INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS

Physical Quantities

1. A physical quantity is a quantity that can be measured.

2. A physical quantity can be divided into base quantity and derived
quantity.

Base Quantities

1. Base quantities are the quantities that are conventionally accepted as

functionally independent of one another.
2. It is a quantity that cannot be defined in term of other physical
quantity.
3. The base quantities and its units are as in the table below:

Derived Quantities

A derived quantity is a Physics quantity that is not a base quantity. It is the

quantities which derived from the base quantities through multiplying
and/or dividing them.
Example

(Speed is derived from

dividing distance by time.)

Derived Unit
The derived unit is a combination of base units through multiplying and/or
dividing them.

Example 1
Find the derived unit of density.
Answer

Unit Conversion
Area and Volume

Example 2
Convert the unit of length, area and volume below to the units given.
a) 7.2 m = ____________cm
b) 0.32 m2 = ____________cm2
c) 0.0012 m3 = ____________cm3
d) 5.6 cm = ____________m
e) 350 cm2 = ____________m2
f) 45000 cm3 = ____________m3
Answer
a) 7.2 m = 7.2 x 102 cm
b) 0.32 m2 = 0.32 x 104 cm2 = 3.2 x 103 cm2
c) 0.0012 m3 = 0.0012 x 106 cm3 = 1.2 x 103 cm3
d) 5.6 cm = 5.6 x 10-2 m
e) 350 cm2 = 350 x 10-4 m2 = 3.5 x 10-2 m2
f) 45000 cm3 = 45000 x 10-6 m3 = 4.5 x 10-2 m3

Speed
Example 3
Complete the following unit conversion
a) 12 kmh-1 = __________ ms-1
b) 12 ms-1 = __________ kmh-1
Answer

a){\rm{ 12kmh}}^{{\rm{ - 1}}} {\rm{ = }}{{{\rm{12km}}} \over {{\rm{1h}}}}{\rm{ = }}{{{\rm{12,000m}}} \

over {{\rm{60 \times 60s}}}}{\rm{ = }}{{{\rm{10}}} \over {\rm{3}}}{\rm{ms}}^{{\rm{ - 1}}}

b){\rm{ 12ms}}^{{\rm{ - 1}}} {\rm{ = }}{{{\rm{12m}}} \over {{\rm{1s}}}}{\rm{ = }}{{{{{\rm{12}}} \over

{{\rm{1000}}}}{\rm{km}}} \over {{{\rm{1}} \over {{\rm{60 \times 60}}}}{\rm{h}}}}{\rm{ = 43}}{\
rm{.2kmh}}^{{\rm{ - 1}}}

Prefixes

Prefixes are the preceding factor used to represent very small and very
large physical quantities in SI units.
Conversion of prefixes

Prefixes to Normal Number

Example 1
The frequency of the radio wave is 350M Hz. What is the frequency of the
radio wave in Hz?
Answer
Mega (M) = 1,000,000 or 106
Therefore,
350MHz = 250 x 106Hz

Example 2
The thickness of a film is 25nm. What is the thickness in unit meter?
Answer
nano (n) = 0.000000001 or 10-9
Therefore
25nm = 25 x 10 10-9nm
Normal number to Prefixes

Example 3
0.255 s is equal to how many ms.
Answer
mili (m) = 0.001 or 10-3
To write a normal number with prefixes, we divide the number with the
value of the prefixes
0.0255 s = 0.0255 ÷ 10-3 = 25.5 ms

Example 4
Convert 265,500,000 W into GW.
Answer
Gega (G) = 1,000,000,000 or 109
Therefore
265,500,000 W = 265,500,000 ÷ 109 = 0.2655GW

Scientific Notation (Standard Form)

1. Scientific notation (also known as Standard index notation) is a

convenient way to write very small or large numbers.
 2. In this notation, numbers are separated into two parts, a real number
with an absolute value between 1 and 10 and an order of magnitude
value written as a power of 10.
3. Physical quantities that are very big or very small need to be written
in the standard form so that it is neat, simple and easy to read.

