1.

INTRODUCTION

Circuit analysis is important in order to be able to design, synthesize and evaluate

the performance of electric circuits or networks. The two basic laws for circuit
analysis are Kirchhoff's current law (KCL), sometimes referred to as the first law and
Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL), sometimes called the second law. In this present work
we are going to dive into linear circuits analysis. Although, there are couple of
techniques or principles for analysing linear circuits, we are just going to make
mention of superposition principle, because this is properly one used in order to
study behaviour of a linear circuits.

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2. LINEAR CIRCUIT DEFINITION
A linear circuit is an electronic circuit which obeys the superposition principle. This
means that the output of the circuit F(x) when a linear combination of signals ax1(t)
+ bx2(t) is applied to it is equal to the linear combination of the outputs due to the
signals x1(t) and x2(t) applied separately.

In other words, a circuit whose parameters are not changed with respect to Current
and Voltage is called a Linear Circuit.

Fundamentally, the word “linear” literally means “along with a straight line”. As the
name suggests, a linear circuit means linear characteristics in between current and
voltage, which means, current flowing through a circuit is directly proportional to the
applied Voltage.
If we increase the applied voltage, then the current flowing through the circuit will
also increase, and vice versa. If we draw the circuit output characteristic curve in
between current and voltage, it will look like a straight line (diagonal) as shown in fig
below. Refer to Ohm’s Law, where we recognize that:
“If the applied voltage increases, then current also increases (where resistance
remains the same).”
In other words, in a linear circuit, the output response of the circuit is directly
proportional to the input. In other simple words, in an electric circuit, in which the
applied sinusoidal voltage having frequency “f”, the output (current through a
component or voltage between two points) of that circuit is also sinusoidal having
frequency “f”.

Fig.1. Linear circuit

The components in an electrical circuit that have a linear relationship between the
current input and the voltage output are referred to as linear circuit elements.

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Examples of elements with linear circuits are:
 Resistors;
 Capacitors;
 Inductors.

An analysis of elements is required to gain a better understanding of linear circuit

elements.
2.1. Resistors
A resistor is a device that restricts the flow of an electric current, causing energy
conversion. When electricity passes through a light bulb, for example, it is
transformed into a new kind of energy, such as heat and/or light. An element’s
resistance is measured in ohms Ω. The resistance in a circuit is calculated as follows:

l
R=ρ
A

Where R stands for resistance, ρ for resistivity, L for wire length, and A for wire cross
-sectional area.

Symbol of a resistor:

2.2. Capacitors
A capacitor is an electrical device that consists of two conducting materials (plates)
separated by an insulator (dielectric). It stores electric energy via an electric field.
When the capacitor is linked to a battery, an electric field is created, causing positive
electric charges to accumulate on one plate and negative electric charges to
accumulate on the other.
The process of storing energy in the electrical field of a capacitor is called charging,
and the process of removing energy is termed discharging. Capacitance is the
amount of electrical energy stored in a capacitor and is measured in farads F. One
farad equals one coulomb per unit volt, denoted as 1 C/V.

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Symbol of a capacitor:

2.3. Inductors
Inductors are electronic devices that store electric energy using a magnetic field. A
coil or a wire in loop form is the most basic type of inductor, with inductance
proportional to the number of loops in the wire. In addition, the inductance is
affected by the wire’s material and the loop’s radius.
Only the air core can result in the least inductance given a specified number of turns
and radius size. Wood, glass, and plastic are dielectric materials that fulfill the same
purpose as air. These materials aid in the inductor winding process. The total
inductance is increased by the donut form of the windings as well as ferromagnetic
materials such as iron. Inductance is the amount of energy that an inductor can
store. It is measured in Henry H.

