Week 2

 Forage Production:
Glossary and Conversion Matrix in English
Glossary
Annuals: Crops that are grown for a single year or less

Forage: non grain feeds such as grass or silage for cattle, horses and sheep

Nutrient management: a site specific plan for the application of plant nutrients as manure or
fertilizer to meet crop needs and minimize environmental impacts

Perennials: crops that are grown for multiple years

Conversation Matrix
1 inch = 2.5 cm

1 kg = 2.2 lbs

1 ton = 907 kg

1 ton/acre = 2.24 metric tons/hectare

1 hectare = 2.47 acres

1 US ton = 2000 lbs = 907.1847 kg

Outside US, 1 tonne/metric ton = 1000 kg

Welcome to the Forages section of the Penn State Dairy MOOC. I’m Greg Roth,
Professor of agronomy at Penn State in the department of Plant Science. Forages are the
non grain crops that are fed to dairy cows. Common dairy farm forages would be legumes
like alfalfa and clover, grasses such as ryegrass and orchard grass. Others might be grain
crops like corn grown for silage, or small grains and sorghums harvested for forage.
Chapter 1: Forage Production Systems
Forages are the non-grain crops that are fed to dairy cows. Common dairy farm forages
would be legumes like alfalfa and clover, grasses such as ryegrass and orchardgrass. Others
might be grain crops like corn grown for silage or small grains and sorghums harvested for
forage.

Forages are critical on the dairy farm and play multiple roles. Its really important that
everyone understand the objectives of forage management on the farm to achieve success.
On a basic level, forages provide some or the entire ration for the dairy animals on the
farm, but in reality their role is a bit bigger and more complex.

Let’s review a few of the important roles forages play on the dairy farm. Having a
good understanding of these helps us better understand the role of forages and how we can
manage them to achieve these goals. Often its not possible to for producers to completely
achieve all goals in forage production, so there often needs to be a bit of compromise.

Roles of Forages on Dairy Farms

A fundamental role of forages is to provide high quality healthy feed to keep animals
healthy and maximize performance. Forages should not be moldy or contaminated with
manure, soil or pesticide residues. Dairy producers should be aware of these issues and try to
avoid them through careful management of fields and machinery. By managing the forages
well, and producing crops with high energy and protein levels, then we can often
significantly reduce the need for other supplemental feeds.

This will lead to another key role of forages is to minimize purchased feed costs,
which is a key financial indicator on dairy farms. On many farms, forages are supplemented
with supplements or grains such as this soybean meal to optimize production. These can
represent significant costs to the dairy farm. In some cases an expensive input can be offset
with home grown forages and this can have a big impact on
these purchased feed costs. This can improve what we call Income over feed costs.

Another key role of the forage system is to try to reduce farm grown feed costs through
high yields and or low production costs. Producers need to carefully select crops and
varieties that are adapted to their farms while scrutinizing crop production inputs to keep
costs low. Lower forage production costs also helps to improve the farm profitability, since
forages often represent 50% or more of the feed costs on a farm. In some cases, the best
solution may be to purchase some forages if the cost of production is high.

Forages should also strive to provide feed for various animal groups on the farm. On a
dairy farm, there are often different animal groups, like lactating cows, dry cows, heifers,
and calves. Each of these groups have some specific feed requirements and forages grown
on the farm can help to meet those rations. For example lactating cows need forages with
high fiber digestibility, whereas these dry cows need forages that are lower in potassium
and can utilize pastures well. Ideally, the farms forage system will have the capability to
meet those different needs.

As part of this, the forage system must be designed to provide seasonal availability of
forages, either through grazing, multiple harvests or year round storage options. In some
parts of the world, animals can graze year round, but in many areas, feed must be stored for
long periods. These storage tactics can be significant costs to the dairy and can also
contribute to forage quality issues as well. On this dairy, a well managed bunker silo, is
providing corn silage, which is a high yielding, relatively low cost, consistent feed on a year
round basis for the herd.

The forages on a dairy farm must also play a role to manage the nutrients in the
manure that is applied to the farm. Ideally dairy farms should have forage crops that can
utilize the manure and keep the manure nutrients from contaminating ground and surface
water supplies. Crops like these grass hay fields or small grain cover crops can be very good
in this regard as they need lots of nitrogen and potassium and reduce runoff during the
winter months in many areas.

The forage system must also contribute to managing soils and pests sustainably. For
example, soil nutrient levels must be monitored and maintained at optimum levels and to
avoid depletion or creating excessive levels. We need to also avoid depleting the soil
organic matter and use tactics like crop rotation, reduced tillage or strip cropping. On this
farm, corn for silage is being grown using no-till and
 rotated with a small grain cover crop to reduce erosion and improve soil organic matter
levels.

Planning and evaluation tools

So we’ve learned that the role of forages is complicated on dairy farms and there are lots of
things to think about and manage regarding these issues. Fortunately there are a number of
tools dairy producers have at their disposal to address these issues.
A plan might start with a forage inventory plan, describing the amounts of forages the farm
anticipates needing for the year. This should include the estimated feeding and storage
losses, which can often total 15-20%. Next would be a crop production plan, with all fields
identified along with projected forage production from each. This helps to match crops with
the best soils and plan the crop rotation. Then a nutrient management plan would be useful
to allocate manure to the fields based on crop needs and soil test levels.