Example

1. 2,600 = 2.6 x 103

2. 75,300,000 = 7.53 x 107
3. 0.00023 = 2.3 x 10-4
4. 0.00000004121 = 4.121 x 10-8

Scalar Quantity

1. Scalars are quantities which are fully described by a magnitude

alone.
2. Magnitude is the numerical value of a quantity.
3. Examples of scalar quantities are distance, speed, mass, volume,
temperature, density and energy.

Vector Quantity

1. Vectors are quantities which are fully described by both a magnitude

and a direction.
2. Examples of vector quantities are displacement, velocity,
acceleration, force, momentum, and magnetic field.
Example 1
Categorize each quantity below as being either a vector or a scalar.

Speed, velocity, acceleration, distance, displacement, energy, electrical

charge, density, volume, length, momentum, time, temperature, force,
mass, power, work, impulse.

Answer:
Scalar Quantities:

 speed
 distance
 energy
 electrical charge
 density
 volume
 length
 time
 temperature
 mass
 power
 work

Vector Quantities

 velocity
 acceleration
 displacement
  momentum
 force
 impulse


 Label of the Parts
 (This image is licienced under GDFL. The so

urce file can be obtained

from wikipedia.org)


Range and Accuracy
The range of a micrometer is 0-25mm.
The accuracy of a micrometer is up to 0.01mm

Precision
1. Precision is the ability of an instrument in measuring a quantity in a consistent manner
with only a small relative deviation between readings.
2. The precision of a reading can be indicated by its relative deviation.
3. The relative deviation is the percentage of mean deviation for a set of measurements and
it is defined by the following formula:
Accuracy
1. The accuracy of a measurement is the approximation of the measurement to the actual
value for a certain quantity of Physics.
2. The measurement is more accurate if its number of significant figures increases.
3. Table above shows that the micrometer screw gauge is more accurate than the other
measuring instruments.

4. The accuracy of a measurement can be increased by

 taking a number of repeat readings to calculate the mean value of the reading.
 avoiding the end errors or zero errors.
 taking into account the zero and parallax errors.
 using more sensitive equipment such as a vernier caliper to replace a ruler.

5. The difference between precision and accuracy can be shown by the spread of shooting
of a tar-get (as shown in Diagram below).
 Sensitivity
1. The sensitivity of an instrument is its ability to detect small changes in the quantity that is
being measured.
2. Thus, a sensitive instrument can quickly detect a small change in measurement.
3. Measuring instruments that have smaller scale parts are more sensitive.
4. Sensitive instruments need not necessarily be accurate.
FORCE AND MOTION
Linear Motion

Linear motion is the movement of an object along a straight line.

Distance

The distance traveled by an object is the total length that is traveled

by that object.

Unit: metre (m)

Type of Quantity: Scalar quantity

Displacement

Displacement of an object from a point of reference, O is the

shortest distance of the object from point O in a specific direction.

Unit: metre (m)

Type of Quantity: Vector quantity

Distance vs Displacement

Distance travelled = 200m

Displacement = 120 m, in the direction of Northeast

Distance is a scalar quantity,

Displacement is a vector quantity

Speed

Speed is the rate of change in distance.

Formula:
Unit: ms-1

Type of quantity: Scalar quantity

Velocity

Velocity is the rate of change in displacement.

Formula:

Unit: ms-1

Type of quantity: Vector quantity

Acceleration

Acceleration is the rate of velocity change.Acceleration is a vector

quantity
Formula:

Unit: ms-2

Type of quantity: Vector quantity

Notes - Acceleration

 An object moves with a constant velocity if the magnitude and

direction of the motion is always constant.
 An object experiences changes in velocity if
o the magnitude of velocity changes
o the direction of the motion changes.
 An object that experiences changes in velocity is said to have
acceleration.
 An object traveling with a constant acceleration, a, if the velocity
changes at a constant rate.
4 Equations of Uniform Acceleration

The above equation is for solving

Summary
Ticker Timer

A ticker-timer consists of an electrical vibrator which vibrates 50

times per second.
 This enables it to make 50 dots per second on a ticker-tape
being pulled through it.
 The time interval between two adjacent dots on the ticker-tape is
called one tick.
 One tick is equal to  1/50 s or 0.02 s.

