High Impact Weather Events

REVIEW
published: 29 May 2020

doi: 10.3389/feart.2020.00162
High Impact Weather Events in the

Andes
Germán Poveda 1*, Jhan Carlo Espinoza 2 , Manuel D. Zuluaga 1 , Silvina A. Solman 3,4 ,
René Garreaud 5 and Peter J. van Oevelen 6
1
Department of Geosciences and Environment, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Medellín, Colombia, 2 Université Grenoble
Alpes, IRD, CNRS, G-INP, IGE (UMR 5001), Grenoble, France, 3 Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas
y Naturales, Departamento de Ciencias de la Atmósfera y los Océanos, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 4 CONICET - Universidad
de Buenos Aires, Centro de Investigaciones del Mar y la Atmósfera (CIMA), Buenos Aires, Argentina, 5 Department of
Geophysics, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile, 6 International GEWEX Project Office, Washington, DC, United States
Owing to the extraordinary latitudinal extent, a strong orographic variability with very high
mountain tops, and the presence of deep valleys and steep slopes, the Andes and the
population of the region are highly prone and vulnerable to the impacts of a large suite of
extreme weather events. Here we provide a review of the most salient events in terms of
losses of human and animal lives, economic and monetary losses in costs and damages,
and social disruption, namely: (1) extreme precipitation events and related processes
Edited by: (Mesoscale Convective Systems, lightning), (2) cold spells, frosts, and high winds, (3)
Bryan G. Mark,
the impacts of ENSO on extreme hydro-meteorological events, (4) floods, (5) landslides,
The Ohio State University,
United States mudslides, avalanches, and (6) droughts, heat waves and fires. For our purposes, we
Reviewed by: focus this review on three distinctive regions along the Andes: Northern tropical (north
Francina Dominguez, of 8◦ S), Southern tropical (8◦ S-27◦ S) and Extratropical Andes (south of 27◦ S). Research
University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign, United States gaps are also identified and discussed at the end of this review. It is very likely that climate
Mario Bruno Rohrer, change will increase the vulnerability of the millions of inhabitants of the Andes, impacting
Meteodat GmbH, Switzerland
their livelihoods and the sustainable development of the region into the twenty first century
*Correspondence:
amidst urbanization, deforestation, air, soil and water pollution, and land use changes.
Germán Poveda
[email protected] Keywords: Andes, extreme weather, storms, ENSO, floods, landslides, droughts, fires
Specialty section:
This article was submitted to INTRODUCTION
Hydrosphere,
a section of the journal
Rapid rates of human encroachment, urbanization, deforestation and land use changes are taking
Frontiers in Earth Science
place along the Andes (Figure 1). These developments make the region and their populations
Received: 04 November 2019 highly vulnerable to extreme weather events and impose a huge toll in terms of socioeconomic,
Accepted: 29 April 2020
environmental and ecological impacts. Such high vulnerability is associated with diverse natural
Published: 29 May 2020
hazards and risks, poor (or non-existent) preventive and adaptive capabilities and fragile
Citation: governance. Figures 2A,B illustrate the impacts of weather and hydrological extreme events over
Poveda G, Espinoza JC, Zuluaga MD,
the Andes. Floods and cold spells lead the rank in human lives losses in the region. Between 1985
Solman SA, Garreaud R and van
Oevelen PJ (2020) High Impact
and 2014 occurred 150 disasters in the Andes triggered by these extreme events, causing economic
Weather Events in the Andes. losses of 3,138.4 million of US dollars, killing 6,664 people and affecting more than 12 million
Front. Earth Sci. 8:162. people (Stäubli et al., 2017). It is highly likely that climate change will increase such vulnerability
doi: 10.3389/feart.2020.00162 throughout the Andes (Magrin et al., 2014).
Frontiers in Earth Science | www.frontiersin.org 1 May 2020 | Volume 8 | Article 162

Poveda et al. Andes High Impact Events
(RHP) of the Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment

(GEWEX; https://www.gewex.org/).
For our purposes, the Andean region is divided into three
distinctive regions: Northern Tropical (north of 8◦ S), Southern
Tropical (27◦ S-8◦ S) and Extratropical Andes (south of 27◦ S). The
work is distributed as follows. Section Extreme Precipitation and
Related Processes is focused on extreme precipitation and storm
events and related processes, including mesoscale convective
systems and lightning. Section Cold Spells, Frosts, and High
Winds deals with cold spells, frosts, and high winds, while
section ENSO Impacts on Extreme Events discusses the impacts
of ENSO on extreme hydro-meteorological events. Section
Floods is related to floods, while section Landslides, Mudslides,
Avalanches with landslides, mudslides, and avalanches, and
section Droughts, Heat Waves and Fires reviews droughts,
heat waves and fires. Section Research Gaps provides a
summary of main research gaps regarding the monitoring,
understanding, modeling, and prediction of the studied processes
and phenomena, and some final remarks are pointed out in
section Final Remarks.
EXTREME PRECIPITATION AND RELATED

PROCESSES
Northern Tropical Andes
Very localized intense storms occur in the tropical Andes during
the (annual or semi-annual) wet seasons, with a diurnal cycle
shifting with the seasons (Poveda et al., 2005; Bedoya-Soto et al.,
2019). Over the Andes of Colombia and Venezuela, most intense
storms occur during the two maxima of the annual cycle (April-
May and September-November) (Espinoza et al., 2020). The
most salient feature of intense storms is a strong spatiotemporal
variability, which is caused by steep orography and topographic
roughness, local circulations, small and large-scale convective
cloud systems acting at different timescales, local circulations
and regional valley/mountain breeze systems, katabatic winds
(López and Howell, 1967; Bendix et al., 2009), evapotranspiration
from the bottom of intra-Andean valleys, orographically-driven
moisture transport (Rollenbeck and Bendix, 2011), and anabatic
circulations (Bedoya-Soto et al., 2019), which in turn are
influenced by synoptic mesoscale and continental conditions.
Over the eastern slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes, nocturnal
FIGURE 1 | Location and population of cities and towns along the Andes,
whose populations are greater that 10,000 inhabitants. Data source: World convection and clouds develop in spite of unfavorable large-
Cities Database (https://simplemaps.com/data/world-cities). scale conditions (Bendix et al., 2009; Trachte et al., 2010).
Precipitation recycling in the tropical Andes can be 70–90% of
total precipitation (Zemp et al., 2014; Bedoya-Soto et al., 2019).
The strong variability of tropical Andean storms is evidenced in
This paper reviews high impact weather events affecting their fractal and multifractal properties (Poveda and Mejía, 2004;
the livelihoods of millions of people, and compromise the Gómez and Poveda, 2008; Hurtado and Poveda, 2009; Poveda,
sustainable development of the Andean region amid climate 2011; Mesa and Peñaranda, 2015; Posadas et al., 2015; Poveda and
change, urbanization, deforestation, and land use changes. It Salas, 2015; Yarleque et al., 2016; Duffaut-Espinosa et al., 2017).
is a contribution in a series of six to this special issue of Intense storms over the tropical Andes are also associated with
Frontiers in Earth Science focused on the Andes climate, weather, Mesoscale Convective Systems (MCS) over western Colombia
hydrology and cryosphere (Condom et al., 2020; Espinoza et al., and the far eastern tropical Pacific (Velasco and Fritsch, 1987;
2020; Masiokas et al., 2020; Pabón-Caicedo et al., 2020), arising Houze et al., 2015; Zuluaga and Houze, 2015). These large and
from ANDEX, a prospective Regional Hydroclimate Project intense convective systems are seen to contribute to explain

FIGURE 2 | (A) Climate and hydrological disasters in the Andean countries and human fatalities during the period spanning from 2000 to 2015. Source:
Schoolmeester et al. (2016), from a figure made by GRID-Arendal and Cartografare il Presente/Riccardo Pravettoni (https://www.grida.no/resource). (B) Disasters
along the Andes caused by storms, floods, mass movements, extreme temperatures, droughts and wild fires, based on EM-DAT (Guha-Sapir et al., 2015).
Cartography by Jürg Krauer, Centre for Development and Environment (CDE), University of Bern, Switzerland. Adapted from Stäubli et al. (2017) by permission from
Springer, Climate Change Extreme Events and Disaster Risk Reduction, by S. Mal, R. B. Singh, and C. Huggel (eds.), Copyright, 2018.
the existence of one of the rainiest spots on Earth over the April 1st, 2017, killing at least 336 people, injuring 332, and
Pacific coast of Colombia with average rain rates of 10,000– 70 others missing.
13,000 mm per year (Poveda and Mesa, 1999; Poveda et al., Rainfall over north-western South America exhibits different
2014; Yepes et al., 2019). Over Colombia’s far eastern Pacific, the precipitation features (PF) containing elements associated with
cross-equatorial flow become the south-westerly CHOCO LLJ their convective life cycle, such as those with and without ice
that interacts with the western Andes (Poveda and Mesa, 2000; scattering and MCSs. The former two maximize in the afternoon
Bedoya-Soto et al., 2019; Yepes et al., 2019), exhibiting weaker from 12:00 to 18:00 LT at the west of the western Colombian
winds in February-March and stronger winds during September- Andes, and the eastern slope of the eastern Andes. The former
November (Figure 3). Such enhanced ocean-atmosphere-land occurs by the effect of Pacific sea breeze along the valley floor
interactions by the CHOCO LLJ produce world-record breaking and upslope to the top of the Andes in the afternoon (López
rainfall intensities over western Colombia inland and off-shore and Howell, 1967; Yepes et al., 2019), but also from the Orinoco
(Poveda and Mesa, 1999, 2000; Yepes et al., 2019). Mostly LLJ during the afternoon. On the other hand, PFs with MCSs
focused on the Caribbean and the Orinoco LLJs, easterly trade mainly occur in the morning (00:00–06:00 LT) offshore in the
winds prevail, and their interaction with the ITCZ produce large Pacific at 77.5◦ W (Mapes et al., 2003; Yepes et al., 2019). Large
amounts of rainfall in the Orinoco basin, and the Upper Amazon precipitation features (PFs) associated with MCSs represent <1%
river basins in Colombia, Venezuela and Brazil (Figure 3). of PFs in the eastern Amazonian slopes of the Andes (Jaramillo
Figure 4 shows the distribution of average (1998–2013) et al., 2017). The most common PFs exhibit small areas and
rainfall over most South America during JJA and DJF, using data contribute about 15% to total precipitation, while MCS are
from the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM). Most of observed least but produce more than 50% of the total along the
this rain is produced by different types of convective organization eastern slope of the Central Andes below 2000 m a.s.l. (Chávez
at the regional scale (Houze et al., 2015; Rasmussen et al., 2016), and Takahashi, 2017).
which are often part of large MCSs at different stages. Such types Some mesoscale convective units may become broad areas
can be classified using reflectivity echoes from the TRMM 3B42 of stratiform rain (BSR; TRMM echoes covering more than
product (Kummerow et al., 1998, 2000; Houze et al., 2007, 2015; 50,000 km2 ) at the later stage of MCS (Houze, 2004) (Figure 5B
Romatschke et al., 2010). Figure 5A shows the probability of for JJA). They are concentrated over the eastern Pacific near
TRMM Precipitation Radar (PR) observing a wide convective Colombia, and less in the Orinoco and Upper Amazon basin.
core (WCC), with pixels exceeding 40 dBZ reflectivity over 1,000 Furthermore, very deep and intense convective cores (DCC)
km2 during JJA (Houze et al., 2015). The WWC tend to maximize develop over continental regions, with maxima during JJA over
in the Pacific coast of Colombia and Panama, in the northern the north-eastern Andes of Colombia and Venezuela. Figure 5C
region of the Andes of Colombia, as well as in the Orinoco and shows DCCs higher than 10 km, associated with severe weather,
parts of the Upper Amazon river basin. Figures S1, S2 show lightning and flash floods (Rasmussen and Houze, 2011; Zuluaga
the MCS that triggered the flooding of Mocoa, Colombia, in and Houze, 2015; Hoyos et al., 2019).

