GII 2021 results

The GII helps create an

environment that evaluates
innovation factors continuously.

In 2021, it provides
detailed innovation metrics
for 132 economies.

20
The following sections present the results of the GII 2021. China’s levels of patents by origin, scaled by GDP, are
Appendix I provides details on how to interpret and higher than those of Japan, Germany and the United
analyze the results, in particular regarding year-on-year States, and are even more impressive when considered in
comparison of the GII ranks, which requires absolute terms. The same is true with regard to the levels
cautious interpretation.1 of Trademarks and Industrial designs by origin as a
percentage of GDP. However, China is still behind,
relative to Germany and the United States, in Human
The GII 2021 innovation leaders capital and research and in indicators such as
Researchers (45th) and Tertiary enrolment (57th). China
Only a few economies have consistently also trails the United States in Market sophistication and
delivered peak innovation performance. Business sophistication, and is even further behind in
Institutions (61st).
Only Switzerland and Sweden have remained in the top
three of the innovation ranking for more than a decade. The Republic of Korea (5th) made notable advances in the
Switzerland, Sweden, the United States of America and Innovation Output Sub-Index (5th) and, in particular, in the
the United Kingdom have ranked in the top five for the indicators Trademarks by origin (8th), Global brand value
past three years, while the Republic of Korea joins the top (5th) and Cultural and creative services exports (40th). It
five of the GII for the first time in 2021 (Figure 8). also ranks 3rd worldwide in the new GII output indicator
Production and export complexity. In terms of innovation
The top 25 of the most innovative economies are mainly inputs, the Republic of Korea moved up the rankings in
from Europe, with France (11th) and Estonia (21st) making two pillars: Institutions (28th) and Infrastructure (12th). It
notable progress. Five Asian economies shine in the top 15 also comes top in the sub-pillar ICTs (1st) and, notably, in
– the Republic of Korea (5th) and Singapore (8th) in the top 10, Government’s online service and E-participation.
with China (12th), Japan (13th) and Hong Kong, China (14th)
following. Singapore has been among the top 10 most
innovative economies consistently for the past 14 years. A changing global innovation landscape

China is still the only middle-income economy to make it Selected middle-income economies are
into the top 30. China reaches the top three in the South changing the innovation landscape, starting
East Asia, East Asia, and Oceania (SEAO) region for the with China, Turkey, Viet Nam, India and the
first time and remains top of the upper middle-income Philippines are now pulling their weight.
group (Figure 9).
It is challenging for emerging economies to consistently
Bulgaria (35th) and Malaysia (36th) are the only other improve their innovation performance and systems to
middle-income economies close to the top 30 of the GII match high-income, more prosperous economies. Only a
(see Table 5), but with no consistent increase in rank over limited number of middle-income economies have
time. Indeed, Malaysia has been hovering close to the top managed to catch up in innovation, by complementing
30 for the past 11 years but has not yet reached the mark. successful domestic innovation with international
technology transfer.
Japan ranks 13th, up from 16th in 2020. The United Arab
Emirates (UAE) (33rd) remains in the top 35 this year and In addition to China, Bulgaria and Malaysia, which lead the
moves up one place. The UAE has been moving up the middle-income group rankings, only Turkey (41st), Thailand
rankings since 2018, when it ranked 38th. Turkey (41st) makes (43rd), Viet Nam (44th), the Russian Federation (45th), India
a big jump into the top 50 and Brazil (57th) moves closer. (46th), Ukraine (49th) and Montenegro (50th) make it into the
top 50.
Since 2013, China has moved up the GII ranks
consistently and steadily, establishing itself as a global However, besides China, only the TVIPs (Turkey, Viet Nam,
innovation leader and getting closer to the top 10 every India and the Philippines) are systematically catching up.
year. The performance of China is at the frontier of All four Asian economies have romped up the ranks by an
achievement, notably in innovation outputs. For instance, average of 22 positions in the past decade: Turkey from

GII 2021 results 21

Figure 8
Movement in the GII top 15, 2017–2021

ic a
er
Am a a
of om re hin
es d f Ko s ,C
nd at ng o d re n g
er
la n St Ki li c r la
n
d po ma r
k
an
y
e Ko
tz de te
d
te
d ub he an ga m n c hin a an g l
i e i i p t n l n n r a p n ae
Sw Sw U n U n R e N e Fi Si D e G e Fr C Ja H o Is r

2021 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 The Republic of Korea

enters the top five in 2021.
Turkey jumps into the top
50 at 41st place.

d
la n
I re
2020 France breaks into the top
15 and ranks 11th in 2021.
India and the Philippines
reach the top 50.

2019
China breaks into the top
15 in 2019; it is 12th in 2021.
Israel makes it to top 10.

g
ur
bo
em
L ux

2018
Sweden has been in the
top 3 from 2011 up to 2021.
Chile moves into the top 50.

nd
e la
Ic
2017 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Switzerland has ranked first
from 2011 up to 2021.
Malaysia gets closer to the
top 35.

Source: Global Innovation Index Database, WIPO, 2021.

Note: Year-on-year comparisons of the GII ranks are influenced by changes in the GII model and data availability.

