The Final Master Report

ACTIVE POWER SWING SIMULATION FOR RELAY SETTINGS
VERIFICATION
Master thesis in electrical system engineering
by
TA TUAN ANH
Siemens AG, Erlangen

February, 2009.
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VERIFICATION
Master thesis in electrical system engineering

Institut für Elektrische Anlagen und Energiewirtschaft
RWTH Aachen University
by
TA TUAN ANH
Supervisor: Mohammad Reza Ganjavi, Siemens AG, Germany

Examiner: Hans-Jürgen Haubrich, RWTH Aachen University, Germany
Erlangen, February, 2009.
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Acknowledgements
I want to give my appreciation to my supervisor, Dr. Mohammed Reza
Ganjavi, for his valuable help in getting me started on this project, his constant
generosity in providing the necessary tools to do the work and his clear
explanations for my questions.
I would like to thank my colleague and my friend, Msc. Trinh Ngoc
Tuan, who helped me not only at the first hard steps on this project, but also
supported me much for my beginning in a new city.
Special thanks to my all family, who always be by my side.
“Chân lý thuộc về mọi người không chịu sống đời nhỏ nhoi”
Erlangen, Germany, 2009.
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Abstract

VERIFICATION
Depending on power network conditions and feeding generators, dynamic

occurrences such as load jumps, short-circuits, auto-reclosure or switching
actions, may cause system swings. Such power swings endanger power
network stability. Stability problems often result from active power swings
which can lead to pole-slipping and generator overloading.
The conventional reduced model to study the power swings especially for
protection purposes is a two machine model. This model considers the power
system and/or generator by a steady state Thevenin network and the
equivalent network impedances. Furthermore the conventional model is used
to simulate power swing effects in a quasi steady state network.
Generator Grid
Conventional Equivalent Model of a Power Swing
The goal of the thesis is to develop models for PSS®NETOMAC software to

verify out-of-step protection settings used in generator protection relays. A
real physical model, described by additional mechanical quantities, will be
used.
The verification process should be as follows:
1- Model will be limited to a 3 machine model with an automatic variation

of short-circuit location and short-circuit clearing time.
2- With above results, the area of stability/instability will be shown in a
plane with two axes: the short-circuit impedance and the fault clearing
time.
3- The power swing impedance characteristics observed by distance
relays will be shown and analyzed in a reactance-resistance-plane in
SIGRA software.
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Der Abriss
SIMULATION VON GENERATORPENDELUNGEN ZUR

VERIFIKATION VON RELAIS SETTINGS
Dynamische Störeinflüsse wie Lastsprünge, Kurzschlüsse, automatische
Wiedereinschaltung oder Schalthandlungen können in Netzen der
elektrischen Energieversorgung Netzpendelungen hervorrufen, welche
abhängig sind vom Schaltzustand des Netzes und den einspeisenden
Generatoren. Pendelungen in Leistung und Frequenz eines Netzes gefährden
die Stabilität der Übertragung. Stabilitätsprobleme entstehen meist durch das
„Außer Tritt Fallen“ oder Überlasten von Generatoren.
Der Einfluss von Pendelungen auf Schutzsysteme wird mit einem

konventionellen reduzierten Netzmodell bestehend aus 2 Maschinen
untersucht. Dieses Modell beschreibt das Netz und/oder die Generatoren im
stationären Zustand nach Thevenin durch die äquivalenten Netzimpedanzen.
Weiterhin wird das konventionelle Modell benutzt, um Auswirkungen der
Pendelschwingungen auf ein quasi stationäres Netz zu simulieren.
Generator Grid
Conventional Equivalent Model of a Power Swing
Das Ziel der Masterarbeit besteht darin, Netzmodelle für PSS NETOMAC zu
entwickeln, mit denen Out-of-step Protection Settings für den Generatorschutz
verifiziert werden können. Dabei soll ein realistisches physikalisches Modell,
welches durch zusätzliche mechanische Gleichungen beschrieben wird,
benutzt werden.
Der Verifikationsprozess gliedert sich in folgende Schritte:
1- Automatische Berechnung des Fehlerortes und der maximalen

Kurzschlussdauer mit einem 3 Maschinen Modell
2- Mit den so gewonnenen Ergebnissen soll das Gebiet der
Stabilität/Instabilität 2-dimensional dargestellt werden. Axen:
Kurzschlussimpedanz und maximale Kurzschlussdauer
3- Die Pendeltrajektorien sollen mit der Software SIGRA im R/X –
Diagramm dargestellt und analysiert werden
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Table of content
I. Introduction..............................................................................................................1
1. Background ..........................................................................................................1
2. Aim of Thesis.......................................................................................................1
3. Thesis organization ..............................................................................................2
II. Power swing in power systems ................................................................................3
1. Introduction to power system stability.................................................................3
i. Growth in power demand.................................................................................3
ii. The requirement of good quality for electricity service...................................3
iii. Stability concept...............................................................................................5
iv. Stability definitions........................................................................................10
v. Stability definition for this study ...................................................................12
2. Transient process following after a disturbance and power swings ..................14
i. Power angle and power swing equation.........................................................14
ii. Transient stability equal area criterion...........................................................19
iii. Loss of synchronism ......................................................................................24
III. Investigated network topologies, equipment models and simulation method .......25
1. Network topologies............................................................................................25
i. Single machine with infinite bus....................................................................25
ii. Two machines with infinite bus.....................................................................27
iii. Extended topology for further investigation ..................................................28
2. Power system modeling .....................................................................................29
i. Modeling of synchronous machines ..............................................................29
ii. Modeling of excitation system.......................................................................32
iii. Modeling of governor ....................................................................................34
iv. Modeling of 3 phase-2 winding transformer .................................................35
v. Modeling of infinite bus or fix frequency source ..........................................36
vi. Modeling of transmission line .......................................................................38
vii. Modeling of circuit breaker ...........................................................................39
3. Stability analysis with PSS®NETOMAC .........................................................41
i. Simulation method to draw stability curve ....................................................41
ii. Demonstration of the simulated results in stability curve and X/R plane......44
IV. Simulation results...................................................................................................46
1. Purposes, conditions, and configurations of simulations...................................46
2. Critical clearing time curve simulation..............................................................48
i. Identifying critical clearing time....................................................................48
ii. “second swing” instability .............................................................................50
iii. Test system 1: one generator with unit transformer; transient simulation.....51
iv. Test system 2: one generator without unit transformer; transient simulation 62
v. Test system 3 and 4: two generators with/without unit transformer; transient
simulation.............................................................................................................65
vi. Summary ........................................................................................................65
3. Power swing impedance characteristic analysis ................................................67
i. Power swing considerations...........................................................................67
ii. Definition .......................................................................................................67
iii. Out-of Step condition.....................................................................................67
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iv. Power swing impedance characteristic analysis ............................................70
v. Summary of results ........................................................................................76
V. Conclusion .............................................................................................................78
1. Final conclusion .................................................................................................78
2. Further development ..........................................................................................79
Reference .....................................................................................................................80
Appendix A. Data for the test systems .................................................................... a
Appendix B. Simulation results............................................................................... e
Critical clearing time curve simulation...................................................................... e
Test system 3: two generators with unit transformers; transient simulation ......... e
Test system 4: two generators without unit transformers; transient simulation .....f
Power swing impedance characteristic ......................................................................h
Appendix C. Simulation program introduction........................................................j
Introduction to PSS®NETOMAC ..............................................................................j
Introduction to SIGRA 4............................................................................................k
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I. Introduction Ta Tuan Anh
I. Introduction
1. Background
The stability of power systems against short-circuit disturbance is essential

for power utilities which deliver electrical power to important industrial,
commercial, and residential consumers through large number of generating
units and highly interconnected transmission grids. After inception of a short
circuit, it should be cleared fast to minimize equipment damages and to avoid
violating the generators transient stability limits. Delayed cleared faults
threaten generators stability.
In addition, after a fault is cleared, it follows by a series of dynamics in
power system. These dynamics cover the oscillations between mechanical
and electrical systems, reclosure of transmission lines and changes of the
system load flow operating point. Such dynamics again can endanger
generator stability limits. They can also lead to wrong operation of
line/generator distance protection relays and generator Out-of-Step
protection relays.
The stability of the electrical power system is studied in many literatures in
[1, 2, 3, 4, 22]. They describe the general phenomenon of system stability,
the behavior of system dynamic and they give some basic definitions and
classifications for system stability. The stability of power system depends on
the fault clearing time [23, 24, 25] and consequent power swings. The power
swing studies [10, 17, 25, 26, 27] give us deeper knowledge on the power
swing phenomenon, which normally occurs following the fault clearance.
2. Aim of Thesis
The critical clearing time can be considered as an stability index of the

power system under study. It depends on the fault type, location, clearing
time, generator controllers, power system topology, and reclosing time of
transmission line. This work defines some test systems (see Appendix A).
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I. Introduction Ta Tuan Anh
the critical clearing time will be found for various fault location and type
automatically.
In addition, a transient simulation will be carried out with a given fault and
given clearing time. The results are plotted in distance/Out-of-Step relay
characteristic (reactance/resistance plane) with given settings. This helps us
to decide that a relay will not trip unnecessary during a post-fault swing.
Test systems are modeled in PSS®NETOMAC software. The simulation
results are exported to relay characteristic in SIGRA 4 software.
3. Thesis organization
Chapter II contains definitions of stability used in literature and this study.

This Chapter also describes the transient process when there is a
disturbance on power system.
In Chapter III, the study test systems are presented. The modeling of their
power system components are explained in detail.
The results of investigated case are given in Chapter IV. The critical
clearing time curves are extracted and plotted. The power swing locus in
case of stable and unstable swings are drawn in SIGRA 4 are shown in this
Chapter. This chapter covers analysis, explanations and comments on the
results.
The review, conclusions and further works are presented in Chapter V.
It follows by three appendices. Appendix A provides the detail data of test
systems which are investigated. Appendix B is additional simulated results
for investigated cases. Finally, Appendix C shortly introduces the two
software which are used in this study, PSS®NETOMAC and SIGRA 4.
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II. Power swing in power systems Ta Tuan Anh
II. Power swing in power systems

1. Introduction to power system stability
i. Growth in power demand
Since the event of the industrial revolution, the worldwide energy

consumption has been growing steadily. If the consumption of fossil fuels in
1890 roughly equaled the amount of biomass fuels burned by households
and industry, and in 1900, global energy consumption equaled only 0.7 TWh,
in 2005, total worldwide energy consumption was 138,900 TWh. In the years
from 1980 to 2004, the world wide energy consumption annual growth rate
was approximately 2%. With recent development speed of the world’s
economy and society, the demand of energy is increasing continuously and
unstoppable.
Due to the development of electrical consumption, the power networks are
developed more and creating larger systems. In order to meet the electrical
energy demand, the power networks need to be expanded to transmit the
required energy to end users. Nowadays, the electrical networks are
developed into very complex systems with different voltage levels, many
power instruments and protective devices to fulfill consumers demand.
Accompanies with the expansion of electrical networks, and for having
reliable networks, issues regarding to the network stability and protection
should be studied carefully.
ii. The requirement of good quality for electricity service
At the present, the consumers ask for not only the increasing of quantity of
electricity, but also the improvement in quality of the service. Nowadays,
there are a lot of modern electronic instruments, which are sensitive to power
disturbances. They require high quality electrical supply to serve right
performance. The quality of electrical power supply becomes one of the most
important sectors of the service.
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Normally, the quality of the service is defined by the quality of supplied

power voltage and frequency, the period of disturbances and interruptions.
The power system designers and operators should maintain the quality of
their service.
This can be achieved when we have reliable generation, reliable
interconnection, and good protection concept with appropriate protection
setting. The synchronous machines are running in parallel to the network
with synchronous speed. They should not easily fall out of step when
disturbances occur on system. Maintaining synchronism between various
parts of power system becomes increasingly difficult, due to the fact that the
system and interconnections between systems continuously grow.
The first requirement of reliable service is to keep the synchronous
generators running in parallel to the network and with adequate capacity to
meet the load demand. If at any time a generator loses synchronism with the
rest of the system, significant voltage and current fluctuations may occur and
transmission lines may be tripped by protection relays at undesired locations.
If a generator is separated from the system, it must be re-synchronized and
then loaded, assuming it has not been damaged and its prime mover has not
been shut down due to the disturbance that caused the loss of synchronism.
Synchronous machines should not easily fall out of step under normal
conditions. If a machine tends to speed up or slow down, the synchronizing
torques and controls of generator and prime mover tend to keep it in step.
However, there are conditions in which the synchronizing torques and
controls for one or more machines may not be adequate. A disturbance in
the system may cause some machines to lose synchronism. This may also
lead to a loss of synchronism for one or more machines in the system.
A second requirement of reliable electrical service is to maintain the
integrity of the power network. The high-voltage transmission system
connects the generating stations and the load centers. Interruptions in some
parts of this network may reduce the flow of power to the load. As almost all
power systems are interconnected with neighboring systems, emergency
power flow over interconnecting tie lines may help maintaining continuity of
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service. Therefore, successful operation of the system means that major

transmission lines must remain in service so that electrical power can be
exchanged between the areas of the system.
While it is frequently common to talk about the power system in the
"steady state," such a state never exists in the true sense. Random changes
in load are taking place at all times, with subsequent adjustments of
generation. Furthermore, major changes take place at times, e.g., a fault on
the network, due to a failure in equipment, sudden disconnection of a major
load, or loss of a line or generating unit. We may look at any of these as a
change from one equilibrium state to another. It might be appropriate to say
that successful operation requires only that the new state be a "stable" state.
For example, if a generator is lost, the remaining connected generators must
be capable of meeting the load demand; or if a line is lost, the power it was
carrying must be obtainable from another source.
Unfortunately, this view is erroneous in one important aspect: it neglects
the dynamics of the transition from one equilibrium state to another.
Synchronism frequently may be lost in that transition period, or growing
oscillations may occur over a transmission line, eventually leading to its
tripping. These problems must be studied in "power system stability" studies.
iii. Stability concept
Power system stability maybe defined as that property of the system which
enables the synchronous machines of the system to response to a
disturbance from a normal operating condition and then return to a condition
where their operation is again normal. Power system stability is divided into 3
types, depending on course and magnitude of the disturbance. They are
transient, dynamic and steady state stabilities [1], or Short term, Mid-term
and Long-term stabilities [2].
Transient stability is a concept about the ability of power system to remain
in synchronous performance after a major disturbance, such as transmission
system fault, sudden load changes, loss of generating units, or line
switching, happens on network. Traditional network model of this stability
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concept studies with consideration of the dynamic problems is two machines