A cropping budget estimates the cost of production for forages on the farm. This can help
to decide whether to grow or purchase forages. Once a plan is developed, it must be
executed well and then continually refined through evaluation. Execution of the plan
involves having or hiring the skills and equipment to plant, harvest and store the forages on
a timely basis.

Evaluation involves evaluation of yields, forage quality, soil fertility and profitability. The
evaluations are done with tools like forage analyses, soli test reports, and estimates of income
over feed costs from financial advisors. Each year, based on input from these sources, and
with some evaluation on how the forage production met the goals we discussed earlier, the
forage production plan is update and refined. Over time, well managed farms develop
systems that allow them meet many of the goals we have discussed with their forage system.
To achieve this, its critical that the forage production team on the farm realize these goals
and manage effectively to achieve them with careful planning and evaluation complementing
the field activities of producing the forage.
Chapter 2: Perennial Forage Crops
The forages on a dairy farm can be broadly classified as annuals or perennials. Perennials
are those crops that are grown for multiple years. Examples of these would be alfalfa,
clovers, and many types of grasses. In this lesson, we will discuss some of the basic
management issues for perennial forages.
Perennial crops have many advantages: they don’t need to be planted every year, they can
protect the soil over the winter and they can help to improve the soil structure and organic
matter. And they can provide high quality forage with protein, fiber and energy to support
milk production and growth and development.
There are three key components of successful perennial forage production. The first is
selection of the best adapted species and varieties for the land and the potential end use of the
feed. The second component is careful crop management with appropriate planting and
fertilizing of the crop. The third component is the harvesting and storage of the crop.

Species/Variety Selection
Lets first discuss the variety and species or seed selection. A good seed choice would result
in a forage that can be produced economically and meet the needs of some of the animals on
the farm.
A single farm may grow multiple species depending on the soil resources and the intended
use of the forage. Alfalfa is a good choice on many dairies. It is high yielding and can
produce high quality forage to support high levels of milk production. But alfalfa requires
soils that drain well, otherwise the alfalfa plants will not persist and yields will eventually be
reduced.

On farms where alfalfa does not grow well, then other options might be a mixture of alfalfa
and grass or perhaps a pure stand of grass. Common grasses used for dairy forage include
orchardgrass, ryegrass or tall fescue. Each of these grasses have specific traits that make
them more adapted to different situations. Ryegrass, for example, is especially well adapted
to cool climates with moderate winters.
Within each grass species, seed companies have developed varieties with specific traits
that might improve performance. These could include higher digestibility, later maturity or
better winterhardiness. Many universities like Penn State test forage varieties and can
provide some unbiased information.

Management
A mixture of alfalfa and grass can produce good yields of forage on variable soils: where the
soils are well drained the alfalfa does well and in other areas, the grass persists and fills in.
This allows
producers to grow alfalfa type forages in variable fields that exist on many farms.
The next step is to manage the crop to produce high yields. The first consideration in
management is to assess the soil fertility with a soil test and apply recommended nutrients
as lime and fertilizer. Many legume crops require a soil pH above 6.0 to 6.5 and optimum
levels of phosphorus and potassium.
The second step in management is to establish a good crop with careful planting techniques.
For most small seeded perennial crops, this involves seeding no more than a 3/8 inch deep
in a well prepared seedbed or with a well adjusted no-till drill. When planting in a tilled
seedbed, having a level, firm and fine seedbed will optimize seed to soil contact and
emergence. We using no-till planting, paying close attention to seeding depth with a no-till
drill is important. The timing of planting is also critical- for most forage crops the ideal time
is in early spring or late summer.

After the crop emerges, it should be monitored for insects and weeds and treated if necessary.
Harvesting the newly established crop just at flowering will allow the plants to generate
adequate root reserves for rapid regrowth. Earlier harvest to control weeds may be necessary,
but will weaken the plants.

Harvesting and storing the crop

The third phase of forage management is the harvest and storage of the crop. The optimum
timing of forage harvest is a compromise between the yield and forage quality. Often
harvesting before the crop reaches the maximum yield is the ideal because forage quality
declines as the crop matures.
This graph shows an idealized relationship between forage yield and quality. Note how the
digestibility declines and the forage yield increases. The ideal stage will vary depending on
the species and the specific feed quality desired.

For alfalfa, harvesting at the bud stage to early bloom stage, prior to the development of
many flowers, is often an optimum harvest stage. Ideally the forage crop should be mowed
with no rain in the forecast, but this can be difficult in some areas. The crops are mowed
and then allowed to dry in the field until the reach an optimum dry matter content for the
storage system they are going to be stored in. For those alfalfa crops stored as hay, the
optimum storage moisture is 85 to 90 % dry matter. For crops being stored as plastic
wrapped silage bales, the optimum dry matter content will be approximately 35 to 40%. For
crops that will be ensiled in a horizontal silo like a bunker or pile, the optimum dry matter
will be approximately 30 to 35%.
For crops harvested as hay, a round or square baler will be used to harvest the crop. If
the hay is stored dry, the bales will be collected from the field and moved to a storage
location. If the hay is destined for silage, then the bales will be wrapped with plastic
and stored at a secure location.
For crop that will be harvested as chopped silage, then a forage chopper or harvester will be
used to chop and blow the forage into a truck or wagon. The forage will then be transported
to the storage facility where it will be dumped in a horizontal silo or blown into an upright
structure.