22 Global Innovation Index 2021

Figure 9
Global innovation leaders, 2021

Top three innovation economies Top three innovation economies

by region by income group

Europe High-income
1 Switzerland 1 Switzerland
2 Sweden 2 Sweden
3 United Kingdom 3 United States of America

Northern America Upper middle-income

1 United States of America 1 China
2 Canada 2 Bulgaria
3 Malaysia
Latin America and the Caribbean
1 Chile Lower middle-income
2 Mexico 1 Viet Nam
3 Costa Rica 2 India
3 Ukraine
Central and Southern Asia
1 India Low-income
2 Iran (Islamic Republic of) 1 Rwanda
3 Kazakhstan 2 Tajikistan
3 Malawi
South East Asia, East Asia, and Oceania
1 Republic of Korea
2 Singapore
3 China

Northern Africa and Western Asia†

1 Israel
2 United Arab Emirates
3 Turkey

Sub-Saharan Africa*
1 South Africa
2 Kenya
3 United Republic of Tanzania

Indicates the movement of rank within the top three, relative to 2020, and
indicates a new entrant into the top three in 2021.
Top three in Northern Africa and Western Asia (NAWA) – excluding island economies. The top four in the region, including all economies, are as follows:
†

Israel (1st), Cyprus (2nd), United Arab Emirates (3rd) and Turkey (4th).
* Top three in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) – excluding island economies. The top five in the region comprise Mauritius (1st), South Africa (2nd), Kenya (3rd),
Cabo Verde (4th) and the United Republic of Tanzania (5th).

Source: Global Innovation Index Database, WIPO, 2021.

Notes: World Bank Income Group Classification (June 2020). Year-on-year GII rank changes are influenced by performance and methodological
considerations; some economy data are incomplete (see Appendix I).

GII 2021 results 23

65th in 2011 to 41st in 2021; Viet Nam from 76th in 2012 to and holds top ranks in other indicators, such as Domestic
44th this year; India from 62nd to 46th; and the Philippines industry diversification (12th) and Graduates in science and
from 91st to 51st. It is noteworthy that these are particularly engineering (12th).
large economies, which have the potential to radically
change the global innovation landscape for good. Aside from the TVIPs, there are other economies that
move up the rankings this year. Among the most notable
Turkey makes it into the top 50, gaining 10 ranks this year movers are the Islamic Republic of Iran (60th), Oman (76th),
to reach the 41st position. Viet Nam is overtaken by Uzbekistan (86th), Paraguay (88th), Cabo Verde (89th) and
Thailand, as it declines by two ranks, from 42nd to 44th. Sri Lanka (95th).
This is nevertheless a considerable improvement on its
average rank of 68th during the period 2013–2015. Outside the top 100, Guatemala (101st), Tajikistan (103rd),
Viet Nam continues to lead the lower middle-income Madagascar (110th) and Zimbabwe (113th) have made the
group (Table 1). most progress through the ranks, improving by between
five and seven positions overall.
India (46th) moves further ahead, by two spots (48th in GII
2020), after making it into the top 50 last year. It takes Rwanda (102nd) regains the 1st position in the low-income
2nd place in the lower middle-income group. India held the group after being 2nd in 2020. It ranked 1st in 2019, 2016
3rd position in its income group in 2019 and 2020 having and 2015 and has been consistently in the top three of its
entered the top three in 2019. India has also been income group since 2014.
portrayed as successful in developing sophisticated
services that are technologically dynamic and can be Tajikistan (103rd) and Malawi (107th) make it into the top
traded internationally (Aghion et al., 2021). It continues to three in the low-income economies group (see Table 1).
lead the world in the ICT services exports indicator (1st)

Table 1
10 best-ranked economies by income group
Rank Global Innovation Index 2021 Rank Global Innovation Index 2021

High-income economies (51 in total) Upper middle-income economies (34 in total)

1 Switzerland (1) 1 China (12)
2 Sweden (2) 2 Bulgaria (35)
3 United States (3) 3 Malaysia (36)
4 United Kingdom (4) 4 Turkey (41)
5 Republic of Korea (5) 5 Thailand (43)
6 Netherlands (6) 6 Russian Federation (45)
7 Finland (7) 7 Montenegro (50)
8 Singapore (8) 8 Serbia (54)
9 Denmark (9) 9 Mexico (55)
10 Germany (10) 10 Costa Rica (56)

Lower middle-income economies (34 in total) Low-income economies (13 in total)

1 Viet Nam (44) 1 Rwanda (102)
2 India (46) 2 Tajikistan (103)
3 Ukraine (49) 3 Malawi (107)
4 Philippines (51) 4 Madagascar (110)
5 Mongolia (58) 5 Burkina Faso (115)
6 Republic of Moldova (64) 6 Uganda (119)
7 Tunisia (71) 7 Mozambique (122)
8 Morocco (77) 8 Mali (124)
9 Kenya (85) 9 Togo (125)
10 Uzbekistan (86) 10 Ethiopia (126)

Source: Global Innovation Index Database, WIPO, 2021.

Note: The overall Global Innovation Index rank is reported in brackets next to the economy.

24 Global Innovation Index 2021

Innovation overperformers expectations for their level of development, notably five
from sub-Saharan Africa – Angola, Benin, Côte d’Ivoire,
Several developing economies are performing Cameroon and Nigeria.3
above expectation on innovation relative to
their level of economic development. Relative to 2020, 30 economies changed performance
groups. Fifteen economies changed their performance
For several years, the GII has demonstrated the positive status from below expectations to matching expectations.
relationship between innovation and economic The majority of these cases (six economies) are from Latin
development: the more developed an economy is, the America and the Caribbean – the Plurinational State of
more it innovates, and vice versa (Figure 10). However, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Guatemala, Paraguay and Uruguay.
some economies break out of this pattern. Some perform
above or below expectations, relative to their predicted
performance and level of development. The persistent regional
innovation divide
In the GII 2021, 19 economies are performing above
expectations relative to their level of development The geography of innovation is changing
– termed innovation achievers (Table 2). unevenly. South East Asia, East Asia, and
Oceania is closing the global innovation
India, Kenya, the Republic of Moldova and Viet Nam are divide with Northern America and Europe.
still record holders for being innovation achievers for
11 consecutive years. India’s innovation performance is Despite some innovation “catch-up,” divides still exist with
above the average for the upper middle-income group in respect to national innovation performance in the world
five of the seven innovation pillars (it scores below average regions. This year, there are no changes in terms of which
in the pillars of Infrastructure and Creative outputs). Kenya world regions perform best in innovation. Northern
keeps its 3rd place in sub-Saharan Africa and scores above America and Europe continue to lead, followed by South
its income group in Institutions, Market and Business East Asia, East Asia, and Oceania (SEAO), and, more
sophistication and Knowledge and technology outputs. It distantly, by Northern Africa and Western Asia, Latin
also scores above the average for its region in Human America and the Caribbean, Central and Southern Asia,
capital and research and Creative outputs. Viet Nam and sub-Saharan Africa, respectively.
continues to score above the lower middle-income group
average in all pillars and scores even above the average of
the upper middle-income group in Market and Business Northern America
sophistication, as well as in both output pillars.
Northern America, composed of the United States and
However, there is change too this year. Brazil (57th), the Canada, is the most innovative world region. The United
Islamic Republic of Iran (60th) and Peru (70th) are innovation States keeps its 3rd place in the GII ranking, and Canada
achievers in 2021 for the first time ever. In the case of goes up one spot to reach the 16th place. The region is the
Brazil, this distinction coincides with an upward move in highest performer in all GII pillars compared to all other
the rankings to gain the 57th place. world regions. The United States performs best in
Business sophistication (2nd) and Knowledge and
Sub-Saharan Africa is the region with the highest number technology outputs (3rd), while Canada comes top in
of economies performing above expectations (six in total). Market sophistication (1st) and fifth in Institutions.
South East Asia, East Asia, and Oceania is 2nd (with four
economies), Europe is 3rd (three economies), and Northern
Africa and Western Asia, Latin America and the Europe
Caribbean, and Central and Southern Asia tie in 4th place
(with two innovation achievers each).2 Europe is still the second most innovative region in the
world. It hosts a large number of innovative economies:
Conversely, 31 economies are performing below 16 European economies are innovation leaders (i.e., in the
expectations on innovation. In the high-income group, top 25). A total of 10 economies move up the ranks this
three are European Union economies – Greece, Lithuania year: France (11th), Iceland (17th), Austria (18th), Estonia
and Romania. In the upper middle-income group, there (21st), Hungary (34th), Bulgaria (35th), Slovakia (37th),
are two Latin American and Caribbean economies Lithuania (39th), the Russian Federation (45th) and
– Argentina and the Dominican Republic. In the lower Belarus (62nd).
middle-income group, 11 economies are performing below

GII 2021 results 25

 Figure 10
The positive relationship between innovation and development

60

50

Bulgaria
GII score

40

Viet Nam Thailand

India Philippines
Ukraine
Mongolia Brazil
Iran (Islamic Republic of)
South Africa Republic of Moldova
Peru
Tunisia
30
Morocco

Kenya

United Republic of Tanzania

Rwanda
Malawi
Madagascar

20

7 8 9 10 11
GDP per capita (PPP$ logarithmic scale)

Performing above expectations for level of development

Source: Global Innovation Index Database, WIPO, 2021.

Note: Bubbles sized by population.

26 Global Innovation Index 2021

Table 2
Innovation achievers in 2021, their income group, region, and years as an innovation achiever

Economy Income group Region Years as an innovation achiever (total)

India Lower-middle income Central and Southern Asia 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019,
2020, 2021 (11)
Kenya Lower-middle income Sub-Saharan Africa 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020,
2021 (11)
Republic of Moldova Lower-middle income Europe 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020,
2021 (11)
Viet Nam Lower-middle income South East Asia, East Asia, and Oceania 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020,
2021 (11)
Malawi Low-income Sub-Saharan Africa 2012, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021 (9)
Mongolia Lower-middle income South East Asia, East Asia, and Oceania 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021 (9)
Rwanda Low-income Sub-Saharan Africa 2012, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021 (9)
Ukraine Lower-middle income Europe 2012, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021 (9)
Thailand Upper-middle income South East Asia, East Asia, and Oceania 2011, 2014, 2015, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021 (7)
Bulgaria Upper-middle income Europe 2015, 2017, 2018, 2020, 2021 (5)
Madagascar Low-income Sub-Saharan Africa 2016, 2017, 2018, 2020, 2021 (5)
South Africa Upper-middle income Sub-Saharan Africa 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021 (4)
Morocco Lower-middle income Northern Africa and Western Asia 2015, 2020, 2021 (3)
Philippines Lower-middle income South East Asia, East Asia, and Oceania 2019, 2020, 2021 (3)
Tunisia Lower-middle income Northern Africa and Western Asia 2018, 2020, 2021 (3)
United Republic of Tanzania Lower-middle income Sub-Saharan Africa 2017, 2020, 2021 (3)
Brazil Upper-middle income Latin America and the Caribbean 2021 (1)
Iran (Islamic Republic of) Upper-middle income Central and Southern Asia 2021 (1)
Peru Upper-middle income Latin America and the Caribbean 2021 (1)

Source: Global Innovation Index Database, WIPO, 2021.

Notes: Income group classification follows the World Bank Income Group Classification (June, 2020). Geographic regions correspond to the United
Nations publication on standard country or area codes for statistical use (M49).