(or one machine and infinite bus). A practical model may consist of hundreds
of machines and other equipments which are interconnected and can
dynamically interact through the transmission lines. Machines are combined
with excitation systems and turbine governing control systems which in some
but not all cases, must be modeled in order to properly reflect the correct
dynamic response of the power system to certain system disturbance.
Dynamic and steady state stabilities are less widely studied than the
transient stability because they take into consider the machines under
condition of slow or gradual changes in operating condition. Therefore,
dynamic and steady state stability studies concern the stability of the locus of
essentially steady state operating point of the system. The distinction
between steady state and dynamic stability studies is minor. They differ only
in the way which is used to model the machines. In dynamic stability studies,
the excitation systems and turbine governing systems are represented along
with synchronous machine models which provide for flux linkage variation in
the air gap. Steady state stability problems use a very simple generator
model which treats the generator as a constant voltage source. The solution
technique of steady state and dynamic stability problems is to examine the
stability of the system under increasing of variation around the equilibrium
point to determine whether the machine(s) will remain in synchronism
following small changes from the operating point.
In all stability studies, the objective is to determine whether or not the
rotors of the machines being oscillated return to synchronous speed.
Obviously it means that the rotor speeds must depart at least temporarily
from synchronous speed. To have easier solutions for computation, three
fundamental assumptions are made in all stability studies [1]:
1. Only currents and voltages with system synchronous frequency
are considered in the machine stator windings and the power
system. Consequently, dc offset currents and harmonics
components are neglected.
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2. Symmetrical components are used in the representation of

unbalanced faults.
3. Generated voltage is considered unaffected by machine speed
variations.
Power system stability is a single problem; however instability in a power
system may be caused by many different reasons depending on the system
configuration and operating mode. Traditionally, the stability problem is
maintaining synchronous operation. Since power systems rely on
synchronous machines for generation of electrical power, a necessary
condition for satisfactory system operation is that all synchronous machines
remain in synchronism or “in step”. This aspect of stability is influenced by
the dynamics of generator rotor angles and power angle relationships. Other
kinds of stability concept in case of disturbance occurring on power system
are voltage stability and frequency stability. They are also two aspects to
determine the quality of electrical networks and they are used in power
system stability studies as well.
The classification of power system stability proposed here is based on the
following considerations [3]:
• The physical nature of the resulting mode of instability as indicated
by the main system variable in which instability can be observed.
• The size of the disturbance considered which influences the method
of calculation and prediction of stability.
• The devices, processes, and the time span that must be taken into
consideration in order to assess stability.
Rotor angle stability is the ability of interconnected synchronous machines
of a power system to remain in synchronism after a disturbance occurs on
system. Instability that may result occurs in the form of increasing angular
swings of some generators leading to their loss of synchronism with other
generators. The stability problem involves the study of the electromechanical
oscillations processing on power systems. The fundamental factor in this
problem is the manner in which the power outputs of synchronous machines
vary as their rotors oscillate.
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Voltage stability is the ability of a power system to maintain steady

acceptable voltages at all buses in the system under normal operating
conditions and after a disturbance occurs on system. A system enters a state
of voltage instability when a disturbance e.g. increases in load demand, or
change in system condition causes an oscillation and uncontrollable drop in
voltage. The main factor causing instability is the inability of the power
system to meet the demand for reactive power. A possible out come of
voltage instability is loss of load in an area, or tripping of transmission lines
and other elements by their protective systems leading to cascading
outages. Progressive drop in bus voltages can also be associated with rotor
angle instability.
Frequency stability refers to the ability of a power system to maintain
steady frequency following a disturbance occurring on system resulting in a
significant imbalance between generation and load. It depends on the ability
to restore and maintain the balance between system generation and load,
with minimum unwanted loss of load. Instability that may result occurs in the
form of sustained frequency swings leading to tripping of generating units
and loads.
Figure II.1 gives the overall picture of the power system stability problem,
identifying its classes and subclasses as were described in the previous
section. As a practical necessity, the classification has been based on a
number of different considerations, making it more difficult to select a clearly
distinct categories and to provide an exactly definitions for practical use in
power system stability studies.
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Power
System
Stability
- Ability to remain in an operating equilibrium

- Ability to return to a new operating
equilibrium after a distrbance
Rotor Frequency Voltage

Angle Stability Stability
Stability
- Ability to remain - Ability to remain - Ability to maintain

in operating in normal steady acceptable
synchronism frequency voltage
Small Transient Large Small

signal Stability Disturbance Disturbance
Stability Stability Stability
- Sufficient - Large - Large - Steady-state P/Q

synchronizing disturbance disturbance – V relation
torque - First swing - Switching events - Stability margin,
- Sufficient aperiodic drift Q reserve
damping torque
Short-Term Short-Term Mid &

Stability Stability Long-Term
Stability
Short-Term Mid &

Stability Long-Term
Stability
- Large
- Fast and slow
disturbance
dynamics
- Study period up
- Study period from
to 10 s
several min. up to
Figure II.1 Classification of power system stability
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iv. Stability definitions
In previous sections, the concept of power system stability has been

introduced. In this section, we review some basic definitions of stability, and
then we propose a simple nonmathematical definition of the term that will be
suitable for problems studied in this work. Later, we will provide some more
mathematical definition relating to electrical and mechanical torque, and rotor
angle in synchronous machines.
The concept of stability is one of the most fundamental concepts in most
engineering disciplines. Due to the serious impact that instabilities might
cause in dynamical systems, numerous definitions of stability have been
proposed, emphasizing its various aspects that reflect the condition of the
system’s stable state. It is known that over 28 definitions of stability were
introduced for technical and physical reasons in the systems theory. Some of
the definitions might be quite useful in one situation, but inadequate in many
others.
At first, we have to talk about Lyapunov’s method [4]. Lyapunov’s method
as we know it in control literature today is the first proposed solution to the
power system stability problem by Gless [5] and El-Abiad and Nagappan [6].
The statement of the problem proposed in [4] is as follows
The intuitive idea of stability of a physical system is as follows: Let the
system be in some equilibrium state. If on the occurrence of a disturbance,
the system eventually returns to the equilibrium position, we say the system
is stable. The system is also termed stable if it converges to another
equilibrium position generally in the proximity of the initial equilibrium point. If
the state of the system “run away” so that certain physical variables go on
increasing as t→ ∞ , then we say the system is unstable.
There are definitions of stability, asymptotic stability, and asymptotic
stability in large, absolute stability detail described in [4].
We can list here some other classical definition examples for power
system stability, such as definition from E.Kimbark [7]
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Power system stability is a term applied to alternating-current electric

power systems, denoting a condition in which the various synchronous
machines of the system remain in synchronism, or” instep” with each other.
While this definition is valid and satisfactorily conforms to the system-
theoretic definitions presented above, a more specific and detail definition of
power system stability was proposed in [3]:
Power system stability is the ability of an electric power system, for a given
initial operating condition, to regain a state of operating equilibrium after
being subjected to a physical disturbance, with most system variables
bounded so that practically the entire system remains intact.
This new definition allows a more subtle distinction between various
instability scenarios based on the characteristics of the physical disturbance.
To facilitate the understanding of the various aspects of voltage instability
mechanisms, the general and broad concept of “voltage stability” is
subdivided into two subcategories, namely Small and Large Disturbance
Voltage Stability. These two concepts are defined as follows [3, 8].
A power system is said to be small-disturbance voltage stable if it is able to
maintain voltages identical or close to the steady values when subjected to
small perturbations.
A power system is said to be large-disturbance voltage stable if it is able to
maintain voltages identical or close to the steady values when subjected to
large perturbations.
Thus, a voltage stable power system is capable of maintaining the post-
fault voltages near the pre-fault values. If a power system is unable to
maintain the voltage within acceptable limits, the system will go to voltage
collapse.
Regarding to transient stability, we also have specific definition.
Adjustment to the new operating condition is called the transient period. The
system behavior during this time is called the dynamic system performance,
which is of concern in defining system stability. The main criterion for stability
is that the synchronous machines maintain synchronism at the end of the
transient period.
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If the oscillatory response of a power system during the transient period

following a disturbance is damped and the system settles in a finite time to a
new steady operating condition, we say the system is stable. If the system is
not stable, it is considered unstable. [9]
As was mentioned before, there are many different definitions of power
system stability. Each one is suitable for specific state condition. It is difficult
to find a definition to be the best definition for all power system stability
studies.
v. Stability definition for this study
Transient stability studies are the major analytical approach to the study of
power system electromechanical dynamic behavior. Transient stability
studies are aimed at determining if the system will remain in synchronism
following a major disturbance. Transient stability studies are much more
commonly undertaken thereby reflecting their greater importance in practice.
Because of this reason, in this study, we will consider the behavior of system
in aspect of transient stability.
Transient stability problems can be divided into two sub problems which
are first-swing and multi-swing stability problems. First-swing problem is
based on a reasonably simple generator model without representation of
control systems. Usually the time period under study is the period during the
first swing of signal after a disturbance occurs. If the machines of the system
are found to remain in synchronism within the first swing, the system is said
to be stable. Multi-swing stability problems extend over a longer study period
and therefore must consider effects of generator control systems which affect
machine performance during the extended time period. Machine models of
greater sophistication must be represented to reflect proper behavior.
The main task of this study is to develop models for PSSTMNETOMAC
software to verify out-of-step protection settings used in generator protection
relays. Because the operation times of protective devices are very short,
from ms up to seconds, in this study, we consider only the first-swing stability
problems with simple models of system. There are several methods to find
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the first swing duration introduced in [1] and [10]. In this study, we use the
method of William D. Stevenson [1]. According to this definition of first-swing
stability, investigated time that we use in this study is about one second after
the occurrence of disturbances.
This study concentrates on behaviors of generators when there is a
disturbance on system. The operating states of generators directly relate to
machine rotor angle. If the system has a fault, the equilibrium point can not
be maintained, resulting in acceleration or deceleration of the rotors of the
machines according to the laws of motion of a rotating body. If one generator
temporarily runs faster than another, the angular position of its rotor relative
to that of the slower machine will increase. The resulting angular difference
will cause the swing in the system until it finds another new equilibrium point.
With this performance of generator, it is the best way that we use rotor angle
stability concept in our study.
Base on above explanations, we can give out a definition of system
stability, which is the best suit for our study, as the following.
Definition: A power system is said to be stable if the oscillatory response
of a power system during the first second transient period following a
disturbance is damped and the generators in system remain in synchronism,
“in step” with the others and/or with system, after period of one second
transient. If the machines’ rotor angles are not kept under limitation (180
degree) in studied time, the system is considered unstable.
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2. Transient process following after a disturbance and

power swings
Transient stability studies are related to the effects of transmission line

faults on generator synchronism. During the fault, the electrical power from
nearby generator is reduced and the power from remote generators or fix
frequency network remains relatively unchanged. The differences in
acceleration produce speed differences over the time interval of the fault and
it is important to clear the fault as quickly as possible. The fault clearing
removes one or more transmission elements and weakens the system. The
change in transmission system leads to change in the generator rotor angle,
which is the object of this study. If the changes are such that the accelerated
machines pick up additional load, and the system reach to a new equilibrium
point, it is said stable. The lost of synchronism will be investigated within one
second after the initial disturbance.
i. Power angle and power swing equation
Rotor angle/ Power angle

