Construction and Building Materials 282 (2021) 122634

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Experimental and numerical investigation of carbon textile/cementitious

matrix interfacebehaviourfrom pull-out tests
Manh Tien Tran a, Xuan Hong Vu b,⇑, Emmanuel Ferrier b
a
Department of Mechanisms of Materials, Hanoi University of Mining and Geology (HUMG), n°18, Pho Vien street, Duc Thang Ward, Bac Tu Liem District, Ha Noi City, Viet Nam
b
Université de LYON, Université Claude Bernard LYON 1, Laboratoire des Matériaux Composites pour la Construction LMC2, France

h i g h l i g h t s g r a p h i c a l a b s t r a c t

 Characterization of carbon textile/

cementitious matrix interface
behaviour by pull-out tests.
 The embedded length affected the
pull-out behaviour and total pull-out
energy of interface specimens.
 Numerical modeling by using a
nonlinear spring model for
textile/matrix interface behaviour.
 Numerical modeling by using
cracking modeling of the matrix with
the concrete material model.
 The numerical modeling gave a
reasonable result in comparison with
that of the experiment.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In the context of the application of textile-reinforced concrete composite (TRC) for strengthening or rein-
Received 13 October 2020 forcing of structural elements, an important factor that significantly influences its mechanical behaviour is
Received in revised form 4 February 2021 the bond strength of the textile/cementitious matrix interface. In order to improve this bond, reinforce-
Accepted 7 February 2021
ment textile is usually treated with different products in the manufacturing procedure. This paper pre-
sents the experimental and numerical results concerning the mechanical behaviour of carbon textile/
cementitious matrix interface from the pull-out tests. The carbon textile was treated with an amorphous
Keywords:
silica product to improve the bond with the cementitious matrix and embedded in the cementitious
Textile – reinforced concrete (TRC)
Textile/matrix interface
matrix with different lengths. The experimental results showed that all pull-out tests gave typical ‘‘force
Pull-out test – slip” curves of interface behaviour as shown in the literature with three phases: perfect bonding phase,
Embedded length debonding phase, and pure friction phase. The effects of carbon textile and embedded length on pull-out
Element finite model behaviour and failure mode of textile/matrix interface specimens could be found and analyzed.
Concerning the mesoscale modeling work, the numerical model was developed and validated by using
a nonlinear spring model for interface behaviour and taking into account the crack damage of the cemen-
titious matrix in the calculation. The numerical results highlighted that the numerical model could predict
the relationship of pull-out force and slip for all cases of the embedded length of carbon textiles within the
cementitious matrix. This paper shows that both experimental and numerical results on the carbon tex-
tile/cementitious matrix interface has a good agreement in pull-out behaviour and failure mode.
Ó 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (M.T. Tran), [email protected] (X.H. Vu), [email protected] (E. Ferrier).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.122634
0950-0618/Ó 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Manh Tien Tran, Xuan Hong Vu and E. Ferrier Construction and Building Materials 282 (2021) 122634

