ELE 202: Applied Electricity II

Course contents

Basic machines -DC, synchronous alternators, transformers, three-phase balanced circuits, PN

junction diode, Thyristors, FETs, communications fundamentals, introduction of TV, Radio

Telephone systems.

Recommended textbooks

Theory & Performance of Electrical Machines by JB Gupta

A textbook of Electrical Technology Volume II by BL Theraja and AK Theraja

Course Lecturers

Dr. A.I Abdullateef

Dr. S.O Zakariyya

 Table of Contents
Chapter 1 ..................................................................................................................................................... 3
1.1 Overview of electrical machines fundamental ....................................................................... 3
1.1.1 Ampere’s Law.......................................................................................................................... 3
1.1.2 Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction: .................................................................... 4
1.1.3 Lenz’s Law ............................................................................................................................... 5
1.1.4 Lorentz force ............................................................................................................................ 5
Chapter 2 ..................................................................................................................................................... 7
2.1 Direct Current Machine .............................................................................................................. 7
2.2 Essential Features of A DC Machine ........................................................................................ 7
2.2.1 Stationary (Stator) ................................................................................................................... 8
2.2.2 Armature (rotor) ...................................................................................................................... 8
2.3 Armature Winding...................................................................................................................... 9
2.3.1 The Lap Winding .................................................................................................................... 9
2.3.2 Wave winding ....................................................................................................................... 10
2.4 DC Generator ............................................................................................................................. 10
2.4.1 Production of AC Voltage .................................................................................................... 11
2.4.2 EMF Equation of DC Generator .......................................................................................... 12
2.5 Types of Dc Generators ............................................................................................................ 13
2.5.1 Separately excited Generator:.............................................................................................. 14
2.5.2 Self-excited dc Generators ................................................................................................... 14
2.5.3 Applications of D.C. Generators ......................................................................................... 16
2.6 DC Motor .................................................................................................................................... 17
2.7 Types of DC motor .................................................................................................................... 18

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 Chapter 1

Basic Electrical Machines

1.1 Overview of electrical machines fundamental

Electrical machines convert energy from one form to another via magnetic field which is the

fundamental mechanism necessary for the conversion. There are four basic principles describing

how magnetic fields are used in electrical machines:

i. A current-carrying wire produces a magnetic field in the area around it.

ii. A time-changing magnetic field induces a voltage in a coil of wire if it passes through the

coil. (transformer action.)

iii. A current-carrying wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a force induced on it. (motor

action.)

iv. A moving wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a voltage induced in it. (generator

action.)

To understand the principle of operation of electric machines it is pertinent to look at the basic

laws and theories on which the operations of the machines are based. These laws and theories are:

1.1.1 Ampere’s Law

Ampere's circuital provides us with a mathematical relation between magnetic fields and electric

currents. Thus, the magnetic field that is produced as a result of an electric current moving

through a wire of any shape can be calculated. It can be written as the line integral of the magnetic

field surrounding a closed-loop is equal to the algebraic sum of currents passing through the loop.

Suppose a conductor carries a current I as show in Figure 1.2. The current flow generates a

magnetic field which surrounds the wire.

3
 (a) (b)
Figure 1:1 Current carrying conductor

The magnitude of the magnetic field at a distance r away from a wire

o I
B= (1)
2 r
where,

B is the magnetic field; l = the length; I = current; µo permeability of free space = 4 10−7 Tm / A

1.1.2 Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction:

summarily, the law states that a moving conductor cutting the lines of flux of a constant magnetic

field has a voltage induced in it or a changing magnetic flux around a loop of conductor induces

a voltage in the loop. The emf can be statically or dynamically induced. Statically Induced emf is

of two types: self induced emf and mutually induced emf. In the former, a change in the current

in a conductor induces an emf in the conductor itself. While in the latter, a change in the current

in a coil changes the flux and produce an emf in another coil when brought to the proximity of

another coil (i.e transformer)

Consider a conductor of length l meter placed in a uniform magnetic field of density B Wb/m2

Figure 1.1. If the conductor moved with velocity v m/s in the magnetic field such that the direction

of the field is as shown in Figure 1.1A. No emf will be induced in the conductor since no flux is

cut. However, when the conductor moved in a direction perpendicular to its length and

perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field, Figure 1.1b voltage is induced in the

conductor.