FIGURE 3 | Distribution of the long-term mean (1980-2018) horizontal wind speed (m/s) at 950 hPa over northern South America; (A) Mean annual values showing
the Choco, Caribbean, and Orinoco low-level jets, and the SALLJ. Mean seasonal values during (B) December-January-February; (C) March-April-May; (D)
June-July-August; and (E) September-October-November. Images prepared from the NOAA/ESRL Physical Sciences Division, Boulder Colorado; https://www.esrl.
noaa.gov/psd/.

FIGURE 4 | Average rain rate from TRMM distinguishable rain areas during the months of (A) JJA and (B) DJF from 1998 to 2013. The black thin contour
characterizes the 700 m elevation. Adapted from Houze et al. (2015).
After convective systems get organized, they migrate away Lightning also affect the power transmission systems in Colombia
from the topography. Usually, the migration of organized (Aranguren et al., 2017).
convective systems is favored by the prevailing mid- to upper
level wind. Over northern western Colombia and southern Southern Tropical Andes
Panama, organized systems tend to move westward away from Most of moisture reaching the Andes highlands come from the
the topography toward the east Pacific Ocean by the easterly flow Atlantic Ocean and the Amazon River basin via easterly aerial
(Mapes et al., 2003; Zuluaga and Houze, 2015). Some authors rivers (Poveda et al., 2014). Westerly winds from the Pacific are
attribute the speed of flow to a gravity wave triggered by the not infrequent over the Andes from Colombia to Peru, and occur
afternoon heating of the Andes (Mapes et al., 2003), and others following the seasonal movement of the ITCZ and the strength
to the easterly wave migration over the east Pacific (Rydbeck and of the Bolivian High Sakamoto et al. (2011); Poveda et al. (2014);
Maloney, 2015). Makowski Giannoni et al. (2016); Trachte (2018); Espinoza et al.
Northern South America is also affected by synoptic-scale (2020). Boers et al. (2015a,b, 2016) studied different types of
processes favoring convective organization over the tropical extreme storms events over the southern tropical Andes, and
Andes such as the African Easterly Waves (AEWs). These found that events north of 20◦ S are typically generated in the
perturbations are associated with convective activity and the Amazon Basin, whereas storms over the foothills of the eastern
occurrence of storm events in northern Colombia and Venezuela Andes south of 20◦ S, including the Puna High Plateau, originate
(León et al., 2001; Poveda et al., 2002; Dominguez et al., over the southeastern part of the continent. Such propagation
2020). To the west of the tropical Andes (north of Peru and during the monsoon season (December to March) is explained
Ecuador), rain is associated with an onshore westerly low-level by mid-latitude alternating pressure anomalies embedded in a
flow from the equatorial Pacific, which triggers convection forced westerly Rossby wave-train in combination with a low-pressure
by orographic lifting of the Andes (e.g., Takahashi, 2004). center located over northwestern Argentina, creating favorable
The most active regions of lightning in the world are conditions for intense storms (Liebmann et al., 2004; Espinoza
found in the low-lands of the tropical Andes of Colombia et al., 2012a; Boers et al., 2015b; Paccini et al., 2017). Over
and Venezuela (Albrecht et al., 2016), with flash rate density the northern part of the south tropical Andes (10◦ S-5◦ N), the
(FRD) of 233 flashes per km2 per year (Figure S3). Lightning eastward propagation of the MJO convective core during the
flash density is inversely correlated with altitude along the Austral summer (DJF), modulates sub-seasonal precipitation,
Andes of Colombia (Herrera et al., 2018), causing high human producing positive rainfall anomalies up to 50% compared with
and livestock mortality (Cristancho et al., 2017), with 757 the climatology (Recalde-Coronel et al., 2020).
deaths from 2000 to 2009, or 1.78 per million per year (Cruz Extreme rainfall in the valleys of the southern tropical
et al., 2013; Navarrete-Aldana et al., 2014). Also, between 2003 Andes results from the interplay between the Amazon and the
and 2012, 282 casualties were reported among soldiers of the Pacific Ocean flows, influenced by orography (Junquas et al.,
Colombian Army in 149 events with 72 deaths and 210 injuries. 2016, 2018; Trachte, 2018). Kumar et al. (2019) show that

FIGURE 5 | Geographical distribution of the probability of finding (A) a wide convective core; (B) a broad stratiform region; and (C) a deep convective core during the
months of JJA from 1998 to 2003. (D) same as (A); (E) same as (B); and (F) same as (C) but for DJF, respectively. The black contour inside the continental regions
represents the 700 m elevation. Figure adapted from Zuluaga and Houze (2015).
precipitating cloud systems (PCs) in the Andes and western example of the vertical profile of radar reflectivity is shown in
Amazon are largely affected by the directional surface flows. Figures 6E,F.
In particular, larger PCs (>2,000 km2 ) are more frequent at The eastern Andes foothills located at windward conditions
the western flank of the Andes during southerly and easterly are among the rainiest regions in the Amazon basin (4,000–
surface flows, while along the eastern flank, northerly and 7,000 mm yr−1 ; Roche et al., 1990; Espinoza et al., 2015), resulting
easterly surface winds are predominant during high and large from the interaction between large-scale humidity transport from
PCs (Figures 6A–D). According to Villalobos et al. (2019), the Atlantic Ocean, Amazonian evapotranspiration and moisture
convection and cloud systems are deeper over the central recycling, and the steep Andes topography (Killeen et al., 2007;
Andes regions than in the Amazon-Andes transition region. Espinoza et al., 2009; Zemp et al., 2014). Highest values of this
The central Andes witness convective (30%) and stratiform orographic rainfall are located along the foothills of the eastern
(70%) precipitation, contributing with 63.3 and 36.7% of total Andes of Peru and Bolivia (e.g., Figure 6B), mainly during the
rain, whereas in the Amazon-Andes transition those percentages austral summer (Romatschke and Houze, 2010; Espinoza et al.,
and the contribution to cumulative rain attain similar values 2015). Most rainfall intensification has been associated to the
(31 and 69%, respectively). Over the central Peruvian Andes, direction of 850 hPa winds (Figure 6G), with excessive rainfall
and using a vertically pointed profile rain radar installed during a north-easterly wind regime originating in subtropical
in the Mantaro Basin, Kumar et al. (2020) show that most South America (Garreaud and Wallace, 1998; Laurent et al.,
of the bright band height (an indication for the melting 2002; Rickenbach et al., 2002; Espinoza et al., 2015; Chávez
zone) over this region vary between 4.3 and 4.7 km. An and Takahashi, 2017; Kumar et al., 2019; Moya-Álvarez et al.,

FIGURE 6 | Locations of the precipitation cloud systems for different wind regimes: (A) Southerly, (B) Easterly, (C) Northerly, and (D) Westerly. The size of the
precipitation cloud systems is represented by different colors (in red, precipitation cloud systems larger than 2,000 km2 ). Source: Kumar et al. (2019). © Atmospheric
Research. Reprinted by permission from Elsevier. (E,F) Radar reflectivity measured by a meteorological Ka band cloud radar installed in the Mantaro Basin, Peru
(12.04◦ S, 75.32◦ W, 3,322 m a.s.l.) during (A) a convective rainfall event (12 January 2016), and (B) a stratiform rainfall (13 February 2017). Source Kumar et al. (2020).
© Atmosphere – MDPI. CC license. (G) Probability distribution function of June-August rainfall over the Quincemil-San Gabán stations in the Amazon-Andes transition
zone, southern Peru (blue star, A) during different regimes: southerly (V+, blue line), and northerly (V–, red line). 850 hPa winds from ERA-40 and from the
meteorological station at Iquitos, Peru, are used to estimate wind regimes (solid and dashed lines, respectively). Adapted from Espinoza et al. (2015). © Water
Resources Research. Reprinted by permission from John Wiley and Sons.

