, student should be able to do the following:

 Discuss the nature of doing business globally, including language and culture
issues.
 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of doing business globally.
 Discuss the global challenge facing firms and why this is a strategic issue.
 Discuss communication differences across countries.
 Describe Lewis model.
 What is Hofstede´s cultural dimensions theory about?
 Explain the difference between Blue and Red Ocean.

Key words
Blue Ocean Strategy, Global Strategy, Globalization, Governmental Organizations,
Hofstede´s Cultural Dimensions Theory, International Firms, Lewis Model,
Multinational Corporations, Nonprofit Organizations, Protectionism, Small and
Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs).

Study time requirements

It is a complex text, the studying takes approximately 2 hours of your time.

Contents
12.1 The Nature of Multinational Organizations
12.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Doing Business Globally
12.3 The Global Challenge
12.4 Communication Differences across Countries
12.5 Lewis model
12.6 Hofstede´s cultural dimensions theory
12.7 Nonprofit and Governmental organizations
12.8 Strategic management in SMEs
12.9 Blue Ocean Strategy
Summary
12.1 The Nature of Multinational Organizations

Global considerations impact virtually all strategic decisions, as illustrated in Figure

12.1. The boundaries of countries no longer can define the limits of our imaginations.
To see and appreciate the world from the perspective of others has become a matter of
survival for businesses. The underpinnings of strategic management hinge on managers
gaining an understanding of competitors, markets, prices, suppliers, distributors,
governments, creditors, shareholders, and customers worldwide. The price and quality
of a firm’s products and services must be competitive on a worldwide basis, not just on
a local basis. Shareholders expect substantial revenue growth, so doing business
globally is one of the best ways to achieve this end.

Fig. 12.1 A Comprehensive Strategic-Management Model

Source: Own processing based on Fred R. David

A world market has emerged from what previously was a multitude of distinct national
markets, and the climate for international business today is more favorable than in past
years. Mass communication and high technology have created similar patterns of
consumption in diverse cultures worldwide. This means that many companies may find
it difficult to survive by relying solely on domestic markets.

Globalization is a process of doing business worldwide, so strategic decisions are made

based on global profitability of the firm rather than just domestic considerations. A
global strategy seeks to meet the needs of customers worldwide, with the highest value
at the lowest cost. This may mean locating production in countries with the lowest
labour costs or abundant natural resources, locating research and complex engineering
centers where skilled scientists and engineers can be found, and locating marketing
activities close to the markets to be served.
A global strategy includes designing, producing, and marketing products with global
needs in mind, instead of considering individual countries alone. A global strategy
integrates actions against competitors into a worldwide plan. Today, there are global
buyers and sellers and the instant transmission of money and information across
continents.

It is no exaggeration that in any industry that is, or is rapidly becoming global, the
riskiest possible posture is to remain a domestic competitor. The domestic competitor
will watch as more aggressive companies use this growth to capture economies of scale
and learning. The domestic competitor will then be faced with an attack on domestic
markets using different (and possibly superior) technology, product design,
manufacturing, marketing approaches, and economies of scale.

Organizations that conduct business operations across national borders are called
international firms or multinational corporations. The strategic-management process
is conceptually the same for multinational firms as for purely domestic firms; however,
the process is more complex for international firms as a result of more variables and
relationships. The social, cultural, demographic, environmental, political, governmental,
legal, technological, and competitive opportunities and threats that face a multinational
corporation are almost limitless, and the number and complexity of these factors
increase dramatically with the number of products produced and the number of
geographic areas served.

More time and effort are required to identify and evaluate external trends and events in
multinational corporations than in domestic corporations. Geographic distance, cultural
and national differences, and variations in business practices often make communication
between domestic headquarters and overseas operations difficult. Strategy
implementation can be more difficult because different cultures have different norms,
values, and work ethics.

Multinational corporations (MNCs) face unique and diverse risks, such as expropriation
of assets, currency losses through exchange rate fluctuations, unfavourable foreign court
interpretations of contracts and agreements, social/political disturbances, import/export
restrictions, tariffs, and trade barriers. Strategists in MNCs are often confronted with the
need to be globally competitive and nationally responsive at the same time.