4
 B B B
A A A

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1:2

Hence,

Area swept per second by the conductor = l  v m / s

Flux cut per second = flux density  area swept per second by the conductor = Blv Wb / s

d d
Rate of change of flux = Blv , Induced emf e = = Blv volts (1.2)
dt dt
If the conductor moved at an angle θ Figure 1.1c

e = Blv sin  volts (1.3)

The direction of the induced emf is given by Fleming's right-hand rule.

1.1.3 Lenz’s Law

When an emf is generated by a change in magnetic flux according to Faraday's Law, the polarity

of the induced emf is such that it produces a current whose magnetic field opposes the change

which produces it.

1.1.4 Lorentz force

Lorentz force F, is the force exerted on a charged particle q moving with velocity v through an

electric field E and magnetic field B. The entire electromagnetic force F is given by
F = q ( E + v  B)

The first term is contributed by the electric field E, in v/m and the second term is the magnetic

force and has a direction perpendicular to both the velocity (m/s) and the magnetic field B (Tesla).

For a wire of length l carrying current i perpendicular to a magnetic flux density B, this reduces

to:

F = Bli (1.4)

5
Figure 1.3 shows the direction of the force based on Fleming’s right hand rule.

Figure 1:3

6
 Chapter 2
Rotating Electrical Machines

2.1 Direct Current Machine

A Dc machine could be a dc generator or dc motor. The former converts mechanical energy to dc

electrical energy while the latter converts dc electrical energy to mechanical energy. Dc machines

are actually an ac machines except that it has a device called a commutator, which converts the ac

voltage to dc voltage. They are extensively used in industries, most especially in applications

requiring a wide range of motor speed control or precise control of motor output.

2.2 Essential Features of A DC Machine

The physical feature of a dc machine basically can be divided into two parts, the stationary part

(stator) and the rotating parts (rotor). The stationary part consists of the yoke or frame, pole cores

and field coils/windings. Figure 2.1 shows a typical dc machine structure.

Brushes Commutator
N

S S Yoke

Armature

N Pole

Armature
conductors
Field
winding

Figure 2:1

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2.2.1 Stationary (Stator)

Yoke or frame

The yoke is the frame of the machine and carries the magnetic flux produced by the poles. The

yoke is not laminated since the field is stationary. Attached to the yoke is the pole core which is

usually of circular section and carries the field windings.

Pole core

The Pole core is usually made of cast steel, laminated and bolted to the yoke. It carries the coils of

insulated wires carrying the field current. At the edge of the pole core is the pole shoe which acts

as a support to the field windings/coils. Also, the pole shoe spreads out the flux over the armature

periphery more uniformly and reduces the reluctance of the magnetic path.

The field winding

The field winding produces the magnetic flux when excited. The magnetic flux passes through

the pole pieces, the air gap, the armature core and the yoke. The dotted lines indicate the mean

flux path through the complete magnetic circuit. The flux divides through two paths from each

pole through the yoke. The number of poles in a machine determines the speed of the armature

and the output for which the machine is designed.

2.2.2 Armature (rotor)

The armature is the rotating part of a dc machine. It is connected to the shaft and revolves between

the field poles. It is composed of slotted, iron laminations that are staked to form a solid cylindrical

core. The laminations are individually coated with an insulating film so that they do not come in

electrical contact with each other. The slots house the armature windings/conductors which carry

the current delivered by the machine. They are insulated from the iron core by several layers of

8
paper or mica and are firmly held in place by fibre slot sticks. The end of the windings is connected

to the commutator segments.

Commutator

A commutator is a mechanical rectifier which converts the alternating voltage generated in the

armature winding into a direct voltage across the brushes. The commutator is usually made of

copper bars insulated from each other by a mica sheet. The copper bars are made sufficiently thick

to permit normal wear over the lifetime of the motor. It is the commutator that converts the ac

voltage into a dc voltage. The brushes of the machine, which rub on the commutator, are made of

carbon, graphite, metal graphite, or a mixture of carbon and graphite. They have a high

conductivity to reduce electrical losses and a low coefficient of friction to reduce excessive wear.