In the horizontal silos, the forage will be spread and packed to exclude oxygen from the
harvested forage. Once the structure is filled, it will be covered with plastic and sealed to
exclude oxygen to promote a rapid fermentation. After about three weeks, the fermentation
should be complete and the silo can be opened and feeding can begin.

Often with perennial forages, multiple cuttings are made during the year and the forage
from the subsequent cutting will be stored in the same silo. An alternative is that separate
smaller cuttings can be stored in horizontal silage bags. Each cutting may have a different
forage quality and this should be assessed with a forage analysis before feeding so that
rations can be adjusted.
This has been basic overview of perennial forage management from establishment
through harvest. For each part of the process there are many specific details. For more of
these details, visit the links provided with this module.
Chapter 3: Annual Forage Crops
The forages on a dairy farm can be broadly classified as annuals or perennials. Annuals
are crops that are grown for a single year. Examples of these would be corn, sorghum or
small grains such as rye, triticale or barley. In this lesson, we will discuss some of the
basic management issues for annual forages.

Annual forages have some advantages: they offer flexibility to change crops each year, they
can have high yields, and for some, like corn and sorghum, can be harvested in a single
highly mechanized operation. And they can result in relatively consistent feeds because of
the large yields and harvest under the same weather conditions.

As, with perennial forages, there are three key components of successful annual forage
production. The first is selection of the best adapted species and varieties for the land and
the potential end use of the feed. The second component is careful crop management with
appropriate planting and fertilizing of the crop. The third component is the harvesting and
storage of the crop.
We will cover the first two points in this lesson and Dr. Hristov will cover the harvesting
and storage in another session. Lets first discuss each species and then variety selection
Corn
Corn is by far the most important annual forage on many dairies in the U.S. Corn chopped
for silage results in yields from 5 to 10 tons per acre of a consistent, high energy forage.
Corn can effectively recycle much of the nitrogen and potassium applied in the manure. It
can be stored well and provide a year round feed that is useful for all of the different dairy
cattle on the farm. And often the cost per ton of feed is moderate to low compared to other
feeds. These factors account for its popularity on dairy farms.

A key management decision is the selection of a corn hybrid for production. The first
consideration is to select a hybrid that will mature under the typical weather conditions at
the farm. Hybrids that fail to mature can be killed by a frost and this will reduce the yield
and quality of the forage. A second consideration is to find a hybrid that will produce high
yields of a quality forage. Many universities like Penn State test corn varieties and can
provide some unbiased information. Some corn hybrids, such as
 these brown mid rib or BMR hybrids are bred specifically for silage production and have
enhanced fiber digestibility which can be important on some farms.

To maximize its potential corn should be planted in a timely manner to allow it to utilize
the entire season. Corn is usually planted in rows, 30 inches or 76 cm apart, although some
producers are switching to narrower rows to maximize yields. The crop should also be
fertilized to achieve top yields. Fertilizer recommendations are available in resources like
the Penn State Agronomy Guide. Fertilizer nutrient recommendations need to account for
the yield potential of the crop and nutrients supplied by manure applications and previous
crops, like alfalfa. This helps to avoid overfertilization which can cause environmental
issues.

Sorghums
The next important dairy forage are sorghums. Sorghums are diverse and vary from tall
forage sorghum varieties used for single cut systems to shorter sorghum sudans used in
multiple cut systems. Sorghum sudans are often used where the growing season is shorter
and the crop can be cut at about 60 days after planting and then again in 30-45 days if the
season allows.

Forage sorghums are single cut crop that require planting in early summer and harvest in
the fall. Traditional forage sorghums are tall and high yielding but can fall over late in the
season. Shorter sorghums have been developed to help alleviate this problem. Sorghum
breeders have developed earlier and also brown mid rib types that produce higher quality
forage with less risk of frost before maturity. Sorghums are good options where water is
limiting as they produce more dry matter per unit of water than corn. Sorghums also
require less N fertilizer and generally have lower seed costs than corn.

Small grains
Other important annual forages are the small grains. These include rye, triticale, wheat,
oats and barley. In some longer season areas these are winter crops and can be planted
following a full season crop like corn or sorghum. Then in the spring, when the small grain
crop is harvested, corn or sorghum can be double cropped after harvest. This rotation can
maximize the amount of forage produced on a given amount of land, but can be
challenging to harvest and replant fields rapidly. In short season areas, spring versions of
oats and barley can be used as forage crops.

Subtle differences among these cereals can dictate their choice for a particular environment.
For
example in winter cereals, rye is very winter hardy and early, triticale can produce high yields
and high quality and barley can produce high quality at later maturity stages such as soft dough
stage.
With good management, these can produce a quality feed for lactating animals. If quality is less
than desired then the forage can be used by replacements. Winter small grains can also protect
the soil from erosion and reduce the potential for nutrient leaching and runoff. These are
important on dairy farms. Winter small grains can also take up considerable nutrients and help
with the nutrient management planning.