1. Introduction All available results in the literature shows a softening beha-

viour of fibre/matrix interface from the pull-out test with three
The industrial textile has been increasingly and widely pro- phases: phase of the perfect bond, phase of debonding, and phase
duced in the factory for the applications in civil engineering. Its of pure friction [17,29]. However, depending on the test configura-
combination with a polymer matrix or cementitious matrix forms tion, the fibre/matrix interface specimen had differently response
a new material [Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) or Textile Rein- types from the pull-out test [30]. Moreover, bond strength and
forced Concrete (TRC)] that has better characteristics (high mechanical behaviour of fibre/matrix interface depended greatly
strength and stiffness, lightness, etc) than other traditional materi- on several factors from studied fibre and matrix, such as nature,
als [1–3]. They have been successfully used for the strengthening treatment product, geometry of fibre, matrix nature
or reinforcing of structural elements of existing construction works [18,20,22,23,26,27,31,32], and environment conditions such as ele-
(old buildings, old tunnels, etc.) or a constituent element of new vated temperature, aging condition [23–25].
structures [2–5]. Among these composite materials, TRC composite Concerning the effect of fibre treatment on fibre/matrix inter-
has preeminent advantages in special environmentssuch ascorro- face response from the pull-out test, it could be found clearly this
sion, aging, and elevated temperature [2,6]. scientific point in a few research works in the literature. According
Over the past decades, the mechanical behaviour of TRC com- to Ferreira et al. [26], sisal fibres were treated with different treat-
posite has been characterized clearly from the tensile or flexural ment methods: hornification method, alkali and hybrid treatment,
test in the literature [7–10]. It is a hardening behaviour with three and polymer impregnation. The results of the pull-out tests
distinguished phases and depending on several factors such as tex- showed that, by comparing with the specimens of natural sisal
tile nature, matrix nature, reinforcement ratio, etc [11–14]. An fibres, a significant improvement in the fibre/matrix interface bond
important factor that significantly influences the mechanical beha- has been verified. With the polymer treatment, it could be found a
viour of carbon TRC is the bond strength of the textile/matrix inter- better frictional mechanism and a slip-hardening behaviour of the
face. A good interface adhesion can improve the work capacity of fibre–matrix bond. With the alkali treatment, the amorphous con-
TRC composite, especially in the first and second phases of its stituents of the fibre were removed from the fibre surface to
mechanical behaviour [15,16]. Hence, the reinforcement textile is increase the roughness of sisal fibres, while the hornification phe-
usually treated with different products in manufacturing proce- nomena improved the bond strength of sisal fibre–matrix thanks to
dure in order to improve this bond. Furthermore, the bond strength the stiffening of the polymeric structure of the fibre-cells. In the
and mechanical behaviour of the textile/matrix interface become experimental study of Homoro et al. [18], in order to improve the
an interesting topic to study. Among the methods in the literature interfacial bond between AR glass yarn and ettringite matrix, fibres
for characterizing the response of fibre/matrix interface behaviour, were treated with different products by dry and wet pre-
the pull-out test is simple yet efficient in laboratory conditions impregnated methods. In conclusion, for carbon fibre, there were
[17]. The following paragraphs present the previous research many effective treatment products to improve its interfacial bond
which focuses on the experimental and numerical behaviour of strength with the cementitious matrix. In the research of Lu et al.
the interface between fibre (different fibre types) and the cementi- [27], the authors successfully used nano-SiO2 as a coated layer in
tious matrix from the pull-out test. The objective of this study is order to improve the interfacial properties of carbon fibre and
presented at the end of the introduction of this paper. cementitious matrix. With this treatment by SiO2, the interfacial
adherent was improved thanks to the appearance of C-S-H gel at
the interface which was the product of the chemical reaction
1.1. Previous experimental studies of interface behaviour from pull-out
between SiO2 and cement hydration product Ca(OH)2. This chemi-
tests
cal adhesion enhancement improved the bond strength, frictional
bond strength, and chemical debonding energy to approximately
Until now, there have been several studies on the behaviour of
3, 2, and 10 times of that of non-treated carbon fibre specimens,
fibre/cementitious matrix interface from the pull-out tests [6,18–
respectively.
22]. Ferreira et al. [20] have carried out the pull-out tests on interface
Concerning the effect of embedded length, theoretically, the
specimens to identify the nature of fibres/matrix bond in cement-
longer embedded length would give more fiber/matrix interface
based systems. In this study, the influence of natural fibres charac-
surface for adhesion between both materials. Therefore, the maxi-
teristics on the interface mechanics with cement-based matrices
mum pull-out force would be normally increased almost linearly
was found. Silva et al. [23] have performed the double-sided pull-
depending on the embedded length. In fact, with such length, there
out test on interface specimens between carbon fibres and finely
is possibly an appearance of the damage phenomena on the inter-
grained concrete matrix after being preheated at different tempera-
face surface or on the cementitious matrix during the tests, which
tures in order to find the elevated temperature effect on the interface
could strongly affect the results obtained from pull-out tests. In the
properties. The durability effect on the alkali-resistant glass fibre/-
work of Ferreira et al. [26], the sisal fibre has been embedded in
matrix interface was investigated from the double-sided pull-out
Portland cement-based matrix with different lengths (5, 10, 25,
test at different ages of the cementitious matrix [24]. Fidelis et al.
and 50 mm), and the embedment lengths gave different results
[25] have conducted on the effect of accelerated aging on the inter-
in pull-out response. According to the results obtained by previous
face of jute textile-reinforced concrete. Homoro et al. [18] have
studies [18,21], the maximum pull-out force was increased with
recently studied the pull-out response of alkali-resistant (AR) glass
the extension of embedded length. However, if the embedment
yarn from the ettringite matrix with the different pre-
length was too long, fibre damage would probably occur before
impregnation methods and embedded lengths. The effect of fibre
the total debonding [18,21]. So, the results obtained were not
treatments on the sisal fibre/matrix bond strength in cement-
exactly the behaviour of the fibre/matrix interface.
based systems from the pull-out test was investigated by Ferreira
et al. [26]. Lu et al. [27] have studied the improvement of interfacial
bond strength of carbon fibre in the cementitious matrix with a thin 1.2. Previous numerical studies for textile/matrix interface behaviour
SiO2 layer coating. The pull-out tests of glass multi-filament yarn
embedding in a cementitious matrix with different lengths were In the literature, several numerical or analytical studies aimed
carried out for analyzing its failure mechanism and to find a fracture to characterize the behaviour of the interface between textile
mechanism of an analytical model for interfacial behaviour [28]. (or fibre)/matrix in TRC composite or in composite strengthening
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Manh Tien Tran, Xuan Hong Vu and E. Ferrier Construction and Building Materials 282 (2021) 122634