A synchronous machine is an ac machine whose speed under steady-
state conditions is proportional to the frequency of the current in its armature.
The rotor, along with the magnetic field created by the dc field current on the
rotor, rotates at the same speed as, or in synchronism with, the rotating
magnetic field produced by the armature currents, and a steady torque
results.
The rotor angle of synchronous generator is defined as the relative angle
δr between rotor mmf and air-gap mmf (angle between Fr and Fsr), both
rotating in synchronous speed. It is also the angle δr between no-load
generated emf E and stator internal voltage Esr as shown in the Figure II.2
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Figure II.2 Synchronous machine rotor angles
In addition the power angle relates directly to power system swing, and
therefore system stability. The power angle δ is the angle between the rotor
emf E and the generator terminal voltage V. If neglecting armature resistance
and leakage flux, δ = δr (Figure II.2)
Base on these angles definition, we investigate the power system
remaining stable or going to instable state.
Synchronous machine operation equations
The most important equations in power system stability analysis are the
rotational inertia equations describing the effect of unbalance between
the electromagnetic torque and the mechanical torque of an individual
machines. In this section, we will develop these equations in per unit form
and define parameters that are used to represent mechanical characteristics
of synchronous machines in stability studies.
- 15 -
The equation describing the motion of the rotor of a synchronous machine

is based on the elementary principle in dynamics which introduces
relationship between the torques acting on the synchronous machine rotor
and its speed.
Consider a synchronous machine running with electromagnetic torque Te
and the mechanical torque Tm at synchronous speed ωsm. The rotation
equation can be written for synchronous machines in the form:
d 2θ m
J = Ta = Tm − Te [N.m] (II.1)
dt 2
Where
J the total moment of inertial of the rotor masses, in kg.m2
θm the angular displacement of the rotor with respect to a stationary
axis, in mechanical radian
t time, in second
Tm the mechanical or shaft torque supplied by the prime mover, in
N.m
Te the net electrical or electromagnetic torque, in N.m
Ta the net accelerating torque, in N.m
The mechanical torque Tm and the electrical torque Te are considered

positive for the synchronous generators. This means that Ta is the total shaft
torque which tends to accelerate the rotor in the positive θm direction of
rotations as shown in Figure II.3.
θm θm
Τe Τe
Τm Τm
II.3.a II.3.b
Figure II.3 Representation of a synchronous machine rotor comparing direction of
rotation; mechanical and electrical torques for a generator (II.3.a) and a motor (II.3.b)
During the normal operation, the mechanical torque is equal with electrical
torque, and the accelerating torque Ta = Tm – Te = 0. In this case, there is no
- 16 -
acceleration or deceleration of the rotor and the constant speed is

synchronous speed. The rotating masses which include the rotor of the
generator and the prime mover are said to be in synchronism with the other
machines operating at synchronous speed in the power system.
In practical operation, the prime mover may be a hydro turbine or a steam
turbine. With which model of prime mover, the effects of the turbines on Tm
are different depending on the level and complexity of the model. In this
study, the Tm is considered to be constant at any given operating condition.
This assumption is still valid if generators are controlled by governor
controllers because governors do not act until after a change in speed is
detected and so are not considered effective during the first swing study time
period, which is too short for any change and detection in rotor speed. The
electrical torque Te corresponds to the net air-gap power in the machine and
thus represents for the total output power of the generator including losses in
the armature windings. In the synchronous motors, the direction of power
flow is opposite to that in generators. Accordingly, for a motor, both Tm and
Te have reverse sign in equation (II.1) as shown in figure II.3.b.
θm is measured with respect to a stationary reference axis on the stator; it
is an absolute measure of rotor angle. Consequently, it continuously
increases with time even at constant synchronous speed. Since rotor speed
equal to synchronous speed in normal condition, it is more convenient to
measure rotor angular position with respect to a reference axis which also
rotates at synchronous speed. Therefore we call
θm = ωsm.t + δm (II.2)
Where
ωsm synchronous speed of the machine in mechanical radians per
second
δm angular displacement of the rotor, in mechanical radians from
the synchronous rotating reference axis
take the derivative of θm, we obtain

dθ m dδ
= ϖ sm + m (II.3)
dt dt
take the second derivative of θm, we obtain
- 17 -
d 2θ m d 2δ m
= (II.4)
dt 2 dt 2
substitute into the equation (II.1)
d 2δ m
J = Ta = Tm − Te [N.m] (II.5)
dt 2
multiplying ωm we obtain the power equation
d 2δ m
Jϖ m = Pa = Pm − Pe [W] (II.6)
dt 2
Where
Pm the shaft power input to the machine
Pe the electrical power
Pa the accelerating power
Pm is the power supplied by prime mover and Pe is the machine electrical
power output. The coefficient Jωm is the angular momentum of the rotor, at
synchronous speed. It is replaced by M which is called inertial constant of the
machine. We can rewrite the equation (II.6) as
d 2δ m
M = Pa = Pm − Pe [W] (II.7)
dt 2
We have known the relations between electrical power angle δ and
mechanical power angle δm and electrical speed and mechanical speed as
following
p p
δ= δ m ;ϖ = ϖ m (II.8)
2 2
where p is machine pole number. Then we get the equation (II.7) in
relationship with electrical power angle
p d 2δ
M 2 = Pa = Pm − Pe (II.9)
2 dt
Converting the swing equation into per unit system based on the machine
rated apparent power Smachine lead to the followings:
2 H d 2δ
= Pm ( pu ) − Pe ( pu ) and
ϖ s dt 2
1 Jϖ s2
H= (II.10)
2 S machine
- 18 -
The equation (II.10) is called the swing equation of the synchronous

machines. It is the fundamental equation which governs the rotational
dynamics of synchronous machines in stability studies.
ii. Transient stability equal area criterion
To explain the transient stability criteria in a power system, we consider a

synchronous generator connected to a infinite source (slack bus) through a
line impedance Z as shown in Figure II.4. The phasor diagram of system is
also drawn in this Figure II.4.
Figure II.4 One generator system
For a simple lossless transmission line connecting two equivalent

generators as shown in Figure II.4, it is well known that the active power, P,
transferred between generator and network can be expressed as
E1 * E2
P= sin δ (II.11)
X
Where E1 is the source voltage magnitude, E2 is the network voltage
magnitude, δ is the angle difference between two sources, and X is the total
reactance of the transmission line and the source given by equation (II.12)
X = XS + XL (II.12)
With fixed E1, E2 and X values, the relationship between P and δ can be
described in a power angle curve as shown in Figure II.5. Starting from δ = 0,
the power transferred increases as δ increases. The power transferred from
- 19 -
the source to network reaches the maximum value PMAX when δ is 90

degrees. After that point, further increase in δ will result in a decrease of
power transfer. During normal operations of a generation system without
losses, the mechanical power P0 from a prime mover is converted into the
same amount of electrical power and transferred over the transmission line.
The angle difference under this balanced normal operation is δ0. A change in
rotor angle, in any way, will lead to the acceleration or deceleration of the
machine. The range from 0 to 90 degree is the steady state operating range
in stable mode, and range from 90 up to 180 degree is unstable operation
region for generator operation of the machine.
P (p.u) Stable region Unstable region
0.75
Stable operating Unstable
point operating point
Po
0.25
90o 180o (degree)
Figure II.5 Power angle curve
When a fault occurs on the transmission line, the impedance between the
generator E1 and the source E2 is changed. Assume that the fault is a
transient fault, so the transmission line goes back into the service after a trip
and reclose sequence of a protective relay. The effect of the equivalent
transmission reactance on the power angle curve for the pre-fault, fault, and
post-fault states are shown in Figure II.6 for different types of faults.
- 20 -
Figure II.6 Power transmission capabilities of the single generator system and with
different types of faults
During normal operations of a generator, the output of electrical power

from the generator produces an electrical torque that balances to the
mechanical torque applied to the generator rotor shaft. The generator rotor
therefore runs at a constant speed with this balance of electrical and
mechanical torques. When a fault reduces the amount of power
transmission, the electric torque that counters the mechanical torque is also
decreased. The mechanical power is assumed to be not varying during the
period of the fault; the generator rotor will accelerate with difference of input
torques.
Consider that the one generator system in Figure II.4 initially operates at a
balance point of δ0, transferring electric power P0. After a fault, the power
output is reduced as shown in Figure II.7, the generator rotor therefore starts
to accelerate, and δ starts to increase. At the time that the fault is cleared
when the angle difference reaches δC, there is decelerating torque acting on
the rotor because the electric power output PC at the angle δC is larger than
the mechanical power input P0. However, because of the inertia of the rotor
system, the angle does not start to go back to δ0 immediately. Rather, the
angle continues to increase to δF.
- 21 -
P
Pre & post fault
Pmax
Pe
A2
Pm
P0
A1
Fault
C F L
Figure II.7 Equal area criterion for stability
In previous section, we have developed the swing equation for

d 2δ
synchronous machine and the swing equation is M = Pa = Pm − Pe
dt 2
d 2δ m
M = Pa = Pm − Pe
dt 2 [W] (II.7).
2dδ
Multiply each member of equation by
Mdt
d 2δ dδ P dδ d ⎡⎛ dδ ⎞ ⎤ P dδ
2
2 2 =2 a or ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥=2 a (II.13)
dt dt M dt dt ⎣⎢⎝ dt ⎠ ⎦⎥ M dt
Multiply each side with dt, we obtain

⎡⎛ dδ ⎞ 2 ⎤ P
d ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = 2 a dδ (II.14)
⎢⎣⎝ dt ⎠ ⎥⎦ M
and then integrate
⎛ dδ ⎞ dδ
2
2 2
M∫ ∫ P dδ
⎜ ⎟ = Pa dδ or =ϖ = a (II.15)
⎝ dt ⎠ dt M
- 22 -
Because the generator is connected to an infinite bus(1), a condition can be

taken to stability studies:
ϖ = 0 , that means ∫ Pa dδ = 0 (II.16)
This integral is shown in Figure II.7 as sum of areas A1 and A2. Since Pa =
Pm – Pe then area A1, which is between angles δ0 and δC where Pm > Pe, is
positive portion; and an opposite negative portion A2, which is between
angles δC and δF where Pm < Pe. Because ∫ Pa dδ = 0 , positive portion A1 must
be equal to negative portion A2, and we call it “equal-area criterion for

stability.”
The areas A1 and A2 may be interpreted in terms of kinetic energy. The
work done on a rotating shaft by a torque T acting through an angle δ - δ0 is
δo
W = ∫ Tdδ (II.17)
δ
And this work increases the kinetic energy of the shaft. The accelerating
power Pa is proportional to the torque. Hence the work done on the machine
to accelerate it, which appears as kinetic energy, is proportional to area A1.
When the accelerating power becomes negative and the machine is slow
down, this kinetic energy is given up; and when it is all given up, the machine
has returned to its original speed. This occurs when A1 = A2. The kinetic
energies involved in this explanation are fictions.
If δF is smaller than δL, then the system is transiently stable as shown in
Figure II.7. With sufficient damping, the angle difference of the generator and
source eventually goes back to the original balance point δ0. However, if area
A2 is smaller than area A1 at the time the angle reaches δL, then further
increase in angle δ will result in an electric power output that is smaller than
the mechanical power input (Pm>Pe). Therefore, the rotor will accelerate
1
An infinite bus is a source of voltage constant in phase, magnitude, and frequency and not affected by the
amount of current draw from it. It may be regarded as a bus to which machines having an infinite aggregate
rating are connected or, in other words, as a machine having zero impedance and infinite inertia. A large
power system often may be regarded as an infinite bus. [7]
- 23 -
again and δ will increase beyond recovery. This is a transiently unstable

state. When an unstable condition exists in the power system, one equivalent
generator rotates at a speed that is different from the infinite source or other
equivalent generator of the system. We refer to such an event as a loss of
synchronism or an out-of-step condition of the power system.
iii. Loss of synchronism
Any unbalance between the generation and load initiates a transient that
causes the rotors of the synchronous machines to "swing" because net
accelerating (or decelerating) torques are exerted on these rotors. If those
torques are sufficiently large to cause some of the rotors to swing far enough
so that one or more machines go to “out-of-step”, synchronism is lost. To
assure stability, a new equilibrium state must be reached before any of the
machines reach that condition. Loss of synchronism can also happen in
cases, e.g., if the initial transient causes an electrical link in the transmission
network to be interrupted during the swing. This creates another transient,
which when superimposed on the first may cause synchronism to be lost.
Now we consider an impact initiated by a short-circuit fault on transmission
line. The output power of the generator suddenly increases by the time when
the fault occurs. The major portion of the excess energy will be converted
into kinetic energy. Thus most of the machine rotor angular velocities will
increase. A lesser part will be consumed in the loads and through various
losses in the system. However, an appreciable increase in machine speeds
may not mean that synchronism will be lost. The important factor here is the
angle difference between machines, where the rotor angle is measured with
respect to a synchronously rotating reference. In case all the rotor angles
increase beyond 180 radians but the angle differences between machines
are small (in step), then the system will be considered as stability if it
eventually settles to a new angle. In case it is evident that the machines are
separated where the rotor angles continue to drift apart, the system is
unstable.
- 24 -
III. Investigated network topologies, Ta Tuan Anh
equipment models and simulation method
III. Investigated network topologies, equipment

models and simulation method
1. Network topologies
The demand for a reliable power supply has been increasing with the
development of technology and economy. Therefore, network stability
analysis becomes important. There are many studies about network stability
carried on. In most of studies, a very important part is the studied network
topology. The requirements of the network topology in stability studies
include:
• Minimization the size of network topology
• Consideration of all important network components
• Consideration of the degree of freedom in network topology
• Optimization the behavior of network in normal operation and fault
cases
To solve the stability problem, we use 2 network topologies, which
combine the characteristics that fulfill above requirements. They are single
machine with infinite bus topology and two machines with infinite bus.
i. Single machine with infinite bus
Often the power network includes many power plants, and each power
plant consists of a number of individual generator units. For detailed
simulations, each generator unit should be modeled separately; however, in
this section, we consider about the behavior of individual unit in operation
with respect to the whole system, an aggregation of the generator unit is
carried out. That is the studied generator units which are represented by a
single aggregate, whose parameters can be readily determined from the
parameters of the individual generators; the rest of system including the
- 25 -
other generators is represented by an infinite bus(2). Figure III.1 shows such