To optimize yields, winter grains should be planted early in the fall and spring grains early in
the spring. Often some nitrogen fertilizer will be required to optimize yield and protein levels in
the forage. This can be supplied with either manure or N fertilizer. Small grain forages often
remove large amounts of K, so this soil nutrient should be monitored and supplied if necessary.

This has been basic overview of annual forage management. Annual forages, alone or in
combination with each other often play a large role on modern dairy farms when managed well
and harvested at the right time. For more of these details, visit the links provided with this
module.

1. This video covered dry matter content in square, round, and silage bales, as well as silage
being stored in bunkers or pits. What is the optimum dry matter content for forage that is
going to be ensiled vertically?

Reply from a student: In the additional reading, under "Corn silage production and management"
it states:"Recommended moisture contents are 65–70 percent for horizontal silos, 63–68 percent for
conventional tower silos, 55-60 percent for limited-oxygen silos, and 65 percent for silo bags."
Minus these values from 100 to get dry matter percentage of course.

Professor’s Response: This reply is correct, our recommendations are 63–68 percent for
conventional tower silos, 55-60 percent for limited-oxygen silos. These are because in these systems,
there is more pressure on the forage material from the crop packed above it and at high moisture
levels these can cause the moisture to be squeezed out of the forage causing what we call seepage,
which is a loss of nutrient from the silage and can cause damage to the silo as well.
 2. Does anyone, by any chance, know what
type of forages are best for farms above
3,000 meters above sea level?
Professors’ Response: I am not very familiar with forage production under these conditions…It is
likely a bit dependent on where you are and the precipitation. This report gives some suggestions of
management and at the end species: http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/ad347e/ad347e0w.htm

3. Say that and of course, one has first to make feasibility and other similar studies to start a
dairy business. Thinking of forage production and pasture management and its higher
position in the ledger of expenses, especially in small scale intensive or semi-intensive dairy
farms, to actively implement forage production plan with its pasture management requires a
cost benefit analysis focusing on the cost of producing a unit of DM versus the cost of
purchasing it from other farms specializing in forge production.

Of course again there are advantages and disadvantages associated with each option, differing
form farm to farm; but the farm manger or the forage production expert has to decide
right? What do you think? In the long run should Dairy farms focus forage production
of their own? Or always have to compromise?
Professors’ Response: You are absolutely correct in all of these suggestions. Penn State dairy economists
have shown that the most profitable dairy farms are those that are capable of producing much of their own
forage, with a combination of high yields and reduced input costs. At the same time they are producing high
quality forages that support high milk production which generates high levels of revenue. Often there are
some compromises that need to be made. In some cases these can result in lower quality forages and then
these can be used for non lactating animals to minimize the effect on milk production.

4. Hydroponic method for forage production.

Use it or not?
Professor’s Response: Hydroponic production of forage (aka sprouted grains or sprouted grain fodder) has
gained a lot of recent interest in light of environmental challenges in growing high- quality forages, and due
to the increased number of companies promoting fodder systems.
However, the efficacy of these systems seems to be mixed. There is often a large capital investment in
equipment, and a significant labor requirement to operate such a system. In addition, one of the biggest
challenges of fodder production is preventing mold formation on the fodder. Some farms have few mold
problems, but other farms are plagued with mold issues in their fodder, rendering the feed unusable, and an
alternative feed is needed for that week.

It must also be kept in mind that 20% of both energy and dry matter are lost in the sprouting process (there is
also a fact sheet uploaded called SB Factsheet), so one must ponder whether it would be better to feed the
original grain, or sprout it and feed the fodder. There is a lot of speculation concerning other ‘growth
factors’ found in sprouted fodder which may improve animal health/production, but there is no science to
substantiate some of these anecdotal observations. Not all farms see an increase in milk production, but
some have mentioned improvements in milk components (e.g., decreased SCC).

I have seen estimates that fodder production can cost $500-1000/ton of DM. Each individual must
determine whether this is cost-effective for them, or whether it may be worthwhile to put effort into
improving home-grown forage quality, or purchasing high-quality, forage- tested (guaranteed!) forage.

Dr. Larry Tranel at Iowa State University has an informative article on fodder systems, including some
economics. This article can be found at: http://lib.dr.iastate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1829&context=ans_air

In arid and/or land-limited farms, fodder may be a viable option. For those farms with adequate access to
land and/or reasonably-priced, high-quality forages, farmers may need to evaluate the economic feasibility
of producing fodder on a case-by-case basis.
 5. Corn vs sorghum... Which is better for the
cow and her digestions?
Professor’s response: Generally corn has more digestible kernels and also more digestible
stover or fiber. That is why it is the preferred annual crop forage used on many dairies.
However, when water is limiting and corn yields are reduced, then sorghum can be an
acceptable substitute. Sometimes dairy farmers reduced the impact of sorghum by blending it
with corn silage.

6. You mention one of the important roles of forages is managing the nutrients in the
manure, this means the manure collected can be used as a natural fertilizer? I did'nt quite get
that role.

Reply from a Student: Dr. Greg mentioned here that the forage systems need to be efficient in
utilizing the nutrients in the manure to avoid soil or water contamination with Nitrogen or
Potassium ,for example, when using manure as fertilizer, a very common activity on farm.
Cheers.

