Ceramic Arts Handbook

Ceramic Arts Handbook
by Vince Pitelka
www.ceramicartshandbook.com | Copyright \u00a9 2001, 2007 The American Ceramic Society
Ta b l e o f C o n t e n t s
Preface ......................................................................................... 1
1 Clay and Claybodies.............................................................. 3
The Nature of Clay ................................................................................ 3
Claybodies ............................................................................................. 4
2 Handbuilding......................................................................... 5
Wedging the Clay ................................................................................. 6
Handbuilding: General Guidelines
and Suggestions ................................................................................. 6
Making Pinch Forms ............................................................................. 9
Coil Construction ............................................................................... 11
Slab Construction ............................................................................... 14
Making Tiles ....................................................................................... 17
3 Throwing ............................................................................. 19
Critical Points in Throwing ................................................................ 19
Skill Development with Cylinders ..................................................... 21
Throwing Bowls ................................................................................. 22
Drying Your Pots ................................................................................ 26
Finishing the Bottoms of Your Pots .................................................. 27
4 Surface Decoration on Greenware..................................... 29
Decorative Effects during Forming ................................................... 29
Impressed Decoration ........................................................................ 29
Subtractive Methods .......................................................................... 31
Additive Methods............................................................................... 32
5 Glazes and Glazing ............................................................. 33
Introduction to Glazing ..................................................................... 33
Glaze-Firing Ranges ........................................................................... 34
Glazing Methods ................................................................................ 34
Glaze Faults ........................................................................................ 36
6 Kilns and Firing ................................................................... 38
General Kiln and Firing Practices ...................................................... 38
Preparing and Loading Kilns ............................................................. 39
Determining Appropriate Firing and
Cooling Ramps ................................................................................. 41
Kiln Firing Chart ................................................................................. 43
7 Studio Safety ....................................................................... 44
Studio Safety Checklist ...................................................................... 44
Toxic and Hazardous Materials ......................................................... 45
Dust/Dirt Management ..................................................................... 45
Skin Care ............................................................................................ 45
Equipment Safety............................................................................... 46
www.ceramicartshandbook.com | Copyright \u00a9 2001, 2007 The American Ceramic Society | \ue000
Preface
This Ceramic Arts Handbook is an abridged version of Vince Pitelka\u2019s best

selling Clay: A Studio Handbook (The American Ceramic Society, 2001). His
book has sold thousands of copies and is used both as a textbook and refer-
ence resource in thousands of ceramics studios in art schools, community
art centers, colleges, universities, and homes. While the book authoritatively
explores each topic in great detail, we\u2019ve extracted some of the basic essen-
tials you need to get you started on your clay adventure.
In his introduction, Vince writes \u201cThrough 30 years of experience as a

studio potter, welder/fabricator/mechanic, and university educator, I have
been collecting and disseminating information about ceramics. This book
is a compilation of what I feel will be most valuable to ceramics students,
studio artists, and educators, regardless of the particular direction of their
ceramic work or teaching. I hope it will provide a convenient reference to
help you through most of the steps in skill development, studio setup, and
operations. It is my intent to offer answers and stimulate ideas.\u201d
Working in clay is one of the most rewarding activities. It\u2019s suitable for
all age groups and personalities and provides challenges for every skill level.
We believe that this Handbook will provide you with a deeper understand-
ing and appreciation of this medium, and hope that you\u2019ll be able to spend
many joyful hours ahead with your hands in clay.
Bill Jones
Ceramic Arts Book Manager
Clay: A Studio Handbook

by Vince Pitelka
The American Ceramic Society, 2001
www.ceramicartshandbook.com | Copyright \u00a9 2001, 2007 The American Ceramic Society | \ue001
Clay and Claybodies
Chapter 1
The Nature of Clay

We who work and play in clay have chosen well. Clay is among the
most abundant and inexpensive materials on earth. The natural processes
that weather and decay igneous rocks have been generous in providing
us with extensive clay deposits in a variety of forms. Clay is abundantly
available almost everywhere on earth, awaiting our need, often requiring
little processing.
Clay is a remarkable material for so many reasons. There is no other art
or craft material that has the versatility and possibility of clay. We can cast
it, throw it, extrude it, model it, roll it, pinch it, press it, slump it, stamp
it, pull it, and push it. We can use it to create any form or shape, tiny or
monumental, organic or rectilinear, thin and fragile, or thick and heavy. It
is the most malleable and forgiving of art materials. It asks little of us, but
with commitment and respect on our part, it rewards us generously.
When subjected to a simple firing process, clay is transformed to hard,
impermeable stone, and what was once so malleable and impermanent
might now remain stable and unchanged for millennia. As if the mere
workability and fired permanence of clay were not enough, we can also
apply an unending variety of mineral coatings that fuse into glassy glaze
surfaces of unlimited color and texture. When you place a lump of clay
in anyone’s hand, the response is automatic. The hand closes and squeezes
the clay, and a unique sculptural form is produced, subtly different from
any other before. Few of us stop at that point, for the clay encourages us
to apply different forces, responding to every push and pull. Until the clay
begins to stiffen, there are no rules, and no externally imposed finality. We
can undo what we have done, and we can immediately return any form
or shape to a simple lump and begin anew.
We do not know what we can do until we find out what we cannot do,
and in order to fully discover the possibilities, we must take chances and
experience lots of failure and mistakes. When in doubt, make something.
Never allow frustration or failure to drive you from this medium.
Do not ever stop experimenting and exploring. Do not be satisfied with
a single direction in your work. Do not become smug with any aspect of
the medium, no matter how well you think you know it. The clay will
catch you off guard and will throw you for a loop every time. But as long
as you maintain a spirit of discovery and curiosity, the clay will reward
you frequently and generously.
www.ceramicartshandbook.com | Copyright © 2001, 2007 The American Ceramic Society |

Clay and Claybodies • Chapter 1
and bisque strength, and yet it mini- Porcelain claybodies include

What Is Clay?
Clay results from the natural mizes the water content and result- gritless high-fire bodies that fire
decomposition of certain igneous ing shrinkage. close to pure white. Under cer-
rocks—primarily granite and feld- tain circumstances, fired porce-
spar. The end result of the decom- Claybodies lain can be translucent. True bone
position of granite and feldspar pro- Claybodies are mixtures of clay china (traditional translucent por-
duces microscopic flat clay crystalsand other materials designed to celain) is so-titled due to the
called platelets. accomplish specific goals like addition of bone ash (calcium
When microscopic clay platelets plasticity in throwing, stability in phosphate). Bone china bodies are
are wet, they tend to stick together large-scale work, thermal shock very prone to warpage unless fired
and slide smoothly against one resistance, dry and fired strength,on flat shelves with no hot spots
another. The most plastic clays are or vitrification and density. in the firing. Actually, any reason-
those with the smallest particle size. Earthenware claybodies remain ably well-fluxed cone 10 porcelain
Different clays behave differentlyporous at low-fire, and yet at thrown very thin will give some
depending on the range and dis- higher temperatures will likely
translucence without the disad-
tribution of particle size and thedeform and bloat before vitrifica- vantages of bone china.
presence of non-clay contaminants,tion. Traditional earthenware bod- Stoneware claybodies use natural
primarily organic materials and ies are usually red or buff, a blend stoneware clay and/or fireclay as
nonplastic minerals. of iron-rich surface clay plus sand a base, with additions of ball clay,
or grog to give structure and often kaolin, flint, fluxes, and/or grog or
How Does Particle Size with fireclay or stoneware clay to sand. Whiteness is rarely an issue,
Affect Drying and Firing? increase firing temperature and so the materials are selected for
The size and shape of clay par- reduce the chances of deformationdesirable performance in form-
ticles help determine plasticity, but and bloating. Modern low-fire
ing and firing, regardless of color.
they also have profound effects in bodies are often white, composed
Natural stoneware clays and plastic
drying and firing the clay. The evap- of 50-50 ball clay and talc, and are
fireclays with the addition of ball
oration of the water layer existing
actually very similar to ones used clay produce an extremely plastic
between each particle in the plastic
by the Egyptians 5000 years ago. throwing body. Adding sand or
state is what causes drying shrink-
A low-temperature firing pro- grog gives tooth or structure in the
age. The finer the particle size, the
cess does not necessarily mean plastic state and reduces slumping
more water layers are present, and
an earthenware or whiteware during throwing or handbuilding,
therefore the greater the water con-
clay—the raku and bonfire pro- allows thinner, taller wares with
tent, and the greater the drying
cesses often use highly refractory greater horizontal extension, and
shrinkage. But at the same time,
stoneware bodies that are simply reduces drying shrinkage.
the finer the particle size, the more
underfired at low-fire tempera-
contact points between particles in
the dry state, which gives greater tures and are therefore very porous
dry strength in greenware and more and open, giving high thermal
bonding surfaces in the early stages shock resistance. Low firing is
of the firing. The ideal condition is especially appropriate for large
to have a mixture of sizes of clay par- sculptural work, as there is little
ticles. This creates as much contact or no shrinkage in low firing, and
surface as possible between particles,common problems with cracking
giving good plasticity, dry strength, and warpage are minimized.

Handbuilding
Chapter 2
With handbuilding, the full scope of sculptural form and expression is

available to the potter and the sculptor. It offers innumerable possibilities in
structure and surface that are impossible or impractical on the wheel. With
handbuilding processes, one can construct almost any imaginable shape.
These processes are divided into three main categories: pinch, coil, and slab
construction. Pinch and coil construction are the prevalent forming meth-
ods in all ancient and tribal cultures. Slab construction was widely used
in Meso-American pre-Columbian cultures, but otherwise is rarely found
until modern times. Pinch construction is by far the simplest of these pro-
cesses and provides the ideal introduction to all other ceramics construction
methods. Pinch forms are usually confined to less than six inches in diam-
eter, although there are exceptions to this. Pinch forms can be made either
very thin and delicate or thick and substantial. There is something quite
remarkable about an eggshell-thin pinched form, sanded and burnished,
and blackware bonfired to a satin black luster.
Coil constructed forms can take almost any shape imaginable. Coiling is
the only method where novices can quickly learn to make very large ves-
sels or sculpture, and the experience can rapidly increase their confidence
in clayworking. Coiling is especially appropriate for organic forms, large
volumetric vessels, and figurative sculpture.
Clay slabs can be worked in either the soft-slab or stiff-slab method,
indicating the condition of the slab while it is being worked. The soft-
slab method is appropriate for slumped, draped, or soft-formed vessels, for
clay masks, or for draping onto forms to make components to be stiffened
and assembled. It is also ideal for making a wide variety of curvilinear and
organic forms. The stiff slab technique is more appropriate for rectilinear
and architectural forms, although the two approaches can be combined.
Even for hard-edged geometric forms, many sculptors and vessel makers
slump-mold curved components and assemble them leather-hard along
with flat, stiff-slab components.

Handbuilding • Chapter 2
Wedging the Clay homogenizing any irregularities in Forming Method: Use the
The wedging process is importantcomposition or moisture content, method appropriate for the forms
in all ceramic construction tech- and more importantly, eliminating you wish to make—for organic
niques, as poorly wedged clay sim- air bubbles. Remember not to push shapes use coil, pinch, or soft slab,
ply does not respond well. Wedging down from above, flattening the for geometric shapes use coil or
mixes and homogenizes the clay andlump, and be sure not to push so stiff slab.
eliminates air bubbles. Do not everhard on each stroke that you smear Awareness of Surface Effects:
settle for clay that is too wet or too the ball out too flat, because when With an appropriate forming method
dry—it simply isn’t worth it. With you stand it up and push again it and sensitivity to the surface created
clay that is too wet it is a simple will fold over on itself, trapping air during initial construction, subse-
matter to wedge it on a dry plaster instead of eliminating it. Each push quent surface finishing may not be
slab, or to slice it, stand the slices should just smear the bottom of the necessary. The forming or assembly
vertically and allow them to stiffen lump over a little, without ever trap- process itself can often create patterns
up. Any clay that is too dry can be ping more air in the clay. or marks that are very pleasing.
sliced, wetted down, and left in a

Generally a minute or so of wedg- Concentration of Pressure
ing is enough, but, if you are blend- Points: All stages of manipulating
bag or barrel overnight to absorb
ing different clays or working dry the clay depend on concentration
the moisture. If you stiffen or soften
material into overly wet clay, it may of pressure points, giving you much
your clay by these methods, be sure
take considerably more wedging. If greater control than with a broad
to wedge it very thoroughly before
the clay lump begins to elongate to application of pressure over a large
using it.
When first learning to wedge, either side, slap your palms against itarea. EVERY part of your hand is
cylinder wedging is usually the easi- to narrow it. useful. Remember that for every
est approach to master. Start with a action there is a reaction. Keep in
ball of clay that you can comfortably Handbuilding: mind the consequences of every
stretch your fingers around (like a General Guidelines type of pressure that you apply to
large orange). Set the ball on a flat and Suggestions the clay.
surface, preferably a canvas-covered The following guidelines and sug- Wall Thickness: Make pieces only
table. Hold both hands as you would gestions apply to all clayworking, as thick as is necessary. Extra thick-
to shake hands with someone, and but especially to handbuilding. If ness does not necessarily increase
grab the ball firmly with your hands you familiarize yourself thoroughly structural integrity. In tall pieces you
wrapped around either side, as indi- with these guidelines, the learning may wish to make the lower walls
curve will be accelerated.
cated in Fig. 2.1. Applying pressure slightly thicker, but otherwise main-
downwards against the table, push Commanding Approach: Claytain uniform thickness. For most
the ball away from you slightly, mov- appreciates a vigorous, command- sculpture and vessels, even a very
ing it two or three inches so that the ing approach with an economy of large piece should not be more than
bottom smears forcibly against the motion. Whatever you do, do it for I" to 1" thick anywhere.
table. Roll the ball back up towards a specific reason. With an aggres- Base Support and Bottom:
you (standing it up on the smeared sive, adventurous approach, you willAlways construct large forms on a
“extension”), grab again on either learn much faster than with a weak, sturdy movable board, with several
side as before, and push down and tentative approach. layers of newspaper under the clay
away as before. Repeat this at least Clay Consistency: Always startto prevent sticking and to allow for
20 times for each lump of clay. with well-wedged clay of an appro- contraction of the piece during dry-
This process creates a spiral twist- priate stiffness or softness for the ing shrinkage. On coil or slab work,
ing and stretching within the lump, desired project. always build on top of a bottom slab

of clay. Whenever possible, have

Figure 2.1 Cylinder Wedging a single continuous base that
supports all parts of a piece. For
example, if you are building an
animal form with delicate legs,
incorporate a base as part of the
piece, thereby supporting and
protecting the legs.
Closed Spaces: Never create
completely closed spaces, as they
will trap steam pressure and may
explode in the kiln. Always make
breather holes. Tiny pinholes are
adequate, but make several in case
Place hands on either side of the lump in Lean into the lump. one becomes clogged. Whenever
handshaking position.
possible, ALWAYS leave larger
breather holes. Never apply addi-
tions or appliques in such a way
that air is trapped beneath them.
Joining: Always join clay
aggressively and firmly in a way
that is appropriate for the con-
sistency of the clay. NEVER
press clay straight together with-
out proper preparation, as this
will result in the alignment of
particles in a fracture plane.
Soft clay may be joined with-
Continue leaning into the lump, smear- Roll the top of the lump directly up
ing the lower portion against the wedg- towards you and grasp the sides. out scoring or slurry, especially
ing table. in coil construction, as long as
the pieces are smeared thor-
oughly together, blending the
seams inside and out to ensure
thorough interlocking of the
particles. In all other circum-
stances, when joining parts or
adding soft clay or appliques to
a surface, score thoroughly with
a fork or toothed rib, be sure
to use enough slurry to force
out all air bubbles, and press the
parts in place firmly to eject all
Lean into the lump again, roll it back Continue until the lump is well blended
excess slurry. With leather-hard
towards you, and repeat. and shows this appearance.
clay, always fit the pieces well,

score thoroughly, use a generous metal tool, the surface feels scratchy,
the clay’s ability to support itself.
amount of slurry, and immediately and the displaced material falls away
With large pieces, cover the surfaces
join the pieces with firm pressure. freely as small particles. Many peo- where more parts are to be joined,
In joining component parts or slabs, ple like to carve the clay at this and allow the rest of the piece to
whenever possible score the inside stage, although a point between stiffen before continuing (or accel-
of the joint and press in a small coil medium and hard leather-hard is erate stiffening with a hair dryer or
of soft clay along the seam. Ideally, usually more desirable. This stage ispropane torch).
pieces to be joined together should appropriate for thin surface paint- Structure: At all stages, consider
be the same consistency and stiffness.ing, but not for thick slip techniquesthe structural integrity of the clay
However, this is not always possible, like slip-trailing. Once the clay has (in both wet and dry stages) and its
and when joining pieces of dissimilarbegun to bleach (lighten in color ability to support the upper por-
moisture content, cover the assem- from drying) it has passed beyond tions of the piece. With large sculp-
bled form and allow the moisture the leather-hard stages. tural forms, cross brace the interior.
content to equalize before allowing Assembly: Regardless of forming Always support horizontal protru-
the form to dry. Do not attempt to method, it is often advantageous sions or extensions with a tempo-
join pieces that have dried beyond to build large pieces in sections to rary prop until they are firm enough
medium leather-hard, except when be joined when soft or medium to support themselves. Do not over-
using paper clay techniques. leather-hard or to be fired separately.look the possibility of using wadded
Stages of Leather-Hard: After the fire, they may be stacked newspaper as an interior support to
Soft leather-hard is the stage loose, assembled on an armature, or maintain the shape of closed forms
where you can easily pick up a small cemented together with epoxy or or to support relief forms such as
or medium-size piece without dis- silicone adhesive. masks. It may be left in place and
torting it, but the surface is still a bit Avoid Using Water: Do not usewill burn away in the firing.
tacky. When trimmed with a trim- water to smooth or finish a piece as Controlled Drying: Always care-
ming tool, the trimmings tend to you work on it—it will just soften fully control the rate and degree
ball up and stick under the tool, and the clay, removing structural integ- of drying. When time constraints
the form is easily distorted or dam- rity and making it harder to work. demand it, large pieces may be stiff-
aged. This is an ideal stage for joiningDo not use water in place of slurry ened with a heat gun, hair dryer,
parts, as long as they can be handled when joining pieces, except perhapsor propane torch before continu-
without serious damage. with very soft clay. Otherwise, it ing with construction, but this can
Medium leather-hard is the stage may just lubricate the clay surface result in uneven stresses on the clay.
when all surface tackiness is gone, and encourage the formation of When necessary during construc-
and plastic clay will not stick easily fracture planes. You may, of course,tion, pieces may be moistened with
when pressed against the clay. Whenuse water (applied with a sponge, a spray bottle to retard drying. Any
the surface is incised with a model- brush, or spray bottle) to slow downlarge pieces to be left covered with
ing tool, the displaced clay rises in the drying process whenever it is plastic should first be draped with
attached ridges along the groove. proceeding too rapidly. a large cloth (old towels or bed
When trimmed, the trimmings fall Working in Stages: Each partsheet) to absorb and dissipate mois-
freely away, and will not stick to the of the process should be done at ture. Otherwise, condensation under
surface or the trimming tool. the appropriate stage of softness orthe plastic can run back onto the
Hard leather-hard is the stage hardness. When constructing largepiece in concentrated areas, possibly
where the color is still “damp,” but shapes consider the clay’s ability causing collapse. Large complicated
the clay is too stiff for easy trimming.to support higher sections. Do not pieces should be kept covered and
When incised with a wooden or attempt to keep working beyond allowed to dry very slowly. Small

parts that protrude from a form thickness and the strength and resil-and thinning only the clay in the
must be protected from quick dry- iency of the clay. Through pinch- lower portion of the pot, without
ing, especially if they attach in two ing, we become extremely sensitive expanding the opening and the
or more separate places. The easiestto the use of touch rather than upper rim.
solution to this problem is to coat sight in determining and control- When you have made one pass
those parts with wax resist. This willling ceramic form. With practice, around the bottom, or when the
cause the moisture to wick into the pinch construction can become area you are pinching has reached
body of the piece, so that everythinga viable method of creating small a suitable thickness (no more than
dries at the same rate. In general, bevessels very quickly without the G"), begin moving up the wall,
sure to complete each part of the imposed mechanical precision of pinching in a very gradual spiral,
process at the appropriate stage of the potter’s wheel. thinning the wall as you go. The
dryness. Do not attempt to bring a As you work through these outside surface may develop shallow
piece that is too dry back to a work- instructions, refer to the accom- surface cracks, but these are not a
able moisture content. panying series of images in Fig. problem as long as the clay doesn’t
Finish the Bottom: This is one2.2.To begin, wedge a softball-size get too dry while you are still work-
of the most frequently neglected lump of clay thoroughly. Divide ing it. You can smooth these cracks
areas in ceramics. Whether a non- the clay into 2"-diameter balls, and with your fingernail or a rib, but, if
functional sculptural form or a loosely wrap all but one in plas- left, these shallow cracks can form
functional vessel, a sloppily fin- tic to protect from drying. Place a very attractive surface texture not
ished bottom or lower edge can a ball in your cupped hand and unlike aged leather. Deep cracks
ruin the appearance and feel of with the thumb of that hand, begin are another story, especially if they
otherwise good work. In general, penetrating the center of the ball. are forming in the rim. As you are
a sharp edge is a mistake, as theWith a rhythmic series of motions, expanding the pot and working
form seems to blend into or grow alternate between pressing your your way up the walls, if the sur-
out of the surface on which it sits. thumb into the clay and rotating face begins to crack badly or if the
Unless this is your intention, cre- the ball around your thumb with rim begins to crack at all, you must
ate a slight undercut at the base the fingers of the other hand, keep- tend to it right away. Have a small
to create that all-important line of ing the ball resting in your cupped container of slurry handy, and at
shadow that sets the piece off fromhand the whole time. Keep this up the first indication of a bad surface
the surface beneath. until you can feel the pressure of crack or a rim crack, put a very small
your thumb through the bottom amount of slurry on the crack and
Making Pinch Forms of the ball, but stop before it actu- work it back together with your fin-
No matter what one’s intended ally breaks through the surface. Youger or a modeling tool. Otherwise
goals or present skill level in ceram- have now established what will be do not use any water on the surface
ics, the pinch construction method isthe center of the bottom of the pot. of the pot while it is underway, as
an excellent exercise and an excitingAt this point, instead of pressing water will soften the clay and inter-
way to make small vessels. Whetherstraight down into the lump, begin fere with your progress.
you are handbuilding or working on pressing the tip of your thumb to As you work your way up the
the wheel, the actions of the hand in the side to widen the bottom of the walls of the pot, the rim may inevi-
pot, again alternating with rotatingtably expand more than you want.
squeezing and manipulating the clay
and the relationship between the the pot (press, rotate, press, rotate,If this happens, cup your hand
inside and outside of the vessel are press, rotate, etc.). With your thumb over the rim and gently squeeze,
of critical importance. Pinch con- bent, pressing only with the tip of rotate, squeeze, rotate until you have
struction teaches sensitivity to wall the thumb, you will be spreading reduced the rim to the desired

Figure 2.2
Pinch Construction
a. Begin pinch construction with a 2" b. Cradling and rotating the lump
diameter ball of clay. in one hand, penetrate it with
your thumb.
c. Rotate continuously as you d. Stop when your thumb pressure e. Pinch to the side to begin
penetrate the lump. forms a dimple on the bottom. forming the walls.
f. Rotate continuously, working up the walls.

g. Pinch to the final thickness and h. With a finger inside, smear the clay
resolve the surface. inwards to reduce the opening.
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diameter. Another good method for been the method known as coil and the personality of the maker
reducing the rim diameter is to construction. This is still the stan- throughout its form. Altogether too
reverse the position of your fingers,dard method in all tribal pottery often, these qualities are erased on
with a finger on the inside under traditions, such as those currently wheel-thrown forms.
the rim and your thumb on the active in Africa and the Americas. In general, a smooth-turning
outside smearing the clay inwards We must avoid any assumption that banding wheel offers tremendous
towards the center of the opening. coil construction is in any way advantages in most coil construc-
Rotate the pot continuously as you inferior or primitive. The form and tion. If a kick wheel is available, it is
do this, and with practice you can surface of a coil pot is controlled by great to be able to rotate the form
close the rim to a very small open- the potter from start to finish with- with your feet while both hands are
ing, or even close it completely to out the influence of any mechani- busy adding coils and smearing them
create an enclosed form. cal devices, and the expressive and together or in modifying the form.
Finish the rim however you wish. imaginative possibilities are endless.Coil vessels are constructed by an
Some pinch-potters like to leave a Even the most uniform and sym- additive process of building up the
thicker rim, whereas others like to metrical coiled pot expresses the walls with long ropelike coils of clay
pinch the rim to a sharp edge. Some beautiful imperfection of humanity (or other repeating modules, such
pinchers like to keep a symmetrical,
even pot and/or rim; others pre-
fer an asymmetrical pot and/or an
uneven rim. Each to his or her own.
If you want to have an even, circular
Figure 2.3 Rolling Coils for Construction
opening, let the pot get leather-
hard, and then trim the rim. If you
are going to sand the pot when dry,
wait until then to resolve the shape
of the opening.
When the pot is completed, you
of course have numerous options
such as the application of tripod
feet, a pedestal base, small hanging
lugs, handles, or other appendages. If
you wish to make spherical shapes,
it is possible with a single lump, but
you also may wish to pinch two
hemispheres and join them when
leather-hard. Pinch construction is
only practical for vessels up to four
or five inches in diameter, so the
addition of ornamental or func-
tional elements can greatly increase
the visual impact.
Coil Construction
Throughout history the prevalent
handbuilding approach has always
as small pancakes). Always start off the coil, bringing both hands back and press a single course of coils in
with a good supply of well-wedged to the center, moving then outwards place, working it well to force out
clay—keep your clay supply cov- again, and repeating the process untilexcess slurry. As long as you are
ered with plastic so it doesn’t dry you achieve the desired length and using coils of soft clay, you need not
out while you are working. This is diameter of coil. Do not attempt to score and slurry further as long as
critical, as the coils should be very roll coils with stiff clay. Use soft clay, you proceed with adding coils. If
tacky when joined. You must make and make sure the rolling surface you leave the form for a period of
the choice of hand-rolled coils or, if is well dampened. If the coil starts time and the walls begin to stiffen at
the equipment is available, extruded
to go oval, purposefully restore it all, then you should score and slurry
coils. You can roll long, uniform to round before continuing with before adding the next coil.
coils very quickly by hand, without your rolling. With a little practice, When adding each successive coil,
the mechanical precision and shapeyou will be able to roll uniform drape the coil from one hand so that
imposed by the extruder (Fig.2.3). coils of whatever size you wish as the coil end lays on the vessel wall on
If you wish to make a flat-bot- quickly as they can be produced with the far side of the form. With your
tomed form, select an appropriate an extruder. thumb on the inside and fingers on
wooden board or bat and cover it For a small coil pot (8"–12" diam- the outside, aggressively smear the
with several thicknesses of newspa- eter) the coils should be K" to 1" in coil downwards on the inside with
per. Make a flat slab of clay for the diameter, depending on how aggres- the thumb and upwards on the out-
base—this need not be precisely sively you thin out the walls as you side with your fingers, as shown in
rolled out—you can simply slap a join the coils. For a larger coil pot, Fig. 2.4e. Rotate the vessel (or move
lump of clay between your hands the coils can be I" to 1H" or more around it) and slowly lower the coil
or pound it out on a flat surface to in diameter. There are several con- onto the wall, smearing it in place as
form a slab of an appropriate thick- siderations here. Once you become you go. Some coilers prefer to apply
ness for the intended form. Usually accustomed to coil construction, you single-level courses of coils one-by-
it’s best to start with a slab larger will be able to anticipate how much one, whereas others tend to coil in a
than the desired base and trim it you thin the coils during the join- continuous slow spiral. It will greatly
back after the lower portion of the ing process. Some tribal potters use help in this process if your coil pot
pot is complete. This also ensures coils that are several inches thick, but is sitting on a banding wheel or
that you always begin coiling the during the joining process the wall a kick-wheel. Tribal potters often
walls on top of the base, rather thanis thinned to less than K". Also, once build their coil pots on the ground
by laying the first coils next to it. the basic form is roughed out, you or on a low pedestal and walk
This will give a much stronger joint can come back and thin and form around the pot backwards as they
between the slab base and the coiledit with the paddle-and-anvil or rib- add the coils and work the form. If
walls (Fig. 2.5). and-hand methods described below. you want the form to expand in size
A very thick cylindrical coil form as the walls rise, you can reverse the
Coiling the Walls may be thinned and shaped to a broadsmearing movements, smearing up
Roll out (or extrude) a supply of volumetric jar. It is essential that you on the inside and down on the out-
coils. For the best coils, roll them anticipate these things in determiningside on the side closest to you. With
on a well-moistened porous or the size of coils to be used. practice you can cause the diameter
canvas-covered table. When rolling Don’t roll out too many coils to increase or decrease at will by
coils, spread your fingers apart (seeahead of time, because if they stiffenaltering these movements. Do not
up at all they will not join satisfac- worry about cosmetic surface dur-
Fig. 2.4) and, as you roll forwards
and backwards, quickly move your
torily. Score and slurry the desired ing this process. If you are smearing
hands outwards towards the endsattachment
of point on your base slab,aggressively, you will leave a rather

Figure 2.4
Coil Construction
a. b. Apply a coil and gently paddle in place.

Resuming coil construction on an in-prog-
ress vessel: Score and slurry the edge.
c. Smear the soft coil downwards insided. As the next coil is lowered into place, e. Add additional coils.
and out over the stiffened edge. smear it aggressively onto the previ-
ous one.
f. After every three or four courses, g. Smear additional coils inwards to h. To further close the rim
smear the coils together with diago- reduce the opening. opening, smear inwards
nal strokes. with a rib.

ragged surface appearance, but thisMeso-American, and Southwest convolutions and formed or assem-
is evidence of well-joined coils. It is Native American cultures all featurebled immediately. With the stiff-slab
a simple matter to stop periodically extraordinary design and techniquemethod, the slabs are allowed to dry
and smear the surface smooth with in coil construction. to leather-hard and are then cut to
your fingers or a rib. size and joined together.
Be careful when increasing or Closing the Mouth
decreasing the diameter of your coil of a Coil Form Rolled Slabs and
form to any radical degree, because When you wish to narrow the “Memory”
the clay must have the structural neck or mouth of a coil vessel you When clay is formed by applica-
integrity to support itself. Any time can simply apply the coils to the tion of pressure, the clay mass is
a clay wall veers away from the verti-inner surface of the rim and smear compressed and the platelets are
cal, gravity will make it tend to lean inwards on the outside of the vessel.pushed around in currents, depend-
or collapse. If you are contemplat- As a refinement of this, support the ing on the type and direction of
ing a radical expansion or reduction inside of the rim with your fingers pressure applied. The clay retains a
in diameter, you must either allow and smear inwards over the top sur- memory of the compression and the
the clay to harden sufficiently as face of the rim with a rib, rotating currents, and it will shrink accord-
you proceed, or you must provide a the form continuously. As long as ingly during the drying and firing.
physical support for the clay. there is sufficient thickness in the This is true with all forming meth-
If you leave your vessel for any rim, you can close the opening as ods, but it is rarely a problem. In slab
time, always cover the top coil with much as you want by this method. If construction, however, it must be
damp paper towels to keep it moist the rim is not thick enough to allow taken seriously. When rolling slabs
and wrap the whole pot in plastic. this, stop and add another coil, and with a slabroller or rolling pin, if you
When you resume work, if the then proceed with this method. roll only in one direction, you are
top coil has stiffened at all, always setting up a grain structure similar to
score and slurry before proceeding, Slab Construction a wooden board. Both a board and
and paddle the first coil in place to Of the primary ceramic form- a unidirectionally rolled slab have
ensure a good joint (see Fig. 2.4b). ing techniques, slab construction isgreater strength along the length
If there seems to be a lot of con- the most modern. The technique than across the width, but will shrink
densation inside the plastic in your of constructing with clay slabs is more across the width than along
studio environment, drape a cloth or suitable for a wide variety of forms the length. If you assemble a large
sheets of newspaper over the form and is the ideal method for achiev- slab form from these slabs, with the
before covering it with plastic. This ing flat-sided geometric and archi- grain structures intersecting at angles,
diffuses any moisture, which evapo- tectural forms. Historically, such the piece will likely pull itself apart
rates and recondenses where the forms were generally built by the because of differential shrinkage in
plastic touches the form. Without coil method, and except for the the drying and/or firing, especially
this precaution, the condensation remarkable slab-constructions of with high-shrinkage claybodies, and
can concentrate and cause the clay pre-Columbian Meso-America, in high-fired work. This is the most
form to collapse. there is little evidence worldwide common problem area in slab con-
The possibilities of coil construc- of slab construction before the struction. There are several solu-
tion are unlimited, so almost any twentieth century. tions. If your slabroller has a wide
object or form can serve as inspira- There are two primary kinds of enough bed, initially roll the slab
tion. The ancient and tribal tradi- slab construction.With soft-slab con-thicker than you want, turn the slab
tions of East Asian, Middle Eastern,struction, the slabs are manipulated 90 degrees, reset for a thinner roller
Mediterranean, African, Peruvian, while still soft to form curves and height, and roll the slab again. With

hand-rolled slabs, simply change thelaying across the table pointing awaydegrees, and reroll until you get the
rolling direction frequently. In eitherfrom you, with the clay between the size, shape, and thickness you want.
case, this will equalize the compres- two slats, and with the ends of the For greatest accuracy, measure the
sion and currents, minimizing subse-rolling pin resting on the two slats, thickness in several places with a
quent problems. you can roll slabs to an exact thick- needle tool, just as you would mea-
All slabs are subject to this ness. However, with practice you sure the bottom of a pot.
problem, whether you are mak- can roll slabs very uniformly with-
ing slumped dinnerware, geometricout using the slats, and you are then Soft-Slab Construction
boxes, or tiles. In all cases, memoryable to make use of the full width Soft-slab construction is the pre-
of improper rolling can ruin the of the rolling pin. In either case, be ferred method for a wide variety of
finished product. sure to turn the slab 90 degrees sev- vessel and sculptural approaches. It is
eral times while rolling to equalize ideal for any form that may be cre-
Rolling Out Slabs the compression. ated by wrapping or draping slabs on
Commercial slabrollers are a Pound your clay into a rough slab, slump or drape molds, or by simply
wonderful innovation, and if your place it on an appropriate sheet of manipulating a soft slab by hand. The
work calls for quantities of large canvas (depending on the size you following is a range of very simple
uniform slabs, you should consider want) on a sturdy table, and start projects that will serve as a good
this major investment. If you do not rolling it, changing directions fre- introduction to soft-slab construc-
have a commercial slabroller at yourquently.Very soon the clay will stick tion and should provide a foundation
disposal you can easily roll out your to the canvas and won’t expand any for more ambitious soft-slab work.
slabs by hand with a rolling pin. As more. Lay another sheet of canvas
long as you don’t need really huge on top, grab both sheets and the Soft-Slab Cylinders
slabs, this is not a disadvantage, as slab, using the broad surface of your A wide variety of cylindrical or
with practice you will be able to fingers to minimize distortion of cone-shaped vessels may be made
roll out slabs by hand almost as the slab, and flip the whole work free-form out of soft slabs. Cups or
fast and just as uniform as with a over. Pull off the top (formerly bot- mugs provide an excellent soft-slab
slabroller. Even if you are using a tom) sheet, pull the wrinkles out of project, and for these you should use
slabroller, keep in mind also that thethe bottom sheet, turn the slab 90 slabs no more than G" thick. Cut a
roller tends to stretch slabs only in degrees, and roll some more. Roll strip of slab as wide as the desired
the direction of travel. In order to out from the center, and minimize height of the cup and as long as the
avoid irregular shrinkage or seriouspressure as you approach the outer desired circumference. Score and
warping, these slabs should really edges, because it is very easy to get slurry the ends of the strip and join
be aggressively hand-rolled on boththe slab very thin at this point. Roll them together to form a cylinder.
sides at 90 degrees to the original along the edges as well, but when You can either butt-join them (end
direction of travel. doing so, apply much more pressure to end) or you can overlap the ends.
against the end of the roller that is Set the cylinder on a flat piece of
Rolling Slabs by Hand on the slab than that hanging over slab and, with your needle tool,
Using an extra-long rolling pinthe edge. With practice, you will mark lightly around the bottom
with bearing-mounted handles, youfind that by rolling outwards from circumference. Remove the cylin-
can quickly roll out very large uni- the center and along the edges in der and score and slurry inside this
form slabs. If you need absolutely specific directions, you will be able circle, then press the cylinder gently
uniform thickness, make a series ofto control the way the slab expands into place. Cut away the excess base
pairs of long wooden slats in gradu-and thus control the finished shape. slab, turn the cup over, and gently
ated thicknesses. With a set of slats Continue to flip the slab, turn it 90 tap the bottom slab around the

edges to join it more firmly to the This is an excellent technique to molds made from plywood or foam
cylinder. Finish the cup however use if consistency and uniformity of insulating board have become very
you wish. An alternate approach is size and shape are desired, becausepopular. When these are set on a
to use bisque stamps or a sheet of all the vessels made from one mold flat table surface, clay slabs may be
textured material to create a patterncan be very similar in size and shape.
slumped into these forms to create
or texture in the flat slab before Professional potters make their flat-bottom plates and trays. Similarly,
making it into a cup. molds out of plaster, bisque-fired simple hump forms of plaster, wood,
If you want uniform, evenly clay, plywood, or foam insulating or foam board provide excellent
matching cups, you may wish to board, but almost anything of the hump molds, and when slabs are
form your cups around a removable desired shape will work as a mold. slumped facedown over such molds,
core such as an empty soda can. Cut See Figs. 2.5 and 2.6. the edge may be trimmed and a foot
a strip of G"-thick slab and wrap it You can make bowls and plates ring added immediately, minimizing
around the soda can to determine by simply slumping slabs inside an later finishing.
the length of strip needed, then lay existing bowl or plate. Whenever For improvised slump-molds, shal-
the strip back down on the table and the “mold” is a nonporous material,low forms work best, where a single
slab can usually be gently pressed
cut it to length. Wrap an appropriatebe sure to use several layers of news-
width and length of dry newspaper paper strips beneath the slumped orinto place. If you use a deep bowl
around the can (or other cylindrical draped clay to keep it from stick- as a mold you will have to apply the
form). Don’t try to do this without ing to the mold. With slump molds slab in several pieces, scoring, slur-
the layer of dry newspaper, as you made of plaster, bisque-fired clay, rying, and vigorously connecting
will be unable to slide the form out plywood, or foam board, no news- the joints. After the bowl stiffens up
of the cylinder. Score and slurry a bit, invert it on a board, remove
paper layer is required. Open-center
the ends of the slab-strip, wrap it
around the newspaper-covered can,
and join the ends together. While
the clay strip is still wrapped around
the can, if you wish you may press Figure 2.5 Foam Slump Molds
bisque stamps or textured materi-
als into the surface for decoration.
After you have joined the ends of
the slab strip and added any addi-
tional stamped decoration, hold the
cylinder carefully cradled in one
hand, push out the can, and remove
the newspaper. Proceed with adding
the bottom as explained above.
Slump-Molds
In the current world of functional
and decorative ceramics, slump- or
drape-molded bowls and platters
a. Using a foam slump mold: Drape b. Gently drop the mold repeatedly
have become extremely popular. to settle the slab into the mold.
a slab over the mold.
This method simply involves slump-
ing a soft slab inside or over a mold.

the mold or form, and use a wooden the added advantage of allowing you to the subject. There are a number of
rib or modeling tool to smear together to add a raised foot-ring to the base if ways to make tiles. The simplest is to
any wrinkles or gaps on the outside you wish. However, if you try to slump roll out uniform slabs with a slabroller
surface. Or, as a decorative option, a deep-dished form on the outside sur- or by using a large rolling pin with
make sure to smear the inside connec- face of a rigid mold, you must remove a set of wooden slats as previously
tions very well and leave the outside it while still very damp, as any drying described. Let the slab stiffen to soft
seams visible. shrinkage could cause it to crack. leather-hard, and then carefully cut
As mentioned, you can slump inside your tiles using a razor knife and a
or outside of a mold or form. If you Making Tiles straightedge, taking into consider-
slump a very shallow platter or bowl There are some excellent books on ation drying and firing shrinkage.
over a convex form, you may be able the market about tile making, and thisBe sure to consult the section on
to allow it to dry in place, and this has will be only a very short introduction “Rolled Slabs and Memory.” If you
Figure 2.10
Foam Hump Molds
a. Using a foam hump mold: Place b. Gently drop the board repeatedly
the mold on a board and drape to settle the slab over the mold.
the slab over it.
c. Score and slurry the back to accept d. Place a coiled foot ring and gently e. Clean off excess slurry with a
a foot ring. paddle it level. damp sponge.

make tiles from improperly made slabs,

then this method will not work. In
the clay memory will cause them to this case, the best solution is to simply
warp during drying and/or firing. make sure that the tiles are mobile
Some production tile makers extrude(they are not stuck to the surface) and
their tiles from a pugmill, using a spe- ensure that they dry slowly and evenly
cial extrusion die with a thin horizontalunder plastic or in a controlled humid-
opening, producing a long continuous ity environment like a damp/dry box.
ribbon of clay that can be cut to any Whatever method you use for mak-
desired length. For small quantities of ing tiles, if your intention is to glaze
tiles, a similar extrusion die on a stan- them, all your efforts will be wasted
dard clay extruder works quite well. unless you use a glaze that is a perfect
Drying tiles is always a challenge, inmatch to the claybody. This is espe-
order to produce perfectly flat tiles. cially true in high-fired tiles, where the
One good approach is to sandwich the clay becomes very pyroplastic. If the
tiles between 24" squares of 1⁄ 2" dry- firing shrinkage of the glaze is greater
wall (sheetrock) until completely dry. than the clay, the tile will become
For economical use of space, you can concave during the glaze firing. If the
stack up to six layers of drywall and firing shrinkage of the glaze is less than
tiles. Obviously, this method works the clay, the tile will become convex.
only for tiles that are of absolutely You can do simple tests ahead of time
uniform thickness, are completely to determine which glazes are appro-
flat, or have only shallow incised or priate for your tiles. When necessary,
impressed decoration. you can adjust the formula of a glaze
If the upper surface of the tile is not
to correct thermal expansion and make
flat, or if the thicknesses are irregular,
it fit your claybody.