12.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Doing Business Globally

Firms have numerous reasons for formulating and implementing strategies that initiate,
continue, or expand involvement in business operations across national borders. Perhaps
the greatest advantage is that firms can gain new customers for their products and
services, thus increasing revenues. Growth in revenues and profits is a common
organizational objective and often an expectation of shareholders because it is a
measure of organizational success.

Potential advantages to initiating, continuing, or expanding international operations

are as follows:
 1. Firms can gain new customers for their products.
2. Foreign operations can absorb excess capacity, reduce unit costs, and spread
economic risks over a wider number of markets.
3. Foreign operations can allow firms to establish low-cost production facilities in
locations close to raw materials and/or cheap labor.
4. Competitors in foreign markets may not exist, or competition may be less
intense than in domestic markets.
5. Foreign operations may result in reduced tariffs, lower taxes, and favorable
political treatment.
6. Joint ventures can enable firms to learn the technology, culture, and business
practices of other people and to make contacts with potential customers,
suppliers, creditors, and distributors in foreign countries.
7. Economies of scale can be achieved from operation in global rather than solely
domestic markets. Larger-scale production and better efficiencies allow higher
sales volumes and lower-price offerings.
8. A firm’s power and prestige in domestic markets may be significantly enhanced
if the firm competes globally. Enhanced prestige can translate into improved
negotiating power among creditors, suppliers, distributors, and other important
groups.

The availability, depth, and reliability of economic and marketing information in

different countries vary extensively, as do industrial structures, business practices, and
the number and nature of regional organizations. There are also numerous potential
disadvantages of initiating, continuing, or expanding business across national borders,
such as the following:

1. Foreign operations could be seized by nationalistic factions.

2. Firms confront different and often little-understood social, cultural,
demographic, environmental, political, governmental, legal, technological,
economic, and competitive forces when doing business internationally. These
forces can make communication difficult in the firm.
3. Weaknesses of competitors in foreign lands are often overestimated, and
strengths are often underestimated. Keeping informed about the number and
nature of competitors is more difficult when doing business internationally.
4. Language, culture, and value systems differ among countries, which can create
barriers to communication and problems managing people.
5. Gaining an understanding of regional organizations such as the European
Economic Community, the Latin American Free Trade Area, the International
Bank for Reconstruction and Development, and the International Finance
Corporation is difficult but is often required in doing business internationally.
6. Dealing with two or more monetary systems can complicate international
business operations.

12.3 The Global Challenge

Few companies can afford to ignore the presence of international competition. Firms
that seem insulated and comfortable today may be vulnerable tomorrow. A world
economy and monetary system are emerging. Corporations in every corner of the globe
are taking advantage of the opportunity to obtain customers globally. Markets are
shifting rapidly and in many cases converging in tastes, trends, and prices. Innovative
transport systems are accelerating the transfer of technology. Shifts in the nature and
location of production systems, especially to China and India, are reducing the response
time to changing market conditions.

More and more countries around the world are welcoming foreign investment and
capital. As a result, labor markets have steadily become more international. The drive to
improve the efficiency of global business operations is leading to greater functional
specialization. Other considerations include the cost of energy, availability of resources,
inflation rates, tax rates, and the nature of trade regulations.

Many countries became more protectionist during the recent global economic recession.
Protectionism refers to countries imposing tariffs, taxes, and regulations on firms
outside the country to favor their own companies and people. Most economists argue
that protectionism harms the world economy because it inhibits trade among countries
and invites retaliation.

It is clear that different industries become global for different reasons. The need to
amortize massive R&D investments over many markets is a major reason why the
aircraft manufacturing industry became global. Monitoring globalization in one’s
industry is an important strategic-management activity. Knowing how to use that
information for one’s competitive advantage is even more important. For example,
firms may look around the world for the best technology and select one that has the
most promise for the largest number of markets. When firms design a product, they
design it to be marketable in as many countries as possible. When firms manufacture a
product, they select the lowest-cost source, which may be Japan for semiconductors, Sri
Lanka for textiles, and Malaysia for simple electronics, and Europe for precision
machinery.

12.4 Communication Differences across Countries

Communication may be the most important word in strategic management. Managers
increasingly interact with managers in other countries, so it is important to understand
communication differences across countries. Americans often come across as intrusive,
manipulative, and garrulous; this impression may reduce their effectiveness in
communication.