On average, Europe is the second best performer Thailand (43rd), Viet Nam (44th), the Philippines (51st) and
worldwide, behind Northern America, in all GII pillars, Indonesia (87th) have moved up between 5 and 40 GII
except for Market sophistication, where it is also behind ranks over the past decade. Thailand and Viet Nam rank
the average of the SEAO region. Finland has the most among the top 30 worldwide in Market sophistication, as
highly performing Institutions in the region (2nd worldwide). does the Philippines in Knowledge and technology
Sweden leads in Human capital and research (2nd) and outputs. They are now leaders in key innovation
Business sophistication (1st), Norway comes top in indicators, too. For instance, Thailand ranks 1st in R&D
Infrastructure worldwide (1st), while the United Kingdom financed by business; and Viet Nam and the Philippines
leads in Market sophistication (4th). Switzerland is the are world leaders in High-tech exports.
regional leader in innovation outputs: it ranks 1st worldwide
in Knowledge and technology outputs and 2nd in Creative
outputs. Northern Africa and Western Asia

In Northern Africa and Western Asia, the United Arab

South East Asia, East Asia, and Oceania (SEAO) Emirates (UAE) remains in the top 35 and moves up to
achieve the 33rd rank. Turkey makes a big jump into the top
The innovation performance of the SEAO region has been 50, reaching the 41st spot. An additional eight economies
the most dynamic in the past decade, closing the gap with in the region move up the ranks, including Egypt (94th) and
Northern America and Europe. Five SEAO economies are Algeria (120th).
world innovation leaders: the Republic of Korea (5th),
Singapore (8th), China (12th), Japan (13th), and Hong Kong, Cyprus is the regional leader in Institutions (26th) and Creative
China (14th). Among these leaders, China, the Republic of outputs (20th), while Israel leads in Knowledge and
Korea and Japan have made the greatest advances up the technology outputs (6th), Market sophistication (8th), Business
rankings in the past 10 years (see Table 3). sophistication (8th) and Human capital and research (19th).
The UAE tops the region in Infrastructure (14th).

GII 2021 results 27

The United States leads in several key innovation indicators.
Hong Kong (China), Israel and Singapore follow

The economies at the top of the rankings are world Hong Kong, China follows the United States in 2nd place,
leaders in key innovation indicators. This year, the with world-topping performances in indicators such as
United States is the absolute leader in this regard; New businesses, High-tech imports and Global brand
holding first place in 13 indicators out of the 81 used, value. Israel and Singapore tie in 3rd place, attaining the
including metrics such as Global corporate R&D top rank in R&D expenditures and Regulatory quality,
investors, venture capital deals received, the quality of respectively. They are followed by China and the
its universities, the quality and impact of its scientific Republic of Korea in joint 5th place, leading on High-tech
publications (H-index), the number of patents by origin exports and Researchers, among other indicators.
and E-participation. Luxembourg comes 7th with the top performance in
Knowledge-intensive employment; and Switzerland and
Japan are equal 8th, leading in Patent families, and
Production and export complexity.

Economies with the most top-ranked GII indicators, 2021

Innovation indicators in which economies score best worldwide

Economy Inputs Outputs Total

United States of America 6 7 13

Hong Kong, China 7 4 11

Israel 6 4 10

Singapore 6 4 10

China 3 6 9

Republic of Korea 5 4 9

Luxembourg 8
6 2

Switzerland 6
2 4

Japan 6
2 4

Source: Global Innovation Index Database, WIPO, 2021.

Note: The GII methodology allows multiple economies to rank first in an indicator; see Economy profiles and Appendix I.

28 Global Innovation Index 2021

Table 3
GII 2021 rankings in Asia (excluding Western Asia)

Rank Top 15 Rank Top 50 Rank Top 60 Rank Top 100 Rank Top 130
5 Republic of Korea 36 Malaysia 51 Philippines 79 Kazakhstan 103 Tajikistan
8 Singapore 43 Thailand 58 Mongolia 82 Brunei Darussalam 109 Cambodia
12 China 44 Viet Nam 60 Iran (Islamic Republic of) 86 Uzbekistan 111 Nepal
13 Japan 46 India 87 Indonesia 116 Bangladesh
14 Hong Kong, China 95 Sri Lanka 117 Lao People’s Democratic
Republic
98 Kyrgyzstan
99 Pakistan 127 Myanmar
Source: Global Innovation Index Database, WIPO, 2021

Table 4
GII 2021 rankings in Latin America and the Caribbean

Rank Top 60 Rank Top 80 Rank Top 100 Rank Top 110
53 Chile 65 Uruguay 83 Panama 101 Guatemala
55 Mexico 67 Colombia 88 Paraguay 104 Bolivia (Plurinational State of)
56 Costa Rica 70 Peru 91 Ecuador 108 Honduras
57 Brazil 73 Argentina 93 Dominican Republic
74 Jamaica 96 El Salvador
97 Trinidad and Tobago

Source: Global Innovation Index Database, WIPO, 2021

Latin America and the Caribbean Colombia still has a relatively unbalanced innovation
system, performing less well in Human capital and research
In Latin America and the Caribbean, no economy makes it (78th) and in the innovation outputs pillars, in contrast to its
into the top 50. Chile (53rd), Mexico (55th), Costa Rica (56th) relatively good performance in Market sophistication (42nd)
and Brazil (57th) are the only economies in the region in the and Business sophistication (50th). Peru achieves its best
top 60 (see Table 4). Moreover, with the exception of ranking this year in Market and Business sophistication
Mexico, these Latin American innovation pockets have not (38th and 37th, respectively), but still struggles to translate its
improved their rankings consistently over the past 10 innovation inputs into outputs. It is also an innovation
years. However, Brazil makes a strong advance this year, achiever for the first time this year, highlighting its potential
improving by five positions and achieving its best rank for further improvements in the future (see Table 2).
since 2012.