2.3 Armature Winding

Armature winding is an arrangement of conductors to develop desired emfs by relative motion

in a heteropolar magnetic field. The conductor or group of conductors are distributed in different

ways in the slots all over the periphery of the armature. The conductors may be connected in

series and parallel combinations depending on the current and voltage rating of the machine.

Types of armature windings

Armature windings are classified according to the sequence of their connections to the

commutator segments. There are two basic sequences of armature winding connections lap

windings and wave windings.

2.3.1 The Lap Winding

Lap winding consists of one or more turns of wire with the two ends of each coil coming out at

adjacent commutator segments i.e the two ends of any one are taken to adjacent segments Figure

2.2a. If the end of the coil is connected to the segment after the segment that the beginning of the

coil is connected to, the winding is a progressive lap winding. However, if the end of the coil is
9
connected to the segment before the segment that the beginning of the coil is connected to, the

winding is retrogressive lap winding. A lap winding has as many paths in parallel between the

negative and positive brushes as there are poles. Thus if a machine has p pairs of poles, it number

of parallel paths with a lap winding is 2p.

2.3.2 Wave winding

In wave winding, the two ends of each coil are bent in opposite directions and taken to segments

some distance apart. This is illustrated in Figure 2.2b where it is shown that each pair of coils

between adjacent segments has a side under each pole face, thus all output voltages are the sum

of the effects of every pole, and there can be no voltage imbalances. Wave winding has two only

two paths in parallel, irrespective of the number of poles. Hence, in a machine with p number of

poles, the number of parallel paths with a wave winding is 2.

(a) Lap Winding (b)Wave Winding

Figure 2:2

2.4 DC Generator

A DC generator converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. It is based on the principle that

whenever magnetic flux is cut by a conductor, an emf is induced which will cause a current to

flow if the conductor circuit is closed.

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2.4.1 Production of AC Voltage

Figure 2.3a shows a single-turn rectangular coil ABCD (loop) rotating about its axis in a magnetic

field. The two ends of the coils are joined to slip rings “a” and “b” which are insulated from each

other and the central shaft. Two collecting brushes press against the slip rings. These slip rings

collect the current induced in the coil and pass it on to the external resistor R (load). If the coil is

rotated externally in a clockwise direction, it will assume successive positions in the field and the

flux linking the coil changes. Hence, an emf which is proportional to the rate of change of flux

linkages (e = d dt ) is induced in the coil.

A 3600
00
1
8 A 2
B
N S
D
N B D S 3 900
2700 7
+ C
b 6 C 4
R a
- 5
1800

(a) (b)

6 7 8 9
EMF

1 2 3 4 5
Time

Cycle

(c)
Figure 2:3

If the coil attains different positions as shown in the Figure 2.3b as it rotates, then the emf induced

at these positions is as follow

i. At position 1, the generated e.m.f. is zero because the coil sides (AB and CD) are cutting no

flux but are moving parallel to it.

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 ii. At position 2, the coil sides are moving at an angle to the flux and, therefore, a low e.m.f. is

generated as indicated.

iii. At position 3, the coil sides (AB and CD) are at a right angle to the flux and are, therefore,

cutting the flux at a maximum rate. Hence at this point, the generated e.m.f. is maximum.

iv. At position 4, the generated e.m.f. is less because the coil sides are cutting the flux at an

angle.

v. At position 5, induced e.m.f. is zero, and no magnetic lines are cut

vi. At position 6, the coil sides move under a pole of opposite polarity and hence the direction

of generated e.m.f. is reversed.

vii. At position 7 the induced e.m.f. is maximum but in the opposite direction.

viii. At position 8 the e.m.f. is less because the coil sides are cutting the flux at an angle

ix. At position 9, no emf is zero when no flux is cut

2.4.2 EMF Equation of DC Generator

Let  = the flux per pole in Webers

Z = total number of armature conductors or coil side on the armature

P = number of poles

N = rotational speed of armature in revolution per minute

E = emf induced in any parallel path in the armature

The generated emf E g = emf generated in any one of the parallel paths i.e E

d
Average emf generated/conductor = volt (no of turn, N =1) (2.1)
dt

Flux cut/ conductor in one revolution d = P Wb (2.2)