Asian managers view extended periods of silence as important for organizing and
evaluating one´s thoughts, whereas American managers have a low tolerance for
silence.

Sitting through a conference without talking is unproductive in the U.S., but it is viewed
as positive in Japan if one´s silence helps preserve unity. Some managers are much
more action-oriented than others; they rush to appointments, conferences, and meetings
– and then they feel the day has been productive. But for others, resting, listening,
meditating, and thinking is considered productive.

Japanese managers are reserve, quiet, distant, introspective, and other oriented, whereas
other nations are talkative, insensitive, impulsive, direct, and individual-oriented. These
kinds of communication differences have disrupted many potentially productive
business efforts. Like many Asian and African cultures, the Japanese are non-
confrontational. But viewing the Japanese communication style as a prototype for all
Asian cultures is a stereotype that must be avoided.

Managers, marketers, salespersons, and virtually all businesspersons can be more

effective in doing business with persons and companies in other countries if they have
an understanding and appreciation of business culture variation across countries.

12.5 Lewis model

Richard Lewis, an expert on cross-cultural and language training who has tutored clients
from Swedish corporate executives to the Japanese Imperial Family, discussed the need
to consider cross-cultural differences in managing any company in today’s global
world. He suggested a broad model you can use to characterize different national
characteristics as linear-active, multi-active, and reactive. These traits shape attitudes
toward time, leadership, team building, and affect a range of organizational behaviours.
Lewis includes brief national profiles a manager can refer to when doing business away
from home.

It is based on data gathered from Lewis’s time spent visiting 135 countries (working in
more than 20 of them), 50.000 executives taking residential courses, and more than
150.000 online questionnaires across 68 different nationalities.

Lewis came to the conclusion that humans can be divided into 3 clear categories, based
not on nationality or religion but on behaviour.
1. Linear-actives - Task-oriented, highly-organised planners, who prefer getting
things done, one task at a time in a planned sequence. Arguments are made with
logic, while rules are to be followed.
Characteristics: Talks half the time, does one thing at a time, plans ahead step by
step, polite but direct, partly conceals feelings, confronts with logic, dislikes
losing face, rarely interrupts, job-orientated, uses many facts, truth before
diplomacy, sometimes impatient, limited body language, respects officialdom,
separates the social and professional.
2. Multi-actives - Emotional, loquacious and impulsive who see family, feelings
and relationships ahead of following an agenda. They are comfortable do many
things at the same time.
Characteristics: Talks most of the time, does several things at once, plans grand
outline only, emotional, displays feelings, confronts emotionally, has good
excuses, often interrupts, people-orientated, feelings before facts, flexible truth,
impatient, unlimited body language, seeks out key person, interweaves the social
and professional.
3. Reactives - Polite, attentive listeners, who rarely initiate action or discussion,
instead react to it and form their own opinion. Harmony and avoiding
embarrassment to themselves or others is core.

Characteristics: Listens most of the time, reacts to partner’s action, looks at

general principles, polite, indirect, conceals feelings, never confronts, must not
lose face, doesn’t interrupt, very people-orientated, statements are promises,
 diplomacy over truth, patient, subtle body language, uses connections, connects
the social and professional.

He says that this categorization of national norms does not change significantly over
time. The behavior of people of different cultures is not something by compulsion.
There exist clear trends, sequences and traditions. Reactions of Americans, Europeans,
and Asians alike can be forecasted, usually justified and in the majority of cases
managed. Even in countries where political and economic change is currently rapid or
sweeping (Russia, China, Hungary, Poland, Korea, Malaysia, etc.) deeply rooted
attitudes and beliefs will resist a sudden transformation of values when pressured by
reformists, governments or multinational conglomerates. The diagram indicates the
relative positioning of each national culture in general terms of its linear-active, multi-
active or reactive nature.

Fig. 12.2 The Lewis Model Explains Every Culture In The World
Source: Businessinsider.com

Lewis says that determining national characteristics is treading a minefield of inaccurate

assessment and surprising exception; however, there is such a thing as a national norm.
By focusing on the cultural roots of national behavior, both in society and business, we
can foresee and calculate with a surprising degree of accuracy how others will react to
our plans for them, and we can make certain assumptions as to how they will approach
us.