Uniform Velocity

 The distance of the dots is equally distributed.

  All lengths of tape in the chart are of equal length.
 The object is moving at a uniform velocity.

Uniform Acceleration

 The distance between the dots increases uniformly.

 The length of the strips of tape in the chart increase uniformly.
 The velocity of the object is increasing uniformly, i.e. the object is
moving at a constant acceleration.

Uniform Deceleration
  The distance between the dots decreases uniformly.
 The length of the strips of tape in the chart decreases uniformly.
 The velocity of the object is decreasing uniformly, i.e. the object
is decelerating uniformly.

Finding Velocity

Velocity of a motion can be determined by using ticker tape through

the following equation:

Caution!:
t is time taken from the first dot to the last dot of the distance
measured.
Example 1

Diagram 2.4 shows a strip of ticker tape that was pulled through a ticker tape timer that
vibrated at 50 times a second. What is the

a. time taken from the first dot to the last dot?

b. average velocity of the object that is represented by the ticker tape?

Answer:

a.
There are 15 ticks from the first dot to the last dot, hence

Time taken = 15 × 0.02s = 0.3s

b.
Distance travelled = 15cm

$\begin{gathered}
v = \frac{s}
{t} \hfill \\
v = \frac{{15cm}}
{{0.3s}} = 50cms^{ - 1} \hfill \\
\end{gathered} $

Finding Acceleration

Acceleration of a motion can be determined by using ticker tape

through the following equation:
Caution!:
t is time taken from the initial velocity to the final velocity.
Example 2

The ticker-tape in figure above was produced by a toy car moving down a tilted runway.
If the ticker-tape timer produced 50 dots per second, find the acceleration of the toy car.

Answer:

In order to find the acceleration, we need to determine the initial velocity, the final
velocity and the time taken for the velocity change.

Initial velocity,

u = \frac{s}
{t} = \frac{{3cm}}
{{0.02s}} = 150cms^{ - 1}

{{0.1}} = - 1250cms^{ - 1}
Example 3

A trolley is pushed up a slope. Diagram above shows ticker tape chart that show the
movement of the trolley. Every section of the tape contains 5 ticks. If the ticker-tape
timer produced 50 dots per second, determine the acceleration of the trolley.
Answer:

In order to find the acceleration, we need to determine the initial velocity, the final
velocity and the time taken for the velocity change.

Initial velocity,

u = \frac{s}
{t} = \frac{{5cm}}
{{5 × 0.02s}} = 50cms^{ - 1}

v = \frac{s}
{t} = \frac{{1cm}}
{{5 × 0.02s}} = 10cms^{ - 1}

Time taken for the velocity change,

t = (2.5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 2.5) ticks = 40 ticks
t = 40 × 0.02s = 0.8s

Acceleration,

a = \frac{{v - u}}
{t} = \frac{{10 - 50}}
{{0.8}} = - 50cms^{ - 1}
Displacement - Time Graph

In a Displacement-Time Graph, the gradient of the graph is equal to

the velocity of motion.

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Card 2: Analysign Displacement - Time Graph
Analysing Displacement - Time Graph

Gradient = 0 Gradient is constant,

Hence, velocity = 0 hence, velocity is Uniform

Gradient is negative and Gradient is increasing, hence

constant, hence velocity is velocity is increasing.
uniform and in opposite
direction
  

Gradient is decreasing, hence

 
velocity is decreasing.

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Card 3: Velocity - Time Graph

Velocity - Time Graph

 The gradient of the velocity-time gradient gives a value of the

changing rate in velocity, which is the acceleration of the
object.
 The area below the velocity-time graph gives a value of the
object's displacement.

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Card 4: Analysing Velocity - Time graph

Analysing Velocity - Time Graph

Uniform velocity Uniform acceleration

Uniform deceleration Increasing acceleration

 
 Increasing deceleration  

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Card 5: Converting a Velocity-Time graph to Acceleration-Time graph

Converting a Velocity-Time graph to Acceleration-

Time graph

In order to convert a velocity-time graph to acceleration time graph,

we need to find the gradient of the velocity time graph and plot it in the
acceleration-time graph.