a single machine system.
Infinite CB11 Fault CB21
Bus L1
L2
CB12 CB22 CBG T GEN
NET
Figure III.1 One machine with infinite bus system
As can be seen in the figure, this simplified system consists of basic

components of power system which are explained as following
GEN the single generator, which can be a single unit or represents for
an aggregated power plant, whose parameters are also
determined from parameters of the individual generators
T a step-up transformer
CBG circuit breaker for generator and step-up transformer set
CB11, CB12, CB21, CB22 circuit breaker for transmission lines
L1, L2 transmission lines connecting the generator to the main grid
NET the main grid, which is also called infinite bus or fixed frequency
source. The short circuit capacity of the main grid is assumed to
be much greater that the installed capacity of the generator.
Fault the disturbance location appearing on the transmission line
In this topology, we can choose type of generator as well as its operation
parameters. We can simulate the generator with or without AVR controller
and speed governor. The transmission line can be single or two parallel
lines, and types of disturbance can be 3 phase short circuit, 2 phase short
circuit, 2 phase to ground, 1 phase short circuit, the fault always occurs on
line 1 (L1).
2
An infinite bus is a source of voltage constant in phase, magnitude, and frequency and not affected by the
amount of current draw from it. It may be regarded as a bus to which machines having an infinite aggregate
rating are connected or, in other words, as a machine having zero impedance and infinite inertia. A large
power system often may be regarded as an infinite bus. [7]
- 26 -
ii. Two machines with infinite bus
As we have discussed in the previous section, the power system includes

a large number of power plants. Each power plant has for its own one or
more generator units. Actually, the behavior of every generator unit is not
only dependent on its characteristics, but also dependent on operation of the
other generator units which are connected to the power network in parallel.
In this study, we introduce a 2-machine with infinite bus topology to
investigate the effect of parallel generator units on each other.
We have introduced the single machine with infinite bus topology, which
represent for a single power plant connected to power network. By the 2-
machine topology, we can study the stability of 2 units operating in parallel in
one power plant. The study also can be carried out for single unit in respect
to the rest of power plant, in case the power plant has more than 2 generator
units, where one generator in topology is represent for the single unit and the
other is an aggregated one, whose parameters are determined from the
parameters of the rest individual generators.
Figure III.2 Two machine with infinite bus system
As we can see in the Figure III.2, two generators GEN1 and GEN2 are
connected to the same bus through step-up transformers T1 and T2, and
circuit breaker CBG1 and CBG2. The other components of the topology have
already been described in last section in single machine topology.
In this topology, we also have the same options as in single machine
topology, such as option for transmission line or generator controllers.
Another advantage of this topology is that we can use the two generators to
- 27 -
describe two single generators or two group of generators, in case we have

different types of units in one power plant area.
iii. Extended topology for further investigation
In practice, not all the time, the network is considered as to be much larger
than the generator, i.e. when we study an island power network with very few
generator units or the generator is big generator comparing to the others in
network. In those cases, the network is not considered as infinite bus as in
previous topology. The frequency and the bus voltage are also change when
a disturbance occurs in system, thus it has influence on the operation of
studied generators.
In order to solve this problem, in this section, we propose another network
topology, which is call 3 machine system, as shown in Figure III.3. In this
topology, the network and infinite bus are replaced by a generator, which is
an aggregated one the rest individual generators in network. The terminal
voltage and rotation frequency of this generator can be considered as those
of network when there is a disturbance occurring. This topology is not used
for this study, but for the further investigation in the future.
Figure III.3 Three machine system
- 28 -
2. Power system modeling
The modern power systems are characterized by growing complexity and

size. As the dimensions of the power systems increase, the dynamical
processes are becoming more complicated for analysis and understanding
the physical phenomena. In addition to the complexity and size, power
systems also have nonlinear and time-varying behavior. To obtain a
meaningful model of the power system, each component of the power
system should be described by appropriate equations such as algebraic
equations, differential equations, or both.
“Obtaining maximum benefits from installed assets on an interconnected
power system is becoming increasingly dependent on the coordinated use of
automatic control systems. The ability to optimize the configuration of such
control devices and their settings is dependent on having an accurate power
system model, as well as controllers themselves” [11].
This quotation from a CIGRE report is cited here to signify the importance
of having an accurate model of the system studied. Indeed, the development
of an adequate model of the process is an essential part of engineering work.
This chapter is therefore used to describing the basic models of some
relevant power system components.
i. Modeling of synchronous machines
Synchronous machines are one of the most important power system

components. We start by considering the Park’s transformation [4, 12]. In the
model used here, Park’s transformation is applied to the stator variables
(voltage, current, flux linkage), which replaces the variables associated with
the stator windings with variables associated with imaged windings that
rotate with the rotor. This change of variables has the effect of eliminating
the angular position-dependence of the inductances. The change of
variables which constitutes Park’s transformation may be expressed
symbolically as:
- 29 -
f qdr 0 s = K sr f abcs (III.1)
where
[
f qdr 0 s = f qsr f dsr f 0 s ]
T
(III.2)
f abcs = [ f as f bs f cs ]
T
(III.3)
⎡ ⎛ 2π ⎞ ⎛ 2π ⎞⎤
⎢cosθ r cos⎜θ r − 3 ⎟ cos⎜θ r + 3 ⎟⎥
⎢ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎥
2⎢ ⎛ 2π ⎞ ⎛ 2π ⎞ ⎥
K sr = ⎢sin θ r sin ⎜θ r − ⎟ sin ⎜θ r + ⎟⎥ (III.4)
3⎢ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠⎥
⎢1 1 1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣2 2 2 ⎦
and “f” may be voltage, current, or flux linkage. The superscript
“r” represents that the equations are transformed to the rotor frame of
reference. The subscript “s” indicates stator quantities.
The model of the synchronous machine in PSS®NETOMAC program is based
on Park’s equations. In electromagnetic transient calculation, accurate model
with the consideration of magnetic saturation is adopted; while in stability
dϕ d dϕ q
analysis, the transformer potentials and are ignored. There are two
dt dt
sets of parameters may be adopted in PSS®NETOMAC. One is considered as
d, q-axis parameters, the other is the commonly used parameters on
machine’s nameplate.
ra xa xfDd rfd xfd
rDd
xhd
Ud xDd Ufd
ra xa xfDq rfq xfq

rDq
xhq
Uq xDq Ufq
Figure III.4 The topology and parameters of d, q-axis equivalent circuit of synchronous
machine
Input data for a synchronous machine

SGrat Rated apparent power of the machine (MVA)
- 30 -
P Active power of the machine (MW)

UGrat Rated voltage of the machine (kV)
cosϕ rated power factor
frat rated frequency
⎛π
2
⎞ GD
2
Ta starting time constant (s), Ta = ⎜ nrat ⎟
⎝ 60 ⎠ 1000.S rat
Where GD2 = 4J * 10-3 (Mp.m2): flywheel torque of machine including
prime mover
J moment of inertial of the machine rotor (kg.m2)
nrat rated speed of the machine (r/min)
ra armature resistance (p.u)
Tg time constant of aperiodic component (s),
2 X d" X q"
Tg =
ϖra ( X d" + X q" )
xaσ armature leakage reactance (p.u)

Input parameters of the machine in equivalent circuit case
rfd d-axis resistance of field winding (p.u)
xfdσ d-axis leakage reactance of field winding (p.u.)
rDd d-axis resistance of damper winding (p.u.)
xDdσ d-axis leakage reactance of damper winding (p.u.)
xhd d-axis magnetizing reactance (p.u.)
xfDdσ d-axis coupling reactance (p.u.)
rfd d-axis resistance of field winding (p.u)
xfqσ q-axis leakage reactance of field winding (p.u.)
rDq q-axis resistance of damper winding (p.u.)
xDqσ q-axis leakage reactance of damper winding (p.u.)
xhq q-axis magnetizing reactance (p.u.)
xfDqσ q-axis coupling reactance (p.u.)
Input parameters of the machine in machine nameplate case
T”d d-axis subtransient time constant of the machine (sec)
X”d d-axis subtransient reactance of the machine (p.u.)
- 31 -
T’d d-axis transient time constant of the machine (sec)

X’d d-axis transient reactance of the machine (p.u.)
Xd d-axis synchronous reactance (p.u.)
T”q q-axis subtransient time constant of the machine (sec)
X”q q-axis subtransient reactance of the machine (p.u.)
T’q q-axis transient time constant of the machine (sec)
X’q q-axis transient reactance of the machine (p.u.)
Xq q-axis synchronous reactance (p.u.)
Normally, in synchronous machine, typical values of standard parameter
are in the form
Xd ≥ Xq > X’q ≥ X’d > X”q ≥ X”d
T’d0 > T’d > T”d0 > T”d
T’q0 > T’q > T”q0 > T”q
ii. Modeling of excitation system
When the behavior of synchronous machines is to be simulated accurately

in power system stability studies, it is essential that the excitation systems of
the synchronous machines be modeled in sufficient detail [13]. The desired
models must be suitable for representing the actual excitation equipment
performance for large, severe disturbances as well as for small
perturbations.
Control of the excitation system of a synchronous machine has a very
strong influence on its performance, voltage regulation, and stability. Not only
is the operation of a single machine affected by its excitation, but also the
behavior of the whole system is dependent on the excitation system of
separate generators. For example, inter-area oscillations are directly
connected to the excitation performance of separate generators.
Figure III.5 shows the block diagram of the generator excitation system.
- 32 -
Vref +
Vc Voltage compensator & Vt & It
- transducers
Verror Ifd
Efd
Voltage regulator Exciter Generator
Vf Stabilizer
Vs Power system Vs1

Stabilizer
Figure III.5 Block diagram of generator excitation system
There are different types of excitation systems commercially available in

power industry [14]. Excitation systems have taken many forms since the first
DC excitation system was presented initially. They may be classified into the
following three categories based on the excitation power source used:
• DC excitation systems, which utilize a direct current generator with
a commutator as the source of excitation system power
• AC excitation systems, which use an alternator and either stationary
or rotating rectifiers to produce the direct current needed for the
synchronous machine field
• Static excitation systems, in which excitation power is supplied
through transformers or auxiliary generator windings and rectifiers
DC excitation systems represent early systems, commonly used in the
years from the1920s to the 1960s. However, DC excitation systems are
gradually disappearing, as many old systems are being replaced by AC or
static type systems. In this work, we propose the type ESAC3A excitation
system model (1992 IEEE type AC3A excitation system model) to study
influences of the excitation system on stability of generator. The block
diagram of the exciter system is given in Figure III.6
- 33 -
Figure III.6 Alternator rectifier exciter with alternator field limiter
iii. Modeling of governor
The governor system controls the power applied to the prime mover shaft.
This means that operation of the fuel rack position on a diesel engine or the
gate and blade position on a hydropower plant. The object of the control of
power to the prime mover shaft can be for control of rotational speed (rpm) or
generator output power (MW). In the case of electrical power generating
plants, both are required.
The generator speed is directly related to system frequency by a fixed
linear equation. That means any disturbance on network having effects on
frequency will lead to changes in generator speed and activate the governor
control systems. The governor control systems are subdivided into two main
modes [15]:
• Droop governor mode, in which speed droops in response to a
decrease in speed or frequency, proportional to load. That is, as the
load increases, the speed or frequency decreases (droops)
• Isochronous governor mode, which remains a fixed frequency. A
prime mover and generator, operating in the isochronous mode will
- 34 -
attempt to maintain the same frequency regardless of the load it is

supplying up to the full load capabilities of the generator set.
Because the isochronous mode is normally used in isolated systems
where the isochronous governor is responsible for maintaining constant
system frequency, in this study, we consider mainly about the droop mode.
Here we use the IEEEG1 (1981 IEEE type turbine-governor model) for our
study. The block diagram of the governor is shown as following
Figure III.7 Block diagram of generator governor system
iv. Modeling of 3 phase-2 winding transformer
In this study, we model a 3 phase-2 winding transformers, which are used

to connect generators to transmission network to deliver power to power
network. Here we ignore the magnetizing impedance in the model of 3-phase
2-winding transformer in transient stability analysis.
The transformer is represented by Figure III.8
LV 2nd line HV 1st line

Figure III.8 3 phase-2 winding transformer
The input parameters for 3 phase-2 winding transformer are as following

Uhrat Rated voltage on HV side (kV)
- 35 -
Ulrat Rated voltage on LV side (kV)