12.6 Hofstede´s cultural dimensions theory

The Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory, developed by Geert Hofstede, is a

framework used to understand the differences in culture across countries and to discern
the ways that business is done across different cultures. In other words, the framework
is used to distinguish between different national cultures, the dimensions of culture, and
their impact on a business setting.
The Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory was created in 1980 by Dutch management
researcher Geert Hofstede. The aim of the study was to determine the dimensions in
which cultures vary.

Hofstede identified six categories that define culture:

1. Power Distance Index

2. Collectivism vs. Individualism
3. Uncertainty Avoidance Index
4. Femininity vs. Masculinity
5. Short-Term vs. Long-Term Orientation
6. Restraint vs. Indulgence

Fig. 12.3 Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions

Source: Corporate Finance Institute

Power Distance Index

The power distance index considers the extent to which inequality and power are
tolerated. In this dimension, inequality and power are viewed from the viewpoint of the
followers – the lower level.

 High power distance index indicates that a culture accepts inequity and power
differences, encourages bureaucracy, and shows high respect for rank and
authority.
 Low power distance index indicates that a culture encourages organizational
structures that are flat, decentralized decision-making responsibility,
participative style of management, and places emphasis on power distribution.

Individualism vs. Collectivism

The individualism vs. collectivism dimension considers the degree to which societies
are integrated into groups and their perceived obligation and dependence on groups.
  Individualism indicates that there is greater importance on attaining personal
goals. A person’s self-image in this category is defined as “I.”
 Collectivism indicates that there is greater importance on the goals and well-
being of the group. A person’s self-image in this category is defined as “We”.

Uncertainty Avoidance Index

The uncertainty avoidance index considers the extent to which uncertainty and
ambiguity are tolerated. This dimension considers how unknown situations, and
unexpected events are dealt with.

 High uncertainty avoidance index indicates a low tolerance for uncertainty,

ambiguity, and risk-taking. The unknown is minimized through strict rules,
regulations, etc.
 Low uncertainty avoidance index indicates a high tolerance for uncertainty,
ambiguity, and risk-taking. The unknown is more openly accepted, and there are
lax rules, regulations, etc.

Masculinity vs. Femininity

The masculinity vs. femininity dimension is also referred to as “tough vs. tender,” and
considers the preference of society for achievement, attitude towards sexuality equality,
behavior, etc.

 Masculinity comes with the following characteristics: distinct gender roles,

assertive, and concentrated on material achievements and wealth-building.
 Femininity comes with the following characteristics: fluid gender roles, modest,
nurturing, and concerned with the quality of life.

Long-Term Orientation vs. Short-Term Orientation

The long-term orientation vs. short-term orientation dimension considers the extent to
with a society view its time horizon.

 Long-term orientation shows focus on the future and involves delaying short-
term success or gratification in order to achieve long-term success. Long-term
orientation emphasizes persistence, perseverance, and long-term growth.
 Short-term orientation shows focus on the near future, involves delivering short-
term success or gratification and places a stronger emphasis on the present than
the future. Short-term orientation emphasizes quick results and respect for
tradition.

Indulgence vs. Restraint

The indulgence vs. restraint dimension considers the extent and tendency for a society
to fulfill its desires. In other words, this dimension revolves around how societies can
control their impulses and desires.
  Indulgence indicates that a society allows relatively free gratification related to
enjoying life and having fun.
 Restraint indicates that a society suppresses gratification of needs and regulates
it through social norms.

To understand how the different dimensions differs among countries under the
Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions can be accessed on the following link:
https://www.hofstede-insights.com/country-comparison/

12.7 Nonprofit and Governmental organizations, Small Firms

Nonprofit organizations are basically just like for-profit companies except for two major
differences:

1. Nonprofit organizations do not pay taxes.

2. Nonprofit organizations do not have shareholders to provide capital.

In virtually all other ways, these two types of organizations are like one another.
Nonprofits have employees, customers, creditors, suppliers, and distributors as well as
financial budgets, income statements, balance sheets, cash flow statements, and so on.
Nonprofit organizations embrace strategic planning just as much as for-profit firms,
because equity capital is not an alternative source of financing. Nonprofits also have
competitors that want to put them out of business.

