Handbook of Microwave and Radar Engineering

Anatoly Belous

Handbook of Microwave and

Radar Engineering
Anatoly Belous
Integral
Minsk, Belarus

ISBN 978-3-030-58698-0 ISBN 978-3-030-58699-7 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58699-7

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Foreword

Over the past decade, we have observed an intensification of the convergence

process (mutual penetration) of various previously unrelated trends in the develop-
ment of science and technology, producing a synergistic effect—the rising effec-
tiveness of various research and development projects as a result of the integration of
individual elements into a single system. This tendency also fully applies to the
convergence of two independent trends in science and technology—Microwave
Electronics and Radar Engineering.
Indeed, each of those trends in science and technology was developing according
to its own laws, considering a wide spectrum of specific scientific and complex
practical problems. Specifically, Microwave Electronics is a field of science and
technology that uses the general laws of electrodynamics and is associated with the
study and use of the properties of electromagnetic waves in the frequency range from
approximately 300 MHz to 300 GHz.
Radar Engineering is a field of science and technology that combines the methods
and means of detecting and measuring coordinates, determining the properties and
characteristics of various objects, also based on the use of electromagnetic waves
(radiation).
Modern microwave devices and systems today use an extremely wide range of
electromagnetic wave frequencies, where the lower frequencies lie close to zero
Hertz, and the highest ones come close to the light waves.
The scope of application of modern radars and other devices of microwave
technology has also significantly expanded from radiolocation, radiometry, and
radio communications to radio navigation, radio astronomy, telecommunications,
Earth remote sensing satellites, geolocation, microwave weapons, etc.
In other words, over the past decade we have observed the process of technical
symbiosis of those two trends in scientific and technological progress, where
Microwave Electronics is the technological platform (base) of Radar Engineering.
At the same time, successes in the development of the first trend stipulate an
improvement in the technical and economic characteristics (performance, accuracy,

v
vi Foreword

functionality) of the second trend, and the requirements for the continuous improve-
ment of those characteristics pose the corresponding tasks regarding the develop-
ment of the technological platform.
This concept of technical symbiosis of the two trends was developed by the
author during his participation in the project of creating the Soviet Volga Radar
Station in the period from 1980 to 1995.
Hantsavichy Radar Station (Russian: Gantsevichi Radar) (also described as
Gantsevichi) is a 70M6 Volga-type radar near Hantsavichy (48 km from
Baranavichy in Belarus). It is an early warning radar, which is run by the Russian
Aerospace Defence Forces. It is designed to identify launches of ballistic missiles
from Western Europe and can also track some artificial satellites.
During participation in the Volga project, the author was the chief designer
regarding developing and organizing the production of the basic set of high-speed
chips for this radar. On the basis of the requirements for technical parameters of the
radar and the operation algorithms of the major devices received from the designers
of the radar, dozens of original, unparalleled in the world, high-speed integrated
circuits of the 1815xx series were designed under the guidance of the author, on
which the Volga Radar was subsequently built. Upon completion of all the tests, this
radar was introduced into the composition of the Russian Space Forces and put on
combat duty in a missile early warning system in 2003.
In Chaps. 2, 4, 9, and 10 of the book, the author discusses some results of
theoretical research studies and technical solutions that have been tested in this
Radar Station.
The valuable experience acquired by the author during the project indicated that
the major factor regarding the success of the Volga project was the organization of
the synchronous work of two large teams of specialists—in Microwave Electronics
and in Radar Engineering—because the specialists in the first area understood the
basics of the theory and practice of Radar Engineering well, and the developers of
the radar knew well the real capabilities and limitations of Microwave Electronics.
Subsequently, based on the experience obtained at that time, in collaboration with
Merdan Merdanov, the General Director–General Designer on Radar Engineering of
the Russian holding company “Electronic Instrument Engineering,” the book
“Microwave Electronics in Radar and Communication Systems. Technical
Encyclopedia in one books” (1520 pages) was prepared and published in Moscow
in 2016 by the publishing company TECHNOSPHERA. Then and there, for the first
time in the scientific and technical literature in the volume of one book, the
theoretical foundations, physical mechanisms, and operating principles of all
known microwave devices and typical devices based on them, calculation and
design methods, basic technological, circuit design particularities and engineering
specifications of each class of microwave devices, as well as the most common
technical solutions to electronic systems based on them, from radar and telecommu-
nication devices for various purposes to microwave weapons for ground and space
applications, were reviewed in great depth.
Foreword vii

At the request of the publisher, since the book was in high demand among
engineers, we supplemented certain chapters, and in 2018, the second revised edition
of this book was published.
In this book, both individual materials of the above-noted technical encyclopedia
and additional materials obtained by the author in the course of his own theoretical
research and practical development in the field of Radar Engineering are used.
When writing this book, the author was guided by the following basic principles.
1. Future research and development engineers of commercial and military radars,
students and their teachers always need to have “at hand” a sort of systematized
collection of reference materials on such devices.
2. In order to become quite popular among a broad audience of scientists, special-
ists, and students, this book must simultaneously fulfill the integral functions of
both a classical textbook and a short scientific practical manual-reference book, as
well as simply be a fascinating book.
3. The book should provide sufficiently voluminous reference material, but unlike
classical textbooks with an abundance of formulas and mathematical expressions,
it should try to explain in as simple language as possible the basic theoretical
aspects of the problem under study, and to give specific practical examples.
4. The book should only include those methods, technical means, and technological
solutions whose effectiveness were previously confirmed by the practice of their
application.
5. In the text of the book, it is necessary to use the maximum possible amount of
graphic materials that reflect the effectiveness of various working scenarios.
How well and to what extent the author has managed to put those principles into
practice is to be judged by the reader.