Throwing
Chapter 3
Of the various ceramic construction methods, throwing on the

potter’s wheel is the most common in Western, European-based culture.
For producing large quantities of individually handmade functional wares
it is the most efficient method. A traditional approach to throwing involves
completion of the pot upon the wheel so that very little needs to be done
afterwards to finish the form. This is especially true of certain jar, vase, bottle,
and bowl forms. Even if a trimmed foot or a knob is needed, we often use
the wheel for those tasks as well. It is a joy to use the wheel in this way, but
consider also that the wheel is an extremely versatile tool for making com-
ponent parts to be assembled off-wheel into vessels or sculpture. The wheel
excels for making hemispheres, spheres, ovoids, flat disks, cylinders, cones,
tubes, and myriad other shapes. All of these components can be assembled
in an unlimited number of ways. If you do not explore these possibilities,
you are missing one of the best things that the wheel can do.
Critical Points in Throwing

The following review is designed to help beginning clayworkers become
familiar with the most important points in throwing. There are lots of steps
to keep track of, and it will help greatly to go over this list frequently and
commit it to memory.
Prepare Clay Properly. Wedge the clay thoroughly before using. This
is especially important for wheel-thrown work. Don’t waste time on clay
that is too wet or too dry. If clay is too wet, let it sit out until stiffened
adequately and rewedge, or wedge it on a dry plaster surface, or wedge in
some dry material (although this decreases plasticity). Don’t try to reuse
clay from a previous pot that didn’t work out—let it stiffen up and rewedge
it before using again.
Prepare Plenty of Clay. With only one or two balls of clay in reserve, it
is easy to develop an attitude of preciousness about each pot and a despera-
tion to make each one work. Always prepare at least a dozen balls, and if a
pot is not working, remove it immediately and start another one.

Throwing • Chapter 3
Clean and Dampen the for any shaping task. If you want and finishing small vessels. Use slow
Wheelhead. The ideal surface for to smooth or flatten a broad area, speed for large vessels.
receiving the clay is slightly damp use a rib. Action→Reaction. For every
but not wet. Use a rubber rib to Centering: Full Body Con- action there is a reaction. Keep in
squeegee off all remaining slurry trol. Centering and wheel wedg- mind the consequences of every
from the previous pot, and if any ing depend on full body control. type of pressure that you apply to
surface moisture remains, remove The
it work is not done by your arm the clay, and, when lifting or shap-
with an old towel ( Fig. 3.1). muscles, but rather by the full forceing a vessel, apply corresponding
Slap Center. Before applying of your upper torso when you roll pressure both inside and outside the
water, slap center a ball of prop- your hips forward on the chair or form. Avoid expanding the diameter
erly prepared clay on the wheel- bench (Fig. 3.3). of a form without pressure from
head or bat, and seal down the Work on the Right-Hand both sides, unless you are very sure
edges thoroughly (Fig. 3.2). Side of the Wheel. After center- of the anticipated outcome.
Avoid Touching the Clay ing, always work at the right-hand Lubrication. While throwing,
When the Wheel Isn’t Turning. side of the wheel where the clay keep the clay lubricated adequately
Except for slap centering, always is moving away from your hands at all times. Excess friction is your
start the wheel before applying (assuming you are throwing counter-enemy. But remember that water is
clockwise).
pressure, and always remove pressure continuously absorbed into the clay,
before stopping the wheel. Work at the Correct Speed. decreasing structural stability. As you
Aggressive Commanding Use full speed for centering, wheel practice throwing, try to work fast.
Approach. Clay appreciates a wedging, and penetrating the lump Remove Excess Water. Remove
vigorous commanding approach of clay. Use medium speed for wid- excess water whenever possible and
with an economy of motion. Be ening the bottom, lifting the walls, as soon as possible. If you work
clear about the specific reason for
whatever you do, and remember
that with an aggressive, adventur-
ous approach you will learn very Figure 3.1 Throwing Position
quickly. Take risks.
Concentration of Pressure
Points. All stages of manipulating
the clay depend on concentration
of pressure points. Concentrating
force on a small area of the clay
will give much greater control
than broad application of pres-
sure over a large area. Centering
primarily involves pressure with
the base of the right hand. Lifting
the walls involves pressure with
slightly bent fingertips rather than
the flats of the fingers or the hand.
Once the clay has taken the form
of a basic vessel, you should never
Proper seating position when throwing.
use the broad surface of your hand

slowly and a piece begins to soften, inwards before cutting the pot off in throwing is to keep the outside
you may remove excess water and the wheel. When cutting off pots, profile and inside profile as similar as
slurry with sponges and ribs. When hold the cutoff wire very taut. possible. In other words, if the walls
you reach an approximation of the When cutting off large flat shapes, are of uniform thickness, then the
desired shape you may remove all always do so with the wheel turn- outside and inside will be very close
excess water and do the final shaping to keep the cutoff wire from to the same contour, whereas if the
ing with fingers, damp sponges, climbing up into the base of the pot. lower wall is very thick, the outside
throwing stick (jug finger), or rub- Trim or otherwise finish the bottom and inside will be very different in
ber, metal, or wooden ribs. carefully, and make sure that there shape. Start off with a series of six
When Throwing, Use the is a line of shadow around the base, or eight small cylinders, working
Best Tool for the Job. Usually separating it from the surface upon up to about 4" or 5" in height. Try
we throw with our fingers, but which it sits. to achieve walls that are no more
that is not always the best choice. than K" thick at the bottom and G"
When throwing porcelain, it often Skill Development just below the rim, with a smoothly
works very well to throw with a with Cylinders tapering wall in between. The bot-
sponge on one side and a rubber or One of the best ways to develop tom thickness is not so crucial, but
metal rib on the other, or even with your ability on the wheel is to throw remember that if you wish to trim
two rubber or metal ribs, especially lots of cylinders (Fig. 3.4). As you the bottom it should be K" to H" or
when making broad, voluminous complete each one, cut it in half more thick (this will give you ample
forms. When making a tall form vertically with your cut-off wire thickness for trimming a raised foot-
with a narrow rim, it makes sense to to observe the cross-section pro- ring), and make sure that the bot-
neck in the rim immediately upon file. Don’t try to do this with other tom is flat and level, with a distinct
achieving the desired height, and shapes, because they will collapse as rounded corner where the bottom
then use a jug-finger to broaden the soon as you cut them, whereas half ends and the wall begins. Later you
body of the vessel. of a cylinder will still stand up. When may wish to throw forms with a
Attention to Rims. When lift- you view the cut cylinder there curved bottom, but for skill develop-
ing walls, always stop just short of are several important things to look ment it really helps to become famil-
the rim. Compress rim regularly, andfor. First of all, a primary objective iar with flat-bottom cylinders.
on cylinder-based forms keep rim
diameter smaller than base diameter
until wall height is established.
Synchronize Movements. Figure 3.2 Slap Centering
When lifting or wheel wedging,
synchronize the movement of your
hands with the speed of the wheel
so as not to leave deep spiral grooves
or marks. Much of the problems
in learning to throw are caused by
lifting too fast in proportion to the
speed of the wheel.
Cutting off the Pot and Fin-
ishing the Bottom. These can
Seal the lump down with the lower edge of your hands while the wheel is
make or break an otherwise good turning slowly.
pot. Always bevel the lower edge

When you cut each cylinder in mentioned earlier, centrifugal forcenot attempt to repair it. If there is
half remember to carefully observetends to force the clay outward fromsufficient clay below the crack you
the uniformity of the walls, the the center, and in making bowls may cut away the damaged portion
smoothness and thickness of the you can take advantage of this forceand proceed with what is left.
bottom, and the uniformity and rather than having to counteract As a general rule, in the early stage
thickness of the rim. There should it. When lifting the walls, simply of throwing any form it is wise to
be very little variation in thickness lift outward and allow the form avoid radical horizontal orientation
of the walls from bottom to top, to expand. Be especially careful to of the clay. In other words, in lift-
and the lower inside corner should compress the rim with every lift, ing and widening a bowl form do
be quite square, as indicated in Fig.
because the rapid expansion of the not widen the bottom too much
3.5g. With each successive cylinder,
diameter can easily cause the rim toinitially so that it hangs over the
try to respond to the problems or crack. If the rim does crack badly dofoot. Instead, raise the walls so that
faults in the previous ones, so that
you are continuously experimenting
and developing your technique. Figure 3.6 Throwing a Bowl
If you find yourself frustrated with
the ordinary cylinder, try doing
timed cylinders. Sit down at the
wheel with 20 or 30 small balls of
clay, and have someone time you.
This is a great exercise to do in a
classroom situation. Start with five-
minute cylinders, with 30 seconds
in between to scrape off the previ-
ous one and put a new ball of clay
on the wheel. When time is called,
immediately stop the cylinder you
are working on and scrape it off the
a. Throwing a bowl: Lift outwards. b. Lift repeatedly, maintaining
wheel. After two or three of these,
straight walls.
reduce the time to four minutes,
then three, two, and finally one-min-
ute cylinders. You will be absolutely
amazed at the progress you can make
through several of these sessions.
Throwing Bowls
Generally, most bowls are thrown
on bats. In making bowls, penetrate
the lump and widen the bottom
just as in forming cylindrical forms,
but there is no need to undercut
when widening to keep the opening
c. Trim away excess clay from base. d. Resolve shape with rib, fingers, or
narrow. This will result in a wider, sponge.
lower doughnut-stage (Fig. 3.6). As

Figure 3.3 Centering
a. Centering and wheel wedging: b. Profile of properly centered lump. c. Continue the side pressure while
Initially center the clay with firm hinging hands together, causing
side pressure. clay to rise.
d. Cross section showing intermedi- e. Raise the lump to a rounded peak. f. Cross section showing maximum
ate stage of wheel-wedging. rise, with heel of thumb poised to
press clay back down.
g. With continuing side pressure to h. Continue pressing downwards as i. Finalize centered form after
prevent mushrooming, press clay lump widens. repeated wheel-wedging.
back down.

Figure 3.4 Throwing
a. Basic throwing: After centering b. Penetrate the lump to create a c. Widen the bottom using the “claw”
and wheel-wedging, form a dim- V-shaped opening. motion, and compress the bottom.
ple and apply water.
d. Begin lifting the walls. e. Maintain firm, even pressure and f. Stop lifting just shy of the rim.
steady upwards movement.
g. Compress the rim. h. Begin second lift, pressing into i. Continue lifting slowly and steadily
the clay at the base. up to the rim.
j. Repeat with the third lift. k. Begin shaping the vessel as you l. Think about the shape as you fol-
lift. low through.

Figure 3.5 Throwing Cross Sections
a. Cross sections of basic thrown b. Penetrating the centered lump. c. Widening the bottom.
form: Creating the dimple.
d. The initial lift. e. Stop just shy of the rim. f. Second lift, pressing into the base.
g. Proper position during lifting, h. Final lift. i. Resolving the shape.

with inside fingers slightly ahead
of outside fingers.

they are straight or slightly convex shape you desire. For small bowls the open, depending on tempera-
(like the flare of a trumpet) rather it is generally best to finish the ture, humidity, and air movement. If
than concave (like a hemisphere), shape with your fingers, but for you won’t be able to get back to it
and make sure that initially the larger bowls it usually works best until the next day or later, you must
walls flare out at no more than a to use a sponge or a curved rib to cover it with plastic sheeting. The
45º angle from the bottom. This is establish the inside profile. With best material to use for this is a dry-
an extremely stable form that will the wheel rotating at low-medium cleaner bag or trash bag cut open to
allow you to achieve the desired speed (medium for a small bowl, form a rectangular sheet. Wrap the
height, diameter, and wall thickness.low for a large one) work the fin- plastic under the edges of the bat
Before proceeding further, always gers, sponge, or rib up from the or ware board to prevent air cur-
trim away excess clay from the out- bottom of the bowl, curving the rents from drying the pot. In very
side base, (Fig. 3.7) because it will beclay outward a little with each pass dry weather, especially in the winter
very difficult to get access to this areafrom bottom to top. With your right when a forced-air heater is running,
when the curvature of the bowl is hand, always follow the position of a pot may dry out in a day or two
complete. If you are planning to trim the rib with gentle sponge or finger even when well wrapped. Check
the bowl, then you need only trim pressure on the outside of the bowl. your pots frequently, and if they are
away excess clay and create a slight Repeat these passes until the bowl drying too much, spray them lightly
undercut to facilitate cutoff. If you takes the desired shape. When usingwith a household spray bottle filled
are not planning to trim the bottom, a rib to shape a bowl be sure to with water. If you anticipate having
you can undercut the edge with a incline it so that it slides smoothly to leave them for several days and
wooden rib, applying gentle pressureover the clay rather than scraping orare concerned about excessive dry-
with a sponge to the outside base, cutting into it. ing, you can drape dampened paper
and create a very pleasing “foot.” towels or rags over your pots or sim-
For small bowls you may use your Drying Your Pots ply place several wads of wet paper
fingers, a sponge, or a curved rib to It is possible to throw some shapestowels on the ware board next to,
bring the walls out to the desired so that they have a perfectly accept- but not touching, the pots and wrap
curvature. On large bowls it is a able base straight off the wheel, withthem securely in plastic. Even in
good idea to remove all slurry and very little finish work (Fig. 3.7). In very dry weather, this should keep
water from the inside and outside most cases, however, you will need them at the leather-hard stage for at
surfaces before final shaping. You to trim the bottoms of your pots. least a week.
can accomplish this with a sharp- After finishing the pots and plac- Pay very close attention to the
edged rib, like the standard stain- ing them on ware boards you must drying process. It is much easier
less steel kidney-shaped rib. You anticipate when you will be able to trim a pot or add handles with
can also squeeze all water out of to work on them next and pro- good results when you do it at the
two sponges and, with the wheel tect them appropriately from exces- proper soft-to-medium leather-hard
at slow-medium speed, use them to sive drying. All trimming, attaching stage. Checking pots frequently to
remove water and slurry from the of handles, slip painting, applique
surface. Either of these techniques work, and most decorative carving
will in effect “wring” water out of must be completed at the leather-
the clay, firming it up structurally so hard stage, when the clay is stiff
it is less likely to distort or collapse enough to handle but still damp.
as you proceed. Upon completing a pot, if you
Final shaping can be done with plan
a to trim it later that same day
variety of tools, depending on the
you may be able to leave it out in