Chile has the most balanced innovation system, ranking Central and Southern Asia
highest in the region in Institutions (40th) and Infrastructure
(47th) (Table 5). Conversely, and relative to their In Central and Southern Asia, India leads in 46th position,
performance in all GII pillars, Mexico is still behind in having consistently risen up the ranks since 2015, when it
Institutions (77th) and Infrastructure (67th), while Costa Rica ranked 81st. The Islamic Republic of Iran is 2nd in the
and Brazil are lagging in Infrastructure and Market region, going up to 60th place. Kazakhstan ranks 3rd at the
sophistication. Brazil is the only economy in the region for 79th position (see Table 3). Uzbekistan continues to move
which expenditures on R&D are above 1 percent of GDP upward, by seven places, and achieves the 86th rank in
and comparable to some European economies, such as 2021. The innovation performance of Kazakhstan (79th)
Croatia and Luxembourg. Brazil also ranks highest in the and Tajikistan (103rd) improved in 2021 but has been less
region in the indicator Global corporate R&D investors steady over the past years.
(26th), above Mexico (31st) and Argentina (36th).

In the top 80, Uruguay (65th), Colombia (67th), Peru (70th) and
Argentina (73rd) all moved up the ranks in 2021. Over the
past 10 years, Colombia and Peru have improved their
rankings, but not at a steady pace and with some difficulty.

GII 2021 results 29

Table 5
GII 2021 rankings overall and by pillar

Country/Economy Overall Institutions Human Infrastructure Market Business Knowledge Creative

GII capital and sophistication sophistication and technology outputs
research outputs

Switzerland 1 13 6 2 6 4 1 2
Sweden 2 9 2 3 11 1 2 5
United States of America 3 12 11 23 2 2 3 12
United Kingdom 4 15 10 10 4 21 10 4
Republic of Korea 5 28 1 12 18 7 8 8
Netherlands 6 6 14 16 31 5 7 7
Finland 7 2 4 11 19 6 5 16
Singapore 8 1 9 15 5 3 13 17
Denmark 9 8 5 5 7 11 14 13
Germany 10 17 3 21 20 12 9 11
France 11 19 15 17 17 19 16 6
China 12 61 21 24 16 13 4 14
Japan 13 7 20 9 15 10 11 18
Hong Kong, China 14 11 25 6 3 24 62 1
Israel 15 34 19 40 8 8 6 30
Canada 16 5 18 30 1 20 23 19
Iceland 17 14 23 25 25 18 25 10
Austria 18 16 7 7 40 15 19 27
Ireland 19 18 27 4 48 17 15 29
Norway 20 3 13 1 21 23 28 25
Estonia 21 22 34 8 10 29 22 15
Belgium 22 23 8 35 33 16 17 36
Luxembourg 23 27 40 33 53 9 38 3
Czech Republic 24 32 33 19 50 25 12 22
Australia 25 10 12 20 9 26 42 24
New Zealand 26 4 17 22 14 30 39 23
Malta 27 37 41 18 63 14 44 9
Cyprus 28 26 42 28 46 28 21 20
Italy 29 36 31 26 43 32 18 34
Spain 30 31 30 13 32 35 26 32
Portugal 31 25 24 31 56 41 34 26
Slovenia 32 20 28 27 71 27 32 38
United Arab Emirates 33 30 22 14 26 22 59 40
Hungary 34 42 36 32 65 31 20 47
Bulgaria 35 47 65 36 72 42 27 21
Malaysia 36 41 39 51 30 39 31 37
Slovakia 37 39 58 39 73 43 30 43
Latvia 38 29 46 55 45 40 45 39
Lithuania 39 33 43 42 35 45 49 41
Poland 40 38 37 41 60 38 36 50
Turkey 41 93 26 48 49 46 50 35
Croatia 42 46 47 29 67 55 47 54
Thailand 43 64 63 61 27 36 40 55
Viet Nam 44 83 79 79 22 47 41 42
Russian Federation 45 67 29 63 61 44 48 56
India 46 62 54 81 28 52 29 68
Greece 47 51 16 45 70 60 52 69
Romania 48 53 76 37 76 54 35 72
Ukraine 49 91 44 94 88 53 33 48
Montenegro 50 48 59 60 41 67 78 33
Philippines 51 90 80 86 86 33 24 65
Mauritius 52 21 71 65 29 111 93 31
Chile 53 40 51 47 66 48 58 60
Serbia 54 50 62 44 58 63 43 76
Mexico 55 77 56 67 55 56 53 52
Costa Rica 56 66 61 71 85 49 56 45
Brazil 57 78 48 69 75 34 51 66
Mongolia 58 76 81 91 13 71 85 28
North Macedonia 59 52 73 49 12 65 57 83
Iran (Islamic Republic of) 60 124 49 70 82 115 46 46
South Africa 61 55 67 83 23 51 61 79
Belarus 62 85 38 59 101 69 37 93
Georgia 63 35 60 85 34 61 75 74
Republic of Moldova 64 81 77 82 74 87 54 53
Uruguay 65 44 64 53 108 81 63 64
Saudi Arabia 66 101 32 54 39 89 69 78
Colombia 67 56 78 57 42 50 72 82
Qatar 68 57 75 34 83 96 79 63
Armenia 69 65 94 80 99 98 64 49
Peru 70 70 53 78 38 37 87 77

30 Global Innovation Index 2021

Table 5
GII 2021 rankings overall and by pillar (continued)

Country/Economy Overall Institutions Human Infrastructure Market Business Knowledge Creative

GII capital and sophistication sophistication and technology outputs
research outputs

Tunisia 71 75 35 89 98 114 55 80
Kuwait 72 86 69 43 94 100 60 89
Argentina 73 102 50 64 110 57 73 73
Jamaica 74 43 86 104 116 58 95 51
Bosnia and Herzegovina 75 82 68 52 51 99 66 99
Oman 76 71 45 56 84 94 107 71
Morocco 77 74 82 84 91 105 67 70
Bahrain 78 49 83 38 78 90 82 106
Kazakhstan 79 45 66 58 80 78 86 110
Azerbaijan 80 58 89 88 36 92 115 67
Jordan 81 63 84 102 47 85 76 88
Brunei Darussalam 82 24 52 46 106 84 130 85
Panama 83 69 99 50 97 103 113 58
Albania 84 60 90 62 79 68 103 81
Kenya 85 80 92 114 54 77 65 95
Uzbekistan 86 94 72 72 24 123 77 113
Indonesia 87 107 91 68 57 110 74 91
Paraguay 88 110 98 77 89 66 117 62
Cabo Verde 89 88 95 66 128 74 122 59
United Republic of Tanzania 90 103 125 105 109 119 100 44
Ecuador 91 126 97 74 44 97 97 86
Lebanon 92 112 87 100 90 64 91 92
Dominican Republic 93 96 102 75 104 86 108 84
Egypt 94 114 93 92 96 106 70 104
Sri Lanka 95 119 118 73 118 62 68 100
El Salvador 96 98 106 99 105 80 124 57
Trinidad and Tobago 97 72 100 90 119 104 83 103
Kyrgyzstan 98 95 70 87 52 107 102 120
Pakistan 99 99 117 117 120 88 71 87
Namibia 100 73 57 112 92 112 119 105
Guatemala 101 117 120 122 77 79 90 75
Rwanda 102 54 114 101 93 82 96 117
Tajikistan 103 118 85 126 37 129 80 107
Bolivia (Plurinational State of) 104 131 55 106 59 75 112 111
Senegal 105 68 104 108 107 131 88 109
Botswana 106 59 130 93 113 73 101 112
Malawi 107 105 122 127 81 95 84 97
Honduras 108 121 96 116 62 72 118 102
Cambodia 109 111 109 107 69 117 111 98
Madagascar 110 108 116 132 122 125 99 61
Nepal 111 115 115 98 68 59 121 108
Ghana 112 120 101 97 115 108 104 94
Zimbabwe 113 129 88 128 64 101 109 101
Côte d’Ivoire 114 79 124 109 117 91 110 121
Burkina Faso 115 92 103 111 114 120 106 129
Bangladesh 116 122 128 95 95 122 92 123
Lao People’s Democratic Republic 117 130 113 123 103 70 127 90
Nigeria 118 109 121 120 102 76 123 116
Uganda 119 89 131 103 111 118 105 126
Algeria 120 104 74 96 132 124 125 118
Zambia 121 125 107 119 87 83 120 125
Mozambique 122 127 112 76 126 127 116 115
Cameroon 123 113 105 115 129 93 98 124
Mali 124 106 123 124 121 109 94 122
Togo 125 87 110 110 112 128 128 119
Ethiopia 126 116 126 121 130 126 81 127
Myanmar 127 123 108 113 124 132 89 131
Benin 128 84 111 118 123 113 131 128
Niger 129 97 129 130 100 116 114 132
Guinea 130 100 132 131 131 121 132 96
Yemen 131 132 127 129 125 102 126 114
Angola 132 128 119 125 127 130 129 130

4th quartile (best performers, ranks 1st to 33rd)

3rd quartile (ranks 34th to 66th)
2nd quartile (ranks 67th to 99th)
Source: Global Innovation Index Database, WIPO, 2021. 1st quartile (ranks 100th to 132nd)

GII 2021 results 31

Overall, the region performs best in Market sophistication. Some economies excel in efficiently converting innovation
In terms of innovation inputs, Kazakhstan leads the region inputs into outputs. Among the high-income group
in Institutions (45th rank overall) and Infrastructure (58th), economies, Switzerland (1st) produces considerably
the Islamic Republic of Iran leads in Human capital and higher levels of outputs than other high-income
research (49th), Uzbekistan in Market sophistication (24th) economies, such as Sweden (2nd), the United States (3rd)
and India in Business sophistication (52nd). India is also at and Singapore (8th), at comparable levels of innovation
the top of the region in the Knowledge and technology inputs (Figure 11). The Czech Republic (24th) produces the
outputs pillar (29th), while the Islamic Republic of Iran same levels of outputs as Japan (13th) or Singapore (8th) at
comes top in Creative outputs (46th). much lower levels of innovation inputs.

Among the upper middle-income group economies, China

Sub-Saharan Africa (12th) ranks 7th overall in the Innovation Output Sub-Index,
and its levels of outputs are comparable to those of
In sub-Saharan Africa, only Mauritius (52nd) and South high-income economies like the United Kingdom (4th), the
Africa (61st) rank in the top 65; and only Kenya (85th) and Netherlands (6th) and Germany (10th), even though its
the United Republic of Tanzania (90th) have remained overall level of innovation inputs is lower. Bulgaria (35th)
firmly within the top 100 and have improved their has outputs comparable to high-income economies, such
performance over the past five years. No economy has as Norway (20th) and Italy (29th), with fewer inputs.
steadily improved its rankings over time. A total of 10
economies in the region move up the GII ranks this year, The United Republic of Tanzania (90th), among the lower
including Kenya (85th), Namibia (100th), Malawi (107th), middle-income group economies, performs on innovation
Madagascar (110th), Zimbabwe (113th) and Burkina Faso outputs at levels comparable to high-income Latin
(115th). Cabo Verde reaches 89th place this year, a American economies Chile (53rd) and Uruguay (65th). In
considerable increase from its position at 103rd place addition, Viet Nam (44th) and the Philippines (51st) do the
in 2013. same, relative to other high-income European Union
economies, such as Latvia (38th), Lithuania (39th) and
On average, the region performs best in Institutions, even Poland (40th), with a lower level of innovation inputs.
ranking above the average of the Central and Southern
Asia region. Mauritius ranks highest in the region in Low-income sub-Saharan Africa economies Malawi
Institutions (21st), Infrastructure (65th) and Creative outputs (107th), Madagascar (110th), Ethiopia (126th) and Guinea
(31st). Namibia comes top in Human capital and research (130th) are also efficiently transforming their limited
(57th), and South Africa in Market sophistication (23rd), innovation inputs and resources into innovation outputs.
Business sophistication (51st) and Knowledge and
technology outputs (61st). However, there are also several high-income economies
that struggle to obtain a better balance between their level
of investments and their level of innovation results, to the
Creating balanced and efficient detriment of their overall innovation performance and GII
innovation ecosystems ranking. This group includes, notably, oil and natural gas
producers and exporters Canada (16th), Norway (20th), the
Innovation leaders have balanced and United Arab Emirates (UAE) (33rd), Bahrain (78th) and
high-performing innovation systems. Brunei Darussalam (82nd). All these economies rank
However, efficiency in translating innovation considerably lower in the Innovation Output Sub-Index,
inputs into outputs is still eluding several relative to their ranking in the Innovation Input Sub-Index.
high-income economies For instance, the UAE ranks 23rd in innovation inputs
overall, and 47th in outputs. The economy’s ranking in
Innovation leaders and the economies that have innovation outputs has, however, improved this year
consistently advanced up the GII ranks over the past relative to 2020, moving in the right direction to achieve
decade have dynamic innovation systems and combine greater balance in the innovation system.
efficiency in translating innovation inputs into outputs with
a balanced and strong performance across all GII pillars. Peru (70th), despite being an innovation achiever, it is also
struggling to effectively utilize its innovation inputs (ranked
Translating an economy’s investments in innovation – in 52nd in the Innovation Input Sub-Index) into innovation
the form of R&D, education, and solid infrastructure and results (82nd) and more effort is needed to achieve a better
institutions supporting innovative activities – into balance in the innovation system.
innovation outputs is not an easy feat.

32 Global Innovation Index 2021

 Figure 11
Innovation input to output performance, 2021

Switzerland

60

China

Singapore
Czech Republic

40 Canada
Bulgaria
Norway

New Zealand Australia

Output score

Ukraine Viet Nam

Philippines
Iran (Islamic Republic of)
United Arab Emirates

Armenia Republic of Moldova

United Republic of Tanzania

20 Pakistan
Madagascar
Sri Lanka Peru
Guatemala
Malawi
Bahrain
Kazakhstan

Ethiopia
Myanmar Brunei Darussalam

Yemen Guinea

20 30 40 50 60 70
Input score
Efficient
Inefficient
Not labeled
Fitted line

GII 2021 results 33

Moreover, innovation leaders have complementarity and Table 6
balance across the different areas of their innovation Top S&T cluster of each economy or cross-border
system. A successful innovation system balances region, 2021
knowledge creation, exploration and investments – the
innovation inputs – with the production of ideas and Rank
technologies toward application, exploitation and impact Rank Cluster name Economy change
– the innovation outputs. 1 Tokyo–Yokohama JP 0
2 Shenzhen–Hong Kong–Guangzhou CN/HK 0
A balanced and strong performance across all seven 3 Beijing CN 1
pillars is most clearly evident among the innovation leaders 4 Seoul KR −1

(top 25). Only 15 economies – including Switzerland, 5 San Jose–San Francisco, CA US 0

10 Paris FR 0
Sweden, the United States, Singapore and France, or
15 London GB 0
11 percent of all economies ranked this year, have strong
19 Amsterdam–Rotterdam NL −1
performances across all seven GII pillars (Table 5).
20 Cologne DE −1
27 Tel Aviv–Jerusalem IL −3
However, certain economies that are ranked lower overall
28 Taipei–Hsinchu TW −1
in the GII are also leaders in specific areas. Examples 29 Singapore SG −1
include Turkey, highly ranked in Human capital and 31 Melbourne AU 4
research (26th); Thailand, Viet Nam and Uzbekistan, with 32 Moscow RU 0
their relatively high ranking in Market sophistication (27th, 35 Stockholm SE −2
22nd and 24th, respectively); and Mongolia, ranked in the 36 Eindhoven BE/NL −2
top 30 in Creative outputs (28th). These discrepancies in 40 Toronto, ON CA −1
performance within economies also hint at innovation 41 Tehran IR 2
systems that are changing and dynamic with the potential 43 Brussels BE −2
for increased overall performance in the future. 46 Madrid ES −1
48 Milan IT 0
49 Istanbul TR 2
50 Zürich CH/DE −1
56 Copenhagen DK −2
62 Bengaluru IN −2
66 São Paulo BR −5
71 Vienna AT −1
74 Helsinki FI −6
92 Lausanne CH/FR −3
100 Warsaw PL −1

Source: WIPO Statistics Database, April 2021.