Minsk, Belarus Anatoly Belous

Introduction

The First Chapter “Theoretical Basics of Radiolocation”

This introductory chapter is dedicated to concise presentation of the theoretical

basics of radiolocation. Here, in synopsis, the theoretical basics of functioning of
the radiolocation devices are represented, starting with the chronology of the histor-
ical events, related to creation of the first radiolocation stations, description of the
basic functional principles of radars, typical algorithms of signal processing (from
measurement of the distance to the target, determination of the angle of the target
elevation and of the radar definition as per the target), characteristics of aerials
(signal amplification, aperture of the aerial, radar’s cross-section, noises, and echo-
signals), as well as the general information about the radiolocation stations: classi-
fication, frequency ranges of work, performance parameters, comparison of the
activity zones of the passive range-difference detection systems of the various
radio irradiation sources, differences between the military and civil radars.
Individual paragraphs of the chapter are dedicated to a more detailed investigation
of the basic principles regarding construction of the various program complexes
intended for simulation of the radiolocation signals, including typical compositions
of such complexes, particularities of the design engineers’ work regarding the
“radiolocation objects,” and particularities of setting up the spatial configuration of
the object. For the first time, a new method is introduced to enhance the interference
resistance of the contemporary radiolocation stations with application of the auto-
compensators of the “obstructive irradiations” based on applying the coherence
principles for compensation of the active noise interferences, including the specific
recommendations on the technical implementation of such auto-compensators. The
special procedures used to assess the applied methods of compensation of the active
noise interferences of the contemporary radiolocation stations are provided.

ix
x Introduction

The Second Chapter “Specific Features of Designing Digital

Processing Systems for Radiolocation Systems Based
on Microprocessor VLSI Sets”

The chapter is dedicated to investigation of the construction particularities of the

systems for the radiolocation signals digital processing (SDP) based on the micro-
electronic element base—special purpose microprocessor complexes of the very
large scale integrated circuits (VLSIs).
Here the main tendencies and influence particularities are considered regarding
the contemporary microelectronic technologies in progress related to the informa-
tional and control structures of the modern radars: the standard SDP algorithms and
methods of their practical implementation, including for the primary signal
processing that is especially important for the contemporary theater of warfare and
for the secondary signals processing elements, illustrating both the high efficiency
and precision of determining the targets of the contemporary radiolocation stations
of the ground borne and space echelons of the counter missile defense (CMDS).
The major interest of the design engineers (electronic engineers and software
engineers) of the contemporary radiolocation stations is attributed to the hierarchy of
tasks of the SDP operations as applied to the tasks of the contemporary radiolocation
stations, as well as the typical procedures and optimum hardware structures of the
SDP systems as applied to the specific tasks of the radiolocation stations.
The IC structures of the Russian microprocessor set of the 1815 series
radiolocation station are viewed as a concrete example, on whose basis the
radiolocation station “Volga” was developed with the active phased array antenna.
The chapter concludes with the analysis of the various methodological
approaches for constructing the special purpose microelectronic base for the SDP
systems overall and for the purposes of radiolocation and communications in
particular.

The Third Chapter “Ground Penetrating Radars” (Ground

Penetrating Radars)

The chapter is dedicated to consideration of specific independent trends regarding

radiolocation devices such as ground penetrating radars.
Here are presented the most widely known radars of the Earth remote probing and
the specific geo-radars with enhanced resolution capacity, geo-radars used to search
for mines, field charges, and unauthorized planted explosive devices in buildings,
structures, on automobiles and railways, and the routes of military convoys under
different environmental conditions.
Special attention from the readers should be paid to the sections dedicated to
analysis of the contemporary status and development tendencies of the super wide-
band devices of the radio systems of the various (civil and military) applications.
Introduction xi

Here the analysis results are listed regarding the development of the super wideband
technology of the radar equipment in the world and in Russia, including the main
features and technical solutions for construction of the radio locators of the ground
penetrating probing with enhanced resolution capacity (structure, design particular-
ities, methods of formation and processing the super wideband frequency modulated
signals, etc.).
For the first time in the open scientific–technical printed media here in detail the
particular features to apply the radars for ground penetration when airborne (aircraft,
helicopter, airship, air balloon, etc.) are provided.
The chapter conclusion lists the main technical parameters of the most widely
used geo-radars (series “Loza,” “OKO,” “Zond,” etc.)