systems. Regarding the analytical approach, these models have 2. Experimental works
been constructed to explain the failure mechanisms of the textile/-
matrix interface. Some researches studied analytically the bond This section respectively presents the equipment used, the
behaviour of Fabric-Reinforced Cementitious Matrix (FRCM) material used and interface specimens, test procedure, a summary
strengthening systems [15,33–35]. Carozzi et al. [35] have pro- of specimens and tests.
posed a cohesive interface crack model for the matrix–textile
debonding in FRCM composites. Grande and Milani [33] have stud-
ied an effective spring model by considering the effect of matrix 2.1. Equipment used
damage on the shear behaviour at the fibre/mortar interface in
FRCM strengthening systems. Zhang et al. [21] have developed 2.1.1. Test machine
an analytical model for pull-out specimens of glass fibre (E and The test machine, used for the pull-out tests, has a high force
AR) embedded in a block of the cementitious matrix. As numerical capacity up to 65 kN for the direct tensile or compressive test. This
results, it could be found that analytical modeling was usually machine is also well equipped with a measurement chain that can
based on the approach of the rupture mechanism. The shear failure be connected to measurement instruments (with contact measure-
of the interface between the textile yarn and the cementitious ment methods such as strain gauge or LVDT) to measure deforma-
matrix was considered as the criteria of a tunnel crack at the inter- tion or relative displacement between two points of the specimen
face. Regarding the numerical approach, several studies have been (see Fig. 1). The tensile load was controlled by the vertical move-
conducted on the textile/matrix interface specimens at the mate- ment of the traverse thanks to the controlling program in the sys-
rial scale or at the structural scale [33,36,37]. Mazzucco et al. tem computer (see Fig. 1b). During the test, the data, including the
[38] have developed a finite element model of the bond behaviour mechanical load and the transverse movement of the test machine,
of FRCM composites by using a mesoscale approach. Djamai et al. were recorded at least twice per second and could then be
[36] have studied numerically at microscale the bond-slip beha- exported in the form of datasheets for the result analysis. Fig. 1
viour of textile reinforced concrete in application to TRC sandwich below presents the test machine with other equipment for pull-
panels. These numerical models have considered a non-linear- out tests.
elastic behaviour of the cementitious matrix layers (mortar or con-
crete), as well as a non-linear bond-slip behaviour of the interfaces
interposed between the textile and matrix layers. The results 2.1.2. Lvdt
obtained from these numerical models showed a good agreement The LVDTs were used for pull-out tests to measure the relative
with that of the experimentand analytical model. slip between two measurement points in carbon textile and
According to Teklal et al. [17], the interface debonding condi- cementitious matrix plate when the tensile force increased with
tion was defined by two distinct approaches: the shear strength time. Two LVDTs were fixed on two surfaces of aluminum plates
criteria and the failure mechanism approach. In the approach of by a mechanical system. Another system was also fixed on the car-
the criteria of shear strength, when the shear stress at the interface bon textile at the position next to the matrix plate. This configura-
reached the resistance at limit state, the debonding occurred at the tion ensured the negligible deformation of the carbon textile
interface between two components. Concerning the failure mecha- between two mechanical systems. Therefore, the displacement
nism approach, the extension of a debonding crack required that obtained from the LVDTs was a bond-slip of pull-out tests. Fig. 2
the potential energy release portion of the composite components shows the LVDTs configuration for pull-out tests.
reached a critical value (called the interface fracture toughness).
Both numerical and analytical models based on these approaches
gave a good agreement with experimental results in the literature. 2.2. Material used and interface specimens

This section presents the cementitious matrix and carbon tex-

tiles studied and the preparation of textile/matrix interface speci-
1.3. Objective of this study mens for pull-out tests in this study.

To the best of the authors’ knowledge, no results concerning

pull-out tests carried out on carbon textile/cementitious matrix 2.2.1. Cementitious matrix
interface specimens are available. There are also not yet numerical The cementitious matrix used in this experimental study was
results regarding the element finite (EF) model for pull-out tests of designed with a laboratory condition to produce carbon TRC spec-
interface specimen of carbon textile and cementitious matrix. So, imens as in the authors’ previous study [39]. This matrix consisted
in order to understand the textile/matrix interface behaviour in of the silico-aluminous-calcic synthetic aggregate, containing
TRC composite, this study aimed to characterize the pull-out beha- about 40% of alumina, obtained by melting, and was characterized
viour with both experimental and numerical approaches. This by a high density and exceptional hardness in addition to cement
paper also contributed additionally to the knowledge about the that essentially consisted of calcium aluminates constituting a bin-
mechanical behaviour of the textile/matrix interface. The carbon der for refractory applications. The high mono-calcium aluminate
textile used in this study was a commercial product with the treat- content of this cement (about 50%) gave the concrete good
ment of an amorphous silica product and was embedded in a con- mechanical performance. For a small thickness of the application,
crete matrix with different lengths. The pull-out specimens were the maximum diameter of the aggregate should be less than
tested by using the tensile machine and measurement chain with 1.25 mm. In particular, a small amount of super-plasticizer and vis-
Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT) for a bond-slip of cosity modifier has been added to the concrete component. The
the interface. Thanks to this test configuration, the ‘‘force – slip” water/cement ratio of this cementitious matrix was 0.35. The
curves could be drawn from pull-out tests. After that, a numerical mechanical properties of the cementitious matrix were character-
model was developed and validated using a spring model for inter- ized by compression tests according to the European standard BS
face behaviour and taking into account the cracking of the cemen- EN 196-1 [40] and tensile tests in the authors’ previous study
titious matrix. The experimental and numerical results obtained [39]. Table 1 below presents the mechanical properties of the
were compared together and discussed in this study. cementitious matrix at 28 days.
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Manh Tien Tran, Xuan Hong Vu and E. Ferrier Construction and Building Materials 282 (2021) 122634

Test machine

Measurement chain

Control computer

Strain gauge
connection box

(a) (b)

Fig. 1. Test machine for experimental works; (a) General view of the pull-out test configuration; (b) Control system of the test.

Ball-joint
loading head

LVDTs

Cementitious
matrix

Mechanical
system for LVDTs

Carbon textile

Aluminium plate

Ball-joint
loading head

(a) (b)

Fig. 2. Pull-out test setup; (a): Overview of LVDT configuration; (b) Detail of LVDT set-up.

