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11.1 Sequences 757

EXERCISES 11.1

Finding Terms of a Sequence n + s -1dn

23. an = 2 + s0.1dn 24. an = n
Each of Exercises 1–6 gives a formula for the nth term an of a se-
quence 5an6 . Find the values of a1, a2 , a3 , and a4 . 25. an =
1 - 2n
26. an =
2n + 1
1 + 2n 1 - 32n
1 - n 1
1. an = 2. an =
n2 n! 1 - 5n 4 n + 3
27. an = 28. an =
s -1dn + 1 n 4 + 8n 3 n 2 + 5n + 6
3. an = 4. an = 2 + s -1dn
2n - 1
n 2 - 2n + 1 1 - n3
2n 2n - 1 29. an = 30. an =
5. an = n + 1 6. an = n - 1 70 - 4n 2
2 2n
32. an = s -1dn a1 - n b
1
Each of Exercises 7–12 gives the first term or two of a sequence along 31. an = 1 + s -1dn
with a recursion formula for the remaining terms. Write out the first
ten terms of the sequence.
33. an = a b a1 - n b 34. an = a2 - b a3 + n b
n + 1 1 1 1
7. a1 = 1, an + 1 = an + s1>2n d 2n 2n 2
8. a1 = 1, an + 1 = an>sn + 1d
s -1dn + 1
an + 1 = s -1dn + 1an>2
n
36. an = a- b
1
9. a1 = 2, 35. an =
2n - 1 2
10. a1 = -2, an + 1 = nan>sn + 1d
11. a1 = a2 = 1, an + 2 = an + 1 + an 2n 1
37. an = 38. an =
An + 1 s0.9dn
12. a1 = 2, a2 = -1, an + 2 = an + 1>an
39. an = sin a + nb
p 1
40. an = np cos snpd
Finding a Sequence’s Formula 2
In Exercises 13–22, find a formula for the nth term of the sequence. sin n sin2 n
41. an = n 42. an =
13. The sequence 1, -1, 1, -1, 1, Á 1’s with alternating signs 2n
14. The sequence -1, 1, -1, 1, -1, Á 1’s with alternating signs n 3n
43. an = 44. an =
Squares of the positive 2n n3
15. The sequence 1, -4, 9, -16, 25, Á integers; with
ln sn + 1d ln n
alternating signs 45. a n = 46. an =
2n ln 2n
1 1 1 1 Reciprocals of squares
16. The sequence 1, - , , - , , Á of the positive integers,
4 9 16 25 47. an = 81>n 48. an = s0.03d1>n
with alternating signs

17. The sequence 0, 3, 8, 15, 24, Á Squares of the positive n n

49. an = a1 + n b 50. an = a1 - n b
integers diminished by 1 7 1

18. The sequence -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, Á Integers beginning with

-3 n n
51. an = 210n 52. an = 2n 2
19. The sequence 1, 5, 9, 13, 17, Á Every other odd positive
integer 1>n
53. an = a n b
3
Every other even positive 54. an = sn + 4d1>sn + 4d
20. The sequence 2, 6, 10, 14, 18, Á
integer
21. The sequence 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, Á Alternating 1’s and 0’s ln n
55. an = 56. an = ln n - ln sn + 1d
n 1>n
22. The sequence 0, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, Á Each positive integer
repeated n n
57. an = 24nn 58. an = 232n + 1
Finding Limits
Which of the sequences 5an6 in Exercises 23–84 converge, and which (Hint: Compare with 1> n.)
n!
59. an =
diverge? Find the limit of each convergent sequence. nn

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758 Chapter 11: Infinite Sequences and Series

s -4dn n! b. The fractions rn = xn>yn approach a limit as n increases.