monitor drying is simply part of the forth, until the four lumps are equallysurface and to the trimming tool. If
process. If a pot dries beyond properspaced around the pot. Maintain pres-the clay is too dry, it will feel very
trimming stage before you trim it, sure with your hand against the center
hard and scratchy when trimming.
don’t waste time on it—recycle it. of the pot throughout this process, Do not continue with trimming if
so that it doesn’t shift on the wheel- the clay is too wet or too dry.
Finishing the Bottomshead. For a low bowl, plate, or cup After the bottom is completely
shape, very small lumps are adequate. level, begin trimming off all excess
of Your Pots For taller mug and jar shapes, larger clay from the outer edges of the
Place the pot upside down in the
lumps will be necessary. The lumps base. If the lower walls are thick
center of the clean wheelhead. Start
should never be pressed hard againstyou may trim some clay off them,
the wheel at slow speed, and hold
the clay form, but they always must but try not to rely on this any more
one finger near the edge of the pot.
be smeared down thoroughly againstthan necessary. As much as possible,
Slowly move it in towards the pot
the wheelhead. trim the excess clay off the lower
until your finger touches the edge
When selecting trimming tools, walls while the pot is still wet on
of the pot once on each rotation.
you will have the greatest control the wheel.
This is the point where the pot
with a very small trimming sur- When trimming a leather-hard pot,
is farthest off center. On the next
face. The corners of a square-endedremember that the objective is to
rotation when the pot touches your
band-loop trimming tool give you make the outside profile (except for
finger, stop the wheel right at that
the best option. Hold the handle of the foot ring) as much as possible like
point. Move the pot slightly towards
the tool in your right or left hand the inside profile, and trimming excess
the center of the wheel and repeat
just as you would a pen or pencil, wall thickness is perfectly acceptable.
the process until the pot seems on
with the square end pointing down. Use the flat cutting edge to refine
center. When you get good at this,
Brace it firmly near the tip with the trimmed area and to blend it into
you may wish to try the tap-center
the fingers of your other hand and the untrimmed part of the wall. Use
method, where you gauge whether
with the cutting edge of one corner the curved end of a trimming tool to
the pot is on center as described
begin trimming the pot—remembertrim any convex areas.
above, but then, without stopping
the wheel, tap the form to move concentration of pressure points. If the bottom of the pot was quite
Bring the wheel up to medium thin to begin with, you may not
it further on center. Many profes-
sional potters use this method and speed, start at the center, and trim a be able to trim a raised foot ring,
can center a pot almost instantly. If slow overlapping spiral all the way in which case the trimming pro-
you are not accustomed to it, it may to the outer edge. If the bottom is at cess is finished at this point. If you
seem all but impossible. all irregular in height, then you will really want to find out how good
When the pot is centered, form need to take repeated passes to trim a job you’re doing, you may have
four small lumps of clay, each the size it down to level. Hold the tool very to sacrifice a few trimmed pots by
of your thumb. While gently applying firmly close to the tip with both cutting or breaking them in half to
hands during this process to over- observe the cross-section profile of
downwards pressure against the center
of the bottom with one hand, press come any irregularity in the bottom. the trimmed bottom.
one lump in place, gently nestling If the clay is the proper medium If there is enough thickness to
the lump against the pot and apply- leather-hard, then it will trim very trim a raised foot ring, after you have
ing primary force to smear the lump easily and evenly, and the trimmingsleveled the bottom and trimmed off
down against the wheelhead. Avoid can be easily brushed off the surfaceany excess clay from outer edges
with a soft brush or with your fin- and lower walls, examine the profile
applying excessive pressure against the
pot. Rotate the wheel and pot 90º, gers. If the clay is too wet, the trim- of the pot and decide what kind of
press another lump in place, and so mings will ball up and stick to the foot ring you want. In some cases

the foot ring might be right up alternative, you can throw a cookiea small metal disk, like a jar lid or
against the base of the wall, but more
of clay on the wheelhead, remove a bottle cap, in the center of the
often it is recessed back beneath theall moisture with your metal rib, pot for the finger to rest against to
base of the wall, as on Japanese tea and place the pots upside down hold the pot down to the wheel.
bowls. On the one hand, a wide on this surface to trim them. In With practice, this system can be
foot ring gives more stability, which either case, some potters like to putextremely quick and efficient.
may be desirable in a coffee cup or
pitcher. On the other hand, a nar-
row foot ring, set back beneath the
lower edge, elevates the pot from Figure 3.7 Trimming Excess Clay
the table surface, which can be
extremely important in the overall
design. If you decide on a recessed
foot ring, trim the lower corner
of the pot inwards to where you
want the foot ring to start, and
try to get the outer shape as close
as possible to the inner shape, so
that the wall is a uniform thickness
down the side and inwards towards
the foot ring. After the outer edge
of the foot ring is established, take
another pass starting from the cen-
ter of the bottom, stopping in time
to leave a K"-wide foot ring. Tap a. Trimming excess clay away from b. Dribble water along the knife to
on the center with your fingertip. base of finished pot: Slice into the feed it into the cut.
If it makes a dull click, then there clay with a wooden knife.
is still plenty of thickness, and you

may take several more passes across
the bottom inside the foot ring. Tap
the center of the bottom between
each pass, and as soon as you begin
to detect a hollow, drumlike sound,
stop trimming, as this indicates that
the bottom is quite thin. Be sure
to trim any sharp corners from the
foot ring.
Some potters trim without the
use of clay lumps to hold the pot
in place. If you wet the wheelhead
slightly, the pot will stick to it, and
with slight pressure against the
c. Slice horizontally under the waste d. Stop the wheel, cut through the
bottom center of the pot with one flange with the wooden knife. waste flange, and remove it from
finger, you can trim very effectively the pot.
without attachment wads. As an
Surface Decoration
on Greenware
Chapter 4
There are a multitude of surface decorating options available

at many stages during the ceramic process. This chapter explores a wide
range of surface decoration possibilities on damp or dry greenware. The
first category covers methods where clay is moved around on the surface.
These include impressed, additive, and subtractive decoration.
Decorative Effects During Forming

It is frequently possible to create interesting pattern and surface effects
during the process of building and shaping a vessel or sculpture. As you
work the clay, constantly be aware of the marks your fingers and tools are
making. In learning to draw we explore “marks on the ground” in order
to discover all the mark-making possibilities in each medium. It is to your
advantage to do the same with clay whenever possible.
Interesting coil patterns may be achieved during the coil construction
process by applying coils, balls, or wads in any combination or orientation
to give decorative surface variation. Join the coils well and smear together
thoroughly on the inside.
Pinch/smear patterns may result from the way you manipulate the clay
during the construction process, as when working coils together in coil
construction.
Paddled facets may be formed in the clay by gently beating with a
wooden paddle.
Colored clays may be laminated onto or pressed into the surface of the
clay on any sort of vessel or sculpture.
Impressed Decoration
There is a range of techniques that involves pressing fingers, stamps,
found materials, or tools into the clay, displacing clay without actually
removing it from the surface.
Fingertips, fingernails, or knuckles may be used to impress simple
grooves or patterns into the soft clay. In thrown or soft-slab forms, a fluted
effect may be created by drawing fingers upwards inside and outside the
form simultaneously, with a finger on the inside corresponding with the
space between two fingers on the outside. Repeat this motion around the
entire form.

Surface Decoration on Greenware • Chapter 4
Template ribs have a cut or plaster contamination in the clay.Theallow all surface moisture to evapo-
carved profile that may be dragged best stamps are made from clay and rate before using stamps on the sur-
across a wet clay surface to cre- are bisque-fired, creating a porous face. Make sure to provide support
ate effects very much like wooden surface that will not stick to damp behind the surface where you are
molding, as shown in Fig. 4.1. Theyclay. Stamps may be made by lift- using a stamp or roulette. If you use
may also be used to create these ing a negative impression off of any a bisque stamp repeatedly on a very
effects on wheel-thrown pots, usingraised-relief patterned or textured wet clay surface it will soon absorb
plenty of water to lubricate the rib. surface with a piece of soft clay or so much water that it will stick to
Modeling tools may be used to may be carved in hard leather-hard the clay. When this happens, wash
impress decorative marks or patterns
or bone-dry clay. When stamps are all the clay off the stamp and dry it
without removing any clay. bone-dry or bisque-fired you may thoroughly before using again.
Combed effects may be accom-also take a second impression off of Roulettes or coggles are pattern
plished by dragging a toothed tool the stamp with another piece of clay, rollers used on wet or soft leather-
across the surface (Fig. 4.2). Comb-returning to the positive impression hard clay forms, either static or turn-
ing is usually done in wet clay, of the surface you started with, giving on the potter’s wheel. Roulettes
especially on pots on the wheel. ing you both positive and negative may be made from any hard mate-
Normal combing tools include a stamps. However you make your rial, but the most effective rollers are
fork, toothed rib, notched modelingstamps, attach a convenient handle made of clay and are bisque-fired.
tool, or hair comb. to them before or after firing. A circular disk of soft clay may be
Stamps for impressing patterns or Bisque stamps work best on rolled on a patterned surface, or a
symbols into soft clay may be made freshly worked clay that has had all leather-hard or bone-dry disk may
from any rigid material, but durable surface slurry and moisture scrapedbe carved around the circumference.
porous materials work best. Plaster away with a metal rib. Or, you may Rollers made of other material may
works, but there is always the risk ofwish simply to set the forms aside to be wrapped with string, rope, or
Figure 4.1 Using Template Rib

Figure 4.2 Combing Surface
Using a template rib on a well-lubri- Combing the surface with a fork.

cated thrown form.

other textured materials. Coggles on layer of small pebbles or wood of dryness of the clay. The quality of
should be made with a hole accu- chips. In some cases you may wish mark and surface will also depend on
rately formed through the center to simply paddle the surface of a the kind of carving tool used. These
and after firing may be mounted on form with no backup support, while might include a pointed razor knife,
a wire or wooden axle and handle in other situations you may wish trimming tool, coring tool, fettling
that allows them to turn smoothly. to use a rounded stone or a clay or knife, or cheap wood-carving tools.
Like bisque stamps, roulettes workwood “anvil” on the opposite side of Although carving tends to be most
best on soft clay, but you must the wall you are paddling. satisfying when the clay is medium to
scrape away all slurry or mois- Patterned or textured materials
hard leather-hard, gestural “smeared”
ture, or let the form dry slightly may be pressed into the clay—bur- effects are possible with very soft clay,
before using the roulette (Fig. 4.3). lap, lace, string, cord, cheesecloth,
and very interesting stonelike effects
Roulettes work especially well on wood grain, and plant materials such
can be attained by carving gritty
thrown forms on the wheel. Be sure as leaves, ferns, twigs, or bark, or a
claybodies when bone-dry. In the
to provide backup pressure on the piece of clay may be pressed against
classic Chinese and Korean carved
opposite side of the wall where you a patterned or textured material
celadons, the carving was usually
are using the roulette. and then fired, making a permanent
done in the very hard leather-hard or
Textured paddles may be madereusable stamp (see stamps).
bone-dry stages.
from wood or bisque-fired clay. Or,
a bisque-fired textured tile may be Subtractive Methods Fluting can be accomplished by a
glued to a wooden paddle. A wood This category includes decoratingnumber of means. One is described
or clay paddle may be incised with a methods that involve removing clay previously in the section on creat-
pattern of grooves or holes. A wood from the surface of a piece. ing decorative surface effects with
paddle may be wrapped with fabric, Carving may be done at any stage the fingers. For the most dramatic
rope, cord, or wire. It may be cov- from soft to bone-dry. You will find effects, clay is carved from the surface
of a leather-hard pot, using a trim-
ered with coarse sandpaper or otherthat very different surface effects are
patterned material or with a glued- produced depending on the degree ming tool or a fluting tool (Fig. 4.4).
Figure 4.3 Using a Roulette
a. Using a bisque roulette on a plate. b. Using a bisque roulette on a rotat- c. Using a wooden roulette.
ing pot.