Professor’s Response: Yes, cows produce a lot of manure and this contains valuable plant
nutrients. If these are used carefully they can really reduce the need for other fertilizer. There
are tactics that can improve the benefit from manure- apply to the fields and crops that are most
needy, apply it as uniformly as possible and if possible store it in a way that the nutrients are
not lost- by not applying on snow for example.

7. When the time comes for us to have our own home/farmstead, we always had it in our
mind that our livestock would be out on pasture. While in college, I learned the bare minimum
about pasture management while on a couple if field trips. These videos really put it into
perspective for me how much I still need to learn before I put my animals out there.

Also, what happens in the winter when there's snow on the ground and pasture
doesn't exist? I'm assuming this is when hay gets fed out? Sounds expensive.

Reply from a student: Pasture Versus Confinement is similar to the topic of this Lessen
“Forage Production and Pasture Management”. Whether you are planning to keep your
livestock in a confinement (with forage production and possible “storage”) or keeping them on
pasture (practicing efficient pasture management), your decision will depend on your previous
experience, Capital investment, (ranging from the availability and type of land, water, skilled
labour, farm infrastructures, storage facilities, your Dairy breed and dairy herd composition
etc…) and the environmental factors which you might not have direct control (seasons, weather,
etc..).
Reply from a student: I totally agree with you Tsegai, feeding your livestock depends on the size of
your herd, the land where they are confined, the weather and a very important one, the capital
investment you are willing to make. I cannot imagine here where I live, if farmers would let their cow
graze, they probably wouldn't survive because of the dry weather. Grazing adapts to those who live in
cool climate conditions.

Professor’s Response: Several students have provided excellent responses. Most dairy farmers who
graze have learned what they know outside of the university classroom. The best way to learn about
grazing is to attend pasture walks/field days (if they are available in your area), find a mentor in your
region who can help you learn about grazing and/or do an internship on a grazing farm. Some regions
have good grazing support (i.e. USDA-NRCS grazing specialists), but not all areas of the United States
or world will have this support, but if you do, they can be a great resource for you. There are also
excellent resources on the internet. However, there is no substitute for experience, as grazing is an art
as well as a science.

During the non-grazing season, the grazing herd is essentially a confinement herd. Some farms
confine their cows and feed conserved feeds in the barn, others outwinter cows (depending on
climate and shelter) and feed out on pasture, and a handful of farms dry off their cows in the winter
time.

Is there a size of herd where the grazing

8.

system is not enough and forces the farmer to

change to confinement of their cows?
Professor’s response: Oftentimes the size of grazing herds is limited by the amount of land within
reasonable walking distance for the cows to reach the milking parlor twice a day. Walking is an energy
expenditure, and if they spend too much time walking, not only does it take away from grazing time,
but the cows expend additional energy that could have been put into milk production.

Grazing systems are often implemented on smaller farms (100 cows or less, although there are some
larger grazing herds) that are seeking to decrease feed costs on the same land base, therefore, they let
the cows harvest their own feed. Other factors, such as milk markets and farm philosophy, can also
drive the decision on whether to graze the herd.

 Dairy Pasture Management:

Glossary and Conversion Matrix in English
Glossary

Acidosis: When the pH of the rumen falls below optimal levels (< 5.5) which impairs microbial activity
and animal health.

Continuous Grazing: Keeping animals on one pasture all the time such that plants do not have time to
recover due to frequent re-grazing of new growth

Crude Protein: The total protein found in a feed (including pasture).

Diet Selection: Selecting/rejecting plants or plant parts based on animal preferences

Fermentable carbohydrate: Sugars and starches that are easily digested, such as grain and molasses.

Milk fever (hypocalcemia): A metabolic disease caused by low blood calcium levels.

Milk urea nitrogen: A measure of urea in the milk that can be an indicator of efficiency of protein
digestion.

Overgrazing: Grazing a plant too much such that the plant’s energy reserves are removed, resulting in
slower plant growth

Rotational Grazing: Dividing pastures and grazing animals for shorter periods in each paddock to allow
plants to recover and regrow between being harvested (grazed) by animals

Rumen degradable protein: The portion of the crude protein that is rapidly broken down in the rumen by
microbes.

Rumen undegradable protein: The portion of the crude protein that escapes microbial digestion in the
rumen.

Conversion Matrix
1 inch = 2.5 cm

1 kg = 2.2 lbs

Pasture Management
While the majority of milk produced in the United States is from dairy herds fed conserved forages
such as silage, baleage and hay, there are a number of herds that use grazing as a feeding management
strategy for reducing feed costs, increasing profit margins, or meeting the requirements of a specific
milk market.
Additionally, while larger dairy herds typically do not graze their lactating herd, they may graze other
categories of animals, such as dry cows, late lactation cows or heifers. Therefore, understanding basic
nutrition and management of pasture is essential for herds grazing any category of animal.

Challenges of a Successful Grazing System

The challenges of managing a grazing system are quite different from managing a confinement dairy.
The manager of the grazing dairy must react quickly to changing environments, such as weather and
soil and forage conditions, on a daily basis. Managers of confinement dairy systems are usually very
production-oriented, seeking profit from high levels of milk production. Grazing systems, on the other
hand, are frequently characterized by lower levels of milk production. However, emphasis is placed on
high milk production per acre at a reduced cost since the cows are harvesting much of their own feed
and spreading their own manure.