The strategic-management process is being used effectively by countless nonprofit and

governmental organizations, such as the Scouts, the Red Cross, chambers of commerce,
educational institutions, medical institutions, public utilities, libraries, government
agencies, zoos, cities and churches. Many nonprofit and governmental organizations
outperform private firms and corporations on innovativeness, motivation, productivity,
and strategic management.

Compared to for-profit firms, nonprofit and governmental organizations may be totally

dependent on outside financing. Especially for these organizations, strategic
management provides an excellent vehicle for developing and justifying requests for
needed financial support. Nonprofits and governmental organizations owe it to their
constituencies to garner and use monies wisely; that requires excellent strategy
formulation, implementation, and evaluation.

Educational Institutions

The world of higher education is rapidly moving to online courses and degrees.
Educational institutions are more frequently using strategic-management techniques and
concepts. Trends represent a significant change in the competitive climate for attracting
the best school graduates each year. Online college degrees represent a threat to
traditional colleges and universities.
Medical Organizations

Declining occupancy rates, deregulation, and accelerating growth of health maintenance

organizations, preferred provider organizations, urgent care centers, outpatient surgery
centers, diagnostic centers, specialized clinics, and group practices are other major
threats facing hospitals today. Many private and state-supported medical institutions are
in financial trouble as a result of traditionally taking a reactive rather than a proactive
approach in dealing with their industry.

Current strategies being pursued by many hospitals include creating home health
services, and forming rehabilitation centers. Backward integration strategies that some
hospitals are pursuing include acquiring ambulance services, waste disposal services,
and diagnostic services. Millions of persons annually research medical ailments online,
which is causing a dramatic shift in the balance of power between doctor, patient, and
hospitals.

Governmental Agencies and Departments

Federal, state, county, and municipal agencies and departments, such as police
departments, chambers of commerce, forestry associations, and health departments, are
responsible for formulating, implementing, and evaluating strategies that use taxpayers’
money in the most cost-effective way to provide services and programs. Strategic-
management concepts are generally required and thus widely used to enable
governmental organizations to be more effective and efficient.

Strategists in governmental organizations operate with less strategic autonomy than

their counterparts in private firms. Public enterprises generally cannot diversify into
unrelated businesses or merge with other firms. Governmental strategists usually enjoy
little freedom in altering the organizations’ missions or redirecting objectives.
Legislators and politicians often have direct or indirect control over major decisions and
resources. Strategic issues get discussed and debated in the media and legislatures.
Issues become politicized, resulting in fewer strategic choice alternatives. There is now
more predictability in the management of public sector enterprises.

Government agencies and departments are finding that their employees get excited
about the opportunity to participate in the strategic-management process and thereby
have an effect on the organization’s mission, objectives, strategies, and policies. In
addition, government agencies are using a strategic-management approach to develop
and substantiate formal requests for additional funding.

12.8 Strategic management in SMEs

A small business has a choice of two goals: Increase profits but stay small, or grow into
a larger business.

“Becoming your own boss” is a dream for millions of people and reality for millions
more. Almost everyone wants to own a business - from teens and college students, who
are signing up for entrepreneurial courses in record numbers, to those over age 65, who
are forming more companies every year.
The stereotype that 20-somethings are entrepreneurial risk-takers is simply false, as
millions of young adults struggle in underpaid jobs to maintain their own household,
rather than living with their parents. Reasons for the decline vary, but reduced bank
lending for small business start-ups, more indebtedness among young people, and
increasing numbers of competitors due to the Internet, all contribute to a more risk-
averse, under-30 age group for becoming entrepreneur strategists.

The strategic management process is just as vital for small companies as it is for large
firms. From their inception, all organizations have a strategy, even if the strategy just
evolves from day-to-day operations. Even if conducted informally or by a single owner
or entrepreneur, the strategic-management process can significantly enhance small
firms’ growth and prosperity.

However, a lack of strategic-management knowledge is a serious obstacle for many

small business owners as is a lack of sufficient capital to exploit external opportunities
and a day-to-day cognitive frame of reference. Research also indicates that strategic
management in small firms is more informal than in large firms, but small firms that
engage in strategic management outperform those that do not.