Table 1 2.2.3. Specimen preparation

Mechanical properties of the cementitious matrix at 28 days [39,40]. The GC2 carbon textile/cementitious matrix interface speci-
Mechanical properties of the cementitious Average Standard mens were fabricated in the laboratory condition for pull-out tests
matrix value deviation (called IN-F.GC2 in this study). The preparation of pull-out speci-
Compressive strength at 28 days 58.1 MPa 2.5 MPa mens was performed using hand lay-up technique in the following
(BS EN 196-1, 2005) procedure. Firstly, the cementitious matrix was prepared with its
Tensile strength 5.29 MPa 0.11 MPa formulation as in the authors’ previous research [39] (see
Young’s modulus 8.41 GPa 1.14 GPa
Fig. 4a). Afterwards, the rectangular plates of a cementitious
matrix with dimensions of 100 mm  300 mm  10 mm
(length  width  thickness) were moulded with different embed-
2.2.2. Reinforcement textiles ded lengths of GC2 carbon textiles in it. The embedded length var-
The continuous carbon textile used (called GC2 – Grid of Carbon ied from 2 cm to 4 cm for IN-F.GC2 specimens. The placement of
fibre 2) in this experiment was industrial products that were man- GC2 carbon textile was established in the same way for all cases
ufactured in a factory in grid form. The geometry of the carbon grid of embedded length in the matrix block of pull-out specimens. A
in the longitudinal and transverse directions was 17 mm  17 mm transversal yarn (the weft) was placed at the border of the cemen-
(see Fig. 3a). The cross-section of wire (the warp as well as the titious matrix plate, and the carbon textile part anchoring in the
weft) was 1.795 mm2. This textile had some advantages, such as cementitious matrix block was extended until the reaching of the
very high tensile strength and Young’s modulus, high corrosion embedded length. Then, after curing of the cementitious matrix
resistance, low weight per unit area, simple and flexible applica- (28 days), each specimen plate was cut (the matrix as well as the
tion. Furthermore, it was treated with an amorphous silica product carbon textile), to obtain the specimens with the cementitious
to improve bond adherence with the cementitious matrix (see matrix block dimensions of 100 mm  51 mm  10 mm
Fig. 3b). The mechanical capacities of this carbon textile were iden- (length  width  thickness) (see Fig. 4b). Both ends of the test
tified in the authors’ previous research [39,41]. The mechanical specimens were bonded with aluminium plates to transfer tensile
properties of the GC2 carbon textile are summarized in Table 2. load on the pull-out test specimens (see Fig. 4c). Finally, all sam-

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Manh Tien Tran, Xuan Hong Vu and E. Ferrier Construction and Building Materials 282 (2021) 122634

Fig. 3. Carbon textile used in the experimental study; (a) Carbon grid geometry (dimension in mm); (b) Treatment product on carbon textile; (c) Detail of knitting between
the warp and weft.

Table 2 imens of GC2 carbon textile embedded in matrix plates with differ-
Mechanical and physical properties of ent lengths, from 2 cm to 4 cm.
the studied carbon textiles [39,41].

Properties GC2
3. Experimental resultsand discussion
Ultimate strength (MPa) 1312
Young’s modulus (GPa) 144
Ultimate strain (%) 0.97 This section presents all results of pull-out tests performed on
carbon textile/cementitious matrix interface specimens (IN-F.
GC2), including the pull-out behaviour, the failure modes, and
ples were labeled for the tests (see Fig. 4d). Fig. 4 below shows the the pull-out energy of interface specimens.
preparation procedure of pull-out test specimens IN-F.GC2.
3.1. Pull-out test results
2.3. Summary of specimens and tests
3.1.1. Pull-out behaviour of IN-F.GC2 specimens
Table 3 shows the list of specimens for the pull-out tests in this Fig. 5a presents all force-slip curves obtained from pull-out
experiment. There were 12 tests carried out on the interfacial spec- tests performed on IN-F.GC2 specimens with different embedded

(a) Preparation step of the cementitious matrix (b) Molding of the specimen plate (IN-F.GC1)

(c) Bonding with aluminum plates (c) Labeling of the pull-out test specimens (IN-F.GC2)

Fig. 4. Preparation procedure of pull-out test specimens.

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Manh Tien Tran, Xuan Hong Vu and E. Ferrier Construction and Building Materials 282 (2021) 122634

Table 3
List of tests carried out on the pull-out specimens; (a, b, c: names of different tests carried out in the same condition).

Specimens Dimensions of matrix block [length  width Embedded length Number of tests
 thickness (mm3)] (mm)
IN-F.GC2 – 2 cm (a,b,c) 100  51  10 20 3
IN-F.GC2 – 2.5 cm (a,b,c) 25 3
IN-F.GC2 – 3 cm (a,b,c) 30 3
IN-F.GC2 – 4 cm (a,b,c) 40 3
Total of tests 12

Fig. 5. Experimental results of pull-out tests; (a) All ‘‘force – slip” curves of IN-F.GC2; (b) Idealization of the pull-out behaviour.