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Card 6: Graph of free falling 1-Dropping an object from high place

Dropping an object from high place

Velocity - Time Graph Acceleration - Time Graph

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Card 7: Graph of free falling 2 - Launching obejct upward

Launching Object Upward

Velocity-Time Graph Acceleration-Time Graph

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Card 8: Graph of free falling 3 - Object moving upward and fall back to the ground

Object moving upward and fall back to the ground

Velocity-Time Graph Acceleration-Time Graph

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Card 9: Graph of free falling 4 - Object falling and bounces back

Object falling and bounces back

Velocity-Time Graph Acceleration-Time Graph

Mass

Mass is the amount of matter.

Unit: kilogram (kg)

Type of quantity: Scalar quantity

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Card 2: What is inertia?

Inertia

Inertia is the property of a body that tends to maintain its state of

motion.

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Card 3: State Newton's First Law

Newton's First Law

In the absence of external forces, an object at rest remains at rest
and an object in motion continues in motion with a constant
velocity (that is, with a constant speed in a straight line).

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Card 4: Situation Involving Inertia 1 - Jerking a Card

Jerking a Card

When the cardboard is jerked quickly, the coin will fall into the glass.

Explanation:

 The inertia of the coin resists the change of its initial state, which
is stationary.
 As a result, the coin does not move with the cardboard and falls
into the glass because of gravity.

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Card 5: Situation Involving Inertia 2 - Pulling a Book

Pulling a Book
When the book is pulled out, the books on top will fall downwards.

Explanation:

Inertia tries to oppose the change to the stationary situation, that is,
when the book is pulled out, the books on top do not follow suit.

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Card 6: Situation Involving Inertia 3 - Pulling a Thread

Pulling a Thread

Pull slowly - Thread A will snap.

Explanation:
Tension of thread A is higher than string B.
Tension at A = Weight of the load + Pulling Force

Yank quickly - Thread B will snap.

Explanation:
The inertia of the load prevents the force from being transmitted to
thread A, hence causing thread B to snap.

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Card 7: Relation ship between mass and inertia

Larger Mass - Greater Inertia

Bucket filled with sand is more difficult to be moved. It's also more
difficult to be stopped from swinging.

Explanation:

Object with more mass offers a greater resistance to change from its
state of motion.
Object with larger mass has larger inertia to resist the attempt to
change the state of motion.

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Card 8: Empty Cart is easier to be moved

Empty cart is easier to be moved

An empty cart is easier to be moved compare with a cart full with load.
This is because a cart with larger mass has larger inertia to resist
the attempt to change the state of motion.

Momentum

Momentum is defined as the product of mass and velocity.

Formula:

Unit: kgms-1
Type of quantity: Vector

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Example 1

A student releases a ball with mass of 2 kg from a height of 5 m from the ground. What would be
the momentum of the ball just before it hits the ground?

Answer:

In order to find the momentum, we need to know the mass and the velocity of the ball
right before it hits the ground.
It's given that the mass, m = 2kg.

The velocity is not given directly. However, we can determine the velocity, v, by using
the linear equation of uniform acceleration.

This is a free falling motion,

The initial velocity, u = 0
The acceleration, a = gravirational acceleration, g = 10ms-2
The dispacement, s = high = 50m.
The final velocity = ?

From the equation

v2 = u2 + 2as
v2 = (0)2 + 2(10)(5)
v = 10ms-1

The momentum,
p = mv =(2)(10) = 20 kgms-1

Card 2: Principle of Conservation of Momentum

Principle of Conservation of Momentum

The principle of conservation of momentum states that in a system
make out of objects that react (collide or explode), the total
momentum is constant if no external force is acted upon the
system.

Sum of Momentum Before Reaction

= Sum of Momentum After Reaction

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Card 3: Formula of Principle of Conservation of Momentum

Formula

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Example 2: Both objects are in same direction before collision.