The key to any successful dairy grazing system is providing high-quality forage in sufficient
quantities such that dry matter and nutrient intakes are not deficient, as these are 2 of the main driving
factors for milk production. The main nutritional influences on milk yield from pasture include:

1. High-quality forage grown per unit of land;

2. Amount of pasture allocated per cow;
3. Pasture management;
4. Quality supplemental feed to complement pasture nutrition
Today’s Grazing Systems
While dairy farmers grazed cows generations ago, as technology advanced, it was found to be more
advantageous, from a milk production standpoint, to bring cows to the barn and feed them under
more controlled conditions. However, as economics have changed over the last few decades, some
dairy farmers have revisited the use of lower-cost pasture as a main forage source.

Grazing management today is not the same as grazing management several generations ago. In the
past, dairy cows were grazed in an uncontrolled or ‘continuous’ pasture system for a long period of
time.

Because the cows have access to the entire pasture all the time, they are able to select (diet selection)
their favorite forage species and ignore the others. This will result in cows overgrazing (overgrazing)
desirable species and will decrease forage yield (decreased forage yield). In addition, due to stressing
the forage plants due to overgrazing, this will provide an opportunity for weeds (weeds) to move in. As
a result of this management, one can expect lower milk (decreased milk yield) and forage production
(decreased forage production). Additionally, nutrient deposition (nutrient deposition) will be uneven as
cows deposit greater amounts of manure in favorite hangouts such as under shade trees or near water
tanks.

Unlike continuous grazing, rotational grazing involves dividing large pastures with fencing to graze
smaller pastures more intensively for shorter periods of time (usually ½ to 1 day), then moving cows to
another pasture to allow the pasture forages to rest, regrow and regenerate energy stores to improve
pasture productivity and longevity and decrease weed issues due to improved forage vigor.

This system has greater capital investment than continuous grazing (mostly in fencing and watering
systems), requires a bit more labor (to do daily moves to new pasture) but still less investment than a
confinement system. Since the cows are limited to a smaller pasture area, competition for forages is
greater and opportunity for diet selection is lower, which will improve forage use. Forage quality is
typically higher since forages are grazed at optimum maturity. If forages get too mature to graze, they
can be harvested as silage or hay, unlike a continuously grazed pasture where harvesting would not be
an option. The farm manager is able to control the forage height at which the cows are removed,
One of the advantages of feeding cows in confinement is the ability to control the cow’s diet, resulting
in greater milk production. Feed is provided in the feed bunk and cows have a limited ability to pick
and choose, especially if a total mixed ration is fed. In addition, herds in confinement are often larger as
they are not restricted by the amount of pasture within walking distance of the barn/milking parlor the
way grazing herds can be limited. However, confinement herds require greater amounts of fuel, labor,
and time, greater manure storage, hauling, and spreading capabilities, and the potential for greater soil
erosion in croplands due to tillage or lack of full coverage of the soil surface throughout the year.

The type of feeding management used in dairy herds will depend greatly on resources, skills,
business plans, milk markets and desires of the owner. Some dairy producers have been grazing
cows for decades, while others become frustrated when pasture does not produce quality forage
due to poor pasture management. Grazing is one option that has helped some smaller family farms
stay in business through decreased costs (i.e. feed inputs) and/or increased income (i.e. grassfed
labels or organic milkmarket).

Pasture Management
Now that we’ve discussed the basic types of grazing systems, understanding that there are many
variations within each, let’s now briefly discuss pasture management. We mentioned previously that
we want to manage forages by quickly harvesting the forage, not overgraze the pastures (allow
sufficient forage cover), then resting the plants to allow them to regrow. But why is this beneficial?

Most forage plants store energy in either the bottom few inches of the forage, and/or in the roots. This
will vary by species, so check with local agronomy experts for information on local forages. If the plant
is grazed too closely to the ground, this energy ‘storage bank’ is removed. In addition, too many leaves
are removed, which serve as solar panels to capture the sun’s energy to grow. This stresses the plant,
forcing it to draw energy from the root reserves to regrow. Repeated overgrazing will stunt plant growth,
decrease root mass, and weaken the plants, sometimes to the point of death. When stunted, these plants
do not regrow as quickly, resulting in decreased forage production and number of animals that the
pasture can support. This will increase the need for either additional pasture acreage, or supplemental
feeding, to meet the nutrient needs of the herd.
While it is easy to see what happens above ground, what we don’t see is what is happening beneath the
soil’s surface. When forage plants are overgrazed, the root mass and root depth decrease. This decreases
the soil’s ability to absorb water as well as decreases the plant’s ability to take up water and nutrients
from the soil, particularly during periods of drought.

To illustrate this concept, the plant on the left was allowed to grow for 3 months without clipping. It has
a very healthy root system. The plant in the middle was clipped to 7. 5 cm (or 3”) every 3 weeks for 3
months. It also has a healthy root system, although not quite as dense as the first plant. The plant on the
right was clipped to 2.5 cm (1”) every week for 3 months. This plant has a very weak and shallow root
system and may not survive a drought.

Clearly, management of a profitable grazing system requires different management skills when
compared to confinement systems. There is an ‘art’ as well as a ‘science’ to managing a grazing dairy
herd that can only be gained with knowledge and experience. Keeping the pasture ‘feed bunk’ full of
nutritious feed is one of the most important aspects of grazing nutrition. In the next chapter, we will
discuss nutrition in dairy grazing systems.