Faceting may be done by pad- Piercing openings into a clay form balls of clay onto the surface. A thin
dling, as described previously. Moremay be done for a variety of reasons.coat of slip (without scoring) is ade-
often, facets are cut into the surfaceThe effect can be purely decorative quate when applying sprigging, but
of a thicker-than-usual piece using on sculptural forms, or can be func- be sure to apply the slip a patch at a
a cutoff wire when the piece is still tional on incense-burners, candle time so that it is still wet when the
very soft, or when slightly stiffer lanterns, etc. Tools used in pierc- sprigging is pressed into place. Won-
using a fettling knife or cheese ing include hole punchers, razor derful patterns like fish scales or fur
slicer, or when leather-hard using aknives, or fettling knives. Piercing may be created by sprigging on small
Surform file or potato peeler. is normally done at the medium pads or rolls of clay. Consider doing
Scraping can give a very inter- leather-hard stage, but may also be sprigging with a contrasting colored
esting surface, especially on a accomplished at the hard leather- clay or with a layer of contrasting
gritty claybody. For a good stone- hard or bone-dry stage with an colored slip under the sprigging.
like effect, scrape the surface at ordinary drill bit. Modeled decoration includes a
the hard leather-hard stage with Incising usually refers to shallow variety of methods where clay is
a sharp metal rib. Other scraping carved lines or patterns. As a generaladded to the surface and then mod-
tools include wood and rubber ribs, rule, always do incising with a fine- eled with fingers or tools to create
spoons, seashells, household scrap-pointed carving tool, a dull-pointed decorative elements. Coils may be
ers, gourd-ribs, and corncobs. dowel, or a dull pencil. Avoid incis- added on and then smoothed into the
ing with a very sharp pointed tool, surface to create raised ridges. Wads,
because each incised line is a score-strips, or pads of clay may be applied
mark waiting to crack. Incised linesand formed with fingers or tools.
Figure 4.4 may be carved through a contrasting For large molded sculptural add-
Using a Fluting slip coating as in the sgraffito tech- ons, instead of modeling the form
Tool nique, or may be filled with slip as and then attaching it to the piece,
in the mishima technique. considering attaching a large mass of
clay to the piece, and then doing the
Additive Methods modeling with both hands. When
This category includes all meth- leather-hard, you can always carve
ods where clay is added to the through from the inside to remove
existing surface of a clay form. In extra clay. •
general, you should score and slurry
all add-ons, except in sprigging. If
the add-on is soft plastic clay, score
and slurry only the attachment point
on the form. If the add-on is leather-
hard, score and slurry both surfaces.
Appliqué generally refers to pre-
formed flat pressed or carved clay
decorations added onto the surface
of a piece. Appliqués are often press
molded ahead of time in plaster or
bisqued-clay molds.
Using a fluting tool on a soft
leather-hard pot. Sprigged decoration (sprigging)
is done by pressing small coils and/or

Glazes and Glazing
Chapter 5
Introduction to Glazing
As you begin each ceramic piece, and as you proceed through the
stages of formation and decoration, consider all the possibilities of surface
decoration, and make sure that each surface effect you employ enhances
what is already there. Some people choose to carefully plan each piece
completely from start to finish, whereas others prefer to allow the form
and surface to evolve as the piece is constructed. Either approach is fine,
as long as the results are satisfactory. As you resolve each piece, carefully
consider what the final finish should be. If you are making functional
vessels, a glazed surface is expected (at least inside). If you are making
sculpture, glaze is just one option to be considered. In some cases, the
unornamented clay or a chalky slip surface may be just what you want.
Glaze Color
Glaze color alone involves a range of variations including hue, value,
intensity, and saturation. Hue is the actual color, such as red, blue, or orange.
Value is the quality of light or dark. Intensity is the brightness of the hue—
the degree to which it seems to jump off the surface. Saturation is the depth
and richness of color, resulting from the concentration of pigment.
Glaze Transparency and Surface

Glazes are glass with various modifiers added to affect their behavior
and appearance. Depending on the glaze materials and modifiers present,
the glaze can be gloss, semigloss, semimatt, or matt. These are all qualities
of reflectivity and visual/actual texture on the glaze surface, but variables
in the glaze appearance also involve qualities within the glaze, includ-
ing transparency/opacity, translucency, iridescence, thickness, and mobil-
ity (viscosity at maturation temperature). The most transparent glazes are
invariably glossy, because anything other than a high-gloss surface interferes
with transparency. However, high-gloss glazes can be a bit garish and tend

Glazes and Glazing • Chapter 5
to show every surface flaw. Potters active glaze–claybody interface, and

Many experienced potters apply
are often much happier with semi- other physical phenomena, which wax only to the bottom of the piece,
gloss or semimatt glazes. Transparent
produce glaze strength and surfaceand, after glazing, remove any glaze
semigloss glazes are very appropriate
characteristic of natural stone, thusresidue from the waxed surface with
over slip-decorated surfaces, show-the term stoneware. a broad flat sponge. With moderate
ing the variations of slip color while pressure, this will also remove a bit
maintaining a softer surface quality. Glazing Methods of glaze from the lower walls.
Wax resist and other resist com- For application of wax emulsion
Glaze-Firing Ranges pounds such as liquid latex are a to the foot of a piece, some forms
Glaze-firing temperatures are tra-very important accessory to suc- can simply be dipped into a very
ditionally measured with pyrometric
cessful glazing and surface decora- shallow pool of resist in a wide
cones, and we often refer to glazes tion. There are a variety of water- pan. Another option is to place a
according to the pyrometric cone atemulsion wax resists available flat sponge in a shallow pan of wax
which they mature. commercially. Some potters prefer emulsion so that the surface of the
Low-Fire: Throughout history hot paraffin or candle wax heated in sponge sticks up slightly above the
worldwide, most ceramics have beenan electric frying pan. All of them liquid level, allowing the wax to
low-fired, in the range from cone work, but some are better than oth- soak into the sponge. The foot may
012 (1623°F) to cone 02 (2048°F). ers. Experiment. Commercial wax then be rotated against this sponge
Although the clay remains porous resist can be applied with a brush or to give an adequate coat of wax
at low-fire temperatures, many sponge (the small triangular makeupon the bottom and slightly up the
ceramic colorants that volatilize or sponges work well). For sponge wall. The softness and “tooth” of the
break down at higher temperatures application the consistency may be sponge will determine the degree
are stable in low-fire, and available appropriate right from the jar, but to which the lower wall of the form
glazes offer virtually every color of generally a little water is added to is coated.
the rainbow. give a good brushing consistency. It is important to realize that wax
Mid-Range: Mid-range, extend- Commercial wax resist is usually resist works only to restrict adher-
ing from cone 4 (2167°F) to cone colorless and may be hard to see ence of glaze, but it is never com-
7 (2264°F), has become an increas- once it is applied to a surface. To pletely effective, so you must always
ingly popular firing range. Mid- remedy this, add a few drops of food go back and wipe any glaze accu-
range firing can give a truly vitreouscoloring to the wax emulsion. mulation off the waxed surface with
body, with a range of color almost Apply wax to any surface that will a damp sponge or clean damp brush.
as extensive as low-fire. For bright be within J" of the kiln shelf. With Also, it is difficult or impossible
contemporary effects, mid-range a trimmed foot, there should be at to remove wax resist once applied,
gives the ideal combination of good least J" vertical clearance to allow except by rebisque-firing the piece.
durability and impermeability and the bottom to be glazed inside the When applying wax resist with a
broad color possibility. foot. On any piece that sits directly brush, never approach your work
High-Fire: High-fire, extending on the kiln shelf without a raised with an overloaded brush. Always
from cone 8 (2305°F) to cone 12 foot, there should also be a narrow drag the freshly dipped brush on the
(2419°F), produces the most vitre- band of unglazed clay at the base of edge of the wax container to lighten
ous and durable wares. Acceleratedthe walls. Of course, this all dependsthe load a bit.
glaze mobility in the superheated on the performance of the glaze at
melt encourages mineral disper- maturation temperature, and once Contamination of Glazes
sion, desirable crystal formation, you get to know your glaze you In any studio, especially in group
may be able to reduce the clearance.studios, glaze contamination can
agglomeration of colloidal particles,

be a severe problem and must be Many clear high-gloss glazes must must be done very cautiously. When
consciously avoided by all involved. be applied very thinly or they will using multiple overlays of glazes, care-
Never dip a still-wet glazed piece turn milky. Because clear glazes fully consider possible shifting and
into another glaze. Never use a are often applied over polychrome running of the glaze accumulation.
whisk, stir-stick, drill-mixer, or dip- slip decoration, an excessively thick
per in another glaze without wash- glaze coating would be a disaster. Brushing Glazes
ing it off thoroughly. Always label With any unfamiliar clear glaze, test The practicality of brushing glazes
container lids, and put the appro- various thicknesses of application onto the surface depends on the
priate lid back on each glaze. When before using it on work you really firing temperature and the viscosity
you dip out a portion of glaze, be care about. Matt glazes often tend of the maturing glaze. Any “tight”
sure to return it to the appropriate to be less runny, whereas gloss glazesglaze that resists flowing may show
container as soon as you are done are usually more mobile in the melt. all brushmarks, and therefore may
with it. It is often impossible to not be suitable for brush application.
These are not absolutes, however, and
identify a liquid glaze from appear- you must observe the performance In the case of overglaze decora-
ance, and stray containers must thenof every glaze through previous tion on top of a glaze that has been
be thrown away. No one can afford examples or appropriate tests. Firingdipped, poured, or sprayed, brush-
such waste. temperature is, of course, critical, asmarks are often accepted as part of
a tight glaze can often become much the process.
Glaze Consistency and more mobile with only a single cone Most gloss raku glazes are fluid
Thickness of Application increase in temperature. enough in the melt for all brush-
There are no hard and fast rules The wall-thickness of a piece will marks to heal. Most satin or matt
here. The most common fault in have a major effect on the thicknessraku glazes are usually textural
glazing is excessive glaze thick- of glaze coating it accepts. Very thinenough that brushmarks are not a
ness on the wares. Some glazes do pieces become saturated with waterconcern, and in fact often add to the
require thick application, but many very quickly and will accept only a surface quality.
perform far better when applied thin coat of glaze. Remember, it is In general, brushes used for glaze
thinly. If applied thickly, any glaze the water soaking into the surface application should have long, soft
that is quite liquid at maturing tem- that causes the glaze to deposit bristles, which give good reservoir
perature will run off the piece onto properly on the surface. With very capacity. Bisqued clay or a dry-
the kiln shelf and other wares. In thin pieces, it is usually a good idea glaze coating absorbs a great deal of
this case, the piece is usually ruined,to glaze the inside, allow the piece water, and a brush with small reser-
and the process of grinding glaze to dry completely, and then glaze voir capacity will not work unless
off the shelf is not a pleasant task. the outside. streaky dry-brush effects are desired.
With a new glaze, always run tests to When applied with a brush, glaze
determine how the glaze performs Using Multiple Glazes thickness and resulting visual effects
at various thicknesses. Whenever using multiple glazes on tend to respond to the movement
For an accurate gauge of proper one piece, remember that any overlapof the brush along with the surface
glaze consistency, take a piece of may produce a logical blend of the contour and texture of the pot.
scrap bisque, dip it into the glaze, two glazes or it may produce effects To minimize brushmarks, soak the
shake it off, and as soon as the glaze iscompletely unlike either of the two brush in water beforehand, shake
dry, scratch through the coating withglazes. In such cases it is best to do lotsout all water, load it completely
a needle tool.You can then gauge theof experimentation on test pieces. with glaze, and flow the glaze evenly
thickness of the coating, and thin the Multiple layers of different glazes can
onto the surface with slow strokes.
liquid glaze accordingly. give very interesting effects, but this
With a little practice, it is possible

wok works extremely well for glaz-

to get a fairly smooth glaze coating On a vertical surface, until you
with minimal brushmarks. ing plates and bowls. Special glazingknow your glazes very well, it is wise
tongs can be constructed to assist in to limit double dipping to the upper
Dipping Glazes this task. half of the piece and triple dipping
Dipping and pouring are the most With many pieces, the simplest to the rim.
common glaze-application methodsmeans of getting an overall coating
for functional pottery. It is essentialof a single glaze is to dip half of the Pouring Glazes
that glazes be mixed to the right piece and when dry, grasp that half Pouring is very closely related to
to dip the other half. This works well dipping and requires similar glaze
consistency for dipping, as discussed
previously. Only you can determine even for functional work, depending consistency. Pouring may be used to
the correct dipping consistency for on the glaze. With some glazes the glaze the inside of any vessel, to glaze
your glazes. It is critically impor- overlap will be very obvious, and you the outside of a vessel too large for
tant to think about the amount must place the overlap with overall dipping, or to apply decoration over
of time an object is immersed in design in mind. If you dip quickly another glaze.
glaze. Usually a very quick dip and and shake excess glaze off quickly, When planning to glaze the in-
a quick, firm shake-off is adequate you can usually minimize any visible side of a vessel by pouring, and
and will give an even glaze coating overlap mark. the outside by dipping or pouring,
with minimal runs and drips. This Interesting glaze results may often always glaze the inside first. If you
is a matter of practice and con- be achieved with overlapping coats spill glaze over the unglazed outside
scious intent. Some glazes perform of different glazes, although this tech-it is easy to sponge off, whereas if
best with a slightly thicker coating, nique requires considerable experi- the outside is already glazed you
which may be achieved by hold- mentation to avoid serious problems will have to live with it or clean the
ing the piece in the glaze slightly with running and crawling. Some- entire outside and start again. When
longer. Counting seconds will give times an overlapping combination of glazing the inside, pour a cup or two
you consistent results. Before you two glazes displays qualities of both of glaze (depending on the size of
dip a piece, be sure you are holding glazes, whereas on other occasions the vessel) in and quickly tilt vessel
it firmly enough to dip it and shake the result is completely different around to coat all surfaces, then pour
it off. Avoid holding forms by thin, from either glaze. This technique is excess glaze back into the bucket.
weak sections. Also, keep in mind especially advantageous when work-With a little practice, you can pour
where the heaviest accumulation ofing with a limited number of glazes, the glaze in, slosh it around, wind
glaze ends up, depending on how because it offers many more possibili-up your hand and arm, and pour the
you shake off the excess glaze. ties. There are some simple guidelines glaze out while unwinding so as to
For small objects, a set of dipping to consider. Any time you double dip glaze the entire inside and inner rim
tongs usually works well for overall you are, of course, increasing glaze in one smooth movement.
glaze coating. The pointed prongs thickness, and therefore increasing
grip the piece firmly for dipping, risk of glaze problems such as run- Glaze Faults
but leave only very small marks in ning and crawling. If the first glaze No matter how careful and con-
the glaze coating, which usually heal
has a fairly tenuous, powdery consistent we are in buying and storing
completely in the glaze melt. nection with the clay surface, dip- materials, in mixing and applying
For overall glazing on plates and ping in a second glaze will often glazes, and in loading, firing, and
bowls, grasp the piece with several cause both glazes to peel and flake cooling kilns, periodic glaze prob-
fingers on opposite sides of the off the piece. When double dipping, lems are inevitable. Glaze materials
rim, and dip the whole piece into always dip the second glaze after the change from one batch to the next,
a wide tub or bowl of glaze. A large first has dried completely. and we are all capable of human