2019). Wet episodes over these regions are frequently related to and Garreaud, 2007; Viale and Nuñez, 2011), although deep
large and medium MCSs, triggered by the orographic lifting of convection associated with cut-off lows (COL) also occur. These
the moist South American low-level jet (SALLJ, Bendix et al., weather systems reach the extratropical Andes year-round, and
2009; Giovannettone and Barros, 2009; Romatschke and Houze, are strongly distorted by the mountains (Barrett et al., 2009).
2013; Junquas et al., 2018). Below 2000 m, intraseasonal rainfall In particular, the cordillera produces a west-east precipitation
variability is mainly modulated by the interplay between SALLJ, gradient such that precipitation increases by a factor 2–4 over
cross-equatorial low-level flow and southern winds intrusion the western slope of the Andes to sharply decrease to the east of
toward low latitudes (Wang and Fu, 2002; Espinoza et al., 2015; the continental divide (Viale and Garreaud, 2014). The upstream
Chávez and Takahashi, 2017). In the north-western Amazon- precipitation enhancement and downstream rain shadow across
Andes transition region (Peru, Ecuador and Colombia) intense the southern Andes cordillera creates one of the most extreme
storms are more frequent under southerly low-level winds precipitation gradients on Earth. In frontal cases, the amount of
regime, particularly from June to November (Wang and Fu, 2002; precipitation over the mountains and adjacent lowlands scales
Paccini et al., 2017). directly with the integrated water vapor transported by the
Figure 5D shows how the Andes foothills region in Central westerly winds toward the western Andes (Falvey and Garreaud,
South America witness localized maxima of storms containing 2007). Recent research shows that such transport maximizes in
wide convective cores (WCC). These storms are organized at the the core of atmospheric rivers (Ralph et al., 2016; Nieto et al.,
mesoscale, producing the accumulated rainfall concentrated in 2019) that landfall between 35 and 45◦ along the west coast of
the hotspots shown in Figure 5B). The region also experiences South America 3–4 times per month (Viale et al., 2018). After
storms with extensive broad areas of stratiform rain (BSR) as making landfall, the ARs face the Andes cordillera where they
shown in Figure 5E, mainly localized in the Andes foothills south deliver most of their precipitating. Thus, ARs account for up
of Peru and northern Bolivia. Diurnal analysis of the occurrence to 50% of the precipitation in the western slope of the Andes
of these storms show how WCC peaks during the evening and are associated with about half of the extreme precipitation
hours while storms containing BSRs peak in the early morning, events in this region (Viale et al., 2018), thus being responsible
which suggest that both are part of similar MCSs in either early for the majority of extreme precipitation events along the west
or later stages of their convective life cycles (Romatschke and slopes of the extratropical Andes (Valenzuela and Garreaud,
Houze, 2010). Chávez and Takahashi (2017) found that surface 2019). A dramatic example of this situation is illustrated with the
precipitation over these rainfall “hotspots” at the eastern flank of integrated water vapor and accumulated rainfall on Dec. 17, 2017,
the Peruvian Andes is characterized by maximum values at 01– which triggered a major flooding causing more than 20 fatalities
06 LT and organizes into MCSs that represent with at least 50% in the Santa Lucia village in southern Chile (Figure 7).
of daily rainfall. Few storms containing deep convective elements The thermal structure of weather systems is also
are found in the central Andes foothills region (Figure 5F), which relevant in triggering extreme hydrological events over the
suggests the orographically-driven moderate convective nature of extratropical Andes. In most storms (at least two thirds of the
storms. This observation agrees with the notion that convection events) precipitation over the central valleys begins almost
here is highly influenced by the proximity to the convection in the simultaneously with the arrival of the cold front, so the bulk of
Amazon basin, which tends to have less deep, more maritime-like the storm accumulation occurs under cold conditions (post-
and weaker convection (Houze et al., 2015). frontal precipitation) with a freezing level altitude around
MCSs in the region are observed in about 86% of the cases 2,200 m (Garreaud, 2013). This level is well below the Andes
(Jaramillo et al., 2017) by the moisture transport that converges in crest height between 27 and 37◦ S (>5,000 m a.s.l.), contributing
the Andes foothills, in association with a stronger SALLJ. In the to the build-up of a seasonal snow pack that eventually melt
Central Andes, MCSs mainly occur from December to March, during spring-summer. Indeed, many cold fronts arriving to
as in the northern part of the La Plata River basin (Jaramillo central Chile during winter produce a minor increase in the flow
et al., 2017). The other 14% of the cases are associated with cold of the rivers draining the Andes cordillera. A few winter storms,
surges coming from south-eastern South America. These MCSs however, feature warm conditions causing a freezing level as
show a strong relationship with the diurnal cycle of rainfall in the high as 4,000 m a.s.l. and increasing the pluvial area up to a
Amazon-Andes transition region; in the upper Andes and lower factor 4 relative to average conditions. This winter warm storm,
Amazon precipitation tends to peak in the afternoon (Killeen often associated with an AR, can cause large floods downstream
et al., 2007), On the eastern slopes of the Andes (800–2,000 m (Garreaud, 2013).
a.s.l.), convection is developed and organized into MCSs during Cut-off lows (COL) can cause substantial precipitation near
the night and a peak of precipitation is observed at 01–06 LT. the western slope of the Andes, because the ascent in its
These then move downslope (∼700 m) and precipitation declines leading edge is reinforced by the forced ascent over the
during the morning (Chávez and Takahashi, 2017). terrain. In contrast to cold fronts, COLs can reach subtropical
latitudes (northern Chile to southern Peru). An extraordinary
Extratropical Andes COL situation happened in March 22–24, 2015, after warm
Intense precipitation events over the extratropical Andes are waters established along the western coast of South America
different than those over the northern and central Andes, and since early March, providing ample moisture in this otherwise
occur both in summer and winter. Most precipitation is delivered dry region. The result was a major rainstorm over the
by deep stratiform clouds rooted along frontal systems (Falvey Atacama region, the most arid desert in the world: up to

FIGURE 7 | Key aspects of the atmospheric river causing a major flooding in southern Chile. (A) Accumulated precipitation during Dec. 16, 2017. (B) Maximum rain
rate (mm/h) that day. (c) Precipitable water MIMICS estimates). Red colors are precipitable water values in excess of 50 mm.
100 mm during 3 days and rainfall intensities in excess of exacerbate the intensity of storms (Garreaud and Rutllant, 1997;
10 mm/h at some stations (Figure 8). The 2015 Atacama Viale and Garreaud, 2014).
flooding episode is among the worst hydrometeorological The southern region of South America experience one of
disasters in Chile in terms of losses of human lives (more the deepest, and most intense convective systems on Earth
than 60 fatalities) and infrastructure damage (Bozkurt et al., (Zipser et al., 2006; Rasmussen et al., 2016), mainly over the
2016). region of Mendoza, along the Andes of Argentina. Most of
Convective rainfall events also occur during dry austral this precipitation occurs in the austral spring and summer
summer months in the northern sector of the extratropical (e.g., Figure 5B), and concentrates to the east of the Andes
Andes (30–40◦ S), when liquid precipitation occur as high in the La Plata River basin (Zipser et al., 2006; Salio et al.,
as 4,000 m a.s.l, triggering landslides and debris flows and 2007; Romatschke and Houze, 2010; Rasmussen and Houze,
damaging infrastructure and international highways (Sepúlveda 2011, 2016). An on-going research effort is under way to
and Padilla, 2008; Garreaud and Viale, 2014). The synoptic monitor and understand the life cycle of convective storms
conditions for these summer events are characterized by easterly associated with high impact weather in the lee side of the
winds atop of the Andes, opposing the climatological westerly Andes of Argentina (Provinces of Córdoba and Mendoza),
flow that transport moist air toward the mountains (Figure 9). known as RELAMPAGO (Remote sensing of Electrification,
The approach of an upper level trough (or COL) is necessary Lightning, And Mesoscale/microscale Processes with Adaptive
to overcome the large-scale subsidence, thus contributing to Ground Observations; https://www.eol.ucar.edu/field_projects/

FIGURE 8 | (A) Annual mean precipitation along north-central Chile. (B) Station-records of accumulated precipitation during the Atacama storm (March 23–25, 2015).
(C) ERA-5 analysis of accumulated precipitation during the Atacama storm (March 23–25, 2015). Note that the hyper-arid Atacama Desert is characterized by mean
values below 5 mm/year but during the March 2015 storm some stations accumulated more than 70 mm in just three days. Based on data from Bozkurt et al. (2016).
relampago). It is a joint effort between USA, Brazil and convective cells to be triggered near the foothills of the Andes
Argentina which had an Extended Observing Period from June close to Sierra de Cordoba in Argentina (e.g., DCCs shown in
1st 2018 to April 30th, 2019, and an Intensive Observing Figure 5F), under a strong topographically-driven convective
Period from November 1st to December 18th, 2018. This region initiation and maintenance. Although the Amazonian moisture
experiences multicellular storms which rank among the most source for the SALLJ does not seem to be as significant as
intense convective systems in the world, exhibiting high tops, originally thought (Yang and Dominguez, 2019), it is sometimes
large hail, and strong lightning activity. Most of the storms capped by leeside subsidence of the midlevel dry air that flows
initiate and develop in the early afternoon and late evening hours over the Andes from the eastward synoptic disturbances. The
near and just east of the Sierras de Córdoba, and are predominant breaking of this cap triggers the release of convective instability
during the austral summer (December to February), with large and deep convection leading to tornadoes, hail and floods
CAPE and weak low-level vertical wind shear (Mulholland et al., along the plains between the Andes and the Atlantic coast
2018). The RELAMPAGO project involve collaboration with (Grandoso, 1966; Nascimento and Marcelino, 2005; Matsudo
CACTI (Clouds, Aerosols, and Complex Terrain Interactions), and Salio, 2011; Rasmussen and Houze, 2011; Mezher et al.,
a USA funded project to study orographic clouds and their 2012; Rasmussen et al., 2014). Associated mechanisms of hail
representation in multi-scale models (Varble et al., 2019). occurrence include intense convection with sufficiently high
Farther downstream of the extratropical Andes, the lowlands warm and moist updrafts to increase super-cooled water content
of the La Plata River Basin region experience an exceptionally in the cloud, convergence of moist enthalpy near the ground,
number of localized and widespread convective storms near and the passage of cold fronts that trigger instabilities favoring
the La Plata River basin, just east of the Andes ranges upward motion on the warm side of the front, and facilitating the
(Figures 5D–F). There exists a preference for initial deep growth of deep convection (Teitelbaum and D’Andrea, 2015).

FIGURE 9 | Schematic west-east cross section during summer storms over the extratropical Andes (30-37◦ S). This is the most frequent type of storm (2/3)
associated with an approaching weak trough aloft and easterly winds over the Argentinean side. Adapted from Viale and Garreaud (2014).
COLD SPELLS, FROSTS, AND HIGH WINDS 2017), as well as formation of thick clouds in the Zongo glacier
region in Bolivia (16◦ S, 5,060 m a.s.l.), particularly during the
Northern Tropical Andes austral winter and spring (Sicart et al., 2015). Hurley et al. (2015)
Higher elevations in the tropical Andes pose a challenge for their showed that around 70% of the total accumulated snow on the
communities which have to adapt to the occurrence of frosts, as Quelccaya glacier (Peruvian Andes; 5,680 m) is associated with
is the case in the northern Andes of Colombia above 2,500 m these southern cold air intrusions.
a.s.l. Such events are typical during dry seasons due to intense In the central Peruvian Andes, radiative frosts are a major
radiative cooling of the ground during the night in association hazard to agriculture. They are caused by low cloud cover, surface
with very low cloud cover (Figure S4). The occurrence of air humidity, and soil moisture (Saavedra and Takahashi, 2017),
intense frosts events causes large economic losses to agricultural and tend to occur at night times and early morning of the dry and
communities in the Andes by destroying crops and pastures cold seasons (June–August) (Saavedra and Takahashi, 2017; Sulca
(Bermúdez, 1990; Holmann et al., 2005). et al., 2018). During the austral summer, extreme cold events
in the Mantaro Valley (central Peruvian Andes, around 500–
Southern Tropical Andes 5,300 m a.s.l.) are caused by intrusions of air masses along the east
Metz et al. (2013) find that along the Andes corridor, extreme cold of the Andes through equatorward displacement of extratropical
events reduce 925-hPa temperatures up to 17◦ C below normal. Rossby waves, negative temperature advection and southeasterly
During these events 925-hPa southerly winds are intensified from surface wind anomalies, positive OLR anomalies, and possibly
0 to 10 m s−1 and the 925–700 hPa lapse rates is low (−3◦ C influenced by the Madden-Julian Oscillation.
km−1 ). Cold surges, also known as Friajes or Surazos in Spanish
(Friagems, in Portuguese), propagate equatorward reaching the
Bolivian and southern Peruvian Amazon, causing sudden and Extratropical Andes
severe drops in temperature, up to 10◦ C in few hours, affecting Severe weather events associated with intense downslope wind
people, livestock and crops (Marengo, 1983; Ronchail, 1989a,b; episodes are observed in the eastward slope of the subtropical
Marengo et al., 1997; Garreaud and Wallace, 1998; Pezza and Andes and are commonly referred to as Zonda wind events
Ambrizzi, 2005; Quispe, 2010; Sulca et al., 2018). Incursions of (Norte, 2015). Zonda is a high-speed warm and very dry
low-level cold southerly winds from southern South America downslope wind occurring on the lee side of the Andes
are also associated with rainy episodes on the Amazon-Andes characterized by very strong wind-gusts affecting several western
transition region (Chávez and Takahashi, 2017; Paccini et al., Argentina areas. Zonda episodes are more frequent during winter