34 Global Innovation Index 2021

The GII top science and technology Japan (5). Chinese clusters experienced the largest
clusters increases in S&T output, with the median increase
equating to +14.4 percent, and China hosts the fastest
New science and technology (S&T) clusters growing clusters with Qingdao (+33.1 percent) and
are emerging. Clusters in China made the Suzhou (+21.7 percent).4 Other middle-income clusters
most consistent rank improvements. Delhi, besides China also experienced strong growth, including
Mumbai and Istanbul also advanced strongly Delhi (+6.6 percent), Mumbai (+6.3 percent) and Istanbul
this year. (+5.5 percent). High-income economy clusters grew at a
slower pace than clusters in middle-income economies. A
Divides also exist in the ranking of the global science and decline within clusters in the United States accounted for
technology (S&T) clusters. The top 100 S&T clusters are most of this slower growth. There were some notable
hosted by 26 economies, of which six – Brazil, China, exceptions, namely Kanazawa (+12.1 percent) in Japan,
India, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Turkey and the Russian Daejon (+9.0 percent) in the Republic of Korea and
Federation – are middle-income economies (Table 6). Melbourne (+7.8 percent) in Australia.

Tokyo-Yokohama is the top-performing cluster again, Many European and U.S. clusters show more intense S&T
followed by Shenzhen–Hong Kong–Guangzhou, Beijing, activity than their Asian counterparts do. The United
Seoul and San Jose–San Francisco (see Annex Table 3, States has nine clusters in the top 25 by S&T intensity,
Top 100 clusters). The top 10 clusters remain the same as followed by Germany and Sweden (with three each).
last year with only minor shifts. Beijing overtook Seoul to Cambridge in the United Kingdom and Eindhoven in the
occupy the 3rd spot, and Shanghai switched with New York Netherlands/Belgium, emerge as the most S&T-intensive
City, NY in 8th position. The largest increases in rank came clusters. Ann Arbor, Michigan (United States), Oxford
from three Chinese clusters – Qingdao (+16 positions), (United Kingdom) and San Jose–San Francisco, CA
Shenyang (+14) and Dalian (+13). Shenyang and Dalian, (United States) follow (see Annex Table 4, Ranking of S&T
along with the Korean cluster Daegu, make up the three intensity, 2015–2019). As was the case in the previous
new entrants into this year’s top 100 clusters (Map 1). year’s ranking, S&T intensity was higher if patenting
activity drove a cluster’s output, with 15 out of the top 25
The United States continues to host the largest number of clusters deriving the majority of their output from patents.
clusters (24), followed by China (19), Germany (9) and

Map 1
Top 100 clusters worldwide

S&T clusters
Noise (non-cluster points)

Source: WIPO Statistic Database, April 2021.

Note: Noise refers to all inventor/author locations not classified as being in a cluster.

GII 2021 results 35

Conclusion

In conclusion, the GII continues to support and foster

innovation through changing times. The aim of the GII is to
provide insightful data on innovation and, in turn, to assist
policymakers in evaluating their innovation performance
and making informed innovation policy decisions. The
2021 edition of the GII – with its informed conclusions on
innovation developments both generally and in the
context of the COVID-19 pandemic – makes a significant
contribution to this end.

Two key insights emerge from this year’s report.

• The global innovation landscape is changing too

slowly. The GII has been warning of this for several
years now, as high-income economies, notably from
Northern America and Europe, continue to lead the
GII ranks and have the strongest and most balanced
innovation systems. There is an urgent need for this
to change, particularly in the context of the COVID-19
crisis. Confronted with an unprecedented crisis, it is
important to fully leverage the power of innovation to
collectively build a cohesive, dynamic and sustainable
recovery. The short-term and longer term impacts of
the pandemic on science and innovation systems have
to be monitored and findings acted up on.
• There are a few middle-income economies, notably
the TVIPs, that are catching up with the leaders.
However, the pandemic’s effects on R&D investment
– the uneven reduction of R&D expenditures in some
sectors and the fact that governments have not made
innovation and R&D a priority in current stimulus
packages – will hamper convergence. It is therefore
crucial that support for innovation becomes broader
and that it is conducted in a countercyclical way
(i.e., as business innovation expenditures slump,
governments strive to counteract that effect with their
own expenditure boosts to innovation, even in the face
of higher public debt).

Future editions of the GII will track these developments

closely and continue the journey toward enabling policy
and business leaders by fostering a better understanding
and measurement of innovation.

36 Global Innovation Index 2021

Notes
1 It is important to remember that various factors, including
changes to the methodology for the calculation of
indicators, data availability and changes to the GII model
and measurement framework, influence the year-on-year
comparisons of GII ranking. See Appendix I for more details.
2 Nine economies are no longer innovation achievers in
2021, relative to 2020: three economies from Europe (North
Macedonia, Montenegro and Serbia); two from Latin America
and the Caribbean (Costa Rica and Jamaica); two from
Northern Africa and Western Asia (Armenia and Georgia); and
two from sub-Saharan Africa (Mozambique and Niger).
3 Angola (132nd) rejoins the innovation ranking in 2021,
thanks to improved availability of innovation data. The
last time Angola was included in the GII was in 2015.
4 S&T output growth refers to the net S&T output over time,
which is the difference in total patents and publications
for each cluster, for all points that were located inside
the same cluster compared to the previous year.

Reference
Aghion P., C. Antonin and S. Bunel (2021). The Power of Creative
Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations.
Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.

GII 2021 results 37