lengths. Regarding results, it was found that the pull-out speci- values (force and slip) of the typical points of pull-out behaviour,
mens gave the softening behaviour for the textile/matrix bond as well as the average pull-out force per unit of embedded length
with three phases as presented in the literature [17]. The first (Fave) for IN-F.GC2 specimens with different cases.
phase was the perfect bonding one from the beginning point into
the top point in which the ‘‘force – slip” relationship is almost lin- 3.1.2. Total energy
ear. The second phase is called the debonding one which was char- The total energy of pull-out work is the energy necessary to
acterized by a significant drop in the pull-out force after reaching damage the textile/matrix bond at the interface. It is not included
the maximum value. The final phase was called the pure friction the deformation energies which were accumulated in carbon tex-
one which could be drawn par the progressive decrease of pull- tile yarns and matrix block. Generally, this energy could be calcu-
out force with the increase of slip between the cementitious matrix lated from the bond-slip curve of the pull-out behaviour of
block and carbon textile. At the beginning of this phase, the force- textile/matrix interface specimens. In the case of this study, it
slip curve showed a queue form with a slight rise of the pull-out was identified as the area limited by the ‘‘force-slip” curve of its
force and then a slight drop in this one. behaviour as presented in Fig. 5b.
In order to characterize the pull-out behaviour for IN-F.GC2 As experimental results concerning the total energy for pull-out
specimens, an idealization curve was drawn by using the notation work of IN-F.GC2 specimens, it could be found that there was a
for the typical points (see Fig. 6b) as detailed below: progressive increase of this value with the embedded lengths from
Point 0 defines the beginning of the ‘‘pull-out force – slip” curve. 2 cm to 3 cm. When the embedded length extends from 3 cm to
Point I defines the end of the perfect bonding phase and the 4 cm, the total energy of IN-F.GC2 specimen significantly increases
beginning of the debonding phase; it is the top of this curve, and from 1.86 times to about 4.76 times compared with its value of IN-
the force corresponding with this point is called the maximum F.GC2 – 2 cm. This result could be explained by the effect of
pull-out force. embedded length on the pull-out behaviour of IN-F.GC2. Due to
Point II defines the end of the debonding phase and the begin- the embedded length of 4 cm, this specimen maintained a great
ning of the pure friction phase; the slip value in this point corre- force in the pure friction phase of its response which gave a value
sponds with that of the point after the first drop while the force that was considerably higher than that of other specimens.
value is calculated to ensure the similar values of total energy.
Point III defines the end of the pure friction phase and the end of 3.1.3. Failure mode
the ‘‘pull-out force-slip” curve. The textile/cementitious matrix interface specimens were
With an idealization presented above, the pull-out behaviour observed after pull-out tests to analyze the failure mode. All IN-
could be drawn for all interface specimens with different embed- F.GC2 specimens showed just only failure mode par the pull-out
ded lengths. Fig. 6 presents all ‘‘force-slip” curves and the average of carbon textile from the cementitious matrix block. This interface
one for 4 cases of embedded lengths from 2 cm to 4 cm. Regarding failure occurred progressively with the cracking of the cementi-
results, it could be found that the maximum pull-out force gener- tious matrix around the position of carbon textile warps. So, it
ally increased with the extension of this length. The same tendency could be said that all pull-out specimens presented a failure mode
could be observed for the relation between the force in the pure par rupture at the textile/matrix interface. Basically, the process of
friction phase and embedded length. Table 4 below shows all this rupture included the inelastic and dissipative mechanisms of
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Manh Tien Tran, Xuan Hong Vu and E. Ferrier Construction and Building Materials 282 (2021) 122634

Fig. 6. ‘‘Force-slip” curves of the IN-F.GC2 specimens with different embedded lengths.

Table 4
Experimental results obtained from pull-out tests on IN-F.GC2 samples with different embedded lengths (2 cm, 2.5 cm, 3 cm and 4 cm); Fave : average pull-out force per unit of
embedded length; Gt : total energy.

Specimens Point I Point II Point III Gt Fave

Force Slip Force Slip Force Slip (N.mm) (N/mm)
(N) (mm) (N) (mm) (N) (mm)
IN-F.GC2 – 2 cm (a,b,c) 1429.79 (196.55) 0.281 (0.037) 579.89 (16.32) 0.761 (0.115) 198.87 (35.95) 5.367 (0.184) 1554.06 (104.34) 71.49 (9.83)
IN-F.GC2 – 2.5 cm (a,b,c) 1609.71 (211.57) 0.519 (0.042) 549.20 (106.40) 0.865 (0.166) 295.50 (114.90) 4.813 (0.306) 2018.28 (458.71) 64.39 (8.46)
IN-F.GC2 – 3 cm (a,b,c) 2015.26 (163.29) 0.359 (0.098) 686.34 (183.71) 0.736 (0.121) 393.83 (63.89) 4.308 (0.204) 2889.99 (486.85) 67.18 (5.44)
IN-F.GC2 – 4 cm (a,b,c) 2288.28 (127.62) 0.485 (0.135) 1473.06 (161.79) 0.943 (0.165) 913.36 (75.85) 6.915 (1.476) 7399.15 (584.77) 57.21 (3.10)

the textile/matrix interface. So, the residual capacity of the textile/- (pull-out behaviour, maximum pull-out force, total energy and fail-
matrix interface after the major debonding decreased progres- ure mode of interface specimens), which were presented in
sively with the increase of the slip between textile warps and Section 3.1.
cementitious matrix. In the pull-out force-slip curve, this failure
mode corresponded with the pure friction phase of its behaviour.
3.2.1. Effect of carbon textile on pull-out behaviour
After pull-out tests, it could be observed on the IN-F.GC2 spec-
As experimental results obtained, IN-F.GC2 specimens gave a
imens that a matrix part was pulled out from the matrix block with
softening behaviour with three distinguishable phases for all
carbon textile (see Fig. 7a). This presented the matrix valleys
embedded lengths, as presented in Fig. 6. This pull-out response
around each textile yarn of the sample (see Fig. 7b). Furthermore,
was affected by the physical characteristics of GC2 carbon textile.
we could also observe the cracks under the tunnel form at the warp
Firstly, its geometry had significant influence on the interaction
positions. These cracks were caused by the load transfer from the
between textile and matrix in the case of pull-out tests. With the
tensile force in carbon textile to the matrix block. The part of the
presence of the transversal yarns (the wefts) in the matrix block,
warps pulling out from the matrix was coated with a thin layer
it greatly contributed to hold back the carbon textile against the
of the matrix, which was the product of the reaction between the
pull-out force. The wefts could be considered as nonlinear spring
amorphous silica treatment and cement paste [27].
to connect the longitudinal yarns (the warps) with the matrix
block in this case. The failure mechanism of the textile/matrix
3.2. Discussion interface gradually occurred from outside to inside along the
embedded length. Each drop of force on pull-out behaviour corre-
This section presents the discussions to explain the effects of sponded with the debonding at the position of transversal yarn. In
carbon textile and embedded lengths on the results obtained the last phase, the knitting between the warps and the wefts
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Manh Tien Tran, Xuan Hong Vu and E. Ferrier Construction and Building Materials 282 (2021) 122634