and spring. The occurrence of Zonda events is often associated associated with either ENSO phase. Similar conclusions are
with large damages on a variety of systems. These damages can obtained for storm durations from 1 to 24 h (Poveda et al., 2002).
be either socio-economical or ecological, such as blowing off El Niño and La Niña also affect the diurnal cycle of rainfall over
roofs, toppling of trees, downing of power electricity supply and the Colombian Andes, by increasing (decreasing) the amplitude
communication lines, among others. Because of its association during La Niña (El Niño), although the phase remains unchanged
with dry and very warm conditions, it also favors the occurrence (Poveda et al., 2005).
of fire events and damage in crops. At high altitudes over Soil moisture over the Andes of Colombia is affected
the mountains, its occurrence affects the hydrological cycle, consistently by both phases of ENSO. Figure 11 shows soil
by accelerating snow melt and evaporation, and may trigger moisture data gathered at nearby plots covered by shaded coffee,
the occurrence of avalanches (Norte et al., 2008). The classical sunlit coffee and secondary forest. Results indicate that the
Zonda episode, described in Norte (2015) occurs in a synoptic annual seasonal cycle exhibits a strong coupling to interannual
environment characterized by a cold front approaching the (ENSO) variability. Soil moisture exhibited minimum values
western coast of South America and the associated migratory during the two drier seasons (July through September 1997, and
depression, as well as a moderate northern flow over central December 1997 through March 1998), amidst the 1997–1998 El
Argentina associated with the presence of the north-western Niño event. On the other hand, the bi-modal annual cycle of soil
Argentinean low and a warm front located over north-eastern moisture disappeared during the following 1998–1999 La Niña
Argentina. These ingredients induce strong baroclinicity, intense event, exhibiting saturation values throughout the rest of that
vertical wind shear and strong wind components that are year. Sunlit coffee plants exhibited stronger water deficits than
transversal to the Andes. In addition, the presence of a warm forest and shaded coffee plants, thus pointing out the relevance of
front downstream the region where the Zonda develops favors its vegetation and land use in controlling water stress (Poveda et al.,
dynamics. Hence, the Zonda is produced by the topographically 2001a, 2011).
and dynamically forced ascent of humid air upslope of the Andes Atmospheric teleconnections are part of the physical
and a subsequent orographic descent of a prefrontal air mass mechanisms that explain the establishment and persistence of
which is strongly baroclinic. On the basis of the knowledge of drought in the northern Andes (Poveda et al., 2006, 2011). For
the favorable conditions for Zonda events occurrence, Otero et al. instance, droughts in the Andes of Ecuador during El Niño (La
(2018) have constructed a probability index for surface Zonda Niña) are associated with clear-cut westerly (easterly) surface
wind occurrence at the city of Mendoza (Argentina), including wind anomalies over the central tropical Pacific and the reverse
the estimation of the onset of the event, as a tool for predicting its flow in the higher troposphere (Wang, 2002; Vicente-Serrano
probability of occurrence. However, Zonda events have been less et al., 2017). The significant negative correlation between SST
investigated over the northern part of the extratropical Andes, anomalies in the central tropical Pacific and precipitation
where several strong episodes were identified (Otero et al., 2018). anomalies over the glaciers of Ecuador showcase their strong
dependence to both phases of ENSO (Favier et al., 2004; Francou
ENSO IMPACTS ON EXTREME EVENTS et al., 2004; Vuille et al., 2008; Rabatel et al., 2013).
El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is the most important Southern Tropical Andes

modulator of the global hydro-climatology at interannual The general effect of ENSO on precipitation in the Southern
timescales. Its two phases, El Niño and La Niña, trigger a Tropical Andes tends to be the opposite to the Northern Tropical
large suite of hydrological and meteorological extreme events Andes, with positive (negative) anomalies during El Niño (La
worldwide (McPhaden et al., 2006), and particularly in South Niña). Different ENSO types involve a large range of impacts
America and the Andean region (Aceituno, 1988; Waylen and worldwide through atmospheric teleconnections, in addition to
Poveda, 2002; Aceituno et al., 2009; Cai et al., 2020), affecting the land-atmosphere feedbacks (e.g., Larkin and Harrison, 2005;
livelihoods of societies and imposing a huge socio-economic and Ashok et al., 2007; Sun et al., 2013; Bedoya-Soto et al., 2018).
environmental burden to the region. In Peru, rainfall anomalies are associated with different types
of ENSO, usually denoted as with the EP (Eastern Pacific)
Northern Tropical Andes and CP (Central Pacific) indices (Yu and Kao, 2007; Kao
During El Niño, the Andes of Colombia experience long and Yu, 2009; Takahashi et al., 2011; Lavado-Casimiro and
and intense droughts, heat waves, and forest fires, while La Espinoza, 2014; Sulca et al., 2017; Takahashi and Martínez,
Niña triggers intense storms, landslides, floods, avalanches and 2019). SST warming in the eastern (central) equatorial Pacific is
inundations (Poveda and Mesa, 1996, 1997; Poveda et al., 2001a, frequently associated with enhanced (reduced) coastal (Andean
2006, 2011; Hoyos et al., 2013; Bedoya-Soto et al., 2018, 2019). and Amazonian) rainfall, which can occur, with varying relative
Figure 10 shows the annual cycle of the probability distribution magnitudes, during El Niño or, with opposite sign, during La
function (box-plots) of maximum intensity 1-h rainfall events Niña (Lagos et al., 2008; Lavado-Casimiro et al., 2013; Lavado-
in 19 rain gauges on the Colombian Andes (Poveda et al., Casimiro and Espinoza, 2014; Rau et al., 2016; Sulca et al., 2017;
2002), including monthly maximum events during both extreme Imfeld et al., 2019). Both EP and CP indices are associated with
ENSO phases, and also maxima events (MME). In general, weakened upper-level easterly flow over Peru, more so over the
maximum rainfall intensities are larger (smaller) during La central/southern Peruvian Andes (Sulca et al., 2017). Moreover,
Niña (El Niño), although the MME are not necessarily directly during EP El Niño events extreme droughts in the southern

FIGURE 10 | Long-term mean annual cycle of the probability distribution function of 1 h rainfall events, including average values during El Niño (red line) and La Niña
(blue line), and maxima values (yellow triangles) recorded at selected rain gauges along the Colombian Andes. Source: Poveda et al. (2002).

SST anomalies over the easternmost tropical Pacific, and cold SST
anomalies in the central tropical Pacific. Costal El Niño events of
1925 and 2017 are documented in Takahashi and Martínez (2019)
and in Garreaud (2018a), respectively. According to Rodriguez-
Morata et al. (2019) the 2017 Coastal El Niño produced rainfall
records in northern Peru that can only be compared to the
extraordinary El Niño events of the last 40 years, namely 1982–83
and 1997–98.
Over the Altiplano a dominant negative (positive) relationship
between El Niño (La Niña) and summer (DJF) rainfall has been
identified (Vuille et al., 2000; Garreaud et al., 2009). This signal
becomes rather weak to the north of the Altiplano and to the
sub-Andean valleys of the southwestern Amazon below 1,500 m
a.s.l. (Ronchail and Gallaire, 2006). The ENSO-Altiplano rainfall
FIGURE 11 | Temporal dynamics of 10-day mean values of volumetric soil emerges from the changes in the zonal wind atop of the Andes
water content at 40 cm depth, recorded at three nearby parcels in the Central during austral summer. During El Niño years the subtropical
Andes of Colombia under different vegetation types: shaded coffee (brown),
secondary forest (green), and sunlit coffee (red). The studied period (March
jet stream is enhanced thus reducing the transport of moist air
1997–August 1999) was under the influence of the 1997–98 El Niño and from the continent toward the mountains (Garreaud, 1999). The
1998–99 La Niña events. Adapted from Poveda et al. (2001b). opposite situation occurs during La Niña years, when weaker
westerlies in the mid troposphere foster the intrusion of moist air
from the eastern lowlands toward the Altiplano. In a recent study,
a second mechanism associated with upward motion over the
Peruvian Andes are associated with a stronger warming in the western Amazon, has been proposed to explain the interannual
troposphere above the central Pacific Ocean (Imfeld et al., 2019). precipitation variability over the Altiplano (Segura et al., 2020).
However, not all extreme droughts over the region are explained The authors show a slight increase in rainfall over the past two
by El Niño. The Bolivian High and moisture advection from the decades, in association with the strengthening of upward motion
Amazon play an important role (e.g., Segura et al., 2016, 2020; over the western Amazon.
Imfeld et al., 2019). Seiler et al. (2013) investigated interannual climate variability
Over the Peruvian coast, El Niño is the main modulator of in Bolivia. Temperatures were found to be higher in the Andes
rainfall variability at interannual scale. The strong 1982–83 and during El Niño, as well as during the positive phase of PDO and
1997–98 El Niño events were characterized by an enhancement the Antarctic Oscillation (AAO). During the positive phase of
of convective activity in the eastern Pacific (Takahashi et al., 2011; the PDO the total annual rainfall and the frequency of intense
Takahashi and Dewitte, 2016; Jauregui and Takahashi, 2017), and storms were higher, regardless of ENSO phase in the lowlands.
intense storms leading to floods in the central and northern During December-February, El Niño was associated with drier
Peruvian coast (e.g., Woodman, 1985, 1999; Lavado-Casimiro conditions in the Andes with more variable precipitation.
et al., 2013; Bourrel et al., 2015; Rau et al., 2016). Rainfall and
streamflow records in the Piura River basin (5.2◦ S, 80.6◦ W, 40 m Extratropical Andes
a.s.l.; Figure 12A) characterize El Niño impacts (e.g., Deser and ENSO is a major modulator of interannual precipitation along
Wallace, 1987; Takahashi and Martínez, 2019). For instance, the extratropical Andes (25–40◦ S), exhibiting positive (negative)
while the mean annual discharge is around 28 m3 /s (Lavado et al., anomalies during the occurrence of El Niño (La Niña). While
2012), it reached values of 442 m3 /s and 364 m3 /s during the 1998 most precipitation in this area occurs during austral winter, it
and 1983 El Niños, respectively (Takahashi and Martínez, 2019). does not coincide with the peak of ENSO. Yet, the correlation
Accordingly, during extreme El Niño events suspended sediment coefficient between Niño3.4 index and annual rainfall is about
yield in the Peruvian coast increases by 3 to 60 times compared 0.6 across this region (Montecinos and Aceituno, 2003), which
to the 1968–2012 multiyear average (Figure 12B; Morera et al., mostly relies on rainfall over the western slope of the Andes
2017). In turn, Rodriguez-Morata et al. (2018) estimated that 21% (central Chile). In this region, the probability of having an
of the total hydro-geomorphic disasters reported in Peru during extreme precipitation event (>40 mm/day) is twice as large
the 1970–2013 period (including generic rainfall-related damage during El Niño events compared to neutral conditions. Contrary,
such as muddy areas, structural damage, holes, etc.) were related the probability of extreme events does not decrease substantially
to the 1972–1973, 1982–1983, and 1997–1998 El Niño events. during La Niña events.
The 1997–1998 El Niño-driven flood damages were estimated to On the eastern side of the Andes, El Niño (La Niña) is
be around USD 1 billion, primarily along the northern coast of associated with positive (negative) anomalies in precipitation,
Peru (OPS, 2000). river runoff and landslides (Compagnucci and Vargas, 1998;
A complex relationship is observed between ENSO variability Moreiras, 2005) during both winter and summer months.
and rainfall over the Peruvian coast (Bourrel et al., 2015). The Significant differences in the frequency of occurrence of
so-called “coastal El Niño” strongly impacts the hydrology of extreme precipitation events have also been identified over
Peru, such as in 1891, 1925, and 2017, characterized by warm western Argentina during winter and late spring, with increased