The Fourth Chapter “Antennas and Antenna Devices

for Radar Location and Radio Communication”

The chapter is dedicated to the interrelated issues of design development, fabrica-

tion, and application of the various antennas and antenna devices for the systems of
radiolocation and communications. Here are listed the basic parameters and types of
systems produced in the world and in Russia, examples are cited of the most
effective design solutions—including antennas for the portable wireless systems of
the standard WIMAX/WLAN; wideband micro strip antennas with enhanced gain
ratio; wideband microwave antennas of the running wave, clipped directly to
garments and even borne on the human body; multiband PAT antennas; micro
strip antennas on the thin substrate; flat reflecting printed antennas for the cellular
communications systems; triple range antennas for the systems of uninterrupted
communications; original wideband antennas on the ceramic substrate; wideband
multi-spiral antennas with polarization, etc.—with the detailed consideration of the
computing methods of these antennas using the contemporary means of the auto-
mated design development.
A special section of the chapter is dedicated to the phased-array antennas’
classification, structure, and particularities of application.
An individual section of this chapter comprises also the specific issues of design
development and reliability evaluation of one of the most vital components of the
phased-array antennas—power supply systems. In addition, analysis of the status
and major problems is indicated regarding the development of various components
required for the successful solution of the task to ensure the mechanical positioning
of the aerial systems of the radiolocation stations and different devices and systems
of radio communications. These are the object location sensors (encoders), various
“revolving” elements of the positioning systems of the radiolocation stations, and
other components.
The chapter is concluded with the analysis of the current status and the closest
prospects for developing the contemporary devices for radiolocation, systems of
xii Introduction

communications, as well as the main tendencies and the means of solution regarding
the concrete technical tasks for developing the aerial systems, both for the
radiolocation stations and the commercial systems of wireless communications.

The Fifth Chapter “Features of Organizing the Process

of Designing Radar Microcircuits”

The chapter is dedicated to the specific problems and particularities regarding the
process of designing the radiolocation integrated circuits.
The beginning of the chapter considers the specific particularities of designing the
radio frequency integrated circuits, especially the simulation stages of the
HF-integrated circuits composing the radio electron system being designed and the
existent radio electronic system, formation methods of the required sequences of test
signals with the acceptable parameters, and an analysis was made regarding the
equipment and the software required to arrange the working place of the designer of
the radio frequency circuits and others.
Under the spotlight are also the various types of microelectronic technologies
used to fabricate the HF devices.
In the special section dedicated to the software for designing the microwave
integrated circuits, a detailed analysis is provided of the potentialities and specific
features of the most widely applied in practice software products of the company
Cadence Design System, a comprehensive list of the required design libraries, their
functional purpose and description, with an indication of the basic specific features
of the design methods of the digital systems using the language VHDL, a detailed
description is offered on the design routes of the integrated circuits.
One of the specific examples under scrutiny involves the particularities of the
schematic designing of phase shifters for the radiolocation stations.

The Sixth Chapter “Power Electronics Devices Based

on Wide-Gap Semiconductors”

The chapter focuses on the physical fundamentals of the semiconductor microwave

electronics. An abridged history of the development of microwave electronics as one
of the branches of microelectronics is presented, and the structure and properties of
the basic semiconductor material—gallium arsenide—and major types of semicon-
ductor devices that use it (diodes, field transistors, bipolar transistors with
heterojunctions, new types of GaAs-devices) are reviewed.
In detail are reviewed the status and development prospects of the comparatively
new type of GaAs-devices of the microwave monolith integrated circuits (MIC),
Introduction xiii

including the particularities of design and fabrication technology, main materials

used for their fabrication, design specific features of the MIC active elements and
problems of ensuring their reliability, and prospective design-technological solu-
tions of microwave MICs.
A concise comparative review is presented of the designs of the world market
leaders, as well as the major trends of applications of MICs in the Western and
Russian space military hardware.

The Seventh Chapter “Vacuum Electronics”

The chapter is entirely dedicated to one of the most “aged” directions of the
microwave electronics—vacuum electronics.
Here at the beginning of the chapter are considered principles of operation,
classification, and technological particularities of both “classic” and the new types
of vacuum electronic devices, as well as the main values of the attained parameters
of the devices.
A thorough coverage was provided regarding the specific features of the design,
technology, and circuitry engineering related to the innovative direction of the
vacuum microwave electronic devices—power microwave modules, vacuum micro-
wave devices of the centimeter, millimeter, and terahertz bands.

The Eighth Chapter “Semiconductor SHF Devices for Radar

Sets”

The chapter is dedicated to analysis of the semiconductor microwave devices,

purposed directly for construction of the electronic modules of the modern radar
sets and systems of communications.
Here in detail is considered the element base of the combined modules of AFAR
(attenuators, phase shifters, switches, fore amplifiers, low noise amplifiers, and
power amplifiers), as well as a wide spectrum of the noise suppression devices
for AFAR.
The nomenclature and the basic technical parameters of the major Russian
manufacturers (JSC “Microwave Systems,” CJSC RPA “Planet-Argall,” RPA “Pul-
sar,” and others) are indicated. Additionally under consideration are the basic
“Western” integrated circuits for the combined modules of the radar sets, based on
gallium nitride, in particular from the manufacturers Mini-circuits, Hittite Micro-
wave, and others. The important specific features for selection of the element base
for the systems of the secondary power supply of AFAR are also considered.
xiv Introduction

The Ninth Chapter “HF and SHF Components for Radar

Sets”

The chapter is dedicated to consideration of high frequency and microwave

electronic components for radar sets—micro strip filters, microwave filters on the
surface acoustic waves (SAW-filters), cable seals, power strip microwave resistors,
high frequency connectors, and ceramic microwave components for radar sets
(ceramic and film capacitors, network filters, special connectors, and cable “assem-
bly sets”).
The chapter concludes with a section dedicated to the design evolution of
packages for the electronic devices and blocks of radio electronic equipment of
radar sets.