A Car A of mass 600 kg moving at 40 ms-1 collides with a car B of mass 800 kg moving at 20 ms-1
in the same direction. If car B moves forwards at 30 ms -1 by the impact, what is the velocity, v, of
the car A immediately after the crash?
Answer:

m1 = 600kg
m2 = 800kg
u1 = 40 ms-1
u2 = 20 ms-1
v1 = ?
v2 = 30 ms-1

According to the principle of conservation of momentum,

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

(600)(40) + (800)(20) = (600)v1 + (800)(30)
40000 = 600v1 + 24000
600v1 = 16000
v1 = 26.67 ms-1

Example 3: Both objects are in opposite direction before collision.

A 0.50kg ball traveling at 6.0 ms-1 collides head-on with a 1.0 kg ball moving in the opposite
direction at a speed of 12.0 ms-1. The 0.50kg ball moves backward at 14.0 ms-1 after the collision.
Find the velocity of the second ball after collision.

Answer:

m1 = 0.5 kg
m2 = 1.0 kg
u1 = 6.0 ms-1
u2 = -12.0 ms-1
v1 = -14.0 ms-1
v2 = ?

(IMPORTANT: velocity is negative when the object move in opposite

siredtion)

According to the principle of conservation of momentum,

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
(0.5)(6) + (1.0)(-12) = (0.5)(-14) + (1.0)v2
-9 = - 7 + 1v2
v2 = -2 ms-1

Card 4: What is elastic collision?

Elastic Collision

Elastic collision is the collision where the kinetic energy is conserved

after the collision.

Total Kinetic Energy before Collision

= Total Kinetic Energy after Collision

Additional notes:
-In an elastic collision, the 2 objects seperated right after the collision,
and
-the momentum is conserved after the collision.

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Card 5: What is inelastic collision?

Inelastic Collision

Inelastic collision is the collision where the kinetic energy is not

conserved after the collision.

Additional notes:
-In a perfectly elastic collision, the 2 objects attach together after the
collision, and
-the momentum is also conserved after the collision.
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Example 4: Perfectly Inelastic Collision

A lorry of mass 8000kg is moving with a velocity of 30 ms -1. The lorry is then accidentally
collides with a car of mass 1500kg moving in the same direction with a velocity of 20 ms -1. After
the collision, both the vehicles attach together and move with a speed of velocity v. Find the
value of v.

Answer:

(IMPORTANT: When 2 object attach together, they move with same speed.)

m1 = 8000kg
m2 = 1500kg
u1 = 30 ms-1
u2 = 20 ms-1
v1 = v
v2 = v

According to the principle of conservation of momentum,

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

(8,000)(30) + (1,500)(20) = (8,000)v+ (1,500)v
270,000 = 9500v
v = 28.42 ms-1

Card 6: Application of conservation of momentum 1 - Rocket

Rocket

1. Mixture of hydrogen and oxygen fuels burn in the combustion

chamber.
2. Hot gases are expelled through the exhausts at very high
speed .
 3. The high-speed hot gas produce a high momentum backwards.
4. By conservation of momentum, an equal and opposite
momentum is produced and acted on the rocket, pushing the
rocket upwards.

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Card 7: Application of conservation of momentum 1 - Jet Engine

Jet Engine

1. Air is taken in from the front and is compressed by the

compressor.
2. Fuel is injected and burnt with the compressed air in the
combustion chamber.
3. The hot gas is forced through the engine to turn the turbine
blade, which turns the compressor.
4. High-speed hot gases are ejected from the back with high
momentum.
5. This produces an equal and opposite momentum to push the
jet plane forward.

Newton's Second Law

The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional

to the resultant force acting on the body and is in the same direction.

Implication:

When there is resultant force acting on an object, the object will

accelerate (moving faster, moving slower or change direction).
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Card 2: Force

Force

A force is push or pull exerted on an object.

 Force is a vector quantity that has magnitude and direction.
 The unit of force is Newton ( or kgms-2).

