Part 8: The Whisper Jet

The Whisper Jet is a vision concept to exemplify how Whisper Aero’s propulsors can achieve a level of aerodynamic,
propulsive, and acoustic coupling that enables class-leading safety, performance, community acceptance, ride quality,
and direct operating cost for the 9 passenger market. The intent is to showcase an integration approach that best
accommodates Whisper Aero’s ducted propulsors and Jetfoil wing integration. The companion paper, “Distributed
Electric Propulsion and Vehicle Integration with Ducted Fans,” shares many early Whisper Aero ducted propulsor
integration lessons learned that have iteratively led to this current approach. Whisper Aero’s intent in sharing this
concept is to work with an established aircraft developer who already has certification, production, sales, and service
organizations spooled up instead of building these challenging capabilities into a capital intensive start-up.

Figure 27. The Whisper Jet concept

Goal Statement: Multi-engine performance and safety, at the cost of a single engine, with the ability to operate day
and night without community annoyance at ticket prices equivalent to auto reimbursement rate.
Performance
● Payload: 2400 lbm with 10 seats (1 pilot + 9 passengers)
● Range (lowest cost): Battery only range of 200 miles at best range speed, 150 miles at maximum speed
● Range (max): Hybrid operation for IFR reserves and range extension to 500 miles
● Speed: 250 knot unpressurized cruise speed, 175 knot best range speed
Efficiency
● Aerodynamic Efficiency: Best range L/D of 20, maximum speed L/D of 15 through high wing loading and
minimized wetted area compared to other 9 passenger aircraft
● Propulsive Efficiency: 75% at high speed cruise with variable area nozzle for efficient low speed operation
● High Lift System: Jetfoil wing capable of >6.25 CLmax with no wing flap system for simplified structure,
with low pitching moment for reduced horizontal tail size
Economics
● Total operating cost of <$.50/passenger mile, for ticket pricing <$.63/mile reimbursement rate
● Acquisition price of <$3M in 2028 dollars
● Energy cost reduction >3x lower, including battery amortization
● Maintenance cost reduction >3x lower
● Utilization: Baseline of 1200 hrs/year, Maximum of 2400 hrs/year enabled by day passenger/night cargo
Airport Compatibility
● Community noise level of <50 dB from 500’ altitude for takeoff, landing, overflight, or sideline
● Field Length: A <3,000 ft balanced field length to leverage the 5000+ small airports in the U.S.

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 ● A <12,500 lbm gross weight to leverage non-Part 139 certificated airports (~90% of U.S. small airports) with
avoidance of TSA rules 1540 and 1544 requirements
● Retracting landing gear with MLG tire 8.5-10, 10 ply, 22” diameter, and 70 psi inflation pressure
Certification
● Part 23 Level 3 certification basis
● Single 500 hour (for VFR flights) or 1,200 hour (for IFR flights) pilot for Part 135 operations
● Multi-engine safety capable of maintaining ROC and high speed with One Engine Inoperative (OEI)
● Avoidance of the need for a Fly-By-Wire (FBW) control system to decrease certification timeline and cost
● Sufficiently high level of redundancy to avoid multi-engine training during OEI
User Experience
● Wing loading: >60 lb/ft2 for improved aero efficiency and ride quality
● Four row seating with fold down seats accessing baggage storage between rows
● Ease of passenger egress through wing sweep to avoid wing interference with doors
● Conversion between passenger and cargo cabins in <15 min
● Cabin providing (5) 90% male seating, and (5) 50% male seating
● Cargo providing (2) 4’x4’x3’ pallets and (1) 4’x3’x1’ pallet
● Large passenger window visibility and internal cabin noise level <45 dB

Configuration Layout
Configuration design started by comparing to a conventional flying wing layout, with efforts focused on minimizing
wetted area to assist with achieving the unpressurized high speed performance goal. Sensitivity analyses showed that
achieving a 250 knot cruise speed without pressurization resulted in ~80% of the parasite drag to achieve a Lift/Drag
ratio of 15. Another key layout concern was avoiding a closely coupled strong downwash field on the horizontal tail
from the Jetfoil during low speed operation, which would have required a programmable tail incidence with a
conventional layout. Poor pitch control and damping of the flying wing led to progressively displacing the wingtips
back longitudinally to improve these characteristics, with a realization that we were duplicating the original Blohm
and Voss OHT configuration. Additional synergistic characteristics of the OHT and Jetfoil were previously discussed
in Part 6, along with lessons learned from an extensive literature review and sub-scale testing in Part 7.

Figure 28. The Whisper Jet internal cabin layout for passenger and cargo operations

A unique internal seating layout that minimizes wetted area is specifically tailored for the 1 pilot + 9 passenger short
distance aerial commuting RAM mission. It is recognized that some operations require 2 pilot seats (flight training,
Essential Air Services (EAS) trips, insured executive transport, pilot credit hours, etc.) and in those cases only 8
passenger seats are available. This makes for an unfair direct comparison to the existing aircraft which provide greater
seating capacity of 2 pilots and 9 passengers. Another unconventional method of decreasing wetted area is to avoid
the use of aisles, making the best use of internal volume to achieve the densest aircraft. Passenger demand was modeled
across potential RAM networks, showing an average expected load factor of 70% using 6-7 seats. Separate entry doors
are used for the forward cabin, main cabin, and a flexible rear seating/baggage area, that has some similarity to a
rumble seat used in vintage cars. While many may view the rear seating as unacceptable and “Mooney back seat-like”,
the authors see the potential of having the rear seats offer increased privacy. The strategy for achieving the “Quick
Change” goal is to have the rear fuselage pivot open for rapid palletized seat removal and cargo loading (similar to
the DreamLifter shown below). A wider fuselage cabin provides not only better packing efficiency, but also a more
optimum fineness ratio of 4.5 to achieve the lowest fuselage form factor drag. The OHT planform also enables having
no fuselage wing/tail intersections in the aft fuselage adverse pressure gradient to minimize potential separation drag.

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 Figure 29. Boeing DreamLifter rear opening fuselage for rapid forklift loading (Credit Boeing)

Figure 30. Whisper Jet internal cabin side view layout, with fuselage break line for forklift cargo loading
behind the 3rd row seat location

Figure 31. Comparison of internal cabin seating layout across 9 seat aircraft

Comparative Analysis
Conceptual analysis models were developed for 5 existing 9-passenger aircraft, including 3D models to compare
wetted areas and contrast packaging options. The models were used to inform the design of the Whisper Jet, with the
goal of maximizing aircraft density while ensuring that sufficient volumes were available for subsystems (landing
gear, range extender, batteries, weather radar, baggage, etc.). The Cessna 402, Cessna Grand Caravan, Tecnam P2012,
Pilatus PC-12, and Beech King Air provided a good basis for understanding previously developed highly successful
9-passenger aircraft. Each was developed with different mission intents and requirements, so the objective was not to
achieve direct comparison but an understanding of differences. The PC-12 and King Air are pressurized high
performance aircraft that are less sensitive to parasitic drag due to higher density cruise altitudes. Pressurization was
not desired for the Whisper Jet design based on the limited value it provides at short distances, the historical additional
acquisition cost increase of 10 to 18%, and lessons learned from DayJet and other regional operators showing frequent
ATC traffic limitations on shorter air trips to less than 18,000 ft altitudes to avoid use of controlled airspace. Table 5
shows a summary of characteristics across the aircraft, including weight, wetted areas, and performance.

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Aircraft Gross Wetted Volume Aircraft Wing Continuous / Takeoff / Seating Baggage L/D max @ Max Speed @
Weight/ Area Density Loading Peak Power Landing Capacity Capacity 10k ft Altitude
MTOW Distance
(MTOW/
(lbm) (ft2) (ft3) Volume) (lbm/ft2) (hp) (ft) (pilot+pax) (ft3) (KTAS) (ft)
Whisper Jet 12,500 924 635 19.7 60 22*40=880 2840 1+9 49 Cabin 15.1 @ 250 250 @ 10k
22*54=1188 2620 (btwn rows) 19.1 @ 174
Cessna 402c 6,850 1,081 583 11.7 21 2*300=600 2220 1+9 32 Nose 9.6 @ 205 231 @ 16k
2*325=650 1765 37 Engine 13.8 @ 131
Tecnam 8,113 1,366 805 10.1 30 2*375=750 2596 1 + 10 18 Nose 8.4 @ 194 194 @ 10k
P2012 2*375=750 2432 60 Cabin 11.4 @ 120
Cessna Grand 8,035 1,369 962 8.4 29 1*675=675 2055 1 +12 143 Belly 9.8 @ 186 186 @ 10k
Caravan 1*675=675 1625 13.9 @ 114

Pilatus PC-12 10,450 1,400 920 11.4 38 1*1200=1200 2485 1 + 10 40 Cabin 9.1 @ 250 285 @ 29k
NGX 1*1200=1200 2170 14.1 @ 155 209 @ 29k

Beechcraft 15,000 1,677 1,080 13.9 48 2*1050=2100 3300 1 + 10 55 Cabin 8.8 @ 250 312 @ 35k
King Air 350 2*1050=2100 2692 16 Engine 13.3 @ 165

Table 5. Comparative aircraft characteristics across 9 seat aircraft

One of the most compelling challenges is achieving a high cruise speed electric aircraft that also has high
aerodynamic efficiency (at the conditions short range RAM missions need to operate). As seen in the above table,
when comparing cruise aerodynamic efficiency and speed at 10,000 ft cruise altitudes, the Whisper Jet is capable of
greater than 50% higher Lift/Drag ratio at over 20% higher speed than other 9 seat aircraft. If the Whisper Jet were
pressurized, it would have a similar efficiency and speed advantage at the higher altitudes as well. This difference is
directly attributable to the higher wing-loading enabled by the Jetfoil and the reduced wetted area configuration. The
dramatically higher aircraft density of the Whisper Jet is another advantage from a weight and performance
perspective. While this evaluation metric is difficult to use as a comparison across aircraft until a detailed design is
performed that includes maintenance requirements, a great deal of effort was made to populate the 3D model with
reasonable subsystem volume allowances and clearances. High aircraft density is the key to being able to leverage
constrained battery specific energy in the near term to achieve a higher aerodynamic cruise efficiency and maximize
range.
Although a range extender is valuable for IFR reserves and to provide range extension when necessary, the
moment a hybrid turbine is turned on, a thermal cycle is used that goes towards maintenance costs. Along with the
much higher JP fuel energy cost basis, the use of the range extender results in a significant increase in direct operating
costs. The goal with a big battery plus IFR reserve/range extender hybrid is to be able to perform >70% of trips on
only battery across the majority of RAM markets. RAM operators such as Cape Air and Mokulele Airlines have trip
distributions across their networks that satisfy this goal.
● Mass: 16.4 kg
● Size: 95mm x 280mm x 540 mm
● Rated energy: 4.6 kWh
● Energy density: 320 Wh/L
● Cell Specific Energy: 410 Wh/kg
● Propagation Resistant Module Specific energy: 280 Wh/kg
● Cycle Life: TBD for specific Whisper Jet duty cycle
● Cost: TBD based on production volume quantity

Figure 32. Cuberg lithium propagation resistant battery module

Weight Breakdown
The table below shows the nominal weight breakdown of the Whisper Jet. The maximum take-off weight
(MTOW) is intentionally set at 12,500 lbs, the regulatory boundary for single pilot operations (while enabling use of
500 hour instead of 1500 hour pilots required for larger Part 23 aircraft). The empty weight includes the airframe,
propulsion system, and pilot weight, but excludes battery weight. The empty weight fraction of 50% is due to several
contributing sources that results in a ~10% reduction compared to typical general aviation aircraft. These factors
include:
● Reduced propulsion system weight due to favorable scaling laws for the (22) 40 kW electric motors
● Reduced wetted area of the OHT configuration and high cabin packing efficiency
● Distribution of the battery mass across the nose, wing, and forward boom volumes, allowing for mass tuning
of the wing structure modes

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 ● Increased spar height enabled by the Jetfoil wing design(both in terms of the duct truss-like structure and the
high wing thickness to chord due to the upper surface blowing pressure recovery)
● Avoidance of electric motor/controller liquid cooling system due to cube-square thermal scaling
● Absence of pressurization and fly-by-wire systems
Fraction Value (lb) Usable Energy
Operational Empty Weight 50% 6,190
-
(including pilot)
Payload 19% 2,400
-
(9 pax + luggage)
5% 650 594 lb / 87 US gal
Fuel
(226 lb / 33 gal → reserves)
26% 3,260 392 kWh (BOL)
Battery
337 kWh (EOL)
TOTAL 100% 12,500 -

Table 6. Whisper Jet weight breakdown

As a hybrid-electric aircraft, the energy weight is shared between batteries and Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF). A
small fraction (5%) of both battery and fuel weights is considered unusable. Note that other battery electric aircraft
use the bottom 20-30% of battery capacity for VFR reserves, while the Whisper Jet uses a hybrid range extender for
IFR reserves, enabling use of more of the battery capacity. However the bottom 5% capacity of the battery has a non
linear voltage dropoff that doesn’t permit use and is considered unusable. The Cuberg battery pack specific energy
of 280 Wh/kg (at the propagation resistant module level) is assumed, with an 88-module battery system (plus an
additional 5% overhead packaging weight for integration across the nose, wing, and booms). Additionally, the
usable battery capacity at end of life (EOL) is established as 85% of the battery’s usable capacity at beginning of life
(BOL). After this point, the battery is replaced.

Mission Analysis
The table below shows important mission metrics of the Whisper Jet mission, including horizontal and vertical
speeds, durations, power and energy requirements for each segment. The cruise segment is performed at 10,000 feet
to avoid the need for cabin pressurization. For very short missions where climbing to such an altitude is not feasible,
the cruise segment is performed at 8,000 feet.
Vertical Speed Horizontal Speed Distance Time AGL Ending Power Energy
Altitude
Segment Name (ft/min) (mph) (mi) (min) (ft) (hp) (kW) (kWh)
Taxi 0 20 0 5 0 25 2.1
Takeoff 0 84 0.5 0 1209 902 7.5
Initial Climb 1510 125 0.66 1,000 896 669 7.4
Climb to Cruise Altitude 938 179 28.6 9.6 10,000 896 669 107.0
Accel. to Max Cruise 0 233 10,000
Cruise Segment - Mission Dependent
Decel Descend 1000 179 34.1 11.4 1,000 160 119 22.7
Final Descent 250 125 1 1,000 448 334 5.6
Landing 0 84 0 0.5 0 604 451 3.8
Taxi 0 20 0 5 0 25 2.1
Reserves - Loiter 0 130 - 45 3,000 377 251 335
Reserves - Alternate 0 185 50 - 3,000 448 334 90.3

Table 7. Whisper Jet mission specifications (non-cruise segments)

Three classes of cruise segments are defined in Table 8 in order to optimize battery usage and maximize range.
For missions where climbing to 10,000 ft would yield cruise segments shorter than 5 minutes long, the low altitude
cruise is used. For missions short enough that they can be flown at the aircraft’s fastest speed of 250 knots, the high
altitude, high speed cruise is used. Longer missions that are within the battery range limits if flown at maximum
Lift/Drag are flown at the slower best range speed of 174 knots. The range extender is used for IFR reserves as well
as for longer missions beyond the battery-electric range.

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 High Altitude High Altitude
Mode Low Altitude
High Speed Low Speed
Altitude (ft) 8,000 10,000 10,000

Speed (kts/mph) 245/282 250/287 174/200

Power (hp) 880 880 484

Energy from non-cruise
127 155 155
segments (kWh)
Distance from non-cruise
49 63 63
segments (mi)
Duration of non-cruise segments
23 28 28
(min)
High altitude high speed is used
Low altitude when climbing to for missions with cruise > 5 min
Description Used for all other mission lengths
10,000 ft. leads to < 5 min cruise but short enough to be completed
at this condition with only battery
Table 8. Whisper Jet mission specifications (non-cruise segments)