The Tenth Chapter “Methods and Means of Ensuring

Reliability of Radar and Communication Systems”

The chapter is dedicated to consideration of complex methods and means of ensuring

reliability of the radio location systems and means of communications. Here in detail
are presented the physical and technical aspects of the problem of ensuring the
electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)—the nature of the electromagnetic interfer-
ences, types and classification of EMC, norms and standards, technical solutions of
the tasks of ensuring the electromagnetic compatibility of the microprocessor control
units of radar sets and means of communications.
The classification is listed along with the basic technical characteristics of the
protective microwave devices for radar sets and systems of communications.
A section worthy of special attention is dedicated to the particularities of
evaluating the service life of the microwave devices of radar sets considering the
reliability of the mechanical components, which were earlier not regarded by the
design engineers of radar sets, resulting in the artificial rise of the calculated
reliability of radar sets. The specific features of arrangement of the internal and
external power supply circuitry of the microwave devices of the contemporary
radar are considered in detail.
The types and the basic parameters of a number of special high frequency and
microwave components for suppression of the electromagnetic interferences are
listed.
The chapter concludes with consideration of a complex issues related to the test
methods of microwave devices, including for resistance to electrostatic discharges
(test standards both at the level of an individual microwave device and at the
system level).
Introduction xv

The Eleventh Chapter “Radiophotonics

in Telecommunication and Radar Location Systems”

The chapter is dedicated to the relatively new and rapidly developing scientific–
technical direction—the issues of application of radiophotonics in telecommunica-
tion and radiolocation devices and systems.
Under the spotlight are the physical principles of operation, design, and techno-
logical aspects of fabrication and application of the photonic devices based on the
surface irradiating lasers with the vertical resonator, the irradiating laser of the
alloyed structural design (electric and energy parameters, noise and low signal
frequency modulated parameters, linearity in the mode of a strong signal, spectral
and tuning characteristics of the lasers of the continuous (VECSEL, MEMS-
VCSEL, LICSEL) and pulse (VECSEL-SESAM, MIXSEL) generation).
The specific technical solutions are indicated regarding the application problems
of the radiophotonic devices in the radiolocation systems (active delay lines, trans-
mission channels of microwave signals for great distances, systems for signal
distributions along the curtain of the AFAR radar sets, measuring–calibration com-
plexes, and means for such radar sets).
The chapter concludes with an analysis of the microwave photosensors for the
systems of radiophotonics, radiolocation, and optical fiber communications.

The Twelfth Chapter “Measurement of Electrophysical

Parameters of Dielectric and Semiconductor Materials
and Structures of Microwave Electronics”

The chapter is dedicated to the theoretical aspects of interaction between the

electromagnetic irradiation of the microwave range with the photon structures,
including the nano-metric metal, dielectric, and semiconductor layers.
The original results represent the analysis of the contemporary status of research
in the sphere of technologies and control methods of parameters of the dielectric and
conductive materials (measurement of the electrophysical parameters using the
waveguide, bridge resonator methods, waveguide–dielectric resonance methods,
methods applying the synchronized generators of microwave irradiation, etc.)
A description is provided of the complex mathematical model, including depic-
tion and analysis of the computer simulation results of the reflection spectra depen-
dence of the waveguide photonic structures on the position of defect (“disruption”)
in the structure of a photonic crystal, on the parameters of the specific defect, and
results of the reflection spectra simulation of the waveguide photonic structures for
the various frequency bands.
xvi Introduction

The last section of the chapter is dedicated to analysis of both the previously
known and the obtained by the author results of the experimental investigations of
the interaction of the microwave irradiation with the 1-D waveguide photonic
structures and the measurement results of the different parameters of the microwave
materials with application of the waveguide photonic structures.

The Last Chapter “Radiation Stability of SHF Devices”

The chapter is dedicated to analysis of the actual problems of ensuring the radiation
stability of the modern microwave devices.
Here in detail are reviewed the influence particularities of the various kinds of
ionizing irradiations on the operational parameters of the silicon–germanium micro-
wave devices (heterogeneous bipolar transistors, integrated circuits of low noise and
broadband microwave amplifiers and voltage controlled generators).
The particular features of designing the radiation stable design library of the
microwave functional blocks based on the Russian CMOS
S-on-I technology of the JSC “RIM Micron” (transistors, MOS-varicaps, R, C,
L-elements) are reviewed.
The chapter concludes with a section dedicated to the particular features of
designing the passive elements for the radiation stable monolithic silicon–germa-
nium microwave integrated circuits (micro-strip transmission lines, integrated induc-
tances, transformers).
Contents