Dairy Nutrition in Grazing Systems

While grazing cows is a low-cost resource for feeding dairy cows, intensive grazing systems present
challenges to nutritionists and farmers. The forage quality of pastures is usually higher than the same
forage harvested as silage or dry hay due to maturity level at harvest. Seasonal variation, species
composition such as legumes mixed with grass species, fertilization management and grazing
preferences by animals make supplemental feeding with pasture-based systems more difficult than
with confinement systems where forage quality is known.

High Quality Pasture/Nutrient Imbalances

High quality pastures are key to optimal milk production in grazing dairy herds. However, there are
many questions regarding what defines a high-quality pasture and how we can develop and maintain
high-quality forages in sufficient quantities to meet the dry matter and nutrient needs of lactating dairy
cows.

High quality pasture has many positive attributes for lactating dairy cows, but it also has some nutritional
imbalances and deficiencies. Total protein is usually high and frequently exceeds crude protein needs of
the lactating cow, especially if nitrogen fertilization or legumes are part of the pasture management. This
protein is highly degradable in the rumen.

This rumen degradable protein, or RDP, is rapidly broken down by the rumen microbes into ammonia.
Ideally, this ammonia is recaptured into more microbial protein to maintain rumen function and provide
protein to the animal further down the digestive tract. However, if energy is lacking in the diet, which
can be the case with pasture-based diets, this ammonia cannot be re-captured into microbial protein.
Rather, it is converted to urea, a less toxic form, and excreted in urine and milk. Not only is this a
potential environmental issue with additional nitrogen excreted in urine and can have negative effects
on cow productivity through elevated milk urea nitrogen, or MUN, levels, but the conversion of
ammonia to urea requires energy that otherwise could have been used to produce additional milk. For
high-producing cows (producing greater than 70 lb. or 32 kg of milk per day) on pasture, rumen
undegradable, or bypass, protein (RUP) may be inadequate, and a supplemental source of rumen
undegradable protein may be necessary to maintain optimal milk production. The fiber content of high
quality pasture may be too low, particularly in the spring and fall, to stimulate

adequate cud chewing and rumination. This may result in reduced milk fat content and metabolic
issues such as acidosis. Some grazing dairies will allow some pastures to get a bit more mature to
increase the fiber content of the diet. However, this will also result in reduced protein and energy of
the pasture forage, so supplemental feeding may be needed to meet those nutrient needs. Other farms
will supplement with hay or baleage to provide long fiber.

The amount of several minerals including calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sulfur, zinc and salt are
usually inadequate in pasture. In general, these minerals should be added to the supplemental feeding
program or to a free-choice trace mineral mix. Potassium and phosphorus may be too high in some
regions relative to nutrient needs, particularly in areas that have historically had heavy manure
application. High potassium diets can result in milk fever (hypocalcemia) while high phosphorus is an
environmental concern as it is excreted in the manure and can get into the water supply. Vitamins A and
E are high in fresh pasture forages, and vitamin supplementation is often not needed during the grazing
season, but may be necessary during the non-grazing season when conserved forages are fed.

In addition to the high protein content, the other notable nutrient imbalance is the relatively low
fermentable carbohydrate content, the major source of energy for both the rumen microbes and the
cow, in most pastures compared to the needs of the cow. Therefore, strategic supplementation with
grain or other energy sources may be desirable to maintain milk production, milk components and
animal health.

Supplementation Strategies for Grazing Herds

Research at Penn State University has shown that high-quality pastures in the northeastern United States
can support 18-23 kg (40-50 lb.) of milk production. However, this was a short-term study that did not
account for long-term effects on body condition or reproduction. In addition, many grazing farms target
higher levels of milk production, or need supplemental feeds to fill in gaps in forage production, such as
summer slumps or poor quality forage. Therefore, strategic supplementation of grazing dairy cows is
often needed to maintain animal productivity and farm milk production goals. The most common
supplementation strategies are grains for energy, effective fiber from forages or high-
fiber feed ingredients, and minerals that are deficient in pastures. In addition, some very high-
producing herds may supplement with fat or a rumen bypass protein source to improve milk
production and components.

However, before we discuss supplementation, the first step in a successful grazing system is to provide
adequate quantities of high-quality pasture, which is the cheapest feed source available. If pasture
availability is limited, cows cannot maintain adequate dry matter intake. In addition, they will spend
more time walking around searching for more to eat. The energy spent walking could have been used to
produce more milk. Therefore, we want to make sure the cow gets the most high-quality forage as
possible in every bite taken. When deciding how much pasture area to give cows, the farmer must
consider the following options:

1. (Time on pasture) How much time will the cows spend in this pasture- will she be out 1/2 day, 1
day, or longer on the same pasture?
2. (# of cows and area) How many cows are on the pasture- how big is the pasture?
3. Estimated dry matter intake of group (minus intake from supplemental feeds)
4. (Forage availability) How much forage is available
5. (Forage utilization) How much will cows actually consume vs. what they will waste/leave behind

This last point is important. Cows will not eat every single bite of grass available in a pasture. Some
forage will be wasted due to rejection, manure/urine spots, and preference for other plants. It is
important to allocate more pasture than is expected to be consumed, probably 50-100% over and
above expected requirements, for cows to maintain dry matter intake, select the highest quality
forages, avoid manure and urine patches, and allow enough forage residual to maintain plant
regrowth.