Figure 33 depicts the Whisper Jet’s unique energy profile as a function of mission length, showing electricity
requirements in green and fuel requirements in blue. Two extreme cases for the battery life are explored: beginning-
of-life (BOL) and end-of-life (EOL), understanding that the range of the aircraft will vary based on battery life. The
initial sloped curve represents the mission lengths that the aircraft can fly at high cruise speeds on the battery alone.
Then, a downward dip is observed which shows the decrease in cruise velocity from 250 knots max cruise to 174
knots best range cruise. When the battery-electric range is reached at best range cruise, the electricity needed becomes
mission-independent as the range extender provides for any further energy usage. Importantly, the fuel needed for IFR
reserves has been subtracted from the total fuel onboard to make sure that the hybrid range shown represents the actual
hybrid range that the aircraft can achieve without going into reserve energy.
The aircraft battery electric range is projected to be 161 miles (EOL) to 193 miles (BOL), while the hybrid range
is estimated to be between 432 miles (EOL) and 464 miles (BOL). Note that the battery ranges are achieved with
currently available batteries (as described above), not academic extrapolations of future possible batteries. Using
current average estimates for year-over-year improvements of lithium batteries suggests specific energy improvements
of 5-8% per year which, by the proposed 2028 service introduction, would suggest an improvement in battery range
to 235 (5%) -284 (8%) miles. The turbo generator system for this concept is based on a new direct-drive hybrid system
currently in development, with proprietary SFCs, weights, and performance.

Figure 33. Whisper Jet energy requirements as a function of mission length

Next, the Whisper Jet’s block speed as a function of mission length is shown in Figure 34, again to help visualize
the speed strategies used to maximize battery-electric range and achieve high cruise speeds. The three cruise modes
explained above are annotated, and the two battery life cases (EOL vs. BOL) are again explored.

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 Figure 34. Whisper Jet block speed as a function of mission length
System-Level Design Strategy
An aircraft and operating certification strategy was developed to avoid three key cost drivers that have been
observed in electric aircraft development programs and in implementations of RAM operations. The Whisper Jet will
be certified under Part 23 as a Level 3 eCTOL aircraft, an established regulatory basis that avoids new rule making
and special conditions associated with Part 21.17B aircraft (with all eVTOL electric aircraft currently being
certificated under this latter basis).

● Fly-By-Wire (FBW) Development: Having been involved with several electric aircraft certification efforts
over the past several years, the authors have witnessed first-hand the complexity, time, and cost associated
with fly-by-wire system development (especially in regards to software development). Since the distributed
propulsor system doesn’t require differential thrust management across the propulsors (a single throttle
control input is sent to all propulsors), a simplified dual FADEC similar to a single engine piston aircraft can
be used.
● Pilot Availability and Cost: Limiting the Whisper Jet to a 9 passenger 12,500 lbm Part 23 Level 3 aircraft
enables the use of pilots with 500 hours of experience for operations under VFR flight rules and only
necessitates pilots with 1,200 hours for operations under IFR flight rules. Larger Part 23 aircraft require 2
pilots (one with 1500 hours), which makes amortizing pilot costs challenging, especially during the current
pilot shortage. This strategy provides a pathway for increasing the pilot pool through revenue generating
operations during their 500 to 1500 hour experience buildup.
● Airport Compatibility and Minimizing Friction: As highlighted in Borer, 2023, although the Continental
United States is home to 12,334 airports, only 457 (4%), are certified under Part 139, which is necessary for
most commercial operations. In order to leverage the other 95% facilities, the Whisper Jet has been designed
to be able to operate under Part 135 at non-Part 139 airports. Doing so will further lower security checkpoint
requirements, lowering the threshold to implementation. Staying below these regulatory thresholds opens up
the most opportunity for RAM trips. The authors are skeptical that electric aircraft are prepared for Part 25
certification without first having an incubation period in Part 23 where the new technologies can build up
real world operational experience prior to meeting the more stringent requirements associated with larger
commercial aircraft.

Economic Analysis
As emphasized in the author's companion paper "The Business Case for Regional Air Mobility at Scale," the cost
drivers for existing regional airlines are energy, maintenance, capital, indirect, and crew costs (in order of
significance). The viability of this aircraft concept hinges upon the critical task of reducing these cost factors in order
to attain an overall operating cost that is more than 2x lower than existing 9 passenger high performance aircraft to
ensure economic feasibility. Total operating costs are decomposed below, specifically for a typical 150 mile trip
example. Projected costs are compared to estimated costs for the Pilatus PC-12 as one of the most successful high
performance 9 passenger aircraft currently in production.