Fig. 7. Failure modes of interface specimens after pull-out tests; (a) During the test; (b) after the test.

helped the carbon textile not to be slipped out from the matrix the necessary pull-out force was higher to give rise to the begin-
block. Hence we could observe a progressive failure characterized ning of tunnel crack around warp yarns. However, this tendency
by a gradual decrease of pull-out force as a function of slip. was not linear for all cases of embedded length. In practice, the tex-
Secondly, the textile treatment has also affected the failure tile/matrix interface was damaged just only a part of its length
mechanism of the longitudinal yarns/matrix interface. The textile from the outside to the position of the next weft yarns. So, the
warps were formed by approximately 3200 monofilaments increase of pull-out force was not linear with the embedded length.
(2  1600 tex/strand) with a treatment product of amorphous silica. In the case of IN-F.GC2 specimens with an embedded length of
This product can react with the cement hydration product Ca(OH)2 4 cm, the maximum pull-out force increased slightly compared
to form a C-S-H gel, as demonstrated in the literature [27] (see to that of IN-F.GC2 with 3 cm in embedded length. Concerning
Fig. 8). This thin layer of C-S-H gel gave a good adhesion between car- the effect of embedded length on pure friction force of pull-out
bon textile yarns and cementitious matrix. When the carbon textile behaviour, an inverse effect could be observed from Fig. 9a. For
was loaded by the pull-out force, the carbon filaments of the warp IN-F.GC2 with 4 cm in embedded length, after being damaged on
moved toward themselves to tighten together. The tightening, in a part, the interface length was long enough to maintain a greater
this case, generated the torsional stress around the section of the frictional force in comparison with that of other specimens of the
system between textile yarn and C-S-H gel. This stress component smaller embedded length. On the other hand, IN-F.GC2 specimens
in combination with shear stress in the longitudinal direction dam- with three other embedded lengths (2 cm, 2.5 cm, and 3 cm) gave
aged the cementitious matrix to generate the crack tunnel along an almost linear tendency of maximum pull-out force and pure
with the yarn/matrix interface (see Fig. 8b). At the outside, the effect friction force with the increase of embedded length.
of these stress components could be clearly found by the matrix val- The effect of embedded length on the total pull-out energy is
leys in spiral form on pull-out specimens (see Fig. 8a). shown in Fig. 10b below. According to this figure, a significant
increase in this value of IN-F.GC2 specimens could be found with
interface specimens of carbon textile embedded 4 cm in the
3.2.2. Effect of embedded length on pull-out behaviour
matrix. This result comes from thevery higher friction force in
Regarding the effect of embedded length on the pull-out
the third phase compared to the other pull-out specimens. In this
response, it could be found that the maximum pull-out force
phase, the energy was consumed to gradually damage the textile/-
increased gradually with the rise of this length. Clearly, in order
matrix interface and decrease the pure friction force while the slip
to damage the system including the connection between the warp
increases with time. As a result, the total energy increases from
and weft yarns and embedded zone in the matrix block, it was nec-
1554 N.mm for IN-F.GC2 – 2 cm, to 7399 N.mm for IN-F.GC2 –
essary to generate the relative displacement of carbon textile
4 cm.
within the matrix block. So, with the longer embedded length,

Fig. 8. Effect of textile treatment on the failure mode of pull-out specimens; (a) Damage of cementitious matrix around the warp yarns; (b) Matrix valleys in spiral form.

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Manh Tien Tran, Xuan Hong Vu and E. Ferrier Construction and Building Materials 282 (2021) 122634

Fig. 9. Effect of embedded length on pull-out behaviour; (a) for pull-out force; (b) for total energy (Gt).

displacement (called slip) between two nodes at the interface, this

generated a reaction force in the spring element to hold back the
textile yarns in the matrix block. Fig. 10 below shows the configu-
ration of the COMBIN39 element in the numerical model of the
pull-out specimen.

