Introduction

Concrete takes an important place among the most durable construction materials. Even though it
gives benefits cracking is problematic. Concrete cracking is mainly occurred due to the shrinkage
induced strain and the stresses in the concrete. Cracking influences to the concrete strength
properties, life time and appearance of the structure. When concrete is drying for a long period of
time shrinkage is taken place. Early age autogenous shrinkage is one of the main problems in
cracking. Due to this many studies are found related to the early age autogenous shrinkage. It is
important to repair the cracked concrete to prevent the further deterioration Reasons for the
further reasons may be thawing, freezing and also the corrosion of steel reinforcement. Corrosion
of steel reinforcement is occurred when water with or without Chloride ions is infiltered into the
concrete structure. Additional repairing costs are needed when Cracking is taken place.
Precautions can be taken to avoid early deterioration of concrete and also the corrosion of
reinforcement. Cracking reduces the life span of concrete structures (concrete slabs, bridges)
Nowadays, different types of admixtures are frequently using in different ways to enhance the
properties of concrete. The behavior of an admixture in concrete depends on the properties of
cementitious material, aggregate, other admixtures, temperature and mixing methods.

1.1 Concrete as a Composite

Concrete is a well-known term among public. Layman will consider concrete as a mixture of,
sand, water, portland cement and crushed rock. However, the consultants in the field define
concrete in advanced manner other than considering it as a mixture.
In a general way, concrete is a particulate composite. Matrix of this composite is called the
binder, and the particles are called the aggregate. The concept is illustrated in Figure 1.1.

Matrix (Binder)

Particles (aggregate)
 Figure 1.1 Illustration of a particulate composite

The term, cement has its roots in French. ciment, and Latin cæmenta, “stone chips used for
making mortar”. Cement, in broad sense, means a binder. Binders or cements may be of different
materials; Portland cement paste, bitumen, Sulphur, and polymers are some examples. Aggregate
may be such as crushed rock, gravel, sand, crushed slag, crushed glass, and pieces of metal.
From the Latin word concretus the term, concrete, is derived and it has the meanings of
condensed, hardened, and clotted.

1.2 Portland Cement

Main material included in Portland cement is argillaceous material (Latin argilla is white clay).
There are different types of argillaceous materials such as shale and calcareous material. Calcium
is the main element in the calcareous material.Argillaceous material have to be heated to high
temperatures so as to prepare the Portland cement. Many chemical compounds like silica,
potassium, sodium are included in portland cement.

1.3 Proportioning of concrete mixtures

Proper concrete proportioning is very important to achieve the sustainability and economic
aspects of concrete. Therefore, concrete mix should be prepared targeting the specific properties
of concrete such as strength, workability. Preparation of concrete mix includes the process of
determining the amounts of ingredients. This process is sometimes referred to as “concrete mix
design”, but this term misleadingly implies that the process is almost based on computation as
the case of structural design.
Proportioning of a mix may be entirely empirical. That is, it may totally depend on experience or
observation alone or it may have technical basis of tests and calculations. Every property of the
ingredients controlling the character of concrete mix cannot be expressed quantitatively at the
current status of practices. For example, texture and shape of the coarse and fine materials cannot
be evaluated accurately. Even water cement ratio and water requirement can be adjusted to take a
specific strength. Therefore, an approach based on calculation is limited to make a reasonable
initial guess of mix proportions. The proportions so arrived lead to trial mixes. The properties of
the trial mixes are to be checked first in a laboratory against their specified values. In the event
of observing differences, mix proportions are to be suitably adjusted and a new trial mix should
be produced. This procedure has to be continued until a totally satisfactory mix is obtained. Even
satisfactory laboratory trial mix does not guarantee that the mix produced on the site by using
equipment there gives the specified properties. In other words, only a mix made and used on the
site can assure that all the properties of the concrete are satisfactory in terms of the specification.
This is particularly true with pumpable concrete, shotcrete, and self-compacting concrete.
Even though the properties of ingredients are attempted to be maintained, those may vary from
time to time, and consequently periodic adjustments are needed in preparing the mix proportions.
In conclusion, it should be noted that, with the present state of knowledge, generally tables,
computer programs and charts are not possible to determine the exact mix proportions. Even
such calculations are made the results of those are only to be used as intelligent guesses for the
initial trial mixes.