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 Whisper Jet PC-12

Energy $99.50 13.2% $396.60 27.5%

Fuel $0.00 0.0% $392.60 27.5%

Electricity $49.70 6.6% $0.00 0.0%

Battery Reserve $49.80 6.6% $0.00 0.0%

Maintenance $175.30 23.3% $364.58 25.6%

Propulsion $13.00 1.7% $156.00 10.9%

Propulsion Reserve $44.00 5.8% $68.00 4.8%

Airframe $131.30 17.4% $132.00 9.3%

Flaps $0.00 0.0% $5.94 0.4%

Pressurization $0.00 0.0% $2.64 0.8%

Capital $222.60 29.6% $397.80 27.9%

Pilot $105.20 14.0% $105.20 7.4%

Indirect $150.60 20.0% $165.66 11.6%

Total ($/150 mile trip) $753.20 100% $1,425.84 100%

Cost per pax mile $0.56 $1.06

Table 9. Whisper Jet vs. PC-12 150 mile trip cost decomposition

● Energy Costs: The utilization of electricity as an energy source significantly reduces energy costs compared
to aviation fuel. Presently, the cost of electricity ranges between $0.07 and $0.40 per kilowatt hour, whereas
aviation fuel costs range from $3 to $7 per gallon depending on the usage volumes and location. RAM
operators are typically not able to buy JP fuel in bulk with hedging and, thus, are susceptible to the higher
range of fuel costs. The volatility of fuel prices and the geographical dependence on fuel availability play a
crucial role in shaping the network decisions of current airlines which, when combined with the stark contrast
in energy costs, underscores the financial advantage of electric power over traditional fuel sources. A battery
cost of $400/kWh is assumed, for a total pack cost of $166,400, and a 2,000 hour life equivalent cycle is
assumed. Compared to the average cost of $151/kWh for an automotive battery pack (“Lithium-ion Battery
Pack Prices Rise for First Time to an Average of $151/kWhr”, Bloomberg, Dec 6, 2022), the 2.7x cost
increase in aviation battery packs results from using the highest specific energy batteries along with the extra
costs of validating compliance with FAA certification standards. Amortizing the battery pack cost over the
cycle life results in an additional $0.20/kWh cost to fully capture energy system costs. For a 150 mile Whisper
Jet trip that uses 355 kWhr of energy, and assuming an average electricity rate of $0.14/kWh, the total energy
and battery cost is $99.50. This is compared to $396 for the PC-12 when using a $6/gallon JP fuel price—a
3.6x reduction in energy costs.
● Maintenance Costs: By adopting an electric propulsion system, the need for thermal cycle-based maintenance
associated with internal combustion or turbine engines is eliminated, which is especially important for RAM
trips where cycles are rapidly built up with short distance trips. An extensive study using multiple data
sources (EAS proposal cost breakdowns, operator cost databases, refurbishment service agencies, Conklin
and deDecker, etc.) was performed on engine versus electric motor maintenance and overhaul costs.
Maintenance cost methods were developed with both time- and cycle-based cost elements, much like “Power
by the Hour” for amortized engine costs. Since electric motors have no combustion hot sections, and the only
moving wear components are bearings, the time between overhauls is expected to be 10,000 hours. Avoiding

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 liquid cooling systems is also critical for reducing inspection intervals. In addition, health monitoring is easily
done for bearings through acoustic sensors that can monitor wear with relatively graceful failure modes over
extended timeframes. Furthermore, Whisper Jet propulsors are lightweight (<30 lbm) line replaceable units
(LRUs), allowing for onsite rapid replacement compared to traditional piston and turbine engines that require
pulling an aircraft from operation for extended periods of time. Airframe maintenance costs were similarly
decomposed to understand inspection and maintenance intervals, with an important realization early on that
engine and flaps are the two highest maintenance cost drivers. Eliminating the flap system is a cost-driven
goal for the Whisper Jet. All of these considerations map into an estimated propulsion maintenance cost for
a 150 mile trip of $57 for the Whisper Jet, compared to $224 for the PC-12. Airframe maintenance for the
150 mile trip is $131,which is identical to that of the PC-12 after removing the flap and pressurization costs
of $8.58. Combined, the total maintenance cost is $175 for the Whisper Jet and $365 for the PC-12—a 2x
reduction. For longer or IFR missions where the range extender needs to be used, an additional $58/flight
hour plus $50/cycle are added to the propulsion maintenance costs, but even then, the overall cost is
substantially lower than the PC-12 in the shorter missions.
● Capital Costs: The capital costs for the Whisper Jet will be similar in magnitude to current lower performance
9 passenger aircraft (e.g. Tecnam P2012 and Cessna Grand Caravan, which currently sell for ~$2.6M and
~$3.1M). Higher performance aircraft such as the PC-12 have nearly twice as much power, additional
features, a pressurized cabin, and equivalent speeds as the Whisper Jet, with a higher price of ~$5.4M. With
a projected acquisition cost of $3.0M, the Whisper Jet would be positioned to offer a compelling price per
performance value. Key aspects to achieve this price are the reduced wetted area that translates directly to
lower structural and labor costs and an estimated electric propulsor cost of ~$100/lbf of static thrust, whereas
current turboprop engines cost ~$200/lbf. For a 150 mile Whisper Jet trip, the capital cost equates to $223
for the Whisper Jet, compared to the PC-12 cost of $398—a 1.8x reduction in capital costs at equal annual
utilizations of 1200 hours/year. With the enabling low noise feature and design mission of high utilization
commuting leading to 2400 hours/year (not merely day time passenger flights but also night time cargo
flights), the Whisper Jet capital costs would be reduced to $111 for the 150 mile trip.
● Crew Costs: Crew costs incurred by airlines are closely tied to the number of pilots required in the cockpit
as well as their experience (number of flight hours completed). While some trips require two pilots, such as
EAS and executive transport (for insurance reasons), this is not required by the FAA within Part 135
operations. The Whisper Jet has a similar level of autopilot, collision avoidance systems, weather radar, etc.
as other IFR-capable aircraft that reduce pilot workload and enhance operational efficiency. With these
capabilities, the Whisper Jet enables a single pilot to manage flights without compromising passenger safety,
as is already done with many 9 passenger aircraft operations. Only requiring a single pilot is important for
amortizing pilot costs, and only requiring 500 hour experienced pilots is key for maximizing the pilot
opportunity pool. Fully burdened pilot costs are assumed to be $110,000/year for both the Whisper Jet and
the PC-12 comparison, with a 150 mile trip costing $105 for both.
● Indirect Costs: Understanding actual ticket price requires developing a basis for the indirect costs and not
merely the direct operating costs. While energy, maintenance, capital and crew costs are fairly easy to model,
indirect costs are harder to predict. They are understood as those costs incurred by the operator that are not
directly related to the flight activities but that must still be paid to ensure success and profitability. These
costs include marketing, ground staff at airports served, and other administrative costs. For the purpose of
consistency across publications by the authors, landing fees and aircraft insurance, although normally
considered direct costs (and often budgeted under the categories of variable and fixed direct costs,
respectively), are included in the indirect category. This allows for understanding the profit rate of return,
and direct comparison to alternate competing travel modes. The key competitor for RAM trips are
automobiles so being able to compare trip prices to automobile reimbursement rates (such as the federal
government rate) provides a more credible basis for understanding the mode choice capture rate. A detailed
buildup of the elements that make up indirect costs was attempted, but high variability was found across
geographic regions significantly. Instead, EAS indirect cost data across multiple airlines was averaged to
yield a 20% plus up of direct operating costs to account for indirects. RAM indirect costs are less than
commercial aviation due to lower infrastructure and security cost burdens at hub airports. For the 150 mile
trip example, the indirect cost was estimated to be $151 for the Whisper Jet, and $166 for the PC-12.
● Total Operating Cost and Profit: The comparative total 150 mile trip costs for the Whisper Jet and PC-12
are $753 and $1,425, respectively. This checks well with a typically quoted hourly PC-12 rate of
~$1500/flight hour after adding in pilot and indirect costs for the trip mission time and differences in assumed
utilization. At 1200 hr utilization and 100% load factor, this equates to an $84 ticket price for the Whisper
Jet and $159 for the PC-12. Accounting for what are considered the more likely operating conditions of 2400