Urat rated voltage of the network on HV side (kV)
UGrat rated voltage of the network on LV side (kV)
STrat rated capacilty of the transformer (MVA)
Ur% short circuit voltage of the transformer (%). Usually, it can not be
0
Uk% short circuit voltage of the transformer (%).It must be greater
than Ur%.
Y transformer connection mode. 4 connection modes of YY,DY,YD
or DD may be put here
S transformer connection mode. There are altogether 12 modes,
from 0 to 11. Phase shift of the transformer is based on HV side,
i.e., assume HV voltage phasor in the position of 12 o’clock,
then the figure designated by S variable means the position of
LV voltage phasor.
To input zero sequence parameters, two ways may be adopted. One is
direct input of the parameters in the section of zero sequence network, which
can directly change the topology and parameters of zero sequence network.
But this method is only effective in stability analysis mode of
PSS®NETOMAC. For transient analysis, there’s no ‘zero sequence network
section’ at all. Therefore, generally this method of inputting zero sequence
parameters is not used. Instead, we often turn to the other way, i.e., by
means of coupling branches, or M-line. This alternative is applicable in both
transient and stability analysis mode of PSS®NETOMAC, so it is more
commonly used. It should be noted that ‘M-line’ can only change the value of
Z0 in zero sequence equivalent circuit, but not the topology of the circuit.
v. Modeling of infinite bus or fix frequency source
There are altogether 3 parts that are used to describe fixed frequency
source in PSS®NETOMAC input data file. The first part is the input of the
equivalent positive sequence impedance Z of fixed frequency source. The
- 36 -
second part is the magnitude and phase of the source. The third part is zero
sequence resistance of the source.
The equivalent positive sequence resistance Z and the relative data should
be given in the fixed frequency source section. The parameters of fixed
frequency source section are as follows:
Usc The voltage used in the calculation of short circuit capacity Sk”
(kV)
Urat Rated voltage of the network to which the source is connected
(kV)
Sk” The short circuit capacity Sk” (MVA)
z The ratio of R and X in the equivalent impedance Z (R/X)
C_fac C-factor. Usually it is set to 1
The source positive sequence impedance Z is defined as
(U sc )2
Z = C _ fac
S k"
The magnitude and phase of fixed frequency source are defined as those
of a slack node and fixed at 1.0 p.u and 0 degree. In the calculation the
magnitude and phase of the node voltage are set immediately, while the
magnitude of the equivalent potential E is determined after iteration and is
different under different conditions. Since the phase angle is referred to the
source potential, i.e., it is the phase of ‘voltage increase’. If it is represented
as the phase angle of voltage drop commonly used in power systems, its real
value should be obtained by subtracting 180° from the value given above.
The default value of zero sequence impedance of the source is equal to its
positive sequence impedance. In order to reflect the real condition under
which zero sequence impedance is not equal to positive sequence
impedance, we often divide the equivalent impedance into two parts. One
part is input in the section of fixed frequency source. For this part of
impedance, zero sequence data and positive sequence data are equal -
PSS®NETOMAC “A branch”. The other part should be input in the section of
network elements and load flow data by additional lines called
PSS®NETOMAC “M branch”.
- 37 -
“A” branch
E
R X R’ X’
Figure III.9 Equivalent circuit of fixed frequency source
vi. Modeling of transmission line
Usually, in PSS®NETOMAC program, models of transmission line are

divided into two categories. One is lumped parameter model; the other is
distributed parameter model. There are 2 types for lumped parameter
models in PSS®NETOMAC. One of them is called type ‘L-M’, in which the
line is simulated by corresponding π− or T-equivalent circuit. This type of
model may be used to simulate single-phase or 3-phase transmission line.
The other type of lumped model is type ‘A-M-Z’, in which a matrix is used to
represent the line. Therefore, ‘A-M-Z’ model can simulate transmission lines
with coupling between any phases. For distributed parameter model, there
are also 2 types. One is type ‘Y’, in which transmission line model with no
distortion is adopted and 3-phase or single-phase line can be simulated. The
other is type ‘K’, which is also called Marti model. The input format of type ‘K’
is relatively complex.
For this study, we use the lumped parameter model which is simulated by
corresponding π- or T-equivalent circuit as shown in Figure III.10
Figure III.10 Equivalent circuit of transmission line
- 38 -
The parameters of transmission lines should be input in 2 lines. The first

line is named ‘L’, and the second line is named ‘M’. In line ‘L’, not only
positive sequence parameters of the transmission line are input, but also
zero sequence parameters of capacitance and conductance on the line
(parameters vertical to the line). Line ‘M’ is used to input zero sequence
parameters of resistance and inductance on the line (parameters along the
line). The input parameter set is explained below.
leng1 Length of the line (km)
RL Positive sequence resistance R’ (Ohm/km)
XL Positive sequence reactance X’ (Ohm/km)
Cb Positive sequence capacitance Cb’ (nF/km)
Co Zero sequence capacitance C0’ (nF/km)
Gb Positive sequence conductance Gb’ (nS/km)
Go Zero sequence conductance G0’ (nS/km)
Urat Rated voltage of the network (kV)
ro R0/Rb the ratio of zero and positive sequence resistance
on the line
xo X0/Xb - the ratio of zero and positive sequence reactance
on the line
vii.Modeling of circuit breaker
The last component which is modeled in this study is circuit breaker. In

PSS®NETOMAC program, we do not need to model the circuit breaker, or
we can use other default blocks to describe it. However, in this study, the
circuit breaker is simulated as a resistance branch in order to support for
further development of this study. The equivalent circuit is as following.
R
Figure III.11 Equivalent circuit of circuit breaker branch
By using resistance branch to describe the circuit breaker, we can change

branch’s resistance to simulate operation of circuit breaker in different cases,
such as opening, closing, closing with bad contact or arc between
- 39 -
contactors. Figure III.12 describes the opening operation of circuit breaker.

The circuit breaker will open, at to as shown in Figure III.12.a. With an ideal
circuit breaker, after the operation, the current will be immediately
interrupted, Figure III.12.a, and there are jumps in current and voltage at the
circuit breaker. However, practically, after the circuit breaker opens its
contacts, an arc is generated. This arc will maintain for a while and will be
eliminated when current cross zero value. Through the lasting duration of the
arc, from to to t1 in Figure III.12.b, there is still a current but not interrupted
immediately. Thus there is no jump in voltage and current, but they change
gradually as shown in Figure III.12.b.
III.12.a Without arc III.12.b With arc

Figure III.12 Opening operation of circuit breaker
The characteristic of the arc is described in PSS®NETOMAC by two

curves. One is UB(i) and the other is e(t), shown in Figure III.13. [16]
Figure III.13 Characteristic of arc in circuit breaker
- 40 -
The voltage across the arc is calculated by formula

UB(t) = UB(i) * e(t) (III.5)
And resistance of the arc is
RA(t) = UB(t)/i(t) (III.6)
The resistance of the arc is infinitive when current crosses zero, which
means the circuit breaker finishes the opening operation.
3. Stability analysis with PSS®NETOMAC
The goal of this study includes two main parts which are developing model
for PSS®NETOMAC software with automatic verification of stability for
various short-circuit location and short-circuit clearing time and also
representation of power swing locus after the disturbance in protective relays
phase-plane (X/R plane). In this section, we will introduce the transient
simulation method. In the next section, we will demonstrate and explain the
achieved results.
i. Simulation method to draw stability curve
To find the critical clearing time curve of the system, we automatically

verify the system first swing stability for a given range of short-circuit
locations and short-circuit clearing times. Two criteria define the stability of
the generating at each step:
a) The generator power angle during the first swing
b) The generator power angle reaches to a new steady state
These two factors are closely related to each other. Whenever the fault
clearing time is changed, the profile of the angular swing of the machine will
be changed. We will use these two factors to decide the stability state of the
power system and find the critical clearing time curve. The flowchart of
calculation is shown in Figure III.14
As showing in the figure, after starting, the program will read in load flow
data from input_data file. These data describe our system including
synchronous machine module, with or without AVR and governor controllers,
power transformer module, transmission line module as well as fix frequency
- 41 -
network module. In this step, we can choose system topology and it will
determine the initial condition of the power system. The next step is for
inputting dynamic data. By this step, the program reads in variant data of
disturbance including fault location and clearing time setting ranges, which
are used for stability verification. We can set the calculation ranges for fault
location variant, as well as for clearing time variant in the input_data file.
After that, the program will perform the time domain simulation in transient
stability mode with the first values of fault location and clearing time variants.
The PSS®NETOMAC software provides us functions to appear all calculated
factors that we want. As to be said before, in this study, we use angular
swing of the machine to determine the stability of the system by the first
swing method. In the following step, the program will automatic check the
angular swing curve of the machine(s) with respect to reference bus, which is
infinite bus, and evaluate the system as stable or not. If the system goes to
unstable state, the dynamic data, fault location and clearing time variants,
will be saved in an output file, which is then used to draw the critical clearing
time curve with Microsoft Excel program. The next steps are used to
automatically verify the fault location and clearing time variants. Here we
have two calculation loops for two variants. The internal loop is for clearing
time; the outer loop is for fault location. In both loops, we have condition step
to check the calculated variants in pre-setting ranges, which are set by user,
or not. The program will stop when it finish calculation for the last fault
location variant.
- 42 -
Start
Read in load
flow data
(x)
Read in
dynamic data
(tcr)
Perform transient
sumulation
Check swing curves of all generators with

respect to reference bus
(Infinite bus)
Save data set

System No in Excel files
stability (x, tcr)
Yes
Modify dynamic data Draw stability
by increasing the curve
X
clearing time tcr
Yes Check tcr in

setting range
Yes
No
Modify load flow data by Check fault
increasing the fault location location in setting
range
No
Stop
Figure III.14 Flowchart of system stability calculation
- 43 -
For the second part, analyzing the power swing of the power system, it is a
little simpler in simulation because we consider behavior of the system at
specific fault location with specific clearing time. The flowchart of program is
shown as in Figure III.15. The first steps are performed as in system stability
calculation, but because we do not have any verification of variant here, so
we do have and condition step in the flowchart. The output data, which are
voltages and currents, are exported to COMTRADE files. These
COMTRADE files act as input files for SIGRA 4 software that we use to
analysis the power swing of system.
Start
Read in load flow data

(x)
Read in dynamic data

(tcr)
Perform transient simulation
Save swing curves of generator

units to COMTRADE files
Stop
Figure III.15 Flowchart of system power swing calculation
ii. Demonstration of the simulated results in stability curve

and X/R plane
There are many system parameters which are calculated from load flow
calculation and transient simulation, such as voltages of buses, currents on
branches, frequency of network, and speeds of machines… The
PSS®NETOMAC software provides us options for output parameters.
- 44 -
Depending on analyzing purposes, we can decide which one will be exported

to output files in order to further study. We also can choose the type of output
files, i.e. metafile (picture form), COMTRADE file, text file or excel file, etc…
In this study, the main tasks after we perform the transient stability
program are that with calculated results, the area of stability/instability shall
be shown in the panel with two axes: the short circuit impedance and the
fault clearing time. Also the power swing impedance characteristics shall be
shown and analyzed in an X/R plane in SIGRA software. Thus, we use the
angular of the machine(s) as criteria for stability and export the calculated
critical clearing times correspond to short circuit impedances to an excel file.
This result will be used as an input for a macro in excel program to filter and
draw critical clearing time curves as required.
The SIGRA 4 application program supports the analysis of fault events
recorded in COMTRADE format. It offers a graphic display of the data
recorded during the fault event and uses the values measured to calculate
further variables, such as impedances, outputs or r.m.s. values, which make
it easier for you to analyze the fault record. For the analysis of these
simulated fault records, SIGRA 4 uses the input values to calculate further
variables, such as impedances and outputs, and processes all calculated
variables and the associated binary signals for graphical display. Therefore,
the simulated voltages and currents at investigated point (single point
simulation) will be chosen to export to output files under COMTRADE format
to draw the power swing impedance characteristics at relay location.
- 45 -
IV. Simulation results Ta Tuan Anh
IV. Simulation results

1. Purposes, conditions, and configurations of
simulations
This chapter demonstrates the results of this study. The study models and
the implementation are as described in Chapter III. The objectives of the
simulations are as following:
• To illustrate the functions and options of the program, which are
fulfill the requirements of this study, for various power systems,
differing by their parameters, topology, and configuration and for
various operating conditions
• To identify and explore effects of components on power system
operation
• To compare and analysis differences in operation between various
power systems
• To analyze the power swing impedance characteristic pre, post and
during the disturbance
Four test systems, each under four operation conditions, have been
considered in this study:
• Test system 1: one generator with unit transformer system
o Single line with AVR model
o Single line without AVR model
o Parallel line with AVR model
o Parallel line without AVR model
• Test system 2: one generator without unit transformer system