N
No. of revolutions/second =
60
60
Time for one revolution, dt = second (2.3)
N

Hence according to Faraday’s Laws of electromagnetic induction

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 d PN
EMF generated/conductor = = volt (2.4)
dt 60
For a wave wound generator

No of parallel paths = 2
Z
No of conductors in series in one path =
2
PN Z PNZ
 EMF generated/path =  = (2.5)
60 2 120
For lap wound generator

No of parallel paths = P
Z
No of conductors in series in one path =
P
PN Z NZ
 EMF generated/path =  = volt (2.6)
60 P 60
NZ  P 
In general generated EMF, E g =    volt (2.7)
60  A 

where A = 2 for wave winding

A = P for lap winding

1  2N   P   Z  P 
Also, E g =   Z    =    volt  is in rad/s (2.8)
2  60   A 2  A 

For dc machine parameters Z , P and A are constant, hence K = ZPA

So that E g = K N volt where N is in rps

2.5 Types of Dc Generators

Generally, dc generators can be divided into two: separately excited dc generators and self-

excited dc generators. Self-excited dc generators are further divided into series wound

generators, shunt wound generators and compound wound which could be short-shunt

compound or long-shunt compound wound generators.

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2.5.1 Separately excited Generator:

In a separately excited dc generator, as shown in Figure 2.4, the field winding is excited from an

independent external source such as a battery. The current flowing through the armature I a and

load I L is the same and the terminal voltage, V is equal to the generated voltage E g less voltage

drop in the armature, I a Ra

Ia = IL = I (2.9)

V = E g − IR a (2.10)

where, Ra is the armature resistance.

Power developed Pg = E g I (2.11)

PL = VI (2.12)

+ Ia If

+
− Separate
Load

v
Field

Eg Armature source of
+
−
excitation

Figure 2:4

2.5.2 Self-excited dc Generators

A dc generator whose field winding is excited by the current supplied by the generator itself is

called a self-excited generator. There are three types of this generator.

2.5.2.1 Series Wound Generator

In this generator, the field winding is connected in series with the armature winding such that the

same current flow through the field winding and the load. Figure 2.5a shows the circuit diagram

14
of the series wound generator. The series winding is designed with fewer turns of thick wire since

it carries the same full load current. Therefore, the resistance of series field winding is very low.

I a = I se = I L = I (2.13)

V = E g − I ( Ra + R se ) (2.14)

Power developed Pg = E g I , PL = VI

2.5.2.2 Shunt Wound Generators

In a shunt-wound generator, the field winding is connected across the armature circuit forming a

parallel or shunt circuit as shown in Figure 2.5b. The voltage of the field winding is the same as

the terminal voltage of the generator. The important relations are given below

Armature current, I a = I L + I sh (2.15)

V
Shunt field current, I sh = (2.16)
Rsh

V = E g − I a Ra (2.17)

Power developed Pg = E g I a , PL = VI L (2.18)

2.5.2.3 Compound Wound Generators

There are two field windings in the compound wound generator, one with many turns of wires

is connected across the armature while the other with few turns of wire is connected in series with

armature windings. In short shunt, the shunt field winding is parallel with the armature alone as

shown in Figure 2.5c. In a long shunt, the shunt field winding is parallel with both the armature

and series field winding, as shown in Figure 2.5d. The following relations are significant to short

shunt wound generator

Series field current, I se = I L (2.19)

V + I se Rse
Shunt field current, I sh = (2.20)
Rsh

Armature current, I a = I L + I sh (2.21)

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 Terminal voltage, V = E g − I a Ra − I a Rse (2.22)

Power developed Pg = E g I a , PL = VI L

For long shunt compound generator

V
Shunt field current, I sh = (2.23)
Rsh

Armature current, I a = I se = I L + I sh (2.24)

Terminal voltage, V = E g − I a Ra − I se Rse = E g − I a ( Ra + Rse ) (2.25)

Power developed , Pg = E g I a , PL = VI L

I Field + Ia I sh Series Field I se

IL + I sh
+ + Ia IL Series
I se I sh
+ IL Field
Ia
+ Shunt + Shunt
Load

Ia
v

Load
Eg Armature Field Shunt v +
Load

v Eg Armature
Load
v Eg Armature Field
Field
− Eg Armature
− −
− −
−
− −

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 2:5

2.5.3 Applications of D.C. Generators

i. Shunt generators with field regulators are used for ordinary lighting and power supply

purposes. They are also used for charging batteries because their terminal voltages are almost

constant or can be kept constant.

ii. Series generators are not used for power supply because of their rising characteristics.

However, their rising characteristic makes them suitable for being used as boosters in certain

types of distribution systems particularly in railway service.

iii. Compound generators, the cumulatively-compound generator is the most widely used d.c.

generator because its external characteristic can be adjusted for compensating the voltage drop

in the line resistance. Hence, such generators are used for motor driving which requires d.c.

16
 supply at constant voltage, for lamp loads and heavy power services such as electric railways.

The differential-compound generator has an external characteristic similar to that of a shunt

generator but with a large demagnetization armature reaction. Hence, it is widely used in arc

welding where a larger voltage drop is desirable with an increase in current.

2.6 DC Motor

A DC motor converts electric energy into mechanical energy. If a current-carrying conductor is

placed in a magnetic field as shown in Figure 2.6a, the conductor experiences a mechanical force

and the conductor moves in the direction of force which is given by Fleming’s left-hand rule. The

magnitude of the mechanical force experienced on the conductor is given by

F = BlI sin  (2.25)

where B is the field strength in teslas (Wb/m2 ), I is the current flowing through the conductor in

amperes and l is the length of the conductor in meters. When the motor is connected to the dc

supply mains, a direct current passes through the brushes and the commutator to the armature

winding; while it passes through the commutator it is inverted/converted into ac so that the group

of conductors under successive field poles carry currents in the opposite directions. Also, the

direction of current in the individual conductors reverses as they pass away from the influence of

one pole to that of the next. A 2-pole dc motor is shown in Figure 2.6b when the field and armature

circuits are connected across dc supply mains. Let the current in the armature conductors be

outward under the N-poles (shown by dots) and inwards under the S-poles (shown by crosses).

Each conductor experiences a force which tends to rotate the motor armature in a clockwise

direction as determined by Fleming’s left-hand rule. These forces collectively produce a driving

torque which rotates the armature.

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 Current +
Current out +
into page
of page Rotation

+ + +
+
F N S
N F S
B

+
+
+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+

+
Figure 2:6

2.7 Types of DC motor

Separately Excited DC Motor: This motor has field coils similar to those of a shunt wound

machine, but the armature and field coils are fed from different supply sources as shown in Figure

2.7a

Series Wound DC Motor: in a series wound motor, the field coils, consisting of a few turns of

thick wire, are connected in series with the armature as illustrated in Figure 2.7b

Shunt Wound dc Motor: Figure 2.7 shows a shunt wound dc motor. Here, the field winding

consists of a large number of turns which is parallel to the armature. The field current is much

less than the armature current, sometimes as low as 5%.

Compound Wound DC Motors: A compound wound dc motor has both shunt and series field

coils as illustrated in Figure 2.7 d & e. The shunt field is normally the stronger of the two (i.e. has

more ampere-turns). Compound wound motors are of two types namely commutative compound

wound and differential compound wound motors. In the formal, the series and the shunt field

windings are connected such that the same current flow through them and the series field flux

strengthens the shunt field flux. In the latter, the field windings are connected such that the

direction of current flow is opposite each other and the series field flux weakens the shunt field

flux.

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 Ia I Field
If
+
+ + Ia
DC supply − Separate DC +
DC supply

Field
Mains Eg Armature
supply source
+ Mains Armature
− − − −

(a) (b)
Ia I sh Series Field Series Field
IL
+ I se Ia
+ I sh
Ia
DC supply Shunt +
I se I sh
+ +
Mains Armature Field DC supply Shunt +
DC supply Shunt
− − Mains Armature
Field Mains Armature
Field
− − − −

(c) (d) (e)

Figure 2:7

19