60. an = 61. an = What is that limit? (Hint: Use part (a) to show that
n! 10 6n
1>sln nd r n2 - 2 = ;s1>yn d2 and that yn is not less than n.)
63. an = a n b
n! 1
62. an = 87. Newton’s method The following sequences come from the re-
2n # 3n
n n cursion formula for Newton’s method,
64. an = ln a1 + n b 65. an = a b
1 3n + 1
3n - 1 ƒsxn d
n 1>n xn + 1 = xn - .
66. an = a b 67. an = a b
n xn ƒ¿sxn d
, x 7 0
n + 1 2n + 1
n Do the sequences converge? If so, to what value? In each case,
68. an = a1 - b
1 3n # 6n begin by identifying the function ƒ that generates the sequence.
69. an =
n2 2-n # n!
x n2 - 2 xn 1
s10>11dn a. x0 = 1, xn + 1 = xn - = + xn
70. an = 71. an = tanh n 2xn 2
s9/10dn + s11/12dn
tan xn - 1
n2 1 b. x0 = 1, xn + 1 = xn -
72. an = sinh sln nd 73. an = sin n sec2 xn
2n - 1
c. x0 = 1, xn + 1 = xn - 1
74. an = n a1 - cos n b
1
75. an = tan-1 n 88. a. Suppose that ƒ(x) is differentiable for all x in [0, 1] and that
n
ƒs0d = 0 . Define the sequence 5an6 by the rule an =
77. an = a b +
1 1 1 nƒs1>nd . Show that lim n: q an = ƒ¿s0d .
76. an = tan-1 n
2n 3 22n Use the result in part (a) to find the limits of the following
n sln nd200 sequences 5an6.
78. an = 2n + n 2
79. an = n
1
sln nd5 b. an = n tan-1 n c. an = nse 1>n - 1d
80. an = 81. an = n - 2n - n 2
2n
d. an = n ln a1 + n b
2
1
82. an =
2n 2 - 1 - 2n 2 + n
n n
89. Pythagorean triples A triple of positive integers a, b, and c is
1 1 1 called a Pythagorean triple if a 2 + b 2 = c 2 . Let a be an odd
83. an = n x dx 84. an = p dx, p 7 1
L1 L1 x positive integer and let

Theory and Examples

b = j k c = l m
a2 a2
and
2 2
85. The first term of a sequence is x1 = 1 . Each succeeding term is
the sum of all those that come before it: be, respectively, the integer floor and ceiling for a 2>2 .
xn + 1 = x1 + x2 + Á + xn .

Write out enough early terms of the sequence to deduce a general

formula for xn that holds for n Ú 2 .
86. A sequence of rational numbers is described as follows:
a 2
  a 2 
1 3 7 17 a a + 2b 2  
, , , ,Á, , ,Á. 2
1 2 5 12 b a + b

Here the numerators form one sequence, the denominators form a

second sequence, and their ratios form a third sequence. Let xn
␪
and yn be, respectively, the numerator and the denominator of the
nth fraction rn = xn>yn .
a

a. Verify that x 12 - 2y 12 = -1, x 22 - 2y 22 = +1 and, more

a. Show that a 2 + b 2 = c 2 . (Hint: Let a = 2n + 1 and express
generally, that if a 2 - 2b 2 = -1 or +1 , then
b and c in terms of n.)
sa + 2bd2 - 2sa + bd2 = +1 or -1 ,
respectively.

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11.1 Sequences 759

b. By direct calculation, or by appealing to the figure here, find 106. The first term of a sequence is x1 = cos s1d . The next terms are
x2 = x1 or cos (2), whichever is larger; and x3 = x2 or cos (3),
whichever is larger (farther to the right). In general,
j k
a2
2 xn + 1 = max 5xn , cos sn + 1d6 .
lim .
l
a2
m 107. Nonincreasing sequences A sequence of numbers 5an6 in
a: q
2 which an Ú an + 1 for every n is called a nonincreasing sequence.
A sequence 5an6 is bounded from below if there is a number M
with M … an for every n. Such a number M is called a lower
90. The nth root of n!
bound for the sequence. Deduce from Theorem 6 that a nonin-
a. Show that limn: q s2npd1>s2nd = 1 and hence, using Stirling’s creasing sequence that is bounded from below converges and that
approximation (Chapter 8, Additional Exercise 50a), that a nonincreasing sequence that is not bounded from below di-
verges.
n n
2n! L e for large values of n . (Continuation of Exercise 107.) Using the conclusion of Exercise 107,
determine which of the sequences in Exercises 108–112 converge and
T b. Test the approximation in part (a) for n = 40, 50, 60, Á , as which diverge.
far as your calculator will allow. n + 1 1 + 22n
108. an = n 109. an =
91. a. Assuming that limn: q s1>n c d = 0 if c is any positive con- 2n
stant, show that
1 - 4n 4n + 1 + 3n
110. an = 111. an =
2n 4n
ln n
lim = 0 112. a1 = 1, an + 1 = 2an - 3
nc
113. The sequence 5n>sn + 1d6 has a least upper bound of 1
n: q

if c is any positive constant. Show that if M is a number less than 1, then the terms of
5n>sn + 1d6 eventually exceed M. That is, if M 6 1 there is an
b. Prove that limn: q s1>n c d = 0 if c is any positive constant.
integer N such that n>sn + 1d 7 M whenever n 7 N . Since
(Hint: If P = 0.001 and c = 0.04 , how large should N be to
n>sn + 1d 6 1 for every n, this proves that 1 is a least upper
bound for 5n>sn + 1d6 .
ensure that ƒ 1>n c - 0 ƒ 6 P if n 7 N ?)
92. The zipper theorem Prove the “zipper theorem” for se-
quences: If 5an6 and 5bn6 both converge to L, then the sequence
114. Uniqueness of least upper bounds Show that if M1 and M2
are least upper bounds for the sequence 5an6 , then M1 = M2 .
a1, b1, a2 , b2 , Á , an , bn , Á That is, a sequence cannot have two different least upper bounds.

converges to L. 115. Is it true that a sequence 5an6 of positive numbers must con-
n verge if it is bounded from above? Give reasons for your answer.
93. Prove that limn: q 2n = 1 .
116. Prove that if 5an6 is a convergent sequence, then to every pos-
94. Prove that limn: q x 1>n = 1, sx 7 0d . itive number P there corresponds an integer N such that for all
95. Prove Theorem 2. 96. Prove Theorem 3. m and n,
In Exercises 97–100, determine if the sequence is nondecreasing and m 7 N and n 7 N Q ƒ am - an ƒ 6 P .
if it is bounded from above.
s2n + 3d! 117. Uniqueness of limits Prove that limits of sequences are
3n + 1
97. an = 98. an = unique. That is, show that if L1 and L2 are numbers such that
n + 1 sn + 1d!
an : L1 and an : L2 , then L1 = L2 .
2n3n 2 1
99. an = 100. an = 2 - n - n 118. Limits and subsequences If the terms of one sequence ap-
n! 2
pear in another sequence in their given order, we call the first
Which of the sequences in Exercises 101–106 converge, and which di- sequence a subsequence of the second. Prove that if two sub-
verge? Give reasons for your answers. sequences of a sequence 5an6 have different limits L1 Z L2 ,
then 5an6 diverges.
1 1
101. an = 1 - n 102. an = n - n 119. For a sequence 5an6 the terms of even index are denoted by a2k
and the terms of odd index by a2k + 1 . Prove that if a2k : L and
2n - 1 2n - 1
103. an = 104. an = a2k + 1 : L , then an : L .
2n 3n
120. Prove that a sequence 5an6 converges to 0 if and only if the se-
105. an = ss -1d + 1d a n b
n n + 1 quence of absolute values 5ƒ an ƒ6 converges to 0.

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760 Chapter 11: Infinite Sequences and Series

T Calculator Explorations of Limits how many more years will it take Ford to catch up? Find out two
In Exercises 121–124, experiment with a calculator to find a value of ways:
N that will make the inequality hold for all n 7 N . Assuming that the a. Find the first term of the sequence 5Sn6 that is less than or
inequality is the one from the formal definition of the limit of a se- equal to 3.5.
quence, what sequence is being considered in each case and what is its T b. Graph ƒsxd = 7.25s0.94dx and use Trace to find where the
limit? graph crosses the line y = 3.5 .
n n
121. ƒ 20.5 - 1 ƒ 6 10 -3 122. ƒ 2n - 1 ƒ 6 10 -3
COMPUTER EXPLORATIONS
123. s0.9dn 6 10 -3 124. 2n>n! 6 10 -7
Use a CAS to perform the following steps for the sequences in Exer-
125. Sequences generated by Newton’s method Newton’s cises 129–140.
method, applied to a differentiable function ƒ(x), begins with a
a. Calculate and then plot the first 25 terms of the sequence. Does
starting value x0 and constructs from it a sequence of numbers
5xn6 that under favorable circumstances converges to a zero of
the sequence appear to be bounded from above or below? Does it
appear to converge or diverge? If it does converge, what is the
ƒ. The recursion formula for the sequence is
limit L?
ƒsxn d b. If the sequence converges, find an integer N such that
xn + 1 = xn - .
ƒ¿sxn d ƒ an - L ƒ … 0.01 for n Ú N . How far in the sequence do you
have to get for the terms to lie within 0.0001 of L?
a. Show that the recursion formula for ƒsxd = x 2 - a, a 7 0 , n
130. an = a1 + n b
n 0.5
can be written as xn + 1 = sxn + a>xn d>2 . 129. an = 2n
b. Starting with x0 = 1 and a = 3 , calculate successive terms
1
of the sequence until the display begins to repeat. What num- 131. a1 = 1, an + 1 = an +
5n
ber is being approximated? Explain.
132. a1 = 1, an + 1 = an + s -2dn
126. (Continuation of Exercise 125.) Repeat part (b) of Exercise 125
with a = 2 in place of a = 3 . 1
133. an = sin n 134. an = n sin n
127. A recursive definition of P/ 2 If you start with x1 = 1 and
define the subsequent terms of 5xn6 by the rule 135. an =
sin n
n
ln n
136. an = n
xn = xn - 1 + cos xn - 1 , you generate a sequence that converges
rapidly to p>2 . a. Try it. b. Use the accompanying figure to ex- 137. an = s0.9999dn 138. an = 1234561>n
plain why the convergence is so rapid. 8n n 41
139. an = 140. an =
y n! 19n
141. Compound interest, deposits, and withdrawals If you invest
an amount of money A0 at a fixed annual interest rate r com-
cos xn  1
1 pounded m times per year, and if the constant amount b is added
to the account at the end of each compounding period (or taken
xn  1 from the account if b 6 0), then the amount you have after
n + 1 compounding periods is
xn  1
An + 1 = a1 + m bAn + b .
x r
0 1 (1)

128. According to a front-page article in the December 15, 1992, is- a. If A0 = 1000, r = 0.02015, m = 12 , and b = 50 , calculate
sue of the Wall Street Journal, Ford Motor Company used about and plot the first 100 points sn, An d . How much money is in
7 14 hours of labor to produce stampings for the average vehicle, your account at the end of 5 years? Does 5An6 converge? Is
down from an estimated 15 hours in 1980. The Japanese needed 5An6 bounded?
only about 3 12 hours.
Ford’s improvement since 1980 represents an average de- b. Repeat part (a) with A0 = 5000, r = 0.0589, m = 12 , and
crease of 6% per year. If that rate continues, then n years from b = -50 .
1992 Ford will use about c. If you invest 5000 dollars in a certificate of deposit (CD) that
n
pays 4.5% annually, compounded quarterly, and you make no
Sn = 7.25s0.94d further investments in the CD, approximately how many
hours of labor to produce stampings for the average vehicle. As- years will it take before you have 20,000 dollars? What if the
suming that the Japanese continue to spend 3 12 hours per vehicle, CD earns 6.25%?

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11.1 Sequences 761

d. It can be shown that for any k Ú 0 , the sequence defined re- d. Next explore the behavior for r values near the endpoints
cursively by Equation (1) satisfies the relation of each of the intervals 3.45 6 r 6 3.54 and
3.54 6 r 6 3.55 . Plot the first 200 terms of the sequences.
k
Ak = a1 + m b aA0 + r b - r .
r mb mb Describe in your own words the behavior observed in your
(2) plots for each interval. Among how many values does the se-
quence appear to oscillate for each interval? The values
r = 3.45 and r = 3.54 (rounded to two decimal places) are
For the values of the constants A0 , r, m, and b given in part also called bifurcation values because the behavior of the se-
(a), validate this assertion by comparing the values of the quence changes as r crosses over those values.
first 50 terms of both sequences. Then show by direct substi-
tution that the terms in Equation (2) satisfy the recursion for- e. The situation gets even more interesting. There is actually an
mula in Equation (1). increasing sequence of bifurcation values 3 6 3.45 6 3.54
6 Á 6 cn 6 cn + 1 Á such that for cn 6 r 6 cn + 1 the
142. Logistic difference equation The recursive relation logistic sequence 5an6 eventually oscillates steadily among
an + 1 = rans1 - an d 2n values, called an attracting 2n-cycle. Moreover, the bifur-
cation sequence 5cn6 is bounded above by 3.57 (so it con-
is called the logistic difference equation, and when the initial verges). If you choose a value of r 6 3.57 you will observe a
value a0 is given the equation defines the logistic sequence 2n-cycle of some sort. Choose r = 3.5695 and plot 300
5an6 . Throughout this exercise we choose a0 in the interval points.
0 6 a0 6 1 , say a0 = 0.3 . f. Let us see what happens when r 7 3.57 . Choose r = 3.65
a. Choose r = 3>4 . Calculate and plot the points sn, an d for the and calculate and plot the first 300 terms of 5an6 . Observe
first 100 terms in the sequence. Does it appear to converge? how the terms wander around in an unpredictable, chaotic
What do you guess is the limit? Does the limit seem to de- fashion. You cannot predict the value of an + 1 from previous
pend on your choice of a0 ? values of the sequence.
b. Choose several values of r in the interval 1 6 r 6 3 and re- g. For r = 3.65 choose two starting values of a0 that are close
peat the procedures in part (a). Be sure to choose some points together, say, a0 = 0.3 and a0 = 0.301 . Calculate and plot
near the endpoints of the interval. Describe the behavior of the first 300 values of the sequences determined by each
the sequences you observe in your plots. starting value. Compare the behaviors observed in your
c. Now examine the behavior of the sequence for values of r plots. How far out do you go before the corresponding
near the endpoints of the interval 3 6 r 6 3.45 . The transi- terms of your two sequences appear to depart from each
tion value r = 3 is called a bifurcation value and the new other? Repeat the exploration for r = 3.75 . Can you see
behavior of the sequence in the interval is called an how the plots look different depending on your choice of
attracting 2-cycle. Explain why this reasonably describes the a0 ? We say that the logistic sequence is sensitive to the ini-
behavior. tial condition a0 .

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