4.1.2. Material model

This numerical modeling was based on the material models for
carbon textile, cementitious matrix, and the interface between
both components, in which the material properties were specified
for numerical calculation. Firstly, for the behaviour law of carbon
textile, the perfect linear elastic model was chosen to simulate
its work under the action of mechanical load. The essential param-
eters of this material model were ultimate strength and Young’s
modulus which have been obtained from a previous experimental
study of the authors [39,43], and presented in Section 2.2.2. Then,
Fig. 10. Configuration of elements used in the numerical model (available in the the concrete model (CONCR - Nonlinear Behaviour - Concrete) was
finite element code [42]). used for the cementitious matrix in this numerical model. This
material model could predict the failure of fragile materials (con-
crete, stone, ceramics, etc.) in which the failure modes (cracking
4. Finite element modeling or crushing) were taken into account for crack modeling. The pres-
ence of a crack at an integration point was represented by the
This section presents a three-dimensional finite element model modification of the stress–strain relations by introducing a plane
for the pull-out specimen in which a tri-linear bond-slip model of weakness in a direction normal to the face of the crack. Besides,
was used for carbon textile/matrix interface behaviour as well as a shear transfer coefficient was introduced, which represented a
the damaged concrete behaviour for cementitious matrix. This shear strength reduction factor for subsequent charges that
numerical modeling was developed on account of the finite ele- induced slip (shear) on the crack face. Fig. 11a below presents
ment code [41]. the stress–strain relationship in the coordinate system parallel to
the principal stress directions.
4.1. Numerical model For the connection between the textile yarns and the cementi-
tious matrix, the nonlinear combination model (Nonlinear Spring -
The modeling procedure for this model included the type of ele- COMBIN39) [42] was chosen to simulate the interaction between
ments used, the material model, the mesh, the boundary condi- two materials. With this material model, it could explicitly define
tions and loads. the force-slip curve for the COMBIN39 element by entering dis-
crete force points as a function of the slip. From the experimental
4.1.1. Element types results obtained, the pull-out force - slip relationship could be pro-
In this numerical model, the used elements were LINK180 (3-D posed for the connection between a textile yarn and the cementi-
Spar or Truss) for the carbon textile and SOLID65 (3D Reinforced tious matrix as shown in Fig. 11b.
Concrete Solid) for the cementitious matrix. For the interaction In order to determine the parameter Fmax in Fig. 11b, a paramet-
between the carbon textile and cementitious matrix, the COM- ric study of the influence of this value on the pull-out force was
BIN39 element (Nonlinear Spring) was chosen in this numerical carried out. This study was based on the experimental data of
model. It was a nonlinear spring to link between two nodes: the IN-F.GC2 with the embedded length of 2 cm. Firstly, the average
SOLID65 element node of the cementitious matrix and the LINK180 bond strength of the interface specimen (Fave) was calculated by
element node of the textile (see Fig. 10). The adhesion between two the ratio between the maximum pull-out force and the embedded
elements (SOLID65 and LINK180) was characterized by the beha- length. However, in practice, the interface was not damaged at the
viour law of this spring model. When there was the relative same time in 3 textile warps as well as along their length. So, the
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Manh Tien Tran, Xuan Hong Vu and E. Ferrier Construction and Building Materials 282 (2021) 122634

(a) Model for cementitious matrix (b) Model for interface behaviour

Fig. 11. Material models for this numerical modeling; (a): Model for cementitious matrix [42]; (b) Model for interface behaviour.

(a) Pull-out behaviour of interface depending on (b) Evolution of the maximum pull-out force as a
the ratio Fmax/(Fave/3) function of the ratio Fmax/(Fave/3)
Fig. 12. Parametric study of the influence of the material model on the pull-out behaviour and maximum pull-out force.

value of Fmax in the material model of COMBIN39 element was the pull-out force was taken into account in the non-linear spring
involved from 1 to 6 times of the ratio (Fave/3) (because there were model of the textile/matrix interface. So, it could not be necessary
three textile warps for each interface specimen). The result showed to add the transversal yarns of textile.
that the pull-out behaviour and maximum pull-out force depended Concerning the mesh of the numerical model, the matrix block
on the input data of Fmax (see Fig. 12). In comparison with the and the textile yarns were meshed so that there were common
experimental result of IN-F.GC2 – 2 cm, the corresponding value nodes between the cementitious matrix elements (SOLID65) and
Fmax was 4.19 times of the ratio (Fave/3) (see Fig. 12b). This meant the textile yarn elements (LINK180). Fig. 13a below presents the
that the value of Fmax in the material model of the COMBIN39 ele- mesh of the numerical model for two specimens of the interface
ment was 99.97 N/mm, and this value was used for all cases of IN-F.GC2.
embedded length. Regarding boundary conditions, all nodes on two surfaces of the
The essential parameters of the numerical model identified matrix block bonded with two aluminum plates in corresponding
thanks to experimental results obtained previously by the authors, experimental tests were fixed all displacements (see Fig. 13b). The
are presented in Table 5. mechanical loading was applied to the pull-out specimen by the dis-
placements imposed on the ends of three textile yarns. The increas-
ing rate of displacements imposed was controlled by the numerical
4.1.3. Meshing, boundary conditions and loads calculation time. This loading was also divided by steps to more
In order to simulate the pull-out work of carbon textile from a easily observe the pull-out behaviour of the interface model.
matrix block, a specimen model was generated in the same geom-
etry as the experimental one with the dimensions of
100 mm  51 mm  10 mm (length  width  thickness) for 4.2. Numerical results
matrix block. Three GC2 yarns (the warps) were embedded in this
matrix block with different lengths from 2 cm to 4 cm. In this This section presents the results obtained from the numerical
numerical model, the effect of transversal yarns (the wefts) on model for pull-out specimens with different embedded lengths,

Table 5
Mechanical properties of the materials in the numerical model.

Carbon textile (LINK 180) Cementitious matrix (SOLID 65) Interface (COMBIN 39)
rf (MPa) E (GPa) E (GPa) ft (MPa) eck Tc Fmax(N/mm)
4
1312 143.8 8.41 5.29 6.29  10 0.8 99.97

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Manh Tien Tran, Xuan Hong Vu and E. Ferrier Construction and Building Materials 282 (2021) 122634

Blocked nodes
(on top side)

Blocked nodes
(on boom side)

(a) Geometry and meshing (b) Boundary conditions and loading

Fig. 13. Configuration of meshing, boundary conditions and loading for pull-out specimen model.

including the pull-out behaviour of interface specimens, local concerning the pull-out behaviour of IN-F.GC2 specimens with dif-
behaviour of the component materials and specimen failure mode. ferent embedded lengths.