1 Theoretical Basics of Radiolocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Physical Basics of Radiolocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Basic Tactical and Technical Parameters of Radars . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Classification of Radar Devices and Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Comparative Analysis of Effective Areas of Passive Range-
Difference Systems of Detection of Radio Frequency Sources . . 8
1.4.1 Passive Range-Difference System of RFS Detection
with Minimization of Observation Interval in Terms
of Travel Difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4.2 Comparative Analysis of Spatial and Energy
Characteristics of Various Implementations of
Frequency-Difference Cross-Correlation Processing
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5 Features of Application of Millimeter and Sub-millimeter
Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.5.2 Development of Technology of Millimeter
and Sub-millimeter Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.5.3 Fields of Application of Millimeter and Submillimeter
Waves in Science and Technology and Main
Directions of Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.5.4 Transmission Lines of Millimeter and Sub-millimeter
Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.6 Main Principles of Building Software Complexes for Simulation
of Radiolocation Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.6.1 Typical Composition of a Software Complex for
Modeling of Radiolocation Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.6.2 Features of Implementation of the Construction Set
of Radiolocation Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

xvii
xviii Contents

1.6.3 Features of Setting Spatial Configuration of the

Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.6.4 Calculation of HT Projections to the Line of Sight . . . . 33
1.7 Increasing Noise Immunity of the Radar Using Automatic
Compensators of Perturbing Radiators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.7.1 Principle of Coherent Compensation of Active Noise
Interferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.7.2 Features of Technical Implementation of the Design of
Automatic Compensator of Perturbing Radiations . . . . . 41
1.7.3 Assessment of Efficiency of Active Noise Interference
Suppression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2 Features of Designing Digital Processing Systems for Radiolocation
Systems Based on Microprocessor VLSI Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.1 Features of Designing DSP Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.2 Effect of Microelectronic Technologies on the Structure
of Computing Systems of Radars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.3 DSP Algorithms and Methods of Their Implementation . . . . . . . 74
2.3.1 Primary and Secondary Signal Processing . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.3.2 Hierarchy of DSP Tasks and Operations . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2.3.3 Typical DSP Procedures and Hardware Structures . . . . 79
2.4 General Questions of Building Microelectronic Element Base
for DSP Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
2.5 Certain Practical Aspects of Designing Microprocessor Sets
for Radars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
2.6 Features of Implementing the Algorithm of Synthesis of Linear
Antenna Arrays with Required Directivity Pattern and Integer
Amplitude Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3 Ground Penetrating Radars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.1 Design Features of Ground Penetrating Radars . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.1.1 Traditional Procedures of Formation and Interpretation
of Radio Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.2 Radar Stations of Earth Remote Probing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
3.2.1 ERS (European Remote Sensing Satellite) System . . . . 117
3.2.2 Space ERS Vehicle ENVISAT-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
3.2.3 ERS-1 (Japan Earth Resources Satellite; Japanese
Name – Fuyo-1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
3.2.4 Japanese Advanced Land Observation Satellite
(ALOS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
3.2.5 Canadian System of Survey of Earth’s Natural Resources
Radarsat (Radar Satellite) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Contents xix

3.2.6 Russian Program “Almaz” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

3.2.7 Russian Module of Earth’s Remote Sensing “Priroda”
(“Nature”) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.2.8 ERS Space Vehicles COSMO (Italy, Spain, Greece) . . . 122
3.2.9 Double-Purpose ERS SV COSMO-SkyMed (Italy) . . . . 123
3.2.10 Radar Intelligence System Lacrosse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
3.2.11 Radar Location Complex SIR-C/X-SAR . . . . . . . . . . . 123
3.2.12 French ERS Space Vehicle Osiris Based on Radar
2000 Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
3.3 Ground Penetrating Radars with Increased Resolution . . . . . . . . 126
3.4 Ultra-Wideband Devices of Radar Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
3.4.1 Basic Characteristics of UWB Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
3.4.2 Classification of US UWB Radars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
3.4.3 Development of UWB Technology in Russia . . . . . . . . 138
3.5 Linear FM Ground Penetrating Radar with Increased
Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
3.5.1 Structure of a Ground Penetrating Radar with Ultra-
Wideband Quasi-Continuous Linear FM Signal . . . . . . 140
3.5.2 Path of Generation and Processing of Ultra-Wideband
Quasi-Continuous Linear FM Signals of Ground
Penetrating Radar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
3.6 Features of Using Ground Penetrating Radars from Aircrafts . . . 147
3.7 Russian Georadars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
3.7.1 Ground Penetrating Radars of the “Loza” Series . . . . . . 151
3.7.2 “Zond-2” Georadars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
3.7.3 “OKO” Georadars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
4 Antennas and Antenna Devices for Radar Location and Radio
Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
4.1 Main Parameters and Types of Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
4.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
4.1.2 Characteristics of Radar Set Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
4.1.3 Basic Antenna Types and Technical Characteristics . . . 192
4.2 Examples of Design Concepts of Antennas for Radio
Communication Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
4.2.1 Small-Sized Antenna for Portable Wireless Systems
of Thee WIMAX/WLAN Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
4.2.2 Wideband Microstrip Antenna with Increased Gain
Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
4.2.3 Wideband SHF Travelling-Wave Antenna . . . . . . . . . . 215
4.2.4 Man-Portable Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
4.2.5 Multiband Patch Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
4.2.6 Microstrip Antennas on Thin Substrate . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
xx Contents