- 46 -

• Test system 3: two generator with unit transformer system

Test system 4: two generator without unit transformer system

Bus L1
L2
CB12 CB22 CBG1 GEN1
NET
CBG2 GEN2
The infinite bus (slack bus) configuration, the operation of protection relays
and circuit breakers, as well as transmission line topology are same for all
- 47 -
test systems. The disturbance is a three-phase short circuit. The fault

location is moved along the lines, step wised and automatically.
For accurate simulation, the program uses integration steps of 1ms. The
simulation period is 4s; where the disturbance occurs at 0.05s. Through our
simulations, the angle of slack bus is fixed at 0o, and it is reference for the
rotor angles of the generator. In section B, the critical clearing time is
investigates for the test systems and for fault location moving along the
transmission line. For a specified fault location, the generator may
experience stable or unstable power swing. If the fault is cleared before the
critical clearing time, these power swing observed by protection relays are
studied in section C.
2. Critical clearing time curve simulation

i. Identifying critical clearing time
As explained in the definition in chapter II, the disturbed system’s stability

depends on the angular deviation between the machines’ rotor angles and
slack bus. The conjecture of instable system is reached when the angular
deviation Δδ= δ1 - δ2 reaches about 180o. δ1 and δ2 are rotor angles of any
two machines in system, and also can be the power angle of slack bus.
Within this study, the angle of slack bus is always fixed to be 0o, and the
angular deviation of every machine in the system is compared with slack
bus. That means, the angular deviation Δδ= δ1 − δ2 = δ1 − 0 = δ1, according to
which, instability of the system arises as soon as the largest rotor angle
among machines in the system reaches 180o.
Figure IV.1 rotor angle of generator Gen1 in the test system 1– stable state
- 48 -
Figure IV.2 rotor angle of generator Gen1 in the test system 1 – unstable state
Figure IV.1 and Figure IV.2 show us rotor angle developments of

generator Gen1 in the test system 1. As we can see, in Figure IV.1 the rotor
angle starts to increase when disturbance occurs. It continuously increases
when the disturbance is cleared, and reaches the maximum value about
145o and then reduces to the minimum value. It continuously swings until the
system reaches the new stable state. The system remains stable after the
disturbance.
In Figure IV.2, after the disturbance is cleared, the rotor angle reaches
180o and continuously increases further opposite to the result shown in
Figure IV.1. In this case, the generator goes out of step and system loses the
synchronism. The system becomes unstable after the disturbance.
Figure IV.3 Rotor angle of generators in the test system 3 – unstable state
Figure IV.3 shows the response of generators Gen1 and Gen2 in the test
system 3 after a disturbance. In this case, the rotor angle of Gen2 does not
reach 180o during and after the disturbance, but Gen1 does, therefore this
system is unstable.
The critical clearing time is defined as the maximum time that a
disturbance can be cleared and the generators reach to stable operating
points after a few power swings.
- 49 -
ii. “second swing” instability
In this study, we refer to the “first swing” type of instability. However, if the
fault is slightly over the critical clearing time, it may then happen that the
system loses synchronism after the first swing, as shown in Figure IV.4. We
call it “second swing” type of instability. If, on the contrary, the disturbance is
cleared before the critical clearing time, the system will be stable with respect
to both first and second swings.
Figure IV.4 “second swing” instability in the test system 1
In Figure IV.4 the rotor angle of Gen1 does not reach the instable criteria
at the first swing, but in the second swing, it rises up to 180o and the system
loses synchronism. This phenomenon can be explained as following.
Upon the occurrence of a fault the field current suddenly increase to the
extent requires to offset the increased demagnetizing reaction of the
armature current and thereby to maintain constant flux linkage of the field
circuit. If the machine does not have a voltage regulator, the field current
ultimately decays back to its original value, equal to the exciter voltage
divided by the field circuit resistance; and, as it decays, the flux linkage also
decays. The time constant of the decay is of the order of 2 to 5 seconds, and
during the first swing the flux linkages do not decrease much in any machine
which does not go out of step on that swing. If the fault is sustained for a
longer time, however, the flux linkages may be so much reduced that the
system although surviving the first swing, will ultimately become unstable.
Even if the fault is cleared rapidly, the opening of a line to clear it may
decrease the maximum synchronizing power and therefore increase the flux
linkage for a given field current. Here, as well as for sustained fault, it is
- 50 -
possible to have the machines stay in step during the first swing but out of
step later.
If the machines have voltage regulators, the regulators will tend to
maintain constant terminal voltage, which would require an increase of field
flux linkages. With excitation systems of ordinary speed of response, the
regulator and exciter action is too slow to have an appreciable effect during
the first swing but it fast enough to prevent loss of synchronism on
subsequent swings. By the use of voltage regulators, it is possible to
preserve stability even in some instances when the system would be
unstable on the basic constant field current in the steady state after clearing
of the fault.
Therefore, the “second swing” instable cases are not as common as the
“first swing” instability. However, this latter must be properly identified and
solved whenever it arises.
iii. Test system 1: one generator with unit transformer;

transient simulation
Figure IV.5 test system 1: one generator with unit transformer
In this section, simulations are executed on test system 1 as shown in

Figure IV.5. The disturbance (fault) is three-phase short circuit which
automatically verifies on transmission line L1. The variation step in fault
location is 2% of the transmission line (L1) length, and the variation step in
fault clearing time is 1ms. The configuration of the system can be found in
tables in Appendix A.
- 51 -
Critical clearing time curve
without AVR with AVR
120
100
Fault location (%L1)
80
60
40
20
0
0.14 0.15 0.16 0.17 0.18 0.19 0.2 0.21
Cle aring time (s)
Figure IV.6 Critical clearing time curves of the test system 1–single line–with and
without AVR
a) AVR factor
Figure IV.6 shows us the critical clearing time curves of the test system 1
in figure IV.5 (single transmission line) for with and without AVR cases. The x
axis is clearing time in second, and y axis is distance from Bus2 at the
generator end to the disturbance location in % of transmission line L1 length.
As seen in Figure IV.6 the critical clearing time of the system in case of
without AVR when the disturbance occurs at the Bus2 is 0.154s. The critical
time increases with the distance from fault to Bus2. The difference in critical
time between two ends of transmission line is 28ms. The critical time
increases because when the fault varies on transmission line, total short-
circuit impedance from generator side (seen impedance for protection relay)
increases. That leads to decreasing of voltage drop at the generator terminal,
makes the generator more stable.
- 52 -
The effects of AVR on stability of the system are clearly shown in this
Figure IV.6. The development of critical clearing time curve in case of AVR
does not differ than that of the case without AVR but moves along the time
axis. We can easily realize the difference between two critical clearing time
curves. For the curve with AVR, the minimum critical time is increased to
0.173s. The deviation at every point on transmission line between two cases
with and without AVR are nearly always the same, about 20ms.
When a fault occurs in a system, the voltages at all buses are reduced. At
generator terminals the reduced voltages are sensed by the AVRs which act
within the excitation system to restore generator terminal voltages. The
general effect of the excitation system is to reduce the initial rotor angle
swing following the fault. This is accomplished by boosting the voltage
applied to the field winding of the generator through action of the amplifiers in
the forward path of the voltage regulators. The increased air gap flux exerts a
restraining torque on the rotor which tends to slow down its motion. Modern
excitation systems employing thyristor controls rapidly respond to bus
voltage reduction and can effect from half to one and half cycles gain in
critical clearing time for three phase faults on the high voltage side bus of the
generator step up transformer.
Application of machine governors also gives us the improvement in system
stability. Modern turbine governing systems have the ability to close turbine
valves to reduce unit acceleration during severe system faults near the unit.
Immediately upon detecting differences between mechanical input and
electrical output, control action initiates the valve closing which reduces the
power input. However, the effects of the governors are not as fast and
obvious as those of AVRs, because it takes the governors more time to
realize and react to a disturbance.
b) Generator loading factor
It is important to note that the system stability is also depended on

operating condition of the generator. If the generator is fully loaded, it is
easier to go to instable state than it is in case of lightly loaded. It is because
- 53 -
the higher the loading, the closer the generator will be to Pmax (Figure II.7),
which means reduces the decelerating area (A2), decreases possibility to
dissipate the accelerating area (A1). Thus, the system has less stability
margin in fully loaded than lighter loaded condition. Figure IV.7 shows
comparison between those two cases, one has 380MW (fully loaded) and the
other has load of 300MW (lighter load).
380 MW 300MW
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.3
Cle aring time (s)
Figure IV.7 Critical clearing time curves of the test system 1 with different loads
- 54 -
80 ms 100 ms
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0.13 0.14 0.15 0.16 0.17 0.18 0.19
Cle aring time (s)
Figure IV.8 Critical clearing time curves of the test system 1 with different reclosing
times
c) Reclosing time factor
Another factor that we should think about is reclosing time of circuit

breaker. The system transient stability is significantly affected by the
reclosing time. In figure IV.8 the difference between two cases which have
different reclosing times is shown. The first case has reclosing time at 80 ms
and the other one is 100 ms. As seen in the figure, when the longer reclosing
time is, the smaller critical clearing time will be. Generally, it is believed that
the faster the line reclosing is, the better the system stability will be for a
transient fault. However, faster line reclosing may not improve the transient
stability. Some recent studies [18, 19, 20, and 21] have shown that there is
an optimal reclosing time for different systems and fault conditions; reclosing
at this time will effectively reduce the system oscillations to a safe level
thereby enabling the system to quickly reach a stable state. However, the
- 55 -
optimal reclose time is not fixed; it varies with the type of fault, pre-fault
operating condition, severity of fault, etc. and therefore fixed-time reclosing
may not meet the requirements of optimal reclosure. The optimal reclosing
instant is the time when the transient energy of the post-reclosing
system is minimum because the larger transient energy weakens the
system stability and increases the oscillation.
After reclose at a fixed time the impact from the fault and the reclose
action add together possibly causing an increase in oscillation. However, the
impact of the optimal reclose operation mitigates the impact from the fault,
increase system damping, reduces the amplitude of system oscillation and
expedites its damping.
with AVR without AVR
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Cle aring time (s)
Figure IV.9 Critical clearing time curves of the test system 1–parallel lines–with and
without AVR system
- 56 -
d) Transmission line (connection with network)
Figure IV.9 is critical clearing time curves of the test system 1 having
parallel transmission lines, with and without AVR. We can see the obviously
difference between single line (Figure IV.6) and parallel line cases. Compare
with single line system, the parallel line case has bigger critical clearing time.
The critical clearing times at Bus2 in parallel line system are 0.26s (without
AVR) and 0.28s (with AVR), compare with those of single line system are
0.154s and 0.173s. The difference in critical clearing time between two ends
is also much bigger.
When a generator is supplying power to an infinite bus over two parallel
transmission lines, if a disturbance occurs on one line and that line is tripped
by line protections, the load still could be supplied over the remaining line
under steady-state conditions. That means the accelerating area A1 (Figure
II.7) is reduced, this increases the possibility to dissipate it during
deceleration (A2), therefore the system becomes more stable. If the three-
phase fault is on Bus2 to which parallel lines are connected, no load power
can be transmitted over either line. However, in that case, opening breakers
at both line ends will isolate the fault from the system. After the breakers are
reclosed, the generator is connected to the network stronger than that with
single line system.
When parallel transmission lines are used instead of a single line, part of
the load power is transferred over the remaining line even during a three
phase fault on one of the line unless the fault occurs at a paralleling end
buses. For other types of faults in one line, more power is transferred during
the fault over the parallel lines. Power transferred is subtracted from turbine
power input to obtain accelerating power. Thus increased power transfer
during fault means lower accelerating power for the generators and this
increases the stability margin.
When a three-phase fault occurs at some points on a double circuit line
other than on the paralleling end buses, there is some impedance between
the generator bus and the fault. Therefore, some power is transmitted while
- 57 -
the fault is still on the system. The larger the impedance across the bus and
fault location, the larger the power transmitted during the fault. The amount
of the power transmitted during the fault affects the accelerating area A1
(Figure II.7). Thus, smaller accelerating area A1 leads to more stable
system.
3 phase 2 phase to ground
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0.13 0.18 0.23 0.28 0.33 0.38 0.43
Cle aring time (s)
Figure IV.10 Critical clearing time curves of the test system 1 with 3-phase and 2-phase
to ground faults
e) Different types of faults
Figure IV.10 shows increasing in critical time when the disturbance is non
three-phase fault, but the two-phase to ground fault. In phase segregated
system, for non three-phase faults, only the faulty phase(s) is opened.
Therefore, during the breakers’ open pole period, there is still some power is
transferred over the healthy phase(s). Independent-pole operation of circuit
breakers and phase segregate tripping function of protection relays are
- 58 -
required to implement. Single-pole tripping scheme for non three-phase

faults. This improves the power system transient stability.
Although single-phase faults and two-phase faults occur most frequently,
and the three-phase faults are least frequent, for complete reliability, a
system should be designed against stability for three-phase faults at the
worst locations.
220 kV 345 kV
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0.13 0.15 0.17 0.19 0.21 0.23 0.25
Cle aring time (s)
Figure IV.11 Critical clearing time curves of the test system 1 with different voltage
levels
f) Different transmission voltage level
The figure IV.11 plots the critical clearing time curves of the test system 1
with different transmission voltage levels. The first case has the voltage level
at 220 kV, while the other has 345kV. We can see that both curves have the
same development, but the critical clearing time in 345kV system is higher
than 220kV system, 0.206s compares with 0.154s.
- 59 -
From the power transmission equation (II.11), we can see that the
maximum active power that can be transferred from generator to infinite bus
is
E1 * E 2
Pmax =
X (IV.1)
Where E1 is the generator voltage magnitude, E2 is the network voltage
magnitude, and X is the total reactance between E1 and E2.
The power system is designed to increase the Pmax (IV.1) at higher
transmission voltage level. Increasing of Pmax at higher voltage level provides
more stability margin for generators as the decelerating area A2 (Figure II.7)
is increased and helps the system to return to a stable state.
However, the space between phases should be increased at higher
voltage due to electric isolation. Therefore the impedance X (in Ohm)
between E1 and E2 increases at higher voltage level. In system design, the
engineer should choose the design which has higher Pmax to maximize the
stability margin of the system.
- 60 -
Ta=10.6s Ta=15.6s
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0.13 0.15 0.17 0.19 0.21 0.23 0.25
Cle aring time (s)
Figure IV.12 Critical clearing time curves of the test system 1 with different staring time
constant
g) Generator inertia factor
In chapter II, we have introduced the power equation (II.6) and (II.10) for
the machine, which are:
d 2δ m
Jϖ m = Pa = Pm − Pe [W] (II.6)
dt 2
2 H d 2δ
= Pa = Pm ( p.u ) − Pe ( p.u ) [W] (II.10)
ϖ S dt 2
The inertia time constant (H) in every machine is proportional to the total
moment of inertial of the rotor masses J. For a generator at a given
accelerating power, the higher inertia provides smother deviation of the
generator power angle. This increases the critical fault clearing time and
improves the system transient stability.
- 61 -
In figure IV.12 the generator having inertia time constant of 10.6s has
smaller critical clearing time (0.154s) than the one with inertia time constant
of 15.6s (0.196s). The difference in critical time between two ends of
transmission line also different; 27ms compares with 36ms. It is because of
the difference in power angle changing during and post fault.
iv. Test system 2: one generator without unit transformer;