1.4 ACI method for concrete mix design

American Concrete Institute (ACI)has proposed a method to make a concrete mix design. This
method is commonly used and highly accepted. At the beginning of this method water content
given for a maximum size of coarse aggregate should be selected. And then workability needs to
be found. Workability is denoted by slump. After that cement content can be calculated by using
water content and W/C ratio. W/C ratio has been taken at the beginning by using design strength
of the concrete. After this the volume of coarse aggregate should be found. Finally, fine
aggregate volume is calculated by finding the difference between the total volume and volume of
other ingredients. Volume basis calculations give more accurate results than the weight basis
calculations.

1.5 Hydration

Chemical reaction between compounds in cement and water is called hydration. Hydration is
taken place in the processes of setting and hardening of concrete. Hydration starts when the
water is added to cement and then it begins with the addition of external water to cement and
continues over a long period of time at varying rates. Even after many years, unhydrated portions
of cement particles may be present.

1.6 Setting of Cement Paste

Setting is the apparent conversion of cement paste from fluid state to rigid state. The time taken
to enter into setting is measured from the instant of adding water to dry cement. The common
equipment to assess the setting time is Vicat apparatus.
Flash setting is quick stiffening of cement paste with considerable evolution of heat. The
stiffening associated with flash setting cannot be reverted by further mixing. False setting is an
apparent stiffening with a little evolution of heat. The stiffening associated with false setting
reverts back on further mixing.

1.7 High Temperature on Hardened Paste

Hardening and gaining strength of Portland cement paste is caused by the hydration reaction.
Hydration causes to form mainly, calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H), and calcium
sulphoalumnate hydrates, and calcium hydroxide. Water exists in cement paste in the forms of
chemically combined water, interlayer water, adsorbed water and capillary water. Upon
increasing temperature, first, capillary water starts to evaporate. That does not affect the strength
unless the material is heated rapidly, but causes shrinking of the paste. Once the temperature has
reached around 3000C, some combined water and interlayer water begin to lose. Around 500 °C,
Ca(OH)2 starts to decompose. Complete decomposition of C-S-H takes place around 900 °C,
losing the strength of the hardened paste completely. Even though not much used for structural
applications after discovering the loss of strength with age or retrogression of strength associated
with the conversion of crystal structure of aluminate hydrates at normal temperatures, calcium
aluminate cement (CAC) or high alumina cement (HAC) is more tolerant to high temperature.
Hence, that type of cement is used for high temperature applications such as refractory concrete.
1.8 ASTM Standards
ASTM standards have their own requirements, based on their recommended test procedures. It is
to be noted that the ASTM test procedures and EN test procedures differ in many instances. For
example, compressive strength given in Euro Norms (EN) is based on performing 40 mm
indirect cube testing of fractured mortar prism halves, whereas in ASTM that is based testing 50
mm cubes. The compositions of the mixes are also different. Consequently, the resulting values
remain different.

1.9 Admixtures
Admixtures are compounds added in small quantities at the mixing stage of concrete, with the
aim of modifying or improving certain properties of fresh and / or hardened concrete.
Admixtures, while imparting beneficial effects may have harmful effects as well. Therefore,
the selection and use of admixtures have to be done cautiously.

Nowadays, mostly admixtures are available as proprietary formulations. The behavior of an

admixture in concrete depends on the properties of cementitious material, aggregate, other
admixtures, temperature and mixing methods. Therefore, the properties given in manufactures’
trade literature cannot be treated no more than an approximate guide. The real behavior can be
observed only by making trial mixes under the proposed condition, viz., batching/mixing
method, temperature, and with the intended ingredients.