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Card 3: Formula of Force

Formula of Force

From Newton's Second Law, we can derived the equation

(IMPORTANT: F Must be the net force)

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Card 4: Summary of Newton's 1st Law and 2nd Law

Summary of Newton's 1st Law and 2nd Law

Newton's First Law:

When there is no net force acting on an object, the object is either
stationary or move with constant speed in a straight line.
Newton's Second Law:
When there is a net force acting on an object, the object will
accelerate.

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Example 1

A box of mass 150kg is placed on a horizontal floor with a smooth surface; find the acceleration
of the box when a 300N force is acting on the box horizontally.

Answer:

F = ma
(300) = (150)a
a = 2 ms-2

Example 2

A object of mass 50kg is placed on a horizontal floor with a smooth surface. If the velocity of the
object changes from stationary to 25.0 m/s in 5 seconds when is acted by a force, find the
magnitude of the force that is acting?

Answer:

We know that we can find the magnitude of a force by using the formula F = ma. The
mass m is already given in the question, but the acceleration is not give directly.

We can determine the acceleration from the formula

\begin{gathered}
a = \frac{{v - u}}
{t} \hfill \\
a = \frac{{25 - 0}}
{5} = 5ms^{ - 2} \hfill \\
\end{gathered}
From the formula
F = ma = (50)(5) = 250N

The force acting on the box is 250N.

Card 5: Effects of Force

Effects of Force

When a force acts on an object, the effect can change the

 size,

 shape,

 stationary state,
 speed and
 direction of the object.

Impulse

Impulse is defined as the product of the force (F) acting on an object

and the time of action (t).

Impulse exerted on an object is equal to the momentum change of

the object.

Impulse is a vector quantity.

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Card 2: Formula of Impulse

Formula of impulse

Impulse is the product of force and time.

 Impulse = F × t

Impulse = momentum change

Impulse = mv - mu

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Example 1

A car of mass 600kg is moving with velocity of 30m/s. A net force of 200N is applied on the car
for 15s. Find the impulse exerted on the car and hence determine the final velocity of the car.

Answer:

Impulse = F × t = (200) × (15) = 300oNs

Impulse = mv - mu
(3000) = 600v - 600(30)
600v = 3000 + 18000
v = 21000/600 = 35 m/s

[500,000N]

Card 3: What is impulsive force?

Impulsive Force

Impulsive force is defined as the rate of change of momentum in a

reaction.

It is a force which acts on an object for a very short interval during a

collision or explosion.

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Example 2
A car of mass 1000kg is traveling with a velocity of 25 m/s. The car hits a street lamp and is
stopped in0.05 seconds. What is the impulsive force acting on the car during the crash?

Answer:

\begin{gathered}
{\text{Impulsive Force,}} \hfill \\
F = \frac{{m(v - u)}}
{t} \hfill \\
F = \frac{{1000(0 - 25)}}
{{0.05}} \hfill \\
F = -500,000N \hfill \\
\end{gathered}

Card 4: Effects of Impulse vs Force

Effects of impulse vs Force

A force determines the acceleration (rate of velocity change) of an

object. A greater force produces a higher acceleration.

An impulse determines the velocity change of an object. A greater

impulse yield a higher velocity change.

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Card 5: Examples Involving Impulsive Force

Examples Involving Impulsive Force

 Playing football
 Playing badminton
 Playing tennis
  Playing golf
 Playing baseball

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Card 6: Effect of time on impulsive force 1 - Long Jump

Long Jump

 The long jump pit is filled with sand to increase the reaction time
when atlete land on it.
 This is to reduce the impulsive force acts on the leg of the atlete
because impulsive force is inversely proportional to the
reaction time.

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Card 7: Effect of time on impulsive force 1 - High Jump

High Jump
 (This image is licenced under the GNU Free Document Licence. The
original file is from the Wikipedia.org.)

 During a high jump, a high jumper will land on a thick, soft

mattress after the jump.
 This is to increase the reaction time and hence reduces the
impulsive force acting on the high jumper.

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Card 8: Effect of time on impulsive force 1 - Jumping

Jumping

A jumper bends his/her leg during landing. This is to increase the

reaction time and hence reduce the impact of impulsive force acting
on the leg of the jumper.