Symbol of a inductor:

3.  OHMS'S LAW
Consider the following relationship:

cause
effect =
opposition

Every conversion of energy from one form to another can be related to this equation.
In electric circuits, the effect we are trying to establish is the flow of charge, or
current. The potential difference, or voltage, between two points is the cause
(“pressure”), and the opposition is the resistance encountered. An excellent analogy
for the simplest of electrical circuits is the water in a hose connected to a pressure
valve. Think of the electrons in the copper wire as the water in the hose, the pressure

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valve as the applied voltage, and the size of the hose as the factor that determines
the resistance. If the pressure valve is closed, the water simply sits in the hose
without motion, much like the electrons in a conductor without an applied voltage.
When we open the pressure valve, water will flow through the hose much like the
electrons in a copper wire when the voltage is applied. In other words, the absence of
the “pressure” in one case and the voltage in the other will simply result in a system
without motion or reaction. The rate at which the water will flow in the hose is a
function of the size of the hose. A hose with a very small diameter will limit the rate
at which water can flow through the hose, just as a copper wire with a small
diameter will have a high resistance and will limit the current. In summary, therefore,
the absence of an applied “pressure” such as voltage in an electric circuit will result
in no reaction in the system and no current in the electric circuit. Current is a reaction
to the applied voltage and not the factor that gets the system in motion. To continue
with the analogy, the more the pressure at the spigot, the more the rate of water flow
through the hose, just as applying a higher voltage to the same circuit will result in a
higher current.
Substituting the terms introduced above results in:

potential difference U
current = and I= .
resistance R

Fig.2. Basic circuit

Example1:

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Determine the current resulting from the application of a 9-V battery across a
network with a resistance of 2.2 Ώ.

solution:

Example2:
Calculate the resistance of a 60-W bulb if a current of 500 mA results from an
applied voltage of 120 V.
solution:

Example3:
Calculate the current through the 2-k resistor of Fig. 3 if the voltage drop across it is
16 V.
solution:

4. SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
The superposition theorem, like the methods of the last chapter, can be used to find
the solution to networks with two or more sources that are not in series or parallel.
The most obvious advantage of this method is that it does not require the use of a
mathematical technique such as determinants to find the required voltages or
currents. Instead, each source is treated independently, and the algebraic sum is
found to determine a particular unknown quantity of the network. The superposition
theorem states the following:
The current through, or voltage across, an element in a linear bilateral network is

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equal to the algebraic sum of the currents or voltages produced independently by
each source.

When one is applying the theorem, it is possible to consider the effects of two
sources at the same time and reduce the number of networks that have to be
analyzed, but, in general:

To consider the effects of each source independently requires that sources be

removed and replaced without affecting the final result. To remove a voltage source
when applying this theorem, the difference in potential between the terminals of the
voltage source must be set to zero (short circuit); removing a current source requires
that its terminals be opened (open circuit). Any internal resistance or conductance
associated with the displaced sources is not eliminated but must still be considered.
Figure 4.1 reviews the various substitutions required when removing an ideal source,
and Figure 4.2 reviews the substitutions with practical sources that have an internal
resistance.

Fig. 4.2
Fig. 4.1

Example:
 Using superposition, determine the current through the 4- resistor of figure below,
fig.5.

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solution: Considering the effects of a 54-V source (Fig. 6.1, below)

Using the current divider rule,

Considering the effects of the 48-V source ,Fig.6.2.

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5. CONCLUSION

After making all search that we did, we could conclude that, linear circuits maintain
their elements constant, that's why their graphs are straight line, and also, they are
important in electrical engineering because they process signals that carry energy
and information. A circuit is an interconnection of electrical devices. However, in
order to analyse their elements, that's, resistance, capacitance, inductance, etc., it is
necessary to applied rules of superposition principle or theorem, because this
different in terms of purpose and is also the properly method use in linear circuits.

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6. REFERENCES

CONSOLIVER, Earl L. & MITCHELL, Grover I. (1920). Automotive Ignition Systems.

McGraw-Hill.

MILLIKAN, Robert A.; BISHOP, E. S. (1917). Elements of Electricity. American

Technical Society.

DARRIGOL, Olivier (8 June 2000). Electrodynamics from Ampère to Einstein.

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