4.2.7 Flat Reflective Printed Antenna for Cellular

Communication Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
4.2.8 Features of Designing Mirror Reflector Phased
Antenna Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
4.2.9 Three-Range Slot Antenna for Wireless
Communication Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
4.2.10 Wideband Vivaldi Antenna on Ceramic
Substrate for 60 GHz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
4.2.11 Methodological Basis of Calculation of Mirror Dish
Antennas Using Modern Microwave CAD Systems . . . 264
4.2.12 Wideband Log-Spiral Antenna with Circular
Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
4.3 Phased Antenna Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
4.3.1 Classification, Structure and Features of Application
of Phased Antenna Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
4.3.2 Detailed Description of the Structure and Operating
Principles of PAA Without a Single Formula . . . . . . . . 292
4.4 Design Features and Reliability Assessment of Power Supply
Systems of Active Electronically Scanned Arrays of Radar
Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
4.5 Components for Provision of Mechanical Positioning
of Antenna Systems of Radars and Radio Communication . . . . . 310
4.5.1 Position Sensors (Encoders) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
4.5.2 Rotary Junctions of Positioning Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 314
4.6 Condition and Prospects of Development of Antenna
Devices for Radars and Communication Means . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
4.6.1 Analysis of the Current State of Development
of Antenna Devices in Radar Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
4.6.2 Main Directions of Development of Antenna
Systems of Radar Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
4.6.3 Ways of Solving Technical Problems of
Development of Advanced Antenna Systems
of Radar Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Further Reading for Chapter 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
5 Features of Organizing the Process of Designing Radar
Microcircuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
5.1 Features of Organizing the Process of Designing
Radio Frequency Microcircuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
5.2 Possible Types of Technologies Used for Production
of RF and SHF Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
5.3 Software Means for Designing SHF ICs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
5.3.1 Analysis of Possibilities and Advantages
of Software Products of Cadence Design
Systems, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Contents xxi

5.3.2 List of Necessary Design Libraries and Their

Functional Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
5.3.3 Features of Teaching Methods of Designing Digital
Systems Using VHDL Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
5.3.4 Detailed Description of an IC Design Process . . . . . . . . 358
5.3.5 Multisim Blue Software for Modeling
of Radioelectronic Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
5.4 Features of Circuit Modeling of Phase Shifters
for Radar Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
5.4.1 Basic Parameters of a Standard Phase Shifter . . . . . . . . 380
5.4.2 Phase Shifter Designing Using CAD Means . . . . . . . . . 383
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
6 Power Electronics Devices Based on Wide-Gap
Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
6.1 Main Properties of Materials Based on Large Gap
Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
6.2 Evolution of Silicon Carbide Production Technology . . . . . . . . . 394
6.3 Main Manufacturers of SiC-Based Power Electronics
Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
6.4 Designs of GaN-Based Power Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
6.4.1 Diode structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
6.4.2 MOSFET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
6.4.3 Structures Based on 2D Electron Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
6.4.4 Lateral Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
6.4.5 Vertical Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
6.5 State and Trends of Development of the Technology
of Powerful GaN-Based SHF Transistors and MICs . . . . . . . . . 406
6.6 Wideband Transistor Power Amplifiers of the
Microwave Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
6.7 Features of Basic Process Operations of Production
of GaN Device Crystals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
6.7.1 Epitaxy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
6.7.2 Formation of Contacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
6.7.3 Lithography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
6.7.4 Etching and Groove Production Processes . . . . . . . . . . 431
6.7.5 Surface Formation and Device Passivation . . . . . . . . . . 432
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
7 Vacuum Electronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
7.1 Operating Principle, Classification and Technological
Features of Vacuum Electronic Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
7.2 Application of Vacuum Electronics in US Military
Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
7.3 Main Values of VTD Parameters Achieved by 2000 . . . . . . . . . 443
xxii Contents

7.4 Microwave Integrated Vacuum Electronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445

7.5 High-Power SHF Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
7.6 Vacuum SHF Devices of Centimeter, Millimeter
and Terahertz Ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
7.6.1 Vacuum SHF Devices of the Centimeter Range . . . . . . 459
7.6.2 Vacuum SHF Devices of Millimeter and Terahertz
Ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
8 Semiconductor SHF Devices for Radar Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
8.1 Element Base of TRMs for Phased Antenna Arrays . . . . . . . . . . 467
8.1.1 Attenuators for Transceiver Modules of Active
Electronically Scanned Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
8.1.2 Two-Pole Switches for AESA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
8.1.3 AESA Phase Shifters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
8.1.4 Preamplifiers of Transceivers for AESA . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
8.1.5 Low Noise Amplifiers and Power Amplifiers
for AESA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
8.1.6 Noise-Suppressing Filters for AESA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
8.2 Russian Element Base of SHF Devices for Radar Sets . . . . . . . . 482
8.2.1 Russian Active GaAs Elements for Transceiver SHF
Modules of the Centimeter Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
8.2.2 SHF Devices by JSC “Microwave Systems” . . . . . . . . 490
8.3 Russian GaAs Based Microwave Components by
“Planeta-Argall” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
8.3.1 Transistor Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
8.3.2 Protective Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
8.3.3 Microwave Transistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
8.4 Features of Designing SAW Frequency Selective
Microcircuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
8.5 Microwave Radio Receivers by RSE “Pulsar” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
8.6 High Speed Hybrid Converters for Radar Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
8.7 Foreign Microcircuits for GaN-Based Transceiver
Modules of Radar Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
8.7.1 GaN-Based AESA TRMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
8.7.2 Monolithic GaN Microwave Power Amplifiers . . . . . . . 531
8.7.3 GaN-Based SHF Microcircuits of Switches . . . . . . . . . 533
8.7.4 Optimization of Design of GaN SHF Transistors . . . . . 535
8.7.5 SHF Microcircuits by RFHIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
8.8 HF and SHF Devices by Mini-Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
8.8.1 Integrated Monolithic Amplifiers of the VNA
Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
8.8.2 Double Balanced Mixers of the MCA1 Group . . . . . . . 545
8.8.3 Series of Multi-purpose High-Frequency Amplifiers . . . 546
Contents xxiii