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 hours annual utilization and a 70% load factor, along with a 10% profit, then the Whisper Jet ticket price for
the 150 mile trip is $.69/passenger mile, or a ticket price of $103 (compared to the 2023 federal mileage rate
of $.66/mile, or a trip cost of $99). To put this in perspective, this 150 example trip equates to the flying
distance between Knoxville, TN and Nashville, TN with a burdened trip time of 47 minutes, compared to a
Google driving time of 2 hours and 47 minutes. Thus, for nearly the same cost, a traveler could save 2 hours
of time each way. This trip showcases the goal of enabling state-wide aviation services to connect cities
when, currently, the only option for statewide travel is by car. Note that this cost assumes residential
electricity rates (yet industrial rates are nearly half), batteries that are substantially more expensive than auto
batteries, and pilot costs. With scaled application of autonomous Whisper Jet aircraft over the next decade,
the potential exists to carry an additional passenger at a 15-20% lower cost while achieving zero in-flight
emissions with community acceptable aviation services operating from local airports.
The three most important factors to reduce operating costs are high passenger load factors, high yearly utilization, and
high productivity to amortize fixed costs. The Whisper Jet has been designed with this intent through improved ride
quality, low cabin noise, the ability to operate frequently at any airport without noise complaints, and high cruise
speed (even at the low altitude RAM trips are flown). Proprietary demand modeling performed by the authors indicates
strong California and Texas Total Addressable RAM Market (TAM) opportunities, where comparative transportation
costs and energy differential costs (due to high solar flux locations) offer the most compelling opportunities for mode
choice conversion from auto to RAM aircraft.

The below figures show the decomposition of each Whisper Jet total operating cost element as a function of trip
distance, as well as total operating cost sensitivities with comparison to the PC-12 aircraft. Several important
observations can be discerned from these figures that showcase the reason why autonomous electric aircraft are ideal
for the short distance RAM market, yet have never been previously highlighted.

Figure 35 Whisper Jet operating total cost breakdown

Whisper Jet Total Operating Cost Breakdown

● Redistribution of Cost Elements: Existing 9 passenger aircraft have energy, maintenance, and capital as
their top cost items, distantly followed by indirect and pilot costs as shown in table 9. Highly efficient,
high speed electric aircraft are able to dramatically change these percentages, dropping energy and
maintenance to the two lowest cost percentages. With capital costs becoming the leading cost, making sure
that these future products are well aligned with a high utilization business model is paramount to ensure
this cost can be well amortized.
● Trip Distance Step Cost Changes: The step changes of cost elements at ~60, ~175, and ~195 mile distances
is due to 1) lower speed for short trips that cruise at lower altitudes; 2) shorter trips cruising at max cruise

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 speed while longer trips cruise at best range speed, with slower speeds not amortizing fixed costs as
efficiently; 3) long trips requiring the use of the range extender.
● Range Extender Step Cost Changes: Once the range extender is required to be turned on, there is an instant
maintenance thermal cycle cost incurred along with higher priced fuel. Avoiding the use of a range
extender for most trips is critical for achieving the lowest operating cost, but having the range extender is
critical to have range flexibility and meet IFR reserves with excessive battery weight.
● Increased Value of Autonomy: Note that the percentage pilot cost increases from 7.4% to 14% (while pilot
costs remain constant). As the other primary costs are reduced, the ability to decrease pilot costs becomes
increasingly important. A key learning from this study is that autonomy has an increased value in electric
aircraft towards achieving both compelling operating costs and enabling higher utilization through the
elimination of pilot scheduling and duty hour time limitation issues.