FIGURE 12 | (A) January-December mean discharge of the Piura River during the 1925–2015 period. The linear trend is indicated in dashed line. Vertical gray lines
indicate the strong El Niño events of 1925, 1983, and 1998. Adapted from Takahashi and Martínez (2019). © Springer Nature. CC license. (B) Suspended sediment
flux observed in the Peruvian coast. Black bars represent climatological sediment flux, red and blue bars display sediment flux during El Niño years of 1982–83 and
1997–98, respectively. Each cube on the bar represents the sediment flux transported over 10 normal years. Adapted from Morera et al. (2017). © Springer Nature.
CC license.
(decreased) number of extreme events during El Niño (La Niña) anomalies associated with El Niño conditions as was the case of
(Grimm and Tedeschi, 2009). 18 May, 2015 in La Liboriana basin in the Municipality of Salgar,
Colombia, causing more than 100 casualties and significant
FLOODS infrastructural damage. The meteorological factors associated
with the emergency showed the role of successive precipitation
Northern Tropical Andes pulses in relatively short periods that were intensified as deep
Colombia ranks first in Latin America and the Caribbean in convective cores interacted with the steep topography (Hoyos
losses and damages (per 100,000 inhabitants), from natural et al., 2019). These results show the challenges to opportunely
hazards during 1999–2013 (UNISDR, 2016). Most of them are pinpoint convective intensification over complex mountainous
associated with massive flooding during La Niña events (Poveda terrain from observations and forecast models to improve
and Mesa, 1996, 1997; Poveda et al., 2001a, 2002, 2006; Hoyos local risk reduction strategies over vulnerable regions of the
et al., 2013; Bedoya-Soto et al., 2018). During the 2010–11 La tropical Andes.
Niña event, widespread flooding caused damages and losses in
excess of 6 Billion US dollars, or 2% of Colombia’s GDP for Southern Tropical Andes
2011. One reason is the intensification of the CHOCO low- Floods in the central Andes can be triggered by intense storms
level jet during La Niña, which transport large amounts of and/or rapid glacier melting during the spring-summer of the
atmospheric moisture from the far eastern Pacific onshore, thus austral hemisphere (Huggel et al., 2015). Flash floods commonly
providing extra moisture for the development of MCSs and originate in moraine-dammed lakes threatening communities
intense storms that can lead to widespread flooding along the located in the Cordillera Blanca of Peru (Emmer, 2017). In
Andes of Colombia and Ecuador. Typically, such steep river addition, urbanization is increasing the risks of flash floods
basins witness intense storms that produce flash floods, as the (Bourges et al., 1995; Méndez et al., 2016). In the valleys of
Guayas River in Ecuador during El Niño years (Frappart et al., Urubamba and Vilcanota in the Cuzco region, extreme rainfall
2017). Flooding mechanisms in tropical Andean cities depend on and floods occurred in January and February 2010 causing USD
the preceding 24-h rainfall, baseflow, urbanization patterns, soil 200M in damages and losses (Lavado-Casimiro et al., 2010) See
types and saturation conditions, as in the case of Quito (Perrin Figure S5.
et al., 2001). In the Peruvian Coast and most of the western flank of the
On the other hand, flash flood emergencies have also been Peruvian Andes, extreme floods have been associated with El
observed to occur in periods with negative monthly precipitation Niño dating back to pre-Inca societies (e.g., Takahashi, 2004;

Manners et al., 2007; Lavado-Casimiro and Espinoza, 2014; Rau Differences in trends sign seem to be associated with the
et al., 2016). Three distinctive flooding responses to El Niño have positive trend in the altitude of the zero-degree isotherm in
been found over the western Andes of the Chancay River north this region.
of Lima (Peru): coastal desert, Lomas, and mountain desert. The
mountain desert and valleys of the Pacific slopes are devastated by LANDSLIDES, MUDSLIDES, AVALANCHES
catastrophic floods and torrential rains during El Niño. However,
less abundant precipitation is observed in Lomas, favoring the The Andes, as all high mountain regions worldwide are subject
development of vegetation during the austral winter (Kalicki to landslides, mudslides, rockslides, debris flows, and avalanches
et al., 2014). due to the steep topography, the soil and rock characteristics,
Besides the strong impacts of El Niño on the Peruvian coast, land cover/land use change, and climate and weather patterns
extreme rainfall in Peru has also been reported during La Niña (Hermanns et al., 2012; Stahr and Langenscheidt, 2015). Intense
and neutral conditions in the equatorial Pacific (Ronchail et al., storms, likely exacerbated by global warming and increased
2002; Espinoza et al., 2012b; Lavado-Casimiro and Espinoza, climate variability are the most important cause of landslides in
2014; Sulca et al., 2017; Recalde-Coronel et al., 2020). Indeed, the Andes (Moreiras, 2006; Sepúlveda and Petley, 2015).
excessive rainfall over the central and western Amazon have Rainfall-triggered landslides cause large number of fatalities,
been related to La Niña events, and to warm anomalies in the damages and losses along the Andean, affecting human and
tropical South Atlantic Ocean (TSA), in association with extreme animal lives, civil infrastructure, roads, crops, and the provision
rainfall and floods, as reported in 2009, 2012 and 2014 (Ronchail of public services (Nossin, 1999; Moreiras, 2006; Michoud
et al., 2005; Marengo et al., 2010, 2011, 2013; Satyamurty et al., et al., 2016; Younes-Cárdenas and Erazo-Mera, 2016), pipelines
2013). Rodriguez-Morata et al. (2018) documented that more (Lee et al., 2009; Pettinger and Sykora, 2011; Bustinza et al.,
than 36% of the hydro-geomorphic disasters reported in Peru 2013; Contreras et al., 2013; García et al., 2013; Oliveros
during the 1970–2013 period were associated with La Niña and et al., 2017), and water supply systems. See Figure S6.
neutral conditions in the equatorial Pacific. The very unusual Also, infrastructure development and construction favor the
wet 2014 austral-summer period originated in the eastern slope occurrence of landslides in the Andes (Brenning et al., 2015).
of the Peruvian and Bolivian Andes and flooded the southern On the other hand, meteorological conditions also determine the
Amazon (Espinoza et al., 2014; Ovando et al., 2016; Figure 13). type and intensity of snow avalanches in the Andes of Argentina
This exceptional event has been associated with warm anomalies (Naaim et al., 2002).
in the western Pacific-Indian Ocean and over the subtropical These risks are particularly enhanced by the combined effects
South Atlantic Ocean. of rock avalanches causing temporal lakes and the ensuing
dam failures (Ferrer, 1999; Hermanns et al., 2004). Intense
Extratropical Andes storms exacerbate sediment production by slope movement on
Highly intense and short storms regularly trigger severe flash hillslopes, directly affecting their transport and deposition in
floods in the Andes of Mendoza, Argentina. Although previous downstream rivers and dams, as well as producing morphological
studies have been unsuccessful in simulating peak discharges, changes in stream channels. The role of vegetation is critical
factors such as storms characteristics and soil variability (quasi- on the stability of runoff and sediment yield and for example
impervious areas) play a key role, along with vegetation, surface deforestation of the Andes plays a deleterious role (Braud et al.,
storage capacity, and antecedent soil moisture (Braud et al., 2001). The Multinational Andean Project (MAP:GAC 2002–
1999). Other studies have proposed that surface, perimeter, 2008) have set forward regional guides for landslide studies
basin length, elevations, and slope can be useful to predict and mapping, and have conformed the first regional group
floods over that region (Perucca and Angilieri, 2011). Flash of researchers for landslide studies in the Andes (GEMMA)
floods in the Patagonian Andes have been reconstructed from (Jaramillo, 2008).
dendrochronological studies (Casteller et al., 2015).
Along the western slopes of the southern Andes (continental Northern Tropical Andes
Chile) floods occurs mostly during winter storms with significant The combination of intense storms and steep terrain are major
precipitation (>50 mm/day), and have warm characteristics causes of landslides in the tropical Andes. For instance, a 3 h
(thus producing a high freezing level) or last for more rainfall event (208 mm) on September 21, 1990, triggered more
than 3 days. Recent events have been observed in northern, than 800 landslides along the Andes of Colombia (Aristizábal
central and southern Chile (Valenzuela and Garreaud, 2019) et al., 2015). The SHALSTAB model (Montgomery and Dietrich,
and they are associated either with atmospheric rivers (Viale 1994) was able to capture the physics involved in such landslides.
et al., 2018) or cut-off lows (COLs), as described in section López Salgado (2016) studied mass movements in the upper
Extratropical Andes. Coello River basin in the Central Andes of Colombia and
A trend analysis was performed on annual peak river identified that they result from the combination of high rainfall,
flows between 1975 and 2008 for rivers in the semi-arid steep slopes, and unstable volcanic ash cover.
(29−32◦ S) and temperate (36−38◦ S) zone of the Chilean Andes There is also a strong connection between deforestation and
(Pizarro et al., 2014). Negative trends were identified in 87% land use change with erosion and landslides in the tropical Andes.
of the stations in the semi-arid zone while positive trends Erosion rates in the Magdalena River basin, located between the
were found in 57% of the stations in the temperate zone. central and eastern ranges of the Colombian Andes, have shown

FIGURE 13 | Daily discharge at (A) Porto Velho on the upper Madeira River, and (B) Rurrenabaque on the upper Beni River during the period of 1970–2013 (gray
lines). Mean discharge values and discharge during the 2013–14 hydrological year are displayed in black and blue lines, respectively. (C) Cumulative rainfall anomalies
in Rurrenabaque (blue, left Y axis) and Trinidad (gray, right Y axis), and area average rainfall in the Porto Velho River basin computed with TRMM-RT 3B42 V7 (red,
right Y axis), for the 01/09/2013–17/02/2014 period. (D) Location of stations and main rivers. Adapted from Espinoza et al. (2014). © ERL. CC license.
an increase from 550 ton km−2 y−1 , in the years previous to 2000, of small landslides in anthropogenic environments explains in
to 710 t km−2 y−1 between 2000 and 2010, as well as sediment part the observed enhancement in landslide denudation rates
load (average increase of 44 Mt y−1 ), coinciding with a forest loss in this region (Vanacker et al., 2003, 2013; Molina et al.,
of 40%, and an increase of 65% in areas dedicated to agriculture 2012; Guns and Vanacker, 2013, 2014). Marie and Veerle
and pastures (Restrepo and Escobar, 2018). (2013) suggest that deforestation causes major changes in soil
Deforestation and land use change significantly alter the properties and hydrology, accelerating landslide activity. In
landslide frequency-area distributions in the Andes of Ecuador other cases, vegetation contributes to destabilize slopes owing
(Guns and Vanacker, 2014). A strong increase in the frequency to its contribution to the organic layer mass, and promotes

a new cycle of vegetation succession. Vanacker et al. (2007) soils (80 %) in 25 years. A single storm event in March 2010
show evidence that the steepness of topography contributes was responsible for 27% of the total landslide area reported,
more than human activities or land use practices to the and produced 26% of the organic carbon flux associated with
occurrence of infrequent large landslides over the Andes landslides during such 25-yr period (Huggel et al., 2015). Heavy
of Ecuador. rainfall reported during the austral summer of 2010 in Cuzco
Although many landslides in the Andes are triggered by region caused economic losses estimated to be around 250
highly intense storms, Soto et al. (2017a) found that only 24% million US dollars. Landslide and flash floods destroyed around
landslides in the Loja River basin (southern Ecuador) were 5,000 houses, 16,300 ha of farmlands, 6.15 km of the Cusco-
triggered by intense storms whose return periods exceed 1 year, Machu Picchu railway line and 21 bridges (Lavado-Casimiro
and less for the 76% of landslides. Also, rainfall events that et al., 2010; Figure S5).
are not exceptionally intense can reactivate these landslides Lowman and Barros (2014) investigated the links between
(Soto et al., 2017b). precipitation and erosion in the central Andes, and estimated
Erosion processes in the Andean river basins yield large mean erosion rates of 2.1–8.5 mm per year, which happens to
concentrations of suspended sediment to the western part of the be 1 to 2 orders of magnitude larger than long-term estimates
low-lying Amazonia. For example, as is the case of the Napo River (1,000 to 1 million years) for the central Andes. On the
in the Amazonian regions of Ecuador and Peru, where annual other hand, erosion rates in the Eastern Cordillera (northern
mean erosion rates are approximately 1,160 t km−2 (Laraque Bolivia) have been estimated as 5–14 mm per year (Blodgett and
et al., 2009; Clark et al., 2016). Isacks, 2007).
Younes-Cárdenas and Erazo-Mera (2016) developed an The ratio of sediment transport between hillslopes and
explanatory model to predict the degree of susceptibility of channels in the Peruvian Andes influences geomorphological
landslides along the E-20 highway in Ecuador, and concluded that features and the morphology and dynamics along the
the distribution of landslides was far from random, and clearly channel network (Schneider et al., 2008). The headwaters
associated with several geological and environmental factors, of river channel networks exhibit rough and high-relief
including zones of active erosion processes, volcanic sandstones, surfaces with deep incisions and dense drainage density.
granitic rocks and mean annual rainfall values between 1500 and Thus, storminess influences the production and transport
1750 mm. The non-random nature of landslides in space and of sediments on hillslopes and channels, reflected into
time has been confirmed by Muñoz et al. (2017) who showed the landscape morphometry.
multifractal space-time characteristics of landslides in the Andes
of Colombia. Extratropical Andes
The main source of sediments (and nutrients) to the lower Rock avalanches along the northwest Andes of Argentina
Amazon River basin is located along the Andes. Townsend-Small are produced by active tectonics, in addition to lithologic,
et al. (2008) studied the production and transport of sediments structural and topographic conditions, and climate change
and suspended organic matter along the Chorobamba River in (Hermanns and Niedermann, 2006). Landslides in the Andes
the central region of the Andes-Amazon transition of Peru. At of Argentina and Chile have been linked to intense summer
least 80% of total annual suspended sediment, 74% of organic storms, in particular during El Niño (Trauth et al., 2000;
carbon, and 64% of organic nitrogen transport was concentrated Espizua and Bengochea, 2002; Marwan et al., 2003; Moreiras,
in 10 days of the year, with significant seasonal changes in sources 2005; Sepúlveda et al., 2014a,b; Moreiras and Sepúlveda, 2015;
of organic matter. The latter indicates that extreme events are the Moreiras et al., 2018). The most dangerous are caused by the
main origin for this process. zero-isotherm lifting in smaller basins exhibiting debris-rock
glaciers, so-called “ENSO-climate change” landslides (ECCL;
Southern Tropical Andes Moreiras et al., 2018).
Global warming linked to intense storms and stronger El The melting of snow accumulated in the winter conductive
Niño events, along with permafrost degradation and glacier to saturation of soils and landslides in the following spring and
retreat promote slope instability in the Central Andes, thus summer seasons (December to February) is the major cause of
increasing the frequency and intensity of landslides. These slope instability in the Aconcagua Park, as evidenced in the high
processes can modify the spatial distribution of landslides, significant correlation between landslides and river discharges,
shifting initial points of slope instability to higher altitudes, and and a weak relationship between landslide and temperature
triggering more complex and larger landslides (Moreiras and records (Moreiras et al., 2012).
Pont, 2017). Furthermore, large mass movements that originated
as rock/ice falls from the glacierized Andes can become high- DROUGHTS, HEAT WAVES, AND FIRES
volume high-velocity mud-rich debris flows, such as the 1962
and 1970 events in Nevado Huscarán (Cordillera Blanca, Peru) ENSO is a major driver of droughts in various regions of South
(Evans et al., 2009). America (Zhou and Lau, 2001; Kane, 2006; McPhaden et al.,
Landslides play an important ecological role (Restrepo et al., 2010; Cai et al., 2020), in particular El Niño is associated with
2009; Smith, 2011). An inventory over the Andes of Peru droughts over large parts of Colombia, Venezuela, some regions
indicated turn over times of 1,320 years (Clark et al., 2016), of the high Andes of Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia (Francou, 1985;
removing 264 tC km−2 yr−1 of organic carbon mostly from Caviedes and Endlicher, 1989). At the same time, La Niña is

associated with droughts in other regions of Ecuador, Bolivia, were reported during 1983 and 1992 El Niño years (Garreaud
Chile and Argentina. et al., 2003; Segura et al., 2016). During the 2015–2016 El Niño
event, extreme dry conditions were reported over the Altiplano
Northern Tropical Andes (Marengo et al., 2017). Severe drought affected central and
Multiple studies have shown that droughts in the northern southern Bolivia, with deficits of rainfall surpassing 30%. Low
tropical Andes are associated with the occurrence of El Niño river discharges were documented in the northern part of the
(section ENSO Impacts on Extreme Events, Northern Tropical Titicaca basin (Peru) (Jiménez-Muñoz et al., 2016).
Andes) through changes in the Hadley circulation (Poveda et al., The Western Amazon has suffered three periods of extreme
2006, 2011; Arias et al., 2015), the Walker circulation (Kousky droughts since the beginning of the XXI Century (2005, 2010,
et al., 1984; Vuille, 1999; Vuille et al., 2000; Francou et al., 2004; and 2016; Espinoza et al., 2011; Jiménez-Muñoz et al., 2016), with
Poveda et al., 2006, 2011; Vicente-Serrano et al., 2011a,b, 2017), deleterious ecological consequences (Maeda et al., 2015).
as well as to land surface-atmosphere feedbacks (Poveda and During extreme drought years, impacts on the vegetation have
Mesa, 1997; Bedoya-Soto et al., 2018, 2019). Such droughts have been identified over this region, such as reduction in vegetation
deleterious impacts on water supply for humans and livestock, activity (measured using NDVI index) and forest fires during the
crops failure, and contribute to intensify forest fires, heat waves, 2005, 2010, and 2016 droughts (Fernandes et al., 2011; Espinoza
as well as outbreaks of malaria, dengue and other vector-borne et al., 2016; Jiménez-Muñoz et al., 2016). Peaks of active fires
diseases, and electricity shortages owing to the importance of in Amazonia have been more related to extreme drought than
hydropower generation. deforestation (Aragão et al., 2018), although the intense fire 2019
Tropical cloud forests are facing huge threats from fires, summer season was indeed related with deregulation policies
deforestation and climate change (Mutke et al., 2017). in the Brazilian Amazon and the concomitant deforestation
Deforestation and land use/land change also affect the (Amigo, 2000; Lovejoy and Nobre, 2019; MAAP, 2019; Wheeling,
dynamics of soil moisture in the Andes of Colombia, reducing 2019). These fires and the resulting smoke and soot can reach the
water storage capacity and leading to higher peak flows highest Andes, contributing to accelerate their on-going rapid
(Ramírez et al., 2017). melting and disappearance (Allen, 2020). Espinoza et al. (2019)
The frequency and duration of dry periods in Quito has been documented an increase in the dry day frequency (DDF) over the
increasing since the middle of the last century, compared to the central and southern Peruvian Amazon, as well as in the Bolivian
last 400 years (Domínguez-Castro et al., 2018). The strongest Amazon, considering the 1981–2017 period. See also Espinoza
dry periods occurred in 1692–1701 (the severest one), 1718–723, et al. (2020).
1976–1980, 1990–1993, and 2001–2006. The great drought that Various studies document the demise and collapse of pre-
lasted from 1692 to 1701 caused generalized famine in Quito and Columbian civilizations due to extensive droughts in the Central
affected the majority of population of the central Andes. Such dry Andes. For instance, during the sixth century, major cultural
periods affect water supply, agriculture and have strong ecological disturbances were reported on the northern Peruvian coast,
impacts (Chirino et al., 2017). including the Mochica culture that was conditioned by severe
The unique tundra ecosystems above 3,500 m in the sixth-century droughts, spanning from 562 to 594 CE (Shimada
neotropical Andes, páramos, play a fundamental ecological and et al., 1991). Likewise, the Tiwanaku state, in the south-central
hydrological role below the snow line in the high Andes, in terms Andes, disintegrated between c. AD 1000–1100, after 700 years
of ecosystem services, such as water retention for human and of growth and colonial expansion. Such droughts impacted
animal consumption, irrigation, and hydropower. Droughts have irrigation-based agriculture in the low-altitude colonies and the
a strong impact on the hydrological dynamics of páramos, such groundwater-dependent raised-field systems in the Altiplano
that the recovery from droughts are fundamentally determined (Ortloff and Kolata, 1993).
by the aridity index (Iñiguez et al., 2016). In the central Peruvian Andes, dry spells during the wet
The dynamics of fires in the Andes of Colombia is highly season (December to March) are associated with a weakened
controlled by the occurrence of El Niño (Becerra and Poveda, convective activity over the western tropical Pacific, that is in
2006). On the other hand, fires in Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia accord with the impacts of El Niño over the region (Sulca et al.,
(Paramo, Yungas, and Puna, respectively) do not show a 2016). The authors also show that westerly wind anomalies over
significant relation to ENSO, but to periodic weather patterns of the upper troposphere reduce moisture flow from the Amazon
precipitation: increased rainfall the year before fire-peak seasons basin, producing dry events over the Peruvian Andes. Reduced
followed by very dry periods and unusual low temperatures snowfall from suppressed frontal activity in the Central Andes
during the fire-pike (Román-Cuesta et al., 2011, 2014). of Argentina is another mechanism that propagates droughts
into river flows, mainly driven by La Niña-like conditions in the
Southern Tropical Andes Pacific Ocean (Rivera et al., 2017b).
Over the Altiplano region century-scale dry periods have been
identified using a 707-yr dendrochronological reconstruction Extratropical Andes
(Morales et al., 2012). A persistent negative trend in precipitation The semiarid, Mediterranean-like climate of the extratropical
has been identified from 1930s to date. At interannual to Andes (30-40◦ S) makes this region drought-prone. Most
multidecadal time scales, those authors also identified an ENSO- of the annual precipitation is concentrated in few rain
like pattern. Severe drought condition in the Altiplano region events. This region exhibits high year-to-year variability and

FIGURE 14 | Evolution of the water volume in selected reservoirs in central Chile (extratropical Andes) during the last four decades. Dry periods are marked by the
yellow vertical bars. The ongoing megadrought is the dry spell that began in 2010.
is punctuated by severe droughts (30–60% deficits; Núñez- is also affected (Masotti et al., 2018), as exemplified in the
Cobo et al., 2018), lasting 1 year (winter season) and in summer of 2016 when the drought triggered the worst ever
some cases up to 2–3 years. An exceptional “megadrought” recorded harmful algal bloom in the coastal areas of Patagonia
has been occurring in central Chile since 2010 (Figure 14; (Garreaud, 2018b).
Garreaud et al., 2017). Amoroso et al. (2018) developed a 525 year-long
Winter season droughts are accompanied by a reinforced reconstruction from the Chubut River basin in Patagonia,
subtropical anticyclone and deeper than average Amundsen- finding the most severe droughts in 1680–1705, 1813–1828,
Bellingshausen Seas Low that conspire to weaken the westerly 1900–1920, 1993–2002, and from 2011 to the present, in
flow impinging in the southern Andes and restrict the association with forest fires since the 1850s with a 12 year return
number of fronts (Montecinos et al., 2011; Garreaud et al., interval, and a lack of fire for the last 94 years.
2017). Most drought years occur under La Niña conditions Droughts exhibit two distinct temporal regional behaviors in
(Montecinos and Aceituno, 2003), and less under ENSO terms of duration and severity between North and Central
neutral conditions. Indeed, the “megadrought” has occurred Patagonia (Rivera et al., 2018). Diverse macro-climatic
mostly under near normal conditions in the equatorial Pacific phenomena such as SAM, ENSO and the Pacific Decadal
and it even resisted the strong 2015–16 El Niño event Oscillation (PDO) affect the interannual and interdecadal
(Garreaud et al., 2017). variability of droughts in Patagonia (Rivera et al., 2018).
Droughts in the southern Andes affect agriculture in central Droughts have shown to be more persistent in Argentina, with
Chile and central-western Argentina (Núñez-Cobo et al., 2018), important regional differences (Minetti et al., 2010).
but also the water supply and hydro-electricity generation, and Extreme droughts have been on the rise in the Temperate-
sets the stage for forest fires (González et al., 2018; Urrutia- Mediterranean transition (TMT) zone of the Andes (35.5◦ -
Jalabert et al., 2018). The ecology of rivers flowing to the Pacific 39.5◦ S) during the last century with respect to the previous six

centuries (Christie et al., 2011). The identified changes are related and Medellín (Colombia), the network of three radars in Cajas,
to the north-south oscillations in moisture conditions between Loja, and Guachaurco in southern Ecuador (Bendix et al., 2017),
the Mediterranean and temperate Andean regions, resulting from another in Piura that covers a small region of the north-western
the latitudinal position of the storm tracks forced by large-scale Peruvian Andes, three radars in the Province of Mendoza (San
circulation modes. In turn, moisture conditions are linked to Martín, Tunuyan y San Rafael), and one in Jujuy, Argentina,
tropical and high-latitude ocean-atmospheric forcing, with the which are active during the hail storm season (October to April).
Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI) positively related to Niño- Regarding the monitoring network of other hydrological,
3.4 SST during spring and strongly negatively correlated with the meteorological and climatic variables, the situation is better with
Antarctic Oscillation (AAO) during summer. Extreme dry years respect to in-situ rainfall data, although large regions remain
exhibit a strong negative PDSI vs. AAO correlation. uncovered. Something similar can be said about river discharges.
In addition to droughts, years of above average moisture The network is highly deficient with respect to weather and
availability precede fire years in northern Patagonia (Veblen and climate data sets required to estimate evapotranspiration, and
Kitzberger, 2002), by enhancing the growth of herbaceous plants almost non-existent for soil moisture and groundwater, and for
which increases the quantity of fine fuels during the fire season all the processes that make part of the surface energy budget.
a few years later. The short-term variability of available moisture Satellite and Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) type remotely
leading to massive burning is linked to El Niño, due to greater sensed observations can help improve our understanding in this
moisture availability in spring, causing fires in the following region, but still require appropriate in situ evaluation. Satellite
years. Warmer and drier conditions during La Niña in the spring data alone is also insufficient to detect the occurrence and
exacerbate the drying of fuels, and fire events. quantify the magnitude of extreme events given their short
Regarding heat waves, Jacques-Coper et al. (2016) identified timescales and small spatial resolution. For instance, diverse
201 cases in south-eastern Patagonia during 1872–2010, with ground-validation studies show the poor skill of the TRMM
mean duration of 2 weeks and temperature peak of 4.3◦ C on satellite to capture rainfall over the Andes (e.g., Ochoa et al., 2014;
day 0 (the warmest day in the mean signal), affecting both sides Zambrano-Bigiarini et al., 2017; Vallejo-Bernal et al., 2020). Our
of the Andes. The warming results from temperature advection modeling efforts and the much-needed establishment of early
and enhanced radiative heating, following a high-pressure system warning systems and disaster prevention efforts are similarly
over southern South America, from a wave-train-like pattern limited by the lack of observational data and data networks.
along the South Pacific. Two thirds of the heat wave events are A thorough discussion of the observational and monitoring
linked to enhanced ascent in the South Atlantic Convergence hydrometeorological network in the Andes is presented by
Zone (SACZ). Condom et al. (2020).
During the 2010–2015 period, the eastern flank of the Many scientific questions arise about the spatiotemporal
southern Andes (37◦ S−31◦ S) experienced one of the most dynamics of the high impact weather and climate events
severe hydrological droughts on record with large socioeconomic discussed herein. For example, what are the dynamics and
impacts. Moreover, since snowmelt is the most important source thermodynamics of the ocean-atmosphere-land interactions
of water, the reduced snowfall over the mountains propagated the that explain the wettest spot on Earth over the Pacific coast
drought signal through the streamflow in the adjacent foothills of Colombia, in association with MCSs and other rainfall-
east of the Andes (Rivera et al., 2017a,b). generating mechanisms leading to intense storms, flooding and
landsliding over the Andes of Colombia.
The very topic of rainfall-runoff processes and the formation
RESEARCH GAPS of floods along the Andes has been largely overlooked, which is
more concerning given that floods constitute the most impacting
There is a plethora of challenges toward understanding, modeling events in terms of human lives and socio-economic losses in the
and, let alone, predicting the studied high impact weather events. region. The framework of statistical scaling provides a tool to
Much of the current knowledge about extreme climate and understand and predict the occurrence of floods from intense
weather events in the Andes are based upon limited observational storms (Gupta and Dawdy, 1995; Menabde and Sivapalan, 2001;
data in particular in the higher Andes. For instance, there are just Furey and Gupta, 2007; Mandapaka et al., 2009; Gupta et al.,
eight permanent atmospheric sounding sites operating near or in 2010; Ayalew et al., 2015), but also to estimate annual peak
the Andes: Palonegro and Bogotá located on the eastern Andes of discharges of different return periods, relevant in hydrologic
Colombia, Alfonso Bonilla-Aragón near Cali (Colombia), Quito design (Poveda et al., 2007). Scaling properties need to be
(Ecuador), Lima-Callao (Perú), Antofagasta (Chile), Mendoza explained in terms of the physical processes and predicted by
(Argentina), and Santo Domingo (Chile). This is a meager set hydrologic models (Nguyen et al., 2015; Quintero et al., 2016; Wu
of atmospheric measurements to understand the spatiotemporal et al., 2017; Salazar et al., 2018; Pérez et al., 2019).
dynamics of extreme weather patterns in a region characterized Major knowledge gaps still remain regarding the non-linear
by steep slopes, deep valleys, and strong ecological gradients interactions and synchronicity (e.g., Boers et al., 2014, 2016; Salas
from north to south and from west to east. The situation of et al., 2020) between the dynamics of the CHOCO, Caribbean
meteorological radars is even worse, given the need of high and Orinoco LLJs, and the SALLJ with other macroclimatic
spatiotemporal precipitation estimates in the Andes (Guallpa phenomena and modes of variability at a wide range of temporal
et al., 2019), and that just a few are operating in the region: Bogotá scales, and their association with the occurrence of extreme

TABLE 1 | Summary of High-Impact Weather Events in the Andes.
Region Type of event Sub-region Leading synoptic Consequences Seasonality Interannual

pattern variability
Northern Large precipitation Far East Pacific Ocean Dynamics of Choco Flooding, Hurricanes Boreal Decrease during El
tropical andes accumulation near Colombian and and Caribbean LLJ formation in East Pacific summer—autumn Niño years
Panama Coast
Large precipitation Slopes of Tropical Dynamics of Flooding, soil saturation, Boreal Increase during La
accumulation Andes mesoscale circulations landslides spring—autumn Niña years
favoring MCS
Intense rainfall rates Slopes of Tropical Regional circulation Landslides, Flash floods Boreal Strong interannual
Andes with topographical spring—autumn variability associated
intensification of with ENSO.
convection Location-specific
Deep Convection Northern Andes Monsoonal type Landslides; Very intense Summer Increase during La
interaction with Lighting Niña and decrease
Caribbean Ocean during El Niño
Drought Colombia and Ecuador Dynamics of the Forest fires. Impacts on Intensified in Extreme cases
CHOCO LLJ agriculture, water supply, boreal winter during El Niño
Moisture transport hydroelectricity, human health, events
from Amazonia fluvial navigation
Frost Higher elevation of the Intense radiative Negative impacts on Dry season Increase during El
Andes, above 2,500 m cooling associated with agriculture and cattle ranching Niño
a.s.l. low cloud cover
Southern Large precipitation Western slope of the Atmospheric Rivers; Extreme Flooding, Landslides Austral summer Increase during El
tropical andes accumulation Andes, mainly 5◦ S-2◦ N MCs Niño years
Large precipitation Eastern slope of the Atmospheric Rivers; Flash floods, Landslides Year round but Increase during La
accumulation Andes (>2,000 masl) MCs; SA Monsoon more notable in Niña years
austral summer
Intense rainfall rates Atop of South Tropical COLs, SA Monsoon, Landslides, hailstorms Austral summer Tend to coincide
Andes (10◦ S−27◦ S) intensification of the with La Niña
BH.
Heavy Convection Eastern slope of the MCs; Pre-frontal Landslides; Lighting, flash Year round but Tend to increase
Andes -western condition, SA Monsoon floods more notable in during La Niña years
Amazon austral summer
Drought Atop of South Tropical Reduced eastern Impacts on agriculture, water Austral summer Tend to coincide
Andes (8◦ S-27◦ S, moisture advection supply, forest fires, with El Niño
>2,000 m asl) hydroelectricity, ecosystems
Drought Eastern slope of the Reduced eastern Impacts on Forest fires, fluvial Austral winter and Increase during El
Andes -western moisture advection transport, wildlife, agriculture, spring Niño years and
Amazon water supply during warm
conditions in the
tropical Atlantic
Frost Atop of South Tropical Low cloud cover, Post Negative impacts on Winter and spring Unknown
Andes (8◦ S-27◦ S, frontal conditions agriculture, human health,
>3,000 m) cattle health.
Cold spell Eastern slope of the Post frontal conditions Negative impacts human Austral winter and Unknown
Andes -western health. spring
Amazon
Extratropical Large precipitation Western slope of the Atmospheric Rivers; Flooding, extreme snow Austral winter Increase during El
andes accumulation Andes, mainly 35–45◦ S Cold fronts accumulation Niño years
Intense rainfall rates Western slope of ARs, COLs Landslides, hailstorms Austral Unknown
Subtropical Andes fall-winter-spring
Heavy Convection Atop of Subtropical COLs, extension of the Landslides; Lighting, Summer Unknown
Andes (27◦ -37◦ S) SA Monsoon hailstorms
Drought Subtropical Andes and N/A Forest fires, impacts on Year round but Tend to coincide
adjacent lowlands agriculture, water supply more notable in with La Niña events
winter
Frost Subtropical Andes and Post frontal Negative impacts on Winter and spring Unknown
adjacent lowlands agriculture
Wind events (Zonda East side of the Pre-frontal condition Unseasonal heat waves, dust Austral Unknown
winds) subtropical Andes storms fall-winter-spring

events, including PDO, AMO, NAO, IOD, QBO, SAM, and the adaptation strategies. Though there are studies focusing on the
Tropical Atlantic SST Dipole. Also, the interplay between high- impacts of climate change in the Andes (e.g., Pabón-Caicedo
frequency variability modes (e.g., equatorial waves, gravity waves, et al., 2020), there is a lack of studies focusing on projected
MJO, etc.) and ENSO, and how such interactions modulate changes of high impact weather events over the region. One of
extreme events over the Andes. the reasons for this may be the lack of reliability of climate models
There is the need to understand the role of the diurnal cycle on in reproducing the current climate conditions. Models exhibit
the formation of storms over the Andes, and its dynamics during large biases mostly in near-surface variables such as temperature,
the aforementioned diverse modes of climate variability. In that winds and precipitation and, hence, large discrepancies may be
regard, what is the role of land surface-atmosphere interactions found when looking at extreme weather events. Consequently,
in explaining the water and energy budgets across timescales, there is a clear need on assessing the quality of climate models
from the interdecadal to the diurnal, and the extraordinarily in reproducing high-impact events in the Andes and on assessing
high percentage (70–90%) of precipitation recycling in the Andes how these events are expected to change under future warmer
(Zemp et al., 2014). conditions. The state-of-the-art climate models, either Global or
Land use changes have been intense during the last decades Regional, operating at horizontal resolutions in a range from 100
over the Andes and the Amazon rainforest. Deforestation, to 20 km, are not expected to capture the high-impacts events
agriculture, urbanization, large infrastructure development and themselves, but the large scale forcings and their interaction with
extractive industry exacerbate these problems, such that the the complex orography. Hence, there is also the need to evaluate
tropical Andes have been identified as the most critical the skill of convection-permitting models in terms and their
biodiversity hotspot worldwide (Myers et al., 2000; Marchese, capability in reproducing triggering synoptic-scale mechanisms,
2015; Hrdina and Romportl, 2017). The functioning of the and the occurrence of diverse extreme events.
coupled Andes-Amazon system (Builes-Jaramillo and Poveda,
2018) requires a thorough investigation, including how the
modification in local and regional land conditions affect: (i) the FINAL REMARKS
frequency and magnitude of extreme weather events, owing to
the alteration of the hydrological cycle and the energy budget We have provided an in-depth review of the most important
across river basins of increasing scales, and (ii) the vulnerability high impact weather events along the Andes, summarized
of populations under risks of avalanches, flash floods, landslides, in Table 1. It is not possible to overstate their socio-
droughts, etc. economic, environmental and ecological deleterious impacts.
Extreme events are most often related to a local (mesoscale) Such knowledge is fundamental to assess the relevant knowledge
intensification of extreme conditions (e.g., high rainfall rates, gaps and monitoring needs, but also toward the development of
strong winds) embedded in broader synoptic systems (e.g., forced associated human capabilities, the implementation of scientific
convection along a cold front). Most of the research in the networks that involve the Andean scientific community and
last decades has focused on the synoptic-scale aspects of these the transfer of scientific knowledge to public policies, which
extreme events, but examination of their mesoscale features is are particularly necessary and particularly challenging amidst
largely hindered by the aforementioned shortcomings of the population growth and climate change, as well as deforestation
observational network in space and time. Thus, we do not know and urbanization trends throughout the Andes.
much yet about the triggers and mechanism behind extreme
precipitation events (say, brief periods with more than 20 mm/h) AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
over the extratropical Andes.
Another limitation is the short, limited and non-systematic All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual
record of landslides, avalanches, flash floods and other ground- contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.
level manifestations of extreme weather events. Recall that south
of 20◦ S the Andes is sparsely populated (most people live in
the lowlands immediately to the west or east of the range). FUNDING
The record is composed of events that somehow reached the
lowlands or interrupted some roads and railways crossing the GP was supported by Universidad Nacional de Colombia at
Andes. Therefore, we may face a substantial underestimation of Medellín. JE was supported by the French AMANECER-MOPGA
geo-climatic hazards in this region of extremely complex terrain. project funded by ANR and IRD (ref. ANR-18-MPGA-0008).
Multiple scientific questions need to be answered regarding MZ was supported by Patrimonio Autónomo Fondo Nacional de
the dynamics and spatiotemporal persistence of droughts along Financiamiento para la Ciencia, la Tecnología y la Innovación,
the Andes, including the role of vegetation, precipitation, Francisco José de Caldas (ref. 80740-128-2019). Support for
evapotranspiration, river flows, soil moisture and groundwater, the Twentieth Century Reanalysis Project version 3 dataset is
net surface radiation and the fluxes of latent and sensible heat. provided by the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Science
This is also valid for the case of wild fires and heat waves. Biological and Environmental Research (BER), by the National
Given the large socio-economic toll of high impact weather Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Climate Program
events in the Andes, the need of assessing their projected changes Office, and by the NOAA Earth System Research Laboratory
in future climate scenarios is evident, having in mind diverse Physical Sciences Division.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ANDEX (https://www.gewex.org/project/andex/home/), as a

prospective Regional Hydroclimate Project (RHP).
We are grateful to the Global Water and Energy Exchanges
Programme (GEWEX) of WCRP, in particular to Fernande SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL
Vervoort, and also to Universidad Nacional de Colombia at
Medellín, and to Centro de Ciencia del Clima y la Resiliencia The Supplementary Material for this article can be found
(CR)2 of Universidad de Chile in Santiago (FONDAP Grant online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feart.
15110009), for supporting the three regional workshops of 2020.00162/full#supplementary-material
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REVIEW

published: 29 May 2020

High Impact Weather Events in the

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(RHP) of the Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment

EXTREME PRECIPITATION AND RELATED

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El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is the most important Southern Tropical Andes

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TABLE 1 | Summary of High-Impact Weather Events in the Andes.

Region Type of event Sub-region Leading synoptic Consequences Seasonality Interannual

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ANDEX (https://www.gewex.org/project/andex/home/), as a

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