12.9 Blue Ocean Strategy

Blue Ocean Strategy is a marketing theory and the title of a book published in 2004 that
was written by W. Chan Kim and Renée Mauborgne, professors at INSEAD. They
assert that these strategic moves create a leap in value for the company, its buyers, and
its employees while unlocking new demand and making the competition irrelevant.

Blue ocean strategy is - unexplored new market areas - the simultaneous pursuit of
differentiation and low cost to open up a new market space and create new demand. It is
about creating and capturing uncontested market space, thereby making the competition
irrelevant. It is based on the view that market boundaries and industry structure are not a
given and can be reconstructed by the actions and beliefs of industry players.

In their classic book Blue Ocean Strategy, is coined the terms ’red ocean’ and ‘blue
ocean’ to describe the market universe.

Red oceans are all the industries in existence today – the known market space. In red
oceans, industry boundaries are defined and accepted, and the competitive rules of the
game are known.

Here, companies try to outperform their rivals to grab a greater share of existing
demand. As the market space gets crowded, profits and growth are reduced. Products
become commodities, leading to cutthroat or ‘bloody’ competition. Hence the term red
oceans.

Blue oceans, in contrast, denote all the industries not in existence today – the unknown
market space, untainted by competition. In blue oceans, demand is created rather than
fought over. There is ample opportunity for growth that is both profitable and rapid.

In blue oceans the goal is not to beat the competition, but to make the competition
irrelevant because the rules of the game are waiting to be set. A blue ocean is an
analogy to describe the wider, deeper potential to be found in unexplored market space.
A blue ocean is vast, deep, and powerful in terms of profitable growth.

To discover an elusive Blue Ocean, Kim and Mauborgne recommend that businesses
consider what they call the Four Actions Framework to reconstruct buyer value
elements in crafting a new value curve. The framework poses four key questions:

 Raise: What factors should be raised well above the industry's standard?
 Reduce: What factors were a result of competing against other industries
and can be reduced?
 Eliminate: Which factors that the industry has long competed on should be
eliminated?
 Create: Which factors should be created that the industry has never
offered?

In effect, Blue Ocean strategy involves market-creating innovation. It opens up new

possibilities that are not available to organizations operating within the existing cost-
value structure. It expands the universe as to what is possible, often enabling higher
value at lower cost.

Fig. 12.3 From Market Competing to Market Creating

Source: Blue Ocean Shift by Professors Kim & Mauborgne

The Blue Ocean strategy reveals that the kind of leadership and management that is
needed is also very different from the current management of many public corporations
that have a short-term perspective and are principally focused on maximizing
shareholder value, pumping up the share price through share buybacks, defeating
competitors through mergers and acquisition and lowering costs by offshoring of
production.

Summary
The population of the world has surpassed 7 billion people. Just as they did for centuries
before Columbus reached America, businesses search for new opportunities beyond
their national boundaries for centuries to come. There has never been a more
internationalized and economically competitive society than today’s model. Some
industries, such as automobiles, textiles, steel, and consumer electronics, are in disarray
as a result of the international challenge.

Success in business increasingly depends on offering products and services that are
competitive on a world basis, not just on a local basis. If the price and quality of a
firm’s products and services are not competitive with those available elsewhere in the
world, the firm may soon face extinction. Global markets have become a reality in all
but the most remote areas of the world. Certainly throughout the countries, even in
small towns, firms feel the pressure of world competitors.

This chapter has provided some basic global information that can be essential to
consider in developing a strategic plan for any organization. The advantages of
engaging in international business may well offset the drawbacks for most firms. It is
important in strategic planning to be effective, and the nature of global operations may
be the key component in a plan’s overall effectiveness.

Review questions
1. Explain why consumption patterns are becoming similar worldwide. What are the
strategic implications of this trend?
2. Why is globalization of industries a common factor today?
3. List six reasons that strategic management is more complex in a multinational firm.
4. Why are some industries more “global” than others? Discuss.
5. Do you feel that protectionism is good or bad for the world economy? Why?
6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of beginning export operations in a
foreign country?
7. How can be the Lewis model useful for strategists?
8. Describe The Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory on the example of the Czech
Republic.
9. Name examples of companies applying Blue Ocean strategy.

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