8.8.4 Frequency Mixers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548

8.8.5 Attenuators of HF and SHF Ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
8.9 SHF Chips by Hittite Microwave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
8.9.1 SHF Chips of Attenuators by Hittite Microwave . . . . . . 550
8.9.2 Monolithic SHF Microcircuits of Full Synthesizers
by Hittite Microwave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
8.10 Specifics of Selecting Element Base for Secondary
Power Supply Systems of AESA Transceiver Modules . . . . . . . 594
8.10.1 Principles of Building Power Supply Systems
for AESA TRMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
8.10.2 Technological Features of Production of DC/DC
Converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
8.10.3 Features of SynQor Converters of the Hi-Rel
Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
8.10.4 Electromagnetic Processes in the Power Supply
System of AESA Transceivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
9 HF and SHF Components for Radar Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
9.1 Microstrip Filters for SHF Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
9.2 Features of Using Acoustic Wave-Based Microwave Filters . . . . 614
9.3 Features of Using Special Design Solutions of Cable
Sealing Glands for SHF Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
9.4 Russian Powerful Stripline SHF Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
9.5 High Frequency Connections for Active Phased
Antenna Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625
9.6 HF and SHF Components of Spectrum Advanced
Specialty Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
9.7 Ceramic SHF Components for Radar Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
9.7.1 Ceramic Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
9.8 Line Filters and Film Capacitors for Radar Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
9.9 Special Connectors and Cable Assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654
9.10 Evolution of Packages for Devices and Units
of Radioelectronic Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
10 Methods and Means of Ensuring Reliability of Radar
and Communication Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661
10.1 Electromagnetic Compatibility: Terms, Definitions,
Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661
10.1.1 The Nature of Electromagnetic Interference . . . . . . . . . 661
10.1.2 EMC Terms, Definitions and Classification . . . . . . . . . 666
10.1.3 Regulations and Standards for Electromagnetic
Compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
10.2 Ensuring Electromagnetic Compatibility of Microprocessor
Control Units of Electronic Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680
10.2.1 Design Features of Printed Circuit Boards
Optimized in Terms of Electromagnetic
Compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680
10.2.2 Measurement of the Level of Interference
Emitted by Microcontrollers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687
10.2.3 Ensuring Electromagnetic Compatibility in Wired
Communication Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696
10.2.4 Design of Printed Circuit Boards for High-Speed
Communication Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698
10.3 Protective SHF Devices for Radar Stations and
Communication Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710
10.3.1 Classification and Features of Creation
of Protective SHF Devices for Radar Location
and Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710
10.3.2 Gas Discharge Protective Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712
10.3.3 Semiconductor Protective Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714
10.3.4 Vacuum Protective Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721
10.4 Features of Assessment of the Resource of SHF Devices
Considering the Reliability of Mechanical Components . . . . . . . 723
10.5 Features of Organizing Electric Power Supply Circuits
of Radar Set Microwave Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728
10.6 HF and SHF Components for Suppression of
Electromagnetic Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736
10.7 Assessment of Resistance of Microcircuits to the
Effect of Electromagnetic Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745
10.8 Standard Methods of Testing SHF Devices for
Resistance to Electrostatic Discharges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 752
10.8.1 Standards of Tests at the Device Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753
10.8.2 Comparison of Test Methods at the Device Level . . . . . 755
10.8.3 Standards of Tests at the System Level . . . . . . . . . . . . 755
10.9 Passive Intermodulation in SHF Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761
10.9.1 Mechanisms of the Occurrence of Passive
Intermodulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761
10.9.2 Causes of the Passive Intermodulation and
Methods for Reducing its Level in RF Connectors . . . . 763
10.9.3 Passive Intermodulation in the Printed Circuit
Board Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764
10.9.4 PIM in Band, Coaxial and Waveguide
Transmission Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764
10.9.5 PIM in Directional Couplers, Frequency
Duplexers and Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 765
Contents xxv