Even with sufficient quantities high-quality pasture, the nutrient needs of lactating cows are often not
met, especially energy. Therefore, strategic supplementation is a crucial part of dairy nutrition in most
grazing herds. Any type of supplement will reduce the cows’ intake on pasture. If forage is
supplemented, you can expect an approximate 1:1 substitution rate – that is, for every lb./kg of
supplemental forage fed, on a dry matter basis, you can expect pasture intake to decrease by 1 lb./kg of
dry matter. This results in no change in total dry matter intake.
One lb./kg of concentrate or grain, on a dry matter basis, will reduce pasture intake by only ½ lb./kg
dry matter. Supplementing with grain or concentrate will not only result in greater TOTAL dry matter
intake due to a lower substitution rate, but greater nutrient intake, especially energy, due to the
increased nutrient density of grains. Substitution rates for by-product feeds may vary, depending on
source and nutrient content.

Another factor that can influence pasture intake and grazing behavior is when supplemental feed is fed
in relation to the grazing period. Some farms will feed supplemental feed in the milking parlor or
immediately after milking. The cows are then turned out on pasture. Other farms will turn cows out on
pasture after milking, and feed supplemental feed later in the day. When cows are fed supplements prior
to grazing, appetite will be reduced when turned out on pasture. And just like humans, when they are
less hungry, cows get pickier about what they eat. They may only nibble on the tips of forage plants, or
select certain species of plants, which results in decreased pasture intake and utilization.
When cows are turned out hungry with no supplemental feed prior to grazing, appetite is high, grazing
is more aggressive, and cows will be less selective about what plants and plant parts they eat, thereby
increasing pasture intake and utilization. Grazing dairy farmers can use this behavior to meet their farm
goals, whether it is to maximize pasture intake, or stretch pasture resources with supplemental feed.

Due to grain prices and availability, farm philosophy, and milk markets, some grazing dairies have gone
no- grain, feeding only forages to their cows in the form of pasture or conserved forages, but not corn
silage. While this can be successfully done, it does take a higher level of management and adaptation to
go to no- grain rations. High forage quality is a must at all times, as there is no grain to ‘fall back’ on if
forages are not of sufficient quality. Cows must be adapted to a no-grain diet as well. It is not advisable
to put cows with high milk production potential on a no-grain diet - they will continue to try to produce
high quantities of milk at the expense of their body condition and health, and eventually fall out of the
system. Cows should be of moderate body frame, moderate milk production with enough body capacity
to process high- forage diets. Farmers must also make adjustments. Milk production will likely drop,
but must be maintained at profitable levels. There are some premium markets for grass-fed milk, but at
this time they are limited in the US. Farmers must keep a close eye on pasture quality and availability,
and often be thinking weeks or months ahead to assure there is
 adequate pasture available as well as have a backup plan in place in the event of adverse
weather conditions such as drought or flooding.

Management of a profitable grazing system requires higher and different management skills
compared with confinement systems. Successful graziers acquire these skills with experience,
education and mentorship from other graziers. Keeping adequate amounts of high-quality
pasture is one of the most important aspects of nutritional management of grazing dairy herds.
Thank you for joining us for the grazing management section. More information will be
provided in the lesson resources on the MOOC website.

Discussion Forums and Assessment

Discussion Forums
Discussion Forums provide opportunities for students to engage with course materials and with
other learners. Research shows that students completing MOOCs are significantly more active in
the forums, so engagement matters. We encourage you to browse through the course and find the
forum that fits your needs. Our forums are optional. If you want to ask a question, want to report
an issue, or you just want to share your thoughts and further discuss a topic with fellow students,
do not hesitate to post.

This course offers the following Forums:

1. Technical Issue Forum - here students can report technical/download issues or issues with
course materials.
2. Module Forums - here students can post their thoughts on the topics discussed in each
Module, ask questions, and discuss module materials with other learners.
3. Study Groups Forum - here students can form smaller study groups.
4. Meet & Greet - here students go to introduce themselves.

Assessment
All weeks include a multiple-choice questions quiz. Learners that successfully complete the
course, and either purchase the certificate track or apply for financial aid, are eligible to earn a
Course Certificate. The certificate track can be purchased for $49. To be eligible for the
Certificate, learners have to score 75% and above on the weekly quizzes.
Week 2 Forum - Detailed Instructions
The Module Forum for Week 2 is called Forage Production and Pasture Management. Use
this forum to discuss topics, ask questions or dive deeper into the materials covered this week.

There are two ways to post in this forum:

1. You can start a new thread by navigating to this forum from the home page. Click on
Discussions from the main navigation block on the left and click on the Forage Production and
Pasture Management link under Module forums. Click on New thread, and Create a new
thread window will open. Enter the title of your post. In the body area, write your message.
Click Post.

2. You can start a new thread under each of the five video lectures for this week. Create and post
your thread by following the steps in 1 above.

To reply to an already existing discussion thread, you need to open the existing post, click on
Reply to…, and type your reply in the text window with your profile picture on the left. Click on
Reply to post.