Figure IV.13 test system 2: one generator without unit transformer system
Figure IV.13 introduces us the topology of one generator without unit

transformer system that is used in our simulation. The generator Gen1 is
connected directly to the transmission line by generator circuit breaker CBG1
and transmission line circuit breaker(s) CB21 (CB22). The detail of system
configurations can be found in tables in the Appendix A.
The simulation parameters are same as that of the test system 1. The
simulation results are shown in Figures IV.14 and IV.15 as following.
- 62 -

without trans. without AVR
without trans. with AVR
with trans. without AVR
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0.15 0.17 0.19 0.21 0.23 0.25 0.27 0.29 0.31
Cle aring time (s)
Figure IV.14 Critical clearing time curves of the test system 2–single line–with and
without AVR
with AVR without AVR
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Cle aring time (s)
Figure IV.15 Critical clearing time curves of the test system 2–parallel lines–with and
without AVR
- 63 -
As seen in the Figure IV.14 and Figure IV.15 the behavior of the test
system 2 looks like that of the test system 1. Here we also see the effects of
AVRs on the critical clearing time curves and the differences between single
transmission line and parallel transmission lines operations.
Comparing critical clearing time curves of test system 1 and test system 2,
considering same transmission line length with same parameters of the line,
one can see the effect of transmission voltage level as minimum critical
clearing time in test system 2 without AVR is 0.17s while it is 0.223s in test
system 1.
The most important factor distinguishing two test systems is the critical
time difference between two ends of transmission line. While in the system
with transformer, this variation is about 20ms in the test system 1, the same
transmission line length, 15km, makes it 80ms in case of without AVR and
100ms in case of with AVR.
The main reason of the difference in critical time between two ends is the
different reactance during fault conditions. Reducing the reactance of the
system during fault conditions increases the power curve during the fault.
This decreases the acceleration area (A1) (Figure II.7), and thereby
enhances the generator stability.
The big difference in the deviation of critical clearing time between with
and without unit transformer system is due to the fault reactance observed by
generator. From generator view, the fault reactance is not changed too much
when the fault location varies on transmission line in system with unit
transformer, because the total reactance of transmission line is small
comparing with reactance of the transformer. Meanwhile, in the without
transformer system, the changing in reactance of system during the fault is
considerable, leading to big deviation in critical clearing time as the fault
location moves along the line.
- 64 -
v. Test system 3 and 4: two generators with/without unit

transformer; transient simulation
The results received from 2 machine systems simulation, including with

and without AVRs in single and parallel transmission line system, once again
prove the effects of factors influencing on critical clearing time that we have
analyzed in previous sections.
The detail of system configurations can be found in tables in the Appendix
A. The simulation results are shown in detail in Appendix B.
vi. Summary
The simulation program moves the specified fault along the transmission
line of the 4 defined test systems. For each fault location, the fault
impedance observed by generator is plotted versus the identified fault
clearing time. These plots represent the quality of the system, stability in the
defined test systems. We observed the following factors having major effects
on the generator stability in our test system:
• The performance of generator controllers: Applications of
stability controllers such as AVRs and governors will improve the
stability of system by limiting deviation of swings.
• The generator loading before the disturbance: The higher the
loading, the closer the unit will be to Pmax, which means that during
acceleration, it is more likely to become unstable.
• The duration of the fault clearing time: The longer the fault is
applied, the longer the rotor will be accelerated and the more kinetic
energy will be gained. The more energy that is gained during
acceleration, the more difficult it is to dissipate it during
deceleration. This reduces the generator stability.
• The connection of generator to network: The weaker the
connection is (large impedance between generator and network),
the less stable the system will be.
• The generator output during the fault: This is a function of
location, impedance and type of fault.
- 65 -
• The generator internal voltage (determined by excitation

system) and infinite bus voltage (system voltage): The lower
these voltages, the more instable system will be.
• The inertia of the generator: The higher the inertia, the slower the
rate of change of the power angle and the lesser the kinetic energy
gained during the fault. This improves the stability of generator.
• The disturbance system reactance observed by the generator:
The smaller the disturbance system reactance, the lower the Pmax
(Figure II.7) during fault. This produces more accelerating power
that increases the possibility of the generator’ instability.
The critical fault clearing time is also important when the backup protection
operating time can not maintain system stability. Many studies have been
carried out to improve the stability of power system. The above identified
factors affecting on system stability, can be used to propose practical
measures that improves the overall system stability. They include:
• Excitation control systems improvement
• Governor system control system improvement
• Single pole operation of circuit breakers, and auto reclose
philosophy
• Faster fault clearing time
• The system design during planning may aimed to lower the system
reactance as low as the short-circuit capacity of equipments
permits. For example by:
o Reducing transformer reactance
o Additional transmission lines in parallel or meshed
arrangement
- 66 -
3. Power swing impedance characteristic analysis

i. Power swing considerations
Power system faults, line switching, generator disconnection, and the loss
or application of large blocks of load result in sudden changes to electrical
power, whereas the mechanical power input to generators remains relatively
constant. These system disturbances cause oscillations in machine rotor
angles and can result in severe power flow swings. Power swings are
variations in power flow that occur when the internal voltages of generators
at different locations of the power system slip relative to each other. Large
power swings, stable or unstable, can cause unwanted relay operations at
different network locations, which can provoke the power-system disturbance
and cause major power outages or power blackouts.
The IEEE PES Power System Relaying Committee working group D6 has
described in the paper [17] in detail this subject. It examines in detail the
means of detecting power swings and out-of-step conditions and the options
that exist for the protection studies.
ii. Definition
There are many studies have been carried out on power swing subject.
Each of them has its own definition of power swing. In this study, we use the
definition of power swing which is proposed in [17] as following:
Power Swing: a variation in three phase power flow which occurs when
the generator rotor angles are advancing or retarding relative to each other in
response to changes in load magnitude and direction, line switching, loss of
generation, faults, and other system disturbances.
iii. Out-of Step condition
A sudden change of load in the power system caused by a fault, by a

disconnection of line load or auto-reclosing forces the generators to adjust to
new load conditions. Due to the generator inertia, the adjustment may not
happen instantly, but it occurs as transient oscillation. This causes the
- 67 -
current and the voltage of the power system to change with oscillation of
amplitude and phase. With stable systems, this oscillation will be damped
and the generators remain in service after reaching new stable states. In
unstable cases the power swing may be so large that it causes out of step
conditions, in which case the system needs to be separated.
For transmission systems, distance relays at present, are known to be the
main protection. Distance relays have operating areas (trip zones) and when
the impedance seen by the relays enters into those areas, the relays are
giving a signal to trip or to block according to its function in the power
system.
Power swings following a system disturbance are known to be the main
source for the impedance changes measured at relay location. Power swings
can cause the relay measured impedance (which under steady state
conditions, is out of the relay’s operating characteristic) enters unwanted into
relay operations areas. These undesirable movements of the measured
impedance may increase the danger of the power-system disturbance and
cause major line outages, or even power blackout. Particularly, distance
relays should not trip unexpectedly during dynamic system conditions such
as stable power swings, to allow the power system to return to a stable
operating condition.
Thus, distance relay for transmission line protection is designed to isolate
the faults that occurred within the desired zone only. It is not supposed to trip
the line during a power swing caused by a disturbance outside the protected
line, reclosing or getting a large block of generators or loads in/out of service.
Even for the Out-of-Step conditions, the preferred operation is to separate
the system with an out-of-step tripping function and blocking other distance
relays by power swing detection function.
Uncontrolled tripping of circuit breakers during an Out-of- Step condition
could cause equipment damage, and further contribute to cascading outages
and the shutdown of larger areas of the power system. Therefore, controlled
tripping of certain power system elements is necessary to prevent equipment
- 68 -
damage and widespread power outages and to minimize the effects of the
disturbance.
Figure IV.16 shows us three main types of seen impedance movements.
The curve 1 is representing to stable power swing, where the seen
impedance moves into trip zone and leaves slowly. The curve 2 is for
unstable power swing case. The seen impedance curve moves slowly across
the trip zone. The curve 3 is in fault case, in which the measured impedance
rapidly moves into the trip zone.
Im(Z)
1 Stable swing
Trip
zone
3 Short circuit
2 Unstable
swing
Re(Z)
Figure IV.16 Three main types of impedance movements
In the Figure IV.16, one can distinguish between the stable and unstable
(Out-of-Step) power swing by the crossing of the y axis (Im(Z)). In stable
power swing case, the impedance trajectory moves into protection zone and
move out again. It crosses only one side of the protection zone. Meanwhile,
the impedance in unstable case enters the protection zone, crosses the y
axis (Im(Z)) and then moves out after cuts the other side of protection zone.
However, there is no clear difference in impedance movements between
fault cases and power swings because the impedance trajectory in fault case
also can go through the trip zone and the middle line. The distance relay
cannot simply use the measured seen impedance alone to determine
whether or not the distance protection should be inhibited or allowed to trip.
A critical distinction between faults and power swings is the rate of change of
- 69 -
the measured impedance. The rate of change is slower for a power swing
than a fault.
The Out-of-Step trip function accomplishes this separation. The main
purpose of the Out-of-Step function is to differentiate stable from unstable
power swings, as well as faults from power swings and initiate system area
separation at the predetermined network locations and at the appropriate
source-voltage phase-angle difference between systems, in order to maintain
power system stability and service continuity.
iv. Power swing impedance characteristic analysis
To investigate the power swing cases, we chose the test system 1

described in figure IV.5 where a 448 MWA generator is feeding a power
system via the 22/220kV transformer. The system data is given in tables in
Appendix A. The load is assumed to be received by the infinite bus. The
impedance relay for out-coming circuit breaker (CB21) at the Bus2 is
assumed set for the normal four zones. The one-phase fault is assumed at
the Bus2 end of transmission line L1.
The method to calculate the observed impedance is to use simulated
instantaneous amplitudes of the voltage and current from which the
magnitude of the relay measured impedance is calculated. The impedance
angle is calculated from the angular displacement between the voltage and
current waveforms, considering the fundamental component after digital
filtering. Data are captured over a five-second time frame in a COMTRADE
format. The COMTRADE file is played back SIGRA 4 software.
a) Impedance trajectory of an unstable power swing
The one-phase fault on the transmission is cleared in 250ms and reclosed

after 700ms in the test system 1 which, as expected, created a complete
state of out of synchronism. The rotor angle change is shown in Figure IV.17
where the pole slips took place at 1.2 sec. The corresponding voltage and
current of the phase R at Bus2 and CB21 are shown in Figure IV.18. The
trajectory of the seen impedance is shown in the X-R diagram given in fig
- 70 -
IV.19&20. The four zone impedance relay characteristics are shown in

addition to the power swing loci where the measured impedance apparently
passes inside the trip zone with enough time (clearly more than 500ms) to
block relay operation after fault clearing and breakers reclosing.
Figure IV.17 Rotor angle variation resulting from one-phase fault cleared at 250 ms
Figure IV.18 The R-phase voltage and current at Bus2 associated with figure IV.17
- 71 -
Zone Z1 Zone Z2 Zone Z3 Zone Z4 Z*
80
60
40
20
Load
point
X/Ohm
-20
-40
-60
-80
-150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150
R/Ohm
Figure IV.19 Impedance trajectory of V and I shown in figure IV.18
Figure IV.20 A zoom in of impedance trajectory in figure IV.19
As we have explained previously, the impedance trajectory in this unstable

power swing case slowly cross the trip zone. One can see in Figure IV.20,
- 72 -
the impedance trajectory enters the trip zone in the first swing at 1091ms
(after reclose circuit breaker), cross the y axis and leaves the trip zone at
1801ms. The impedance trajectory stays in the trip zone long enough for
distance relay to realize the Out-of–Step phenomenon and activate the Out-
of-Step trip function.
b) Impedance trajectory of a stable power swing
At the same fault location on transmission line, Figure IV.21 shows the
rotor angle changes for a fault cleared in 150ms. Followed by reclosure that
has dead time of 700ms. As expected the system is stable after the fault is
cleared and circuit breakers are reclosed. Figure IV.22 shows the swings of
voltage and current in phase R at Bus2 and CB21. After reach the maximum
values in the first swings, both voltage and current reduce and move to later
swing with smaller amplitude until they reach new stable values.
Figure IV.21 Rotor angle variation resulting from one-phase fault cleared in 150 ms
Figure IV.22 The R-phase voltage and current at Bus2 and branch CB21 associated
with figure IV.21
- 73 -
The Figure IV.23 & 24 show us the development of seen impedance

trajectory in this case. Most of investigated time, the observed impedance is
out of trip zone. A slight encroachment into the relay trip zone takes place
from 930ms to 1542ms. The impedance trajectory left the loci to go deep into
the load zone, making a loop and swing into trip zone once again at 2455ms
up to 2792ms. The observed impedance trajectory does not cross the y axis
and move in to trip zone slowly. It takes enough time for distance relay to
recognize the stable power swing phenomenon.
X/Ohm
Figure IV.23 Impedance trajectory of V and I shown in figure IV.22
- 74 -
X/Ohm
Figure IV.24 A zoom in of impedance trajectory in figure IV.23
Curr/kA
0.025 0.050 0.075 0.100 0.125 0.150 0.175 0.200 0.225 0.250 0.275 0.300
t/s
0
-5
Curr
LE-Volt/kV
100
0.025 0.050 0.075 0.100 0.125 0.150 0.175 0.200 0.225 0.250 0.275 0.300
t/s
0
-100
LE-Volt
Figure IV.25 The R-phase voltage and current at Bus2 and CB21 in one-phase fault case
- 75 -
Zone Z1 Zone Z2 Zone Z3 Zone Z4 Z*
80
60
40
20
56 ms 60 ms
Load
point
X/Ohm
0
Short 72 ms
circuit
-20
-40
-60
-80
-150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150
R/Ohm
Figure IV.26 seen impedance trajectory of fault phase in one-phase short circuit case
c) Impedance trajectory of a three-phase short