error. It is important that we learn may be caused by a number of fac-

to recognize glaze faults and to deal tors. If localized, especially if the
with them in an appropriate manner glaze is quite thick, the cause is most
to correct the problem. likely a residue of grease or dust on
Pitting and pinholing usuallythe bisque surface before glazing,
result from air escaping from the which can interrupt the glaze–clay
porous clay during the application of interface. The solution is to keep
the glaze, and occasionally from out- unwanted grease, oil, or wax off
gassing of volatiles during the glaze the bisquewares and wash or brush
firing. In many cases, pits and pin- off any dust or powdery residue of
holes are already present in the raw, grinding and sanding. When apply-
unfired glaze surface, and if left aloneing wax resist, be especially careful
they may not heal in the firing. When to avoid getting waxy fingerprints
you see pinholes in the dry glaze you on the wares. If you use a skin pro-
can seal them over by rubbing gently tectant before glazing, do so at least
with your fingertip. You can usually a half hour ahead of time, and then
eliminate serious pinholing problemswash your hands with cold water
by bisque-firing slightly higher, by and mild hand soap immediately
applying the glaze(s) slightly thinner,before glazing.
or by dipping wares in water 10 min- Some coloring oxides, including
utes before-glazing. iron oxide, cobalt carbonate, and
If the pinholes are not already vis- rutile, are especially troublesome if
ible in the dry glaze coating, they are used underglaze and will almost
usually due to outgassing of volatilescertainly result in bad crawling on
in the latter stages of the firing. A flat areas.
glaze that tends to pinhole during fir- Glazes applied excessively thick
ing can often be cured with a simple frequently crawl in the firing, espe-
oxidation soak at the end of the fir- cially if there are visible cracks in the
ing, which stabilizes outgassing and raw glaze surface after it is dry. This
allows the glaze to heal. If none of is especially common in improper
these measures cure the problem, it double- and triple-dipping of glazes
is likely due to excessive viscosity at (see the section on glaze thickness
the maturation point, in which case earlier in this chapter).
a slight increase in flux content or Any glaze that is excessively pow-
a substitution of more powerful flux dery will tend to develop a very
might help. weak, dry bond with the clay surface
Crawling is one of the most and may peel in the melt. In this
destructive and troublesome glaze case, you can add 2% bentonite or
flaws and is characterized by the liq- substitute ball clay for kaolin in the
uid glaze peeling or receding, leavingrecipe or reformulate the recipe to
areas of dry clay surface. Crawling increase clay content.

Kilns and Firing
Chapter 6
All of us have in common the use of clay, usually the use of glazes,
almost always the use of kilns. Ideally, our relationship with the kiln is that
of friend and collaborator, with each firing bringing a sense of thrill and
discovery. With proper knowledge and training, any good kiln becomes a
benign collaborator.
General Kiln and Firing Practices

Electric Kilns
Electric kilns come in many sizes and configurations and are the most
inexpensive commercially made kilns available. The installation of an elec-
tric kiln is very simple and inexpensive, making them very attractive for
first studios and home studios. A broad range of ceramic processes and fir-
ing temperatures are suitable for the electric kiln, including ultra-low-fire
luster and enamel firing, low-fire oxidation and raku, and mid-range and
high-fire oxidation stoneware and porcelain. For those wanting an earthy,
smoky effect, wares can be bisque-fired in an electric kiln and then bon-
fired, raku-fired, or sawdust-smoked. There are also limited possibilities for
sagger firing and reduction firing in electric kilns.
An electric kiln is simply a refractory box containing electric heating ele-
ments. The smallest electric test kilns and top-loaders operate on 110 volts,
whereas most of the studio top-loaders, oval kilns, and smaller front-load-
ers require 220 volts. Larger commercial electric kilns generally operate on
208-volt three-phase power.
Because of the specialized features of the wiring and control systems and
the nature of the element installation, it is normally impractical to consider
building electric kilns.
Firing Logs
Keep complete written logs for all firings, including notations of any
anomalies in kiln performance and firing outcomes. You will never regret
this practice. For electric top-loaders the firing log may consist of only a
few lines written in a notebook, but that is enough to tell you a great deal
about the performance of your kiln over time. Firing logs should include

Kilns and Firing • Chapter 6
the time, date, intended maturationOpening Hot Kilns in the element grooves, and do suit-
point (cone number), notation of Never begin opening a hot kiln able repairs.
which cones are in the kiln, a com- while there is any red heat vis- In electric kilns equipped with
plete firing schedule including all ible, and never open the kiln any the Dawson Kiln Sitter, make sure
changes and adjustments, comments
appreciable amount without doingthat the cone-support prongs are
on kiln condition and performance, the newspaper-char-test to ensurein good shape and free of crusty
and summary of firing outcomes. that the temperature is lower than oxidation or the residue of pre-
451°F. Insert a newspaper twist vious cones. If not, install new

Ventilation in an upper peephole. If it chars prongs. They are very inexpensive,
In general, all firing processes pro-
or burns, the kiln is still above and they might save you the loss
duce toxic and/or corrosive fumes,
451°F. If not, it is safe to open the of a kiln load of wares and possibly
which must be efficiently exhausted
kiln, although one should always even the kiln itself. If you ever must
from the area. For any firing, make
be cautious in opening a kiln too use a set of prongs that seem cor-
sure that the appropriate ventilation
abruptly, especially if the firing roded, sand them off well with fine
systems are fully operational during
contains large vessels or sculpture.sandpaper and/or give them a coat
the firing. Even the simplest electric of kiln wash.
kiln gives off toxic fumes during fir- Care of Refractory
ing. Unless such a kiln is installed in Surfaces Kiln Shelves and Furniture
a separate shed with no one present Softbrick interiors are crumbly Use appropriate kiln shelves
during firing, an appropriate ventila-
and can be easily damaged by any rated for the particular type and
tion system is mandatory. abrasion. When lifting wares and temperature of firing. Top-loader
shelves into or out of a kiln, brace electric kilns usually use L"-thick
Don’t Burn Yourself! yourself well and avoid any contact (or up to 1"-thick, depending on
Kilns are often much hotter than
with the refractory surfaces. Attendthe size of the shelf and the firing
they look, and even the outside sur-
to any degenerating refractory sur- temperature) mullite or cordierite
face can severely burn you. Never shelves, which are appropriate only
faces promptly.
place hands or face close to an open for low and mid-range firing, and
peephole on a hot kiln. Even if there
Preparing and will warp if repeatedly subjected to
are no flames or visible fumes, the
Loading Kilns high-fire temperatures.
emerging gases may be hot enough Always examine any kiln thor-
to burn you. Use common sense oughly before loading wares, and tendCleaning Shelves and
when unloading a kiln. Think about to any cleanup or small repairs. MakeApplying Shelf Wash
where the wares may have remainedsure that all shelves, furniture, and As you are loading any kiln,
insulated from cool air. Heat rises, refractory surfaces are in good shape.examine the shelves and furniture
so the wares at the bottom usually carefully. Loose, flaky shelf wash
cool first. Also, wares in the center Electric Kiln Preparations may be scraped off with a sturdy
of a tight set can remain extremely Make sure that element grooves metal scraper or a heavy wire brush.
hot when wares at the edges are are free of any clay or glaze residue. Always wear safety glasses or a face
quite cool. Wear gloves, and throw Molten glaze is acidic and can erode shield and a good dust mask when
away any gloves with holes. Avoid through an electric element very scraping, brushing, or grinding
wet gloves, because moisture can quickly. Use a vacuum cleaner to shelves, and if possible do this work
convert to steam instantaneously onremove any residue, and if necessaryoutdoors. If there is a serious accu-
contact with a hot surface, causing grind or chisel away any accumula- mulation of glaze residue it must be
serious burns. tions of glaze stuck to the refractory chipped or ground off before the

shelf or furniture is used. Minor challenge, use wadding on at least In kiln sets with multiple shelves
glaze drips may be chipped off with one post so that the shelf sits level side by side, whenever possible place
a hammer and chisel. More seri- with no rocking. the shelves at the same height and
ous glaze runs must be ground off. In many kilns the bottom shelf use common posting. This simply
Never chip or grind shelves while is left in place from one firing to means that where two shelves meet,
they are resting on a concrete floor the next, unless it needs cleaning single posts are used to support both
or any other hard surface—always and rewashing. Normally the bot- shelves. As mentioned, each shelf
place them on a cushioning bed of tom shelf should be raised up at must have three support points, but
cloth or foam rubber. In a pinch, a least 1" off the floor of the kiln in wherever possible each post may
bag of sand makes a great support. order to allow even circulation of support two adjacent shelves. By
When chipping glaze accumulationsheat and atmosphere. If the bottomthis method you can support two
with a chisel, never hold the chisel shelf is already in place, make sure shelves with four posts. When con-
vertically against the shelf. Always you know where the supports are sidering the number of posts in a
sharpen the chisel so that only one located beneath the shelf, so that large kiln set, common posting will
edge is beveled, and hold the flat you can properly align successive save a lot of posts. All commercial
edge against the kiln shelf, so that tiers of posts. kiln posts are capable of supporting
the force is parallel to the shelf, To start out, always decide what enormous amounts of weight, and
against the glaze accumulation. height of wares (or piled combina- as long as the posts and shelves are
tions of greenware in bisque) you kept in good shape so that there is
Loading Kilns are going to load in the first layer, no wobbling, common posting is
In general, kilns fire best with a and select kiln posts of the appro- never a problem.
fairly tight set. In electric kilns with priate height. Have a good assort- Always make sure that the surface
a kiln sitter, be sure to place shelves ment of kiln posts on hand. When of the shelf is smooth and level
and wares so that they will not properly cared for, they last forever, where the posts are to be placed, and
interfere with the cone and cone and you will be able to stack the set make sure the ends of the posts are
holder on the inside of the kiln. On much more efficiently. If you have smooth and free of glaze residue. If
other kilns, don’t place any shelf so any scrap kiln shelf pieces around, needed, see the previous section on
that it interferes with the placementconsider cutting them into small cleaning kiln shelves and furniture.
of cones in front of the peepholes, blocks with a hammer and sharp On each subsequent course of
and don’t ever allow wares or fur- brick-chisel. They make excellent shelves, place the posts in exactly the
niture to touch any thermocouple shims for use with standard kiln same locations, so that loads are car-
probes protruding into the kiln. posts. Coat all posts and shims with ried in a straight vertical line from
shelf wash on both contact surfaces.top to bottom. If the bottom shelves
Selecting and Placing Kiln posts come in sizes from 1" to have not been removed from the
Kiln Furniture 12" in 1" increments, and having an kiln, make sure that the stilts beneath
As a general rule, kiln shelves assortment of shims cut from shelvesthem are in the same position as the
should always rest on three posts, sowill give you considerably more ones you place above. Deviations
they sit firmly in place with no wob- flexibility in determining the height from this practice can be disastrous.
bling. Fewer than three supports is of each layer. Whenever possible, use Very tall posts tend to be unstable,
obviously too precarious. With four single post sections to achieve the and their use should be avoided
needed height, and when this is not whenever possible. Always try to
posts, the shelf never sits squarely on
all four points. If you occasionally place the tallest wares on the top
possible, use the tallest post available
find it necessary to use four posts with the shortest possible extension layer of shelves, eliminating the
because of a particular kiln-loading post or shim on top of it. need for such tall posting.