4.2.2. Local behaviour of the component materials

4.2.1. Pull-out behaviour of IN-F.GC2 specimens In the numerical model for pull-out tests, textile yarns pre-
The pull-out behaviour of IN-F.GC2 specimens with different sented a linear behaviour in tensile loading for all elements inside
embedded lengths could be obtained from the numerical model. or outside the matrix block. With the displacement imposed at the
The pull-out force was calculated from the reaction force at all ends of textile yarns, the stress inthese parts was distributed
nodes of textile yarns applied with the displacement imposed, evenly along the length of the textile yarn. However, for the rest
while the slip was the relative displacement between two points inside the matrix block, the pull-out force was distributed evenly
at the first position of interface contact, one on matrix block and to the matrix elements surrounded by textile/matrix interface ele-
another one on textile yarn. As numerical results, the interface ments. This distribution depended on the relative displacement
model showed a trilinear behaviour with four cases of embedded between two points of the nonlinear spring element. So, the stress
length as input data presented in Fig. 11b. In the first phase, the of textile yarn parts embedded in the matrix block was evolved
force increased linearly with the slip between carbon textile and with the position of the studied point. Fig. 15a, b present respec-
matrix block until the matrix elements around textile yarns were tively the distribution of stress and displacement of all nodes in
damaged, and the micro-cracks appeared. These micro-cracks were textile yarns at the calculation step corresponding with the maxi-
developed and became the tunnel cracks with the increase of the mum pull-out force for IN-F.GC2 with 2 cm of embedded length.
pull-out force. The force decrease appeared when the effective Concerning the mechanical behaviour of the cementitious
embedded length was reduced because of the damage of matrix matrix in this numerical modeling, the concrete model presented
elements, and the rest of the interface bond was not strong enough a nonlinear response with the material damage by the element
to support the pull-out force. In the last phase, the pull-out force cracks according to three main directions. The first crack of one
decreased with the increase of textile/matrix slip because the matrix element appeared in a direction which fitted with the prin-
interface model (COMBIN39) was passed in the nonlinear phase. cipal direction an angle of 45° because this element was under shear
Concerning the effect of embedded length on pull-out beha- stress state (see micro-cracks in Fig. 17). After the damage of the
viour, the maximum pull-out forceincreased gradually from matrix parts around the textile yarns, it would be pulled out from
1468.4 N to 2606.0 N, corresponding respectively with the exten- the matrix block, as shown in Fig. 16b. This numerical result was
sion of embedded length from 2 cm to 4 cm. All values of maxi- in good agreement with the observation of the experiment.
mum pull-out force, obtained by numerical modeling, are
presented in Table 6 in comparison with those of the experiment. 4.2.3. Failure mode
This table also presents other values of pure friction force in the The numerical model for all cases of embedded length only
last phase of pull-out behaviour and the percentage errors between showed one failure mode on the pull-out test specimens (see
both numerical and experimental results. Fig. 14 below presented Fig. 17). On the matrix block, the damage of matrix elements could
an agreement between both numerical and experimental results be seen around the textile yarns. These elements (SOLID65) were

Table 6
Comparison of the maximum pull-out force of the experimental and numerical results for IN-F.GC2 specimens.

Results IN-F.GC2 – 2 cm IN-F.GC2 – 2.5 cm IN-F.GC2 – 3 cm IN-F.GC2 – 4 cm

Full-out force Friction force Full-out force Friction force Full-out force Friction force Full-out force Friction force
(N) (N) (N) (N) (N) (N) (N) (N)
Experimental 1429.79 198.87 1609.71 295.50 2015.29 393.83 2288.29 913.36
value
Numerical value 1468.38 197.88 1731.72 329.38 2028.41 408.70 2656.02 1145.81
Errors (%) 2.70 0.50 7.58 11.47 0.65 3.78 16.07 25.45

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Manh Tien Tran, Xuan Hong Vu and E. Ferrier Construction and Building Materials 282 (2021) 122634

(a) Embedded length of 2 cm (b) Embedded length of 2.5 cm

(c) Embedded length of 3 cm (c) Embedded length of 4 cm

Fig. 14. Comparison of experimental and numerical results on the pull-outbehaviour of IN-F.GC2 specimens with different embedded lengths.

(a) Stress in textile yarns (b) Displacement of all nodes of textile yarns
Fig. 15. Mechanical behaviour of textile yarns at the step of maximum pull-out force for IN-F.GC2 – 2 cm.

directly connected with the elements of textile yarns (LINK180) by that on pull-out specimens after the numerical calculation, there
the nonlinear spring elements and were strongly deformed under were several micro-cracks along the embedded length of carbon
pull-out force action. This shear force also transferred to the other textile yarns. The number of micro-cracks depended on the embed-
matrix elements around the textile yarn elements (not directly ded length but was not proportional for this dependence.
connected) by the shear transfer coefficient of the matrix material In comparison with the failure mode of pull-out specimens in the
model. The numerical model presented the cracks in the matrix experiment, there was an interesting agreement of the numerical
elements at positions around textile yarns, as shown in Fig. 17a. model result. The damage and cracks of the matrix block were pre-
The deep of tunnel cracks was generally equal to the slip of pull- sented in the form of conical valleys, as shown in Fig. 17b. Fig. 17 pre-
out response and was not dependent on the embedded length of sents the comparison between both experimental and numerical
carbon textile in the matrix block. However, it could be observed results concerning the failure mode of IN-F.GC2 specimens.

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Manh Tien Tran, Xuan Hong Vu and E. Ferrier Construction and Building Materials 282 (2021) 122634

(a) Shear stress of all nodes on matrix block (b) Displacement of all nodes on matrix block

Fig. 16. Mechanical behaviour of cementitious matrix at the step of maximum pull-out force for IN-F.GC2 – 3 cm.

(a) Numerical model

(b) Experimental

Fig. 17. Failure mode of pull-out specimens.

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Manh Tien Tran, Xuan Hong Vu and E. Ferrier Construction and Building Materials 282 (2021) 122634

5. Conclusions and future works References

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