circuit fault
Figure IV.25 is a zoom-in of voltage and current in phase R at Bus2 and

branch CB21 before and during the one-phase short circuit fault. The
corresponding observed impedance trajectory is shown in Figure IV.26. The
seen impedance moves into the trip zone much faster than it does in stable
and unstable power swing cases. At the moment of 0ms up to 50ms,
observed impedance stays at normal load position. When the fault occurs, it
moves very fast into trip zone and at 60ms, it reaches the fault impedance in
the trip zone 1 and remains there until the fault is cleared.
v. Summary of results
This work has carried out detailed studies for different cases of power
swings on a same setting power system. The seen impedance trajectories in
unstable, stable swings and three-phase short circuit are analyzed and some
conclusions can be identified as following.
- 76 -
• Undesirable tripping of protection relay in cases of power swings

both stable and unstable can lead to wide spread outages to power
systems with the result that cascade tripping of the power system
elements occur. Therefore, it is necessary to identify the different
cases.
• The Out-of-Step trip function is responsible to differentiate stable
from unstable power swings, as well as faults from power swings,
and initial the operation of protection relays.
• Protection relays use a number of methods to detect the presence
of a power swing, the most common method is based on the
movements and the rate of change of the observed impedance
trajectory.
- 77 -
V. Conclusion Ta Tuan Anh
V.Conclusion
1. Final conclusion
The main focus of this study has been placed upon the simulation of the
test systems which were presented in Chapter III. The simulation results
obtained in Chapter IV are categorized into two main groups, namely,
“Critical clearing time curve simulation” and “Power swing impedance
characteristic analysis”.
Along those results, the main conclusions obtained in this work can be
summarized as follows.
• The developed models are simulated in PSS®NETOMAC
environment. The test systems consider practical topologies of
network components. We can choose between one generator
system and two generator system with or without AVR and governor
controllers for generators which are connect to the network directly
or by transformers via single or parallel transmission line.
• The simulated results achieved from the program with different
system topologies can be used as reference in generator operation,
setting for protection relays for generators as well as network
protection design.
• It was demonstrated which factors having effects on stability of
power system and how they are effective. As was shown in Chapter
IV, we can list here the effects of AVRs and governors, the
generator inertia, the generator loading, the reclosing time,
connection to network, impedance of transmission line, different
types of faults, and the operating voltage. All of these factors should
be considered to improved overall system stability.
• The power swing and short circuit should be correctly recognized
for the protection relays to avoid undesirable tripping which can lead
to wide spear outages to power system. It was observed in the
swing impedance characteristic results that there are two main
- 78 -
V. Conclusion Ta Tuan Anh
factors which distinguish the different power swings. They are

trajectory movement and rate of change of the observed
impedance. The unstable swing trajectory goes through trip zone of
protection relay and crossed both sides of trip zone characteristic,
while the stable swing trajectory cross only one side of trip zone
characteristic. The short circuit case is differential from power swing
cases by faster rate of change in the observed impedance.
2. Further development
One improvement to this work would be the modeling of more system

components. Traditionally, protection devices are used locally to protect
power system equipments from damages whereas the system itself has few
an overall protection system functions. The trend today is that power system
is operated closer to their limits due to environmental constraints and
deregulation. Hence the likelihood of power system instability increases. This
requires more exact simulation results with complete model of system.
Additionally, the network topology should be considered too. This study is
limited with only two standard network topologies, one machine with infinite
bus and two machines with infinite bus. In practice, there is requirement for
more complex network which has more generators and more busbar.
Another improvement can be considered is cooperating with other
programs. In this study, the program is limited in cooperation between
PSS®NETOMAC and SIGRA 4. We can improve the program’s performance
by coordinating with other software. For instant, protection relay coordination
in this study is fixed in sequence and operation time as the manual input
data. We can improve the behavior of protection relays by using
PSS™SINCAL, which is also developed by Siemens AG, for relay input data.
- 79 -
Reference Ta Tuan Anh
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- 82 -
Appendix A Ta Tuan Anh
Appendix A. Data for the test systems
Figure A.1 Test system 1: one generator with unit transformer system
Figure A.2 Test system 2: one generator without unit transformer system
Figure A.3 Test system 3: two generator with unit transformer system

Bus L1
L2
CB12 CB22 CBG1 GEN1
NET
CBG2 GEN2
Figure A.4 Test system 4: two generator without unit transformer system
-a-
Network
Test system Ur Usc Sk'' R X C factor fr
(kV) (kV) (MVA) (Ω) (Ω) (Hz)
Test system 1 220 220 1.00E+09 1 10 1 50
Test system 2 22 220 1.00E+09 1 10 1 50
Test system 3 220 220 1.00E+09 1 10 1 50
Test system 4 22 220 1.00E+09 1 10 1 50
Table A.1 Network data for the test systems
-b-
Generator
Test system Sr Ur cosϕ P Q U Ta Tg Td'' Td' Tq'' Tq' Xa Xd'' Xd' Xd Xq'' Xq' Xq
(MVA) (kV) (MW) (MWAr) (p.u) (s) (s) (s) (s) (s) (s) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u)
Test
system G1 448 22 0.85 380 0 1.0 10.6 0.577 0.023 1.070 0.025 0.860 0.150 0.205 0.265 1.670 0.205 0.265 1.600
1
Test
system G1 20 22 0.9 16 0 1.0 5.32 0.18 0.035 1.600 0.030 0.835 0.290 0.329 0.408 0.911 0.350 0.580 0.580
2
Test G1 440 22 0.85 380 0 1.0 10.6 0.577 0.023 1.070 0.025 0.860 0.150 0.205 0.265 1.670 0.205 0.265 1.600
system
3 G2 60 10.3 0.72 40 20 5.32 0.52 0.030 1.270 0.030 0.040 0.125 0.237 0.325 0.920 0.311 0.460 0.460
Test G1 9 22 0.9 7 3 5.32 0.180 0.035 1.600 0.030 0.835 0.290 0.329 0.408 0.911 0.350 0.580 0.580
system
4 G2 10 22 0.72 6 3 5.32 0.52 0.030 1.270 0.030 0.040 0.125 0.237 0.325 0.920 0.311 0.460 0.460
Table A.2 Generator data for the test systems
-c-
Transformer
Connection
Test system Sr Uh UL Ur% Uk%
mode
(MVA) (kV) (kV) Y S (%) (%)
Test system 1 T1 500 220 22 Yy 0 0.3 16.0
Test system 2 No
T1 500 220 22 Yy 0 0.3 16.0
Test system 3
T2 100 220 10.3 Yy 0 0.3 16.0
Test system 4 No
Table A.3 Transformer data for the test systems
Transmission line
Test system Length RL XL Cb Gb Co Go Ro/Rb Xo/Xb
(km) (Ω/km) (Ω/km) (nF/km) (nS/km) (nF/km) (nS/km)
Test system 1 70 0.1 0.5 1 1 1 1 6.47 4.69
Test system 2 15 0.2 0.426 0 0 0 0 0.565 1.681
Test system 3 70 0.1 0.5 1 1 1 1 6.47 4.69
Test system 4 15 0.2 0.426 0 0 0 0 0.565 1.681
Table A.4 Transmission line data for the test systems
-d-
Appendix B Ta Tuan Anh
Appendix B. Simulation results

Critical clearing time curve simulation
Test system 3: two generators with unit transformers;
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0.13 0.14 0.15 0.16 0.17 0.18 0.19 0.2
Cle aring time (s)
Figure B.1 Critical clearing time curves of the test system 3–single line–with and
without AVR
-e-
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Cle aring time (s)
Figure B.2 Critical clearing time curves of the test system 3–parallel line–with and
without AVR
Test system 4: two generators without unit transformers;

120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0.2 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.3 0.32
Cle aring time (s)
Figure B.3 Critical clearing time curves of the test system 4–single line–with and
without AVR
-f-
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Cle aring time (s)
Figure B.4 Critical clearing time curves of the test system 4–parallel line–with and
without AVR
-g-
Power swing impedance characteristic
Figure B.5 Impedance trajectory of unstable swing in case of three-phase short circuit
Figure B.6 Impedance trajectory of stable swing in case of three-phase short circuit
-h-
X/Ohm
Figure B.7 Impedance trajectory of unstable swing in case of one-phase short circuit
without reclosure
Figure B.8 Impedance trajectory of stable swing in case of one-phase short circuit
without reclosure
-i-
Appendix C Ta Tuan Anh
Appendix C. Simulation program introduction

Introduction to PSS®NETOMAC
PSS®NETOMAC is a professional electromechanical simulation tool. It is
designed to study the dynamic performance of power systems. It offers:
• A variety of configurations, which can be selected according to
individual requirements
• A modular structure
• Real-time testing and simulation of a wide range of
electromechanical phenomena
PSS®NETOMAC is a software for dynamic system analyses. Studies of
dynamic phenomena in electrical power supply systems are important part of
the work of electrical engineers.
PSS®NETOMAC offers various modules for:
• Simulation of electromechanical transient phenomena in the time
domain
• Steady-state load-flow and short circuit current calculations
• Frequency range analysis
• Eigen value analysis
• Simulation of torsion vibration systems
• Power system parameter identification
• Reduction of passive/active networks
• Optimization
• Interactive network training simulator
• Real-time simulation
• Extended user interface for the graphical input of network and
controllers structures and results documentation
• Data import from other planning packages, e.g. PSS®E,
PSS®SINCAL, etc.
• Additional formats for data export, e.g. COMTRADE
-j-
Appendix C Ta Tuan Anh
Introduction to SIGRA 4
The SIGRA 4 system supports the analysis of fault records. Using the
measured values recorded in the fault record, SIGRA 4 calculates additional
values, such as positive-sequence impedances, r.m.s. values, etc.
These measured and calculated variables are shown in various diagrams:
• Time Signals
• Vector Diagrams
• Circle Diagrams
• Harmonics
• Table
• Fault locator
SIGRA 4 processes all fault records in COMTRADE format. SIGRA 4
supports fault record analysis with convenient tools. We can also use these
functions to export data of the fault record to other applications (e.g. Word,
Excel). In addition, SIGRA 4 also supports the export of variables calculated
by SIGRA 4 in COMTRADE format.
-k-

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ACTIVE POWER SWING SIMULATION FOR RELAY SETTINGS

Master thesis in electrical system engineering

Siemens AG, Erlangen

Master thesis in electrical system engineering

Supervisor: Mohammad Reza Ganjavi, Siemens AG, Germany

Erlangen, February, 2009.

I want to give my appreciation to my supervisor, Dr. Mohammed Reza

explanations for my questions.

I would like to thank my colleague and my friend, Msc. Trinh Ngoc

supported me much for my beginning in a new city.

Special thanks to my all family, who always be by my side.

Erlangen, Germany, 2009.

ACTIVE POWER SWING SIMULATION FOR RELAY SETTINGS

Depending on power network conditions and feeding generators, dynamic

Conventional Equivalent Model of a Power Swing

The goal of the thesis is to develop models for PSS®NETOMAC software to

The verification process should be as follows:

1- Model will be limited to a 3 machine model with an automatic variation

SIMULATION VON GENERATORPENDELUNGEN ZUR

Der Einfluss von Pendelungen auf Schutzsysteme wird mit einem

Conventional Equivalent Model of a Power Swing

Der Verifikationsprozess gliedert sich in folgende Schritte:

1- Automatische Berechnung des Fehlerortes und der maximalen

The stability of power systems against short-circuit disturbance is essential

The critical clearing time can be considered as an stability index of the

Chapter II contains definitions of stability used in literature and this study.

II. Power swing in power systems

Since the event of the industrial revolution, the worldwide energy

ii. The requirement of good quality for electricity service

Normally, the quality of the service is defined by the quality of supplied

service. Therefore, successful operation of the system means that major

iii. Stability concept

concept studies with consideration of the dynamic problems is two machines

2. Symmetrical components are used in the representation of

Voltage stability is the ability of a power system to maintain steady

- Ability to remain in an operating equilibrium

Rotor Frequency Voltage

- Ability to remain - Ability to remain - Ability to maintain

Small Transient Large Small

- Sufficient - Large - Large - Steady-state P/Q

Short-Term Short-Term Mid &

Short-Term Mid &

Figure II.1 Classification of power system stability

iv. Stability definitions

In previous sections, the concept of power system stability has been

Power system stability is a term applied to alternating-current electric

If the oscillatory response of a power system during the transient period

v. Stability definition for this study

2. Transient process following after a disturbance and

Transient stability studies are related to the effects of transmission line

i. Power angle and power swing equation

Rotor angle/ Power angle

Figure II.2 Synchronous machine rotor angles

The equation describing the motion of the rotor of a synchronous machine

The mechanical torque Tm and the electrical torque Te are considered

acceleration or deceleration of the rotor and the constant speed is

take the derivative of θm, we obtain

The equation (II.10) is called the swing equation of the synchronous

ii. Transient stability equal area criterion