10.9.6 External PIM Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 766

10.9.7 PIM Level Evaluation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 767
10.9.8 Specialized Equipment for PIM Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . 769
References . . ......................................... . 772
11 Radiophotonics in Telecommunication and Radar
Location Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777
11.1 Photonic Devices Based on Surface-Emitting Lasers
with Vertical Resonators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777
11.2 Design of a Long-Wave Alloyed Surface-Emitting Laser . . . . . . 780
11.3 Basic Technical Characteristics of a Long-Wave
Alloyed Surface-Emitting Laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 782
11.3.1 Electrical and Power Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 782
11.3.2 Low-Signal Frequency-Modulation Characteristics . . . . 782
11.3.3 Noise Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783
11.3.4 Linearity in High Signal Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784
11.3.5 Spectral and Tuning Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784
11.4 Continuous Generation Lasers: VECSEL, MEMS-VCSEL,
LICSEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 786
11.5 Pulse Generation Lasers: VECSEL-SESAM, MIXSEL . . . . . . . 796
11.6 Main Directions of Fundamental Studies in the Field of
Component Base of Radiophotonics and Functional Devices
Based on It . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 799
11.7 Examples of Use of Radiophotonic Devices
in Radar Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 800
11.7.1 Active Delay Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 801
11.7.2 Channels for Long-Distance Transmission
of Microwave Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803
11.7.3 Systems of Distribution of Radio Signals
over Radar AESA Curtain (Figs. 11.34, 11.35,
11.36, and 11.37) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 805
11.7.4 Measurement and Calibration Means for
Radar Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807
11.8 Microwave Photodetectors for Radiophotonics,
Radar Location and Optic Fiber Communication Systems . . . . . 809
11.8.1 Physical Principles of Operation of Microwave
P-I-N Photoelectric Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809
11.8.2 Physical Mechanisms of Limiting Photocurrent
of a P-I-N-Photodiode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 814
11.8.3 Design Features of Photodiodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821
xxvi Contents

12 Measurement of Electrophysical Parameters of Dielectric

and Semiconductor Materials and Structures of Microwave
Electronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827
12.1 Analysis of the Modern State of Studies in the Field of
Technologies of Parameter Control of Dielectric and
Conductive Materials at SHF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827
12.1.1 Features of Using Microwave Measurement
Methods in Semiconductor Microwave Electronics . . . . 827
12.1.2 Measurement of Electrophysical Parameters
of Materials by Waveguide Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830
12.1.3 Measurement of Semiconductor Parameters
by Bridge Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 833
12.1.4 Measurement of Semiconductor Parameters
by Cavity Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 834
12.1.5 Measurement of Material Parameters
by Waveguide Dielectric Resonance Method . . . . . . . . 840
12.1.6 Measurement of Parameters of Materials
and Structures by Autodyne Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841
12.1.7 Measurement of Material Parameters Using
Synchronized Oscillators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 842
12.1.8 Near-Field SHF Microscopy of Material
Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843
12.1.9 Measurement of Thickness of Nanometer
Metal Layers and Conductivity of Semiconductor
in Metal-Semiconductor Structures Based on
Reflection and Transmission Spectra of
Electromagnetic Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847
12.2 Mathematical Model and Results of Computer Modeling
of the Interaction Between Microwave Radiation with
One-Dimensional Waveguide Photonic Structures Including
Nanometer, Metal, Dielectric and Semiconductor Layers . . . . . . 849
12.2.1 Interaction of SHF Radiation with Multi-Layered
Structures with Planes of Layers Perpendicular
to the Radiation Propagation Direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849
12.3 Theoretical Basis for the Method of Measurement of
SHF Material Parameters Using One-Dimensional
Waveguide Photonic Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 866
12.3.1 Measurement of Permittivity of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . 866
12.3.2 Measurement of Complex Permittivity of
Materials with Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 869
12.3.3 Measurement of Thicknesses of Nanometer
Metal Films on Dielectric or Semiconductor
Substrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871
Contents xxvii

12.4 Results of Experimental Study of Interaction of SHF Radiation

with One-Dimensional Waveguide Photonic Structures . . . . . . . 875
12.4.1 Results of Experimental Study of Reflection and
Transmission Spectra of Waveguide Photonic
Crystals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875
12.4.2 Use of Waveguide Photonic Structures for
Measurement of Parameters of Nanometer
Metal Layers on Semiconductor and Dielectric
Substrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 877
12.4.3 Use of Waveguide Photonic Structures for
Measurement of Parameters of Dielectric Materials . . . . 884
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 894
13 Radiation Stability of SHF Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909
13.1 Impact of Ionizing Radiation on the Characteristics
of Silicon-Germanium Integrated Circuits of the SHF Range . . . 909
13.1.1 Heterostructural Bipolar Transistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910
13.1.2 SHF LNA and WBA Chips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912
13.1.3 SHF VCG Chips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 917
13.2 Design Features of the Radiation-Resistant Library
for Designing SHF Functional Units Based on CMOS
SOI Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 922
13.2.1 High-frequency and Noise Properties of Domestic
SOI MOS Transistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 923
13.2.2 Instrument Modeling of SOI MOS Transistors . . . . . . . 925
13.2.3 MOS VVCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 928
13.2.4 R, С, L Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 930
13.2.5 Design of Functional Elements of SHF Path . . . . . . . . . 932
13.3 Features of the Mechanisms of Influence of Space Factors
on the Formation of Local Radiation Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 937
13.4 Features of the Design of Passive Elements for Radiation-
Resistant Monolithic Silicon-Germanium SHF ICs . . . . . . . . . . 944
13.4.1 Microstrip Transmission Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 945
13.4.2 Integral Inductances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 946
13.4.3 Balance-to-Unbalance Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 947
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 953

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 957