Admixtures can be categorized in different ways. One such division is based on the water –
solubility of the compound. Another division is based on whether the compounds are active,
interactive or passive. By definition, active admixtures react with the soluble components of
cement to produce a compound imparting the effect; interactive admixtures are surface-active
compounds associating with liquid-air and solid-liquid interfaces; passive admixtures do not
change their form and give only a physical contribution. During early days, admixtures were
classified as chemical admixtures. Chemical admixtures are mainly liquids, either in solution
or in suspension form. They may also be in the form of water-soluble solids.

1.10 ASTM classification of admixtures

ASTM classification is widely used in product descriptions. Some of the products may qualify
for more than one type. ASTM C494 / C494M – 17. There are 8 types of admixtures.
Type A – Water - reducing
Type B – Retarding
Type C – Accelerating
Type D – Water-reducing and retarding
Type E – Water- reducing and accelerating
Type F – Water-reducing, high range
Type G – Water-reducing, high range, and retarding
Type S – Specific performance

1.11 Water Reducing Admixture

Water Reducing Admixture is increasing workability of concrete with reduction of water
demand. In other words, the increase of workability by adding the admixture without increasing
water content is caused by the deflocculation of cement particles accommodating a layer of water
in between, and entrainment of air. Bleeding and segregation can be reduced by using water-
reducing admixtures. Air-entrainment is also partly involved in this
The effect of increasing workability without addition of water helps to get increased strength
without increasing the content of cement. Also, the same strength can be achieved with lesser
amount of cement. This allows reducing the total heat generated by the mix.
The extent of water reduction or increase in workability depends on the admixture dosage.
However, very high degree of water reduction or increase in workability cannot be achieved by
extreme dosages of water reducing admixtures. It is because of the adverse side effects including
entrainment of air, excessive retardation, increase the early shrinkage and accelerate the speed of
cracking.
For applications where very high degree of water reduction is needed, a different class of
admixtures called high range water reducing or super plasticizing admixtures are to be used.

1.12 High Range Water Reducing or Super plasticizing Admixture

Whenever a water reducing effect greater than that is possible with water reducing admixtures,
high range water reducing or super plasticizing admixtures are needed. Chemicals used as high
range water reducing admixtures are of large molecular weight, and not by products as water
reducing admixtures. Hence, they are more expensive. Some of the chemicals used for the
purpose are:

1. Sulfonated naphthalene formaldehyde (SNF)

2. Sulfonated melamine formaldehyde (SMF)
3. Polycarboxylate ester
4. Copolymer of carboxylic acrylic acid with acrylic ester
5. Cross – linked acrylic polymer

Superplasticizers enhance the mobility of cement paste as a result of electrostatic repulsion of

cement particles with adsorbed admixture molecules. Unlike water reducing admixture, high
range water reducing admixture does not entrain air. In fact, with this type of admixture it
becomes difficult to entrain air, when air entrainment is a requirement.
When choosing a high range water reducing admixture, compatibility of that with the cement
used has to be checked. Otherwise, the effectiveness in water reduction will be less prominent,
and short lived.
Finer cements have a larger specific surface area than the coarser ones. Since the admixture is
adsorbed to the surface of particles, higher dosage of admixture is needed for finer cement than
for coarser ones to get the same effect of water reduction. Cements with high C 3A content
reduce the effectiveness of superplasticizer. On the other hand, cements with very low content
of C3A may result in excessive retardation.

Consumption of admixture by cement with the commencement of the hydration reaction leads
to rapid loss of flowability achieved with the admixture. Therefore, in order to retain the effect
of water reduction for a longer period, superplasticizers except polycarboxylate type, have to
be added as the last ingredient, with a smaller fraction of mixing water, toward the latter part
of mixing. Retarder added at the beginning of mixing may also help to prolong the water
reducing effect of superplasticizer. Redosing of the admixture is helpful in restoring the lost
workability with time. However, multiple re-dosing is less effective. Because of the effective
deflocculating action, