Journal of Adult Education

Volume 43, Number 2

2014

An Examination of the Self-Directed Learning Practices of ESL Adult

Language Learners

Kendra S. Grover, Michael T. Miller, Brent Swearingen, Nancy Wood

Abstract

Self-directed learning is one of the preeminent theories in the field of adult education. This study
explored how English as a Second Language learners directed their own learning outside of the formal
classroom through the use of practices that potentially advance their English language proficiency.
Results from a survey of over 400 ESL students revealed that practices and resources identified by
researchers are being used on a limited or infrequent basis. Implications for adult educators and their role
in developing self-directedness in their ESL students are discussed.

Introduction provide basic adult education and English as a Second

In 2010, the United States Census Bureau reported Language(ESL)courses as part of their curriculum
there were 39, 957,000foreign-born residents in the (Dembicki, 2013).
United States, making up almost 13% of the population. Adult ESL students come to school with varied
This includes both adults and children. Of that number, expectations and with varied language levels. Huang,
85% speak a language other than English in their homes. Tindall, and Nisbet (2011) pointed out that some want
Additionally, one out of 10 from this population speaks better employment while others want to learn English so
no English at all (United States Census Bureau, 2012). they can talk to their child’s teacher.
A lack of proficiency with the English language Taking advantage of learning opportunities in the
translates into lower incomes, higher poverty rates, and formal environment is a significant step toward
limited mobility in the labor force. Learning English is communicating effectively, but what may be equally
critical in order to fully assimilate into the local important for instructors is fostering the behaviors that
economy and workforce and for upward socioeconomic help students advance their language proficiency outside
mobility. Additionally, adults need English in order to of the classroom. Rather than relying only on a teacher-
communicate with their employers, participate in their directed method of learning, students can take a role in
children’s education, navigate the legal and establishing their own goals and determining how they
governmental systems, stay informed about local will meet them. Nurturing this ability to be self-directed
political issues, and express themselves when faced with can help students take ownership of their learning in all
medical, banking, school, or business situations. areas. The purpose of this study was to identify the self-
Opportunities to learn English in the U.S. vary by state directed learning practices ESL students are engaging in
but are often available through community colleges, and the resources they are using outside of the classroom
adult education centers, and local organizations that to advance their proficiency with the English language.

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The term “practice” is used to describe behaviors they describes four stages for learners, ranging from
participate in such as watching television programs in dependent to self-directed, and proposes that the
English, and materials such as books and newspapers “teacher’s purpose is to match the learner’s stage of self-
they are using, that may help them advance their direction and prepare the learner to advance to higher
language skills. stages” (p. 129). As they advance through the stages,
Background of the Study learners are given progressively more choice or control
Self-directed learning (SDL), one of Knowles’ within instructional situations.
(1980) original assumptions about adult learners, helped SDL and ESL Students
form the basis of andragogy, an important theory in the Independent or autonomous learning, autodidactism,
field of adult education. Knowles (1975) described SDL and self-directed education are terms that have been used
as the “process in which individuals take the initiative, in the literature to describe SDL, though upon closer
with or without the help of others, in diagnosing their inspection the words are defined at least slightly
learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying differently (Gerstner, 1990). Research surrounding the
human and material resources for learning, choosing and topic of ESL students and SDL reflects the use of
implementing learning strategies, and evaluating different terms intended to mean almost the same thing
learning outcomes” (p. 18). According to Brockett & but most commonly employs the terms self-directed or
Hiemstra (1991), "self-direction in learning refers to autonomous learning. In her study on English language
both the external characteristics of an instructional learning by university students, Bordonaro (2006)
process and the internal characteristics of the learner, offered that being self-directed in learning a new
where the individual assumes primary responsibility for language means a learner is attempting “to progress
a learning experience" (p. 24). independently of a language classroom in which the
Various models of SDL have also been developed. teacher directs the learning” (p. 29).
Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgartner (2007) identified In the literature two themes often emerge with ESL
three principal categories into which these models fall: learners. One is the facilitator’s role in fostering self-
linear, interactive, and instructional. In early models like direction, the other the specific techniques used to
those proposed by Tough (1971) and Knowles (1975), cultivate autonomous learning. The research on these
SDL was a linear process containing a series of steps topics centers on several different subpopulations of
toward a learning goal. Subsequent models proposed by ESL learners, but the majority of studies investigate how
Spear (1988), Brockett and Hiemstra (1991), and various dimensions of SDL are typified in the university
Garrison (1997) were more interactive in design and student population (Ade-ojo, 2005; Bordonaro, 2006;
incorporated both the context and the nature of the Chan, 2000; Lambert, 2008; Sanprasert, 2010). For
learning process. A third model focusing explicitly on example, in his study of English Speakers of Other
SDL as part of a formal instructional process is seen in Languages (ESOL) college students and their
Grow (1991). predisposition to autonomous learning, Ade-ojo (2005)
SDL as an instructional strategy and the role of found students preferred an instructor-driven curriculum.
teachers or facilitators and formal educational settings He cautioned educators about making assumptions about
has been debated. Instructional models of SDL seek to their learners and maintained that helping students
apply SDL principles to educational environments while embrace autonomous learning requires a lot of effort on
taking into account differing levels of learner self- the instructor’s part, especially considering the historical
direction. Grow’s (1991) Staged Self-Directed Learning and psychological reasons for students’ hesitancy to
model is perhaps the best-known SDL instructional work independently. Jingnan (2011) made a similar
model. Grow noted, “Students have varying abilities to point, suggesting that learner autonomy has been a
respond to teaching that requires them to be self- neglected educational goal but that the university
directing” (p. 126). Building on this insight, his model students who participated in his research on facilitating

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learner autonomy were conscious of the fact that Grover and Miller (2014) and used with several different
learning is their own responsibility. He claimed students populations, including community members
have the confidence they need to direct their own participating in social organizations. The instrument
learning, but the instructor’s guidance, monitoring, and was based on a literature review of SDL practices, was
encouragement are still an important part of the process. pilot and field tested, and in its three previous
Results from other studies support Jingnan’s claim (Lee, administrations consistently had a reliability index
1998; Sanprasert, 2010). exceeding .5990.
The point has been made many times over Prior to data collection, the survey was translated
(Knowles, 1975; Tough, 1979; Papen, 2011) that from English to Spanish and field tested with 26 ESL
humans are important resources in the SDL process in a students to ensure clarity of instructions and readability
formal environment, but SDL as an instructional strategy of questions. Instructors at each site were asked to
has rarely been a focus in the research on ESL students. distribute the survey to students in their ESL classes.
A study by Omar, Ebmi, and Yunus (2012) revealed the The survey included 16 demographic questions that
use of social media, such as conversations among peers asked about the students’ level of education completed
and teachers on Facebook, led to enhanced English in their country, their employment status, the number of
language skills. Another approach was initiated by months they had been enrolled in the program, and the
Wang (2012) to encourage a group of Chinese ESL reasons they were participating in ESL classes. A
students to extend their learning beyond the classroom. second section consisted of 19 items related to the SDL
As part of what Wang called “self-directed naturalistic methods students use to enhance their English learning
learning pedagogy” (pg. 339) students immersed outside of the classroom. Students were asked to rate
themselves in English language television dramas to their level of use of each method on a five-option Likert-
improve their speech and to enhance their understanding type scale where 1=I never do this and 5=I do this a
of western culture and values. great deal. Examples of methods included watching
These studies focus on directives given in the formal television in English, visiting websites in English, and
classroom rather than on learners independently attending social events where English is the spoken
selecting strategies that will advance their skills in the language.
informal environment. The current study explores what
specific behaviors ESL students engage in that Findings
demonstrate an attempt to direct their own learning
outside of the classroom. This study focuses on a very Of the 440 ESL students who completed the survey,
specific population of foreign and native-born the majority were born outside of the United States (
Latino/Hispanic adults with limited English proficiency. 91.1%), with 47.9% being between the ages of 26-40,
The participants differ significantly in literacy and and 28.8% between the ages of 41-55 (See Table 1).
educational levels in their native language and home
country, the length of time living in the United States,
and their reasons for learning English.
Research Methods
Participants for this study included students enrolled
in ESL courses in nine adult education centers in a mid-
southern state. The centers ranged in size and student
enrollment and were located in both rural and urban
areas. Data were collected during the summer and fall of
2013 using a paper-based instrument developed by the
researchers. The survey used in the study was an
adaptation of SDL practice identification developed by

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Table 1. The age distribution was fairly even among
Personal Characteristics of ESL Learners Responding to participants living in the United States between 4 and 10
the Survey years and 11 to 20 years (30.1% and 28.9%). More than
_______________________________________________ half of the students reported they attended ESL classes
Characteristic n Valid Percent 3-5 times per week (68.3%) and had a computer in their
_______________________________________________ home (62.5%), and 57.3% said they also had Internet
Where born access. Survey participants were asked about their
US 2 .5
employment status and 40.1% reported they were
Non-US 440 91.1
employed full time. Of the remaining respondents,
Length of living in the US
Less than a year 57 12.1 14.7% said they were working part time, 28.5% were
1-3 years 50 10.6 unemployed, and 16.7% were not in the labor force.
4-10 years 142 30.1 Their reasons for participating in ESL classes varied,
10-20 years 136 28.9 and they were allowed to choose more than one of the
20+ years 86 18.3 seven options available. “Self-improvement” was the
most frequently cited reason for participation (81%),
Current age
18-25 72 15.1 followed by “To get a job” (47.4%) and “To get a better
26-40 228 47.9 job” (41.2%). “To go to college” was the option
41-55 137 28.8 selected least often (28.2%) by respondents.
56-70 39 8.2 Participants were asked to rate how often they
participated in activities to help them learn English
Employment status
outside of their ESL class (See Table 2 for a complete
Full-time 183 40.1
Part-time 67 14.7 list of these practices). Of the 19 practices identified in
Unemployed 130 28.5 the survey, respondents reported that more than any
Not in labor force 76 16.7 other activity they watched television in English
(mean=3.18). They also make English-speaking friends
Have at home
(mean=2.72), practice English at work (Mean=2.71), use
A personal computer 298 62.5
electronics such as phones and tablets (2.69) and spend
Internet access 267 57.3
time with an English-speaking person (mean=2.66). The
How often attend ESL class practices they participated in least often were
3-5 times per week 319 68.3 subscribing to a magazine written in English
1-2 times per week 139 29.8 (mean=1.59), and participating in formal workshops
A few times a month 8 1.7
conducted in English (mean=1.77), followed closely by
Why ESL enrollment Of N=483 attending church in English (mean=1.80) and attending
public lectures in English (mean=1.89).
Self-improvement 391 81.0
Help children w/education 83 17.2
To get a job 229 47.4
To get a better job 199 41.2
Become a US citizen 12
Participate in community 158 32.7
To go to college 136 28.2
__________________________________________________

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Table 2.
Self-Directed Learning Practices of ESL Students
____________________________________________________________________________________
SDL Practice n Mean SD F
____________________________________________________________________________________

Watched television programs in English 430 3.186 1.2451 2.155

Make friends with English-speakers 395 2.726 1.2947 1.585
Practice English at work 368 2.714 1.5048 1.256
Use electronics (phones/tablets) 378 2.690 1.4755 2.283
Spend time with English-speaking person 354 2.661 1.3030 3.156
Read newspapers in English 399 2.581 1.3004 1.064
Read online blogs in English 384 2.518 1.3343 1.724
Watch online videos in English 381 2.422 1.3926 7.387
Use online computer programs to learn English 393 2.371 1.3994 6.054
Visit/study websites in English 368 2.173 1.3640 11.601
Read books from the library in English 390 2.071 1.1890 2.138
Purchased educational videos in English 378 2.047 1.2091 1.025
Attend social events where English is spoken 376 2.045 1.2113 .960
Use social media in English 376 2.023 1.4092 9.630
Purchased books written in English 389 2.023 1.2043 2.630
Attend public lectures in English 377 1.891 1.1234 .634
Attend church events in English 367 1.809 1.2086 1.153
Participate in formal workshops in English 382 1.774 1.1978 .872
Subscribed to a magazine in English 375 1.594 1.0526 .668
__________________________________________________________________________________________

To examine whether or not there were differences in according to the results the majority of participants have
the use of self-directed learning practices by respondents been living in the U.S. between 4 and 20 years and this
based on education level earned in their home countries, may be their first attempt to learn the language in a
a one-way analysis of variance was conducted. The formal classroom.
results of the ANOVA identified one significant The strategy participants used most often is watching
difference, indicating that the more educated the ESL television programs in English, an unsurprising result
student, the less likely they were to purchase educational since the majority of programs offered through cable
videos in English (f=1.914; 1.969 at the .05 loc). television in the areas where the survey was administered
are in English. More students than not reported they have
Discussion a computer in their home (62.5%) and have internet
access (57.3%), but this leaves a large percentage who
The findings from this study indicate participants are have neither, making many of the practices included in
using self-directed practices included in the survey the survey, such as visiting websites in English or using
infrequently, if at all. Participants have demonstrated computer programs to learn, difficult, unless they were
some level of self-directedness by recognizing their need using alternative electronic devices to do so. The
to learn English and attending ESL classes. However, strategies and resources participants said they use least

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often are subscribing to magazines in English and language and ready to take responsibility for their
participating in formal workshops in English. learning but still want and need guidance.
Approximately one-third of respondents (28.2%) said Teachers need professional development to learn
one reason they are enrolled in ESL classes is to go to how to assess learners’ capacity for self-direction.
college. For the non-native English speaker, higher Models like Grow’s (1991) and Francom’s (2010) offer
education can be especially challenging, and SDL skills instructors a framework they can use to help a student
might mean survival in this postsecondary environment. progress from total dependence on their supervision to
ESL students moving on to adult basic education, adult assuming some level of control over their own learning.
secondary education, or GED prep could benefit from Researchers also suggest ways to make content relevant
self-directed practices as well. In these classrooms they to adult students’ lives by embedding pedagogical
will likely be learning alongside native English speakers techniques into instruction that encourage self-direction.
and will face a very different environment than in the Interaction during class time (Fukuda, 2013), activities
ESL classroom. that center on employment, technology, consumer-
Implications related goods and services, and civic participation, and
the use of practical materials such as menus, labels, and
Several researchers (Ade-ojo, 2005; Chan, 2000; brochures (Huang, Tindall, & Nisbett, 2011) are
Jingnan, 2011; Lee, 1998; Sanprasert, 2010; Victori & examples of ways to simulate real-world situations.
Lockhart, 1995) have acknowledged the important role of Activities such as these increase students’ comfort level
the instructor in promoting learning autonomy. Adult with navigating systems like education, healthcare,
educators do not necessarily need to recognize SDL as a financial, and legal, outside of the formal classroom.
theory of learning to appreciate the potential benefits of Facilitators can then encourage students to engage in
embedding SDL techniques in their classroom and other informal learning activities, such as finding
fostering within their students the ability to learn conversation partners, blogging in English, and reading
autonomously. SDL can serve as a viable instructional newspapers written in English.
strategy for ESL students who presumably want to learn Instructors can also encourage students to engage in
English to improve their communication skills with others some of the practices included in the survey outside of
outside of the classroom. This ability to progress the formal environment. The student, as part of their
independently of the instructor, according to Bordonaro SDL development, should be a part of the decision-
(2006), defines SDL for ESL students. It is incumbent on making and suggest ways they can practice language
the instructor to help students make the connection skills.
between learning independently and how this ability can One limitation of the study is that the survey was
enrich their daily life. originally designed for native English speakers. Despite
This can be a challenge in the ESL classroom, where the field test, there is still the possibility that some
teachers individualize instruction to address the various students encountered a lack of clarity in the questions, or
levels of student proficiency with the English language. their level of literacy in their native language was a
Culture also plays a role in how ESL students learn; some barrier to their understanding of the directions. Future
students have only been exposed to a very traditional, studies should explore the practices advanced ESL
teacher-centered environment where students are wholly students use as compared to entry-level students, as
dependent on the instructor for direction. The goal of advanced students may have a higher level of SDL
instruction should be the development of the student, and readiness than beginning students. Future research
identifying self-directed instructional strategies that will should also explore ways ESL teachers are encouraging
enhance the learning of entry-level students who may not their students to continue their learning outside of the
be ready to take ownership of their learning. This is also formal environment.
true for advanced students who are more proficient with

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Kenda S. Grover is an assistant professor of Brent C. Swearingen is an associate

Adult and Lifelong Learning in the College of professor of Librarianship and the
Education and Health Professions at the Instructional Services Librarian at John
University of Arkansas. Her research focus Brown University. He is also a doctoral
includes self-directed learning, communities of student in the Adult and Lifelong Learning
practice, and serious leisure. program at the University of Arkansas.

Michael T. Miller is a professor of Higher Nancy R. Wood is an adult educator for North
Education at the University of Arkansas where Arkansas College, teaching English as a
he also serves as the Associate Dean for Second Language and G.E.D. preparation
Academic Affairs for the College of Education classes. She is currently enrolled in the Adult
and Health Professions. His research interests and Lifelong master’s degree program in the
include the informal and unintentional College of Education and Health Professions at
consequences of community education. the University of Arkansas.

19