To those new to kiln loading, the Loading a Glaze-Firing Bisque-Firing Ramps

arrangement of shelves, posts, and When loading normal electric The rate of temperature rise
wares in a loaded kiln may seem oxidation glaze-firings, always leavethrough the early stages of the firing
precarious, but if properly done at least J" clearance between wares,is obviously a much greater concern
it is actually a very stable system. from kiln walls, and from the shelf
in bisque firing. Even if your ware
As long as you follow the above overhead. When glazing your wares,is bone dry, it still contains atmo-
instructions and use quality shelvesavoid having any glaze where it will spheric humidity and chemically
and posts, you should not hesitate be within J" of the kiln shelf or on
combined water, and must be heated
to stack a dozen or more tiers of places where multiple parts touch,
slowly in the initial stages. Usually
shelves when necessary. as with lids on covered jars or boxes. it is safest to simply warm the kiln
If you become very sure of your overnight to drive off excess mois-
Loading a Bisque-Firing glazes, you can reduce this clear-
ture. On a top-loader electric kiln
When loading a bisque fire, the ance. Lids should always be fired in
this involves leaving the lid ajar with
wares can gently touch each other place, because if fired separately they
the peepholes out and the bottom
and may even rest inside and/or could warp and no longer fit, but
element on low.
on top of each other, but use com- there must be no trace of glaze on
It is important to point out that if
mon sense—bone-dry greenware isthis contact surface.
the wares are thin and quite dry, the
very fragile. Use space as efficiently When loading a glaze-firing in top-
preheat period may be reduced to
as possible, by placing small forms loader electrics, avoid placing the top
as little as two to four hours, depen-
within large forms, and by stacking shelf within six inches of the lid. Oth-
dent on atmospheric humidity.
pieces carefully. Don’t pile things soerwise, the lid will draw off so much
After an adequate preheat in a
that too much pressure is applied heat that the wares on the uppermost
against any one small area of a single shelf will not reach temperature. bisque-firing containing average
size and thickness of wares, the ini-
piece, and do not pile up more than Remember that a full kiln fires well.
tial heating ramp should not exceed
two or three bowls or plates on top If you must fire only a partial load,
200°F per hour for the first two
of one another unless you are very use taller kiln furniture than necessary,
hours, and 300°F per hour for the
sure of yourself. Place bowls or so that the set fills the kiln. This will
next two hours. If the firing con-
plates inside or on top of each other give a more efficient, even firing. If
only if the bottom of one bowl or you ever need to glaze-fire only a few tains large work, this ramp should
plate rests squarely on the bottom ofthings in an otherwise empty kiln, be extended to six hours. In either
the one below, without any pressure place three or four high-duty hard- case, at that time red heat will
against the walls or rim. In other brick around the wares. These will have been achieved (approximately
words, don’t ever place one piece absorb a tremendous amount of heat, 1000°F) and the heat may be turned
slowing down both the firing and up fairly rapidly to bring the kiln up
inside another if the walls of the
the cooling ramps, so that the glaze to bisque temperature. Depending
upper piece are wedging inside the
matures properly, and pinholes and on the individual kiln, the ramp rate
rim of the lower one.
bubbles have a chance to heal. at this stage is usually from 300°F to
Bowls or cups with matching rims
may be stacked rim to rim, and this 400°F per hour. Keep in mind that
may be continued to considerable Determining the hotter the kiln, the more energy
height. Or, a large diameter base Appropriate Firing required to raise the temperature
may be placed on a matching rim and Cooling Ramps further. Thus even if you turn up
beneath. Or, one pot can be placed The rates at which a kiln is heatedthe heat a great deal, the kiln may
rim-down, with another above it and cooled are referred to as the fir-not climb more than 300 to 400
right side up. ing ramp and cooling ramp. degrees per hour.
For the average top-loader elec- raku kiln—allow at least 24 hours If it does not char, it is safe to begin
tric, after an overnight preheat withafter glazing before placing wares inopening the door. A bisque-firing
the bottom element on low, normal a preheated raku-firing). Bisque-fired
containing average wares can be
protocol is to close the lid but leave wares are extremely thermal shock opened all the way at this time. A
the peepholes open, and turn all resistant and will withstand a very glaze-firing, or any firing contain-
switches to low. After two hours, steep heating ramp. Just to make ing large work, should be opened
turn all switches to medium, and sure that residual moisture is driven slowly over a period of an hour or
after another two hours, turn all off, one should normally maintain a two, as such pieces can crack from
switches to high. Depending on the gentle ramp for the first hour, but abrupt thermal shock even at such
age of the elements, and the condi- then the heat may be turned up low temperatures.
tion of the wiring and the power quite quickly. On the standard top-
supply, the kiln should shut off from loader electric, for a normal glaze- The Degrees
three to eight hours after you turn firing ramp, we would set the kiln
of Kiln Firing
it to high. on low for two hours, medium for Firing converts ceramic work
At temperatures below red heat two hours, and then turn to high. In
from weak greenware into a strong,
it becomes difficult to measure the an electric kiln with good elements,
durable form. As the temperature
ramp unless the kiln is equipped it is easy to fire much too quickly,
in a kiln rises, many changes take
with a pyrometer. In most kilns, which gives poor glaze results, and
place in the clay; and, if all goes
with a little care and common you must watch for this. A low-fire
well, you end up with a permanent
sense we can control the heating glaze-firing ramp should take at
result ready for using, showing or
ramp, but it is an excellent idea to least five or six hours, with at least
giving. Understanding what hap-
fit any kiln with a pyrometer. It will another two or three hours to reach
pens during the firing can help
provide you with peace of mind mid-range or high-fire. Problems
you avoid problems that may ruin
when monitoring the heating and often arise in firing just a few pieces
hours of effort on your part. The
cooling ramps. in an otherwise empty kiln. In this chart on the next page provides
It is critically important to avoid event, a good practice is to place
highlights of what happens when
heating a bisque-firing too quickly, three or four hardbrick in with the
firing your work.
especially during the water- wares. They will soak up a tremen-
smoking period, as this can seri- dous amount of heat, slowing down
ously limit outgassing, trapping both the heating and the cooling
carbon and other volatiles in the and allowing the glaze to mature and
claybody, increasing chances of car-
heal properly.
bon and sulfur coring and later
bloating and blistering. ExcessivelyCooling Ramps
fast bisque-firing can also aggravate In general practice, a kiln can
glaze problems such as crawling, be cooled at least as fast as it is
peeling, pinholing, and blistering.heated. Excessively long cooling
ramps accomplish nothing. When all
Glaze-Firing Ramps red heat is gone you can determine
When glaze-firing previously when it is safe to open the door by
bisque-fired wares, there is little carefully inserting a newspaper twist
danger of wares exploding even if into the top peephole. If the news-
they are recently glazed (except in paper chars or burns, the kiln is still
repeated loads in a previously heated
above 451°F and cannot be opened.

Kiln Firing Chart

Temperature Color Cone Event
C° F° (approx.)
1400 2552 Brilliant white 14 Endoporcelainrange
13
12
1300 2372 White 11 Endostonewarerange
Yellow-white 7
1200 2192 5H End o stoneware range
Yellow 4
2 Between 1100-1200°C, mullite and cristobalite (two

types o silica) orm when clay starts converting
1100 2012 Yellow-orange 1 to glass. Clay and ceramic particles start to melt
together and orm crystals. These changes make
the material shrink as it becomes more dense.
04 Soaking (holding the end temperature) increases
the amount o used matter and the amount o
Orange 05 chemical action between the uxes and the more
re ractory materials.
1000 1832 06
07
Red-orange 08
900 1652 010

Between 800-900°C sintering begins. This is the
stage where clay particles begin to cement them-
012 selves together to create a hard material called
bisque.
Cherry red 013
800 1472 015
016 Between 300-800°C, the temperature must be

raised steadily and ample air must be present to
permit the complete burning o carbonaceous
Dull red 017 materials (impurities in the clay along with paper,
wax, etc.). A ter 800°C, the clay sur ace will start to
700 1292 018 seal o , trapping unburned carbonaceous materi-
als and sulfdes, which could cause bloating and
019 black coring.
Dark red 020 Quartz inversion occurs at 573°C. When clay is

refred or a glaze fring, quartz crystals change
600 1112 021 rom an alpha (a) crystal structure to a beta (b)
crystal structure. The inversion is reversed on cool-
ing. This conversion creates stresses in the clay so
022
temperature increase and decrease must be slow
to avoid cracking the work.
Dull red glow
Between 480-700°C chemical water (re erred to as
500 932 Black “water smoke”) is driven o .
400 752
Upon cooling, cristobalite, a crystalline orm o
300 572
silica ound in all clay bodies, shrinks suddenly at
220°C. Fast cooling at this temperature will cause
200 392 ware to crack.
Water boils and converts to steam. Trapped water
100 212
will cause clay to explode so all water should
be evaporated below 100°C. Begin a fring by
keeping the kiln below 100°C until all water has
evaporated.

Studio Safety
Chapter 7
Studio Safety Checklist

The following items should be of concern in all ceramics studios.
Commercial and academic studios will always require other items and con-
siderations according to local codes and practices.
✓ First aid kit containing general supplies
✓ Fire extinguisher mounted close to outside door, away from loca-

tion of kilns
✓ Dust masks approved for ultrafine particulates
✓ Disposable rubber gloves for use while handling toxic materials
✓ Appropriate skin protectant/hand lotion for combatting dry skin
✓ Approved eye/face protection for use while grinding pot bottoms,

cleaning kiln shelves, etc.
✓ Approved tinted safety glasses or face shield (shade 1.7 to 3.0) for
looking into hot kilns
✓ Insulated heat-resistant gloves for checking/unloading kilns
✓ Appropriate ventilation for all kiln fumes and any other

toxic fumes
✓ Approved clearance and heat protection around all kilns
✓ Good lighting in all work areas

Studio Safety • Chapter 7
Toxic and Hazardous well marked and should be kept in free of dust and any clay scraps that
Materials locked cabinets or storerooms out will create dust when walked on or
of reach of children, pets, or any otherwise disturbed. Don’t leave clay
It is essential that you are aware
unauthorized personnel. Any food scraps on the floor. Don’t leave ware
of all the possible toxicity hazards
containers recycled for clay or glazeboards where they might fall over
in the materials you use. For each
use should have all food labels com- and raise a cloud of dust. Confine
individual ceramic material and
pletely removed. all dust-producing processes to an
refractory in your studio, you can
contact the appropriate supplier and appropriate ventilated area or spray
request the MSDS (materials safety

Dust/Dirt booth, or take the work outside.
data sheet). Suppliers are required

Management
by law to provide the MSDS upon
Dust control is perhaps the most Floor and Surface Cleaning
pervasive problem in the ceramics In general, it is critically impor-
request for the ceramic materi-
studio, and yet it is really a simple tant never to sweep without using
als they sell you; these sheets will
thing to address with proper and water or sweeping compound, no
give detailed information about
consistent precautions. The amountmatter how efficient your dust mask,
toxicity hazards. In addition, sev-
of dust created in different cir- because as mentioned, when you
eral good books about studio safety
cumstances is in proportion to the raise dust into the air, it settles on
are available, and excellent articles
amount of dry powdered mate- everything and is easily disturbed by
addressing toxic materials can be
rials present, the particle size of any studio activity.
found in contemporary ceramics
the materials, the way the materi- For the very cleanest floors, after
magazines. Also, you will find a
als are handled, and the amount sweeping, spray down the floor very
great deal of information on stu-
of air movement in the vicinity. lightly with a hose or a garden
dio safety and toxic materials on
The smaller the particle, the greatersprayer, and use an industrial squee-
Internet discussion groups such as
potential for airborne dust. And of gee to localize the dirty water,
Clayart. It is important to review
course different materials have dif- making it a simple matter to pick
the most current information.
ferent levels of toxicity. The materialit up with a mop or a large sponge.
With almost all ceramic raw
most likely to be present as airborneLong-handled squeegees in varying
materials there is very little danger
of toxicity in skin contact. Some dust is clay, and although the clay widths are available very inexpen-
materials can cause some minor or platelets themselves are not par- sively from janitorial suppliers.
serious problems as a result of skin ticularly toxic or hazardous, in most
contact and these materials should claybodies we find very hazardous Skin Care
be handled with rubber gloves. It materials, including silica and talc. For the most part, the materials
is important for all ceramic artists/ As a good general rule, you should we use in ceramics are relatively
artisans to realize that almost ALL avoid breathing dust of any kind benign in in contact with the skin,
ceramic raw materials are consid- any circumstance. In other words, and the greatest problem is dry-
ered highly toxic when inhaled, andany situation that raises dust into ness. Problems with skin dryness
many when ingested. This is not the air should be avoided or should are almost inevitable when working
a matter to be taken lightly, and it be approached only with appropri- with wet clay, and minor rashes are
is essential that proper precautionsate dust protection. This is especiallycommon. If you experience these
be taken to ensure safe use of these true indoors, because dust will settleproblems, use a good skin protec-
materials, especially in mixing clay-on all surfaces and is easily raised tant before working with clay and
bodies and glazes. into the air later on by any air move- a good skin moisturizer after. Many
In all studio situations, toxic or
ment. In normal studio practice, potters like the effects of plain aloe
hazardous materials should be veryfloors and tables should be kept vera gel, available in most drug-

Studio Safety • Chapter 7
stores and health food stores. Glazing can beSafety with Kilns and Firing
especially hard on the skin, and a good skin It is normal to be curious about a kiln that
protectant will help, but be sure to apply it
is firing, and, with reasonable precautions,
well in advance of handling any bisque-ware,this is not a problem. The following guide-
and wipe your hands well directly before lines should always apply to everyone in the
glazing, as any oily residue can interfere vicinity of a kiln being fired.
with glaze adhesion. Some people’s skin is All wiring for any electric kiln should be
especially sensitive to glaze materials. If so, done strictly by local building and safety codes.
keep a package of disposable rubber gloves Make sure that all ventilation and safety
on hand. equipment is in place and operating properly.
See the previous section on kiln ventilation.
Equipment Safety Make absolutely sure that there is adequate
All new ceramics equipment comes with
clearance between any kiln and adjacent
safety guidelines, and many pieces of equip-
flammable surfaces. Keep in mind that wood
ment come with safety guards or specific
surfaces repeatedly exposed to heat may
safety fittings and switches. Always observe
become progressively desiccated over time,
the manufacturer’s safety guide-lines, and
increasing the chances of a fire. Always adhere
never tamper with safety guards and safety
to local fire codes and, when in doubt, install
fittings or switches.
additional insulation or heat guards.
Never assume that a kiln is cold just because
Ventilation for Kilns
it is not on. Air convection over the surface
Make sure that all kilns are properly venti-
may reduce radiated heat, and yet the surface
lated, and, when firing, ensure that appropri-
may still be hot enough to burn you.
ate exhaust fans are turned on. All kiln firings
Whenever you must look into a hot kiln
produce toxic fumes that must be vented to
to check the atmosphere or cones, always
the outside. No unvented kiln should ever
wear tinted safety glasses or a tinted face
be located in a work space or anywhere in a
shield. Make sure that the shade of the face
residence. A by-product of all bisque-firings
shield or goggles is appropriate (shade 1.7 to
and (to a lesser degree) glaze-firings is sulfur
3.0) to protect your eyes from the extreme
dioxide, which is toxic and corrosive. Many
brightness. Goggles for gas welding are
metallic oxides release toxic fumes at high
appropriate, whereas those for arc welding
temperatures. Wax resist, although benign at
are too extreme. If you see spots before your
lower temperatures, produces harmful fumes
eyes after turning away from the kiln, your
when it burns off the wares in the early
eye protection is inadequate. •
stages of a glaze-firing. The organic vehicle
used in commercial lusters and china paints
releases toxic fumes during firing.

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This Ceramic Arts Handbook is an abridged version of Vince Pitelka\u2019s best

In his introduction, Vince writes \u201cThrough 30 years of experience as a

Clay: A Studio Handbook

The Nature of Clay

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and bisque strength, and yet it mini- Porcelain claybodies include

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With handbuilding, the full scope of sculptural form and expression is

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sliced, wetted down, and left in a

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of clay. Whenever possible, have

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f. Rotate continuously, working up the walls.

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a. b. Apply a coil and gently paddle in place.

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make tiles from improperly made slabs,

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Of the various ceramic construction methods, throwing on the

Critical Points in Throwing

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Figure 3.3 Centering

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Figure 3.4 Throwing

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Figure 3.5 Throwing Cross Sections

g. Proper position during lifting, h. Final lift. i. Resolving the shape.

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is still plenty of thickness, and you

There are a multitude of surface decorating options available

Decorative Effects During Forming

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Figure 4.1 Using Template Rib

Using a template rib on a well-lubri- Combing the surface with a fork.

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Figure 4.3 Using a Roulette

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Glaze Transparency and Surface

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to show every surface flaw. Potters active glaze–claybody interface, and

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wok works extremely well for glaz-

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