Figure 36 Whisper Jet vs. PC12 total cost, with load factor and utilization sensitivities

Whisper Jet vs PC-12 Total Cost Load Factor and Utilization Sensitivities
● Turbine Cost with Short Range Trips: Turbine engines have poor fuel consumption at lower altitudes and
speeds, resulting in significantly higher fuel costs at decreased distances. Short trips incur a high number of
cycles that also dramatically increases propulsion maintenance costs. These are the key reasons why turbine
aircraft are so poorly matched with short range RAM missions.
● Value of Pressurization with Longer Range: The total operating cost for the PC-12 can be seen to
asymptotically approach the Whisper Jet at longer distances, even though the Whisper Jet has a 35% higher
maximum Lift/Drag ratio. This is due to the PC-12 taking advantage of pressurization to operate at higher
altitudes and higher speeds to achieve lower fuel burn and improved amortization of fixed costs. The Whisper
Jet could similarly add pressurization to reduce costs at longer distances, but this would increase acquisition
price ~10% and isn’t the intent of the RAM mission.
● Expected Utilization and Load Factor: While 1,200 hours of annual utilization was used for both aircraft for
direct comparison purposes, the design intent of the Whisper Jet is to achieve scale that leverages the ultra-
quiet characteristics for night time operations. The typical operating conditions are considered to be the 2400
hour utilization at an average load factor of 70% (6 of 9 passengers) to account for the thinner scheduled
RAM routes and aligning with passenger loading seen in existing RAM trips. As the RAM market develops
to higher TAM capture rates, there’s potential to achieve average load factors seen in larger commercial
aircraft of ~90%.
● Electric Aircraft Economic Sweet Spot: The most important observation of this work is that the optimal trip
distances for lowest cost is 100-200 mile distances at current battery technology levels. Within 5 years, it is
likely that battery trends will increase this to 100-250 miles, and to 100-300 miles by 2030. Comparing this
technology capability with TAM trip distribution indicates a strong opportunity for RAM to be a near-term

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 incubation of high-speed electric aviation and the precursor to the subsequent development of larger Part 25
aircraft in the 2035+ timeframe.

User Experience
The Whisper Jet design takes into consideration the end-to-end experience of RAM trips of various types in order to
ensure market feasibility. Regional jets operated by air carriers today were not designed for short distance commuting
operations. Advances in the user interfaces and user experiences of other electric aircraft and ridesharing services also
shape customer expectations of what a magical trip looks and feels like. RAM at scale requires higher utilization,
lower turnaround times, and increased multimodal connectivity than regional air trips today resulting in meaningful
changes to ingress/egress, cabin interiors, and the in-flight experience.

RAM trips will be multimodal in nature, enabled via modern software-enabled booking flows popularized by
ridesharing services like Uber. Before riders arrive at a regional airport, the app or website they will use to book the
trip will have taken into consideration end-to-end trip times and costs so that utility of the trip is clear over other
options and the decision-making is painless as possible. They’ll be flexible enough to handle user preferences to drive,
shuttle, or rideshare to the origin regional airport and ensure travel to their end destination is handled with minimum
friction. Required traveler flight information will not differ much from existing air carrier requirements and can be
supplemented with details and feedback from ground traveler info to further increase safety and trip seamlessness.
These multimodal booking flows and trip handling have already been trialed in the past by the authors with
UberCopter. RAM at-scale can further improve the seamlessness of the operational flow because longer distance RAM
trips allow for more time to properly sequence last-leg ground modes for just-in-time arrival.

Figure 36. Example UberCopter booking flow, Uber Air seamless weight and balance prior to boarding,
Actual Evolv security scanner usage
(Credit to Uber, Evolv)
The seamlessness and rider ease of travel extends to the regional airports, where FBOs and RAM operators have an
opportunity to improve security, trip throughput, and rider experience. Instead of long and often frustrating TSA
scanners, FBOs and air carriers have an opportunity to leverage the simplicity of Part 135 TSA rules. New scanners
such as those from Evolv Technology have rolled out across stadiums and festivals for quick and accurate security
scanning. While not required for Part 135 operations, such systems will provide enhanced screening. These scanners
have been demonstrated to improve screening time by a factor of ten with 70% of the cost of alternatives. This is also
a large improvement over regional air travel today that often lacks any infrastructure for meaningful metal detectors
or harmful object scanning. Weight and balance are key, especially for regional aircraft carrying nine passengers and
their bags. Novel methods for weighing passengers and their bags can be discreetly handled through integrated load
cells at the airport that then pass the information to an air carrier’s operations for proper automatic seat placement and
baggage handling. Riders can then navigate to waiting areas with seats that are arranged to clarify boarding positions
on the jet.

When it comes time to board, riders will find ingress into the Whisper Jet fast, intuitive, and painless. After quickly
scanning their mobile device, Riders will walk onto the tarmac guided by walking lines and immediately notice the
architectural arrangement of the Whisper Jet. Its outboard horizontal tail configuration strategically places the wing
forward of the passenger cabin doors, enabling passengers to embark without the need to step onto a wing as required
by some conventional aircraft today. This is important because these trips will need to be approachable for passengers
that may not fly frequently today, let alone have flown in a regional or general aviation aircraft. Rather than having to

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pass along their bags to a flight attendant, riders will be able to carry and stow their bags into thoughtfully located
baggage compartments behind their seat. For the Whisper Jet, areas behind each row of the passenger seating are
spacious enough to accommodate small bags, carry-on luggage, or even sports equipment like a bag of golf clubs.
Riders can secure their own bags, rotate the seat back up by themselves until it clicks into place, and sit comfortably
with peace of mind about the safety and security of their bags.

Figure 37. Initial seating exploration Figure 38. Small airport egress

In flight, all nine of the Whisper Jet’s passengers and its pilot will experience a level of comfort that is more sustainable
and still lightweight for high-throughput operation. Unlike the cramped and confined environments typically
associated with regional air travel, this aircraft offers an experience akin to traveling in a spacious suburban car. The
similarity of the Whisper Jet’s interiors to automotive creature comforts can extend consistency of the user experience
afforded throughout the multimodal legs. Usage of lightweight, sustainable, and robust materials can help facilitate
high throughput operations that reduce long-term wear and tear in ground and air modes. Furthermore, these materials
can be more readily applied across the Whisper Jet’s cabin due to the lack of pressurization needs for RAM flights
operated below 14,000 ft. With comfortability, sustainability, and affordability as cornerstones of the Whisper Jet
interior experience, riders will be able to spend more time enjoying what they see along their trip.

The Whisper Jet will help deepen passengers’ familiarity with rural, suburban, and urban areas - with the intent of
achieving a new level of aerial site-seeing. Its expansive windows and lower cruising altitudes enables passengers to
look at their surroundings from new angles and perspectives that are inaccessible today. Uninterrupted internet access
throughout the flight enables mixed and augmented reality overlays throughout the flight for information on key
landmarks, travel information, and entertainment. This internet access also allows business travelers to seamlessly
engage in work-related activities while in transit. Regardless of whether passengers are leisurely browsing or dutifully
working, the Whisper Jet’s higher wing loading leads to reduced gust sensitivity and turbulence during flight, thereby
enhancing the overall in-flight experience for passengers. Combined, these Whisper Jet design enhancements can
forge a deeper connection between riders and the regions traversed throughout their journey.

Once passengers arrive at the next regional airport, they’ll be able to expediently navigate to their end destination with
mobility services arriving just in time for them to board. There’s no waiting at baggage claim because bags are located
so close to where they’re sitting. If there’s any time for them at the terminal to explore, a number of businesses will
likely also be available to browse as increased travel will spur the creation of new restaurants and shops.

Conclusion
The goal of this paper is to share the logic behind the development of Whisper Aero’s ultra-quiet and high-speed
efficient propulsors, and how they can map into many new drone and aircraft products. Open propellers are amazingly
successful at performing missions with high efficiency at speeds of 50 to 200 knots, but they are challenged when
integrated into distributed architectures because they lack the compactness and passive capabilities of EDFs, and
induce swirl when integrated with wings. Propellers at smaller diameters also are not as efficient, and when combined
with the desire to maximize mass flow for minimum power, are typically large diameters that either require a gearbox
or are non-optimal for electric motor specific power. At static/low speeds EDFs have the ability to have a higher
efficiency (Figure of Merit) than any propeller could achieve in hover and are also able to have a propulsive efficiency
that keeps increasing with higher cruise speeds. The value proposition being offered is the combination of these
characteristics with the unique ability of Whisper Aero propulsors to achieve high rotor efficiency at any size, along
with electric motor scaling to achieve significantly better specific power and cooling at small sizes.

Whisper Aero’s propulsor technology is based on a low tip speed, high solidity, high blade count approach that both
achieves ultrasonic BPF and low broadband noise. Use of a shrouded rotor enables thin, narrow blades that would
otherwise be structurally impractical, with the ability to leverage static and centrifugal stiffening to achieve highly

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tunable modes and vibratory characteristics. Shrouded blades also eliminate the tip gap and vortex losses which is a
major source of noise and efficiency losses, especially at smaller diameters. Unique laminar flow airfoils have been
developed for the low Reynolds number conditions, as well as proprietary methods for fabricating the rotor blisks.
Many additional layers of technology have also been incorporated across the EDF to achieve simplified thermal
management, a low distortion shortened duct, and a lightweight propulsion system.

Inherently these factors position this technology to want to distribute, with the capability to tightly integrate with
aerodynamics, acoustics, controls and other disciplines. Jetfoil integration embeds propulsors across the leading edge
of the wing to achieve an extremely high lift capability in a passive system that even has the potential to eliminate
flaps to simplify the wing structure (a critical consideration in the quest for ultra-low noise since flaps are the largest
source of airframe noise). This integration approach is especially beneficial for achieving STOL or high wing loading
capabilities with limited balanced field length performance. Because of the high downwash field associated with this
powered-lift approach, an OHT configuration provides an optimal synergistic approach to avoid a fly-by-wire system.
OHT concepts are also particularly well suited for minimizing aircraft wetted areas to achieve high speed cruise
efficiency. Sub-scale testing has shown promise for the configuration stability and control characteristics, with prior
research and flight testing of this concept also confirming the potential.

Many market opportunities across AAM align with future applications of EDF propulsion, with early opportunities
for Whisper propulsors focused on DoD ISR drones and short range regional aircraft that align particularly well with
current battery specific energy levels. The Whisper Jet concept is a RAM vision aircraft that leverages the new
technologies described in this paper, focused on achieving high safety, 250 knot unpressurized cruise speeds, 200 mile
battery electric and nearly 500 mile hybrid ranges, with community friendly operations, and operating costs that are
½ to ⅓ of existing 9 passenger aircraft for ranges of 50 to 500 miles. Detailed economic analysis has shown that for
existing short distance aviation RAM trips, the prioritized highest cost elements are 1) energy, 2) maintenance, 3)
capital costs, 4) indirect, and 5) piloting. This concept approach is particularly well suited at minimizing maintenance
and energy costs through battery electric operation up to 200 mile distance while having an undersized turbine
alternator for IFR reserves and range extension to minimize gross weight. Capital costs reduction is enabled through
ultra-quiet operations that permit high frequency departures at small airports in close proximity to neighborhoods
without annoyance. Low noise is also key to enable night time cargo flights with a quick change cabin, enabling
significantly higher annual utilization to amortize fixed capital costs.

Whisper Aero is an aero-propulsion company with a compelling new EDF technology looking for aircraft development
partners wherever ultra-quiet and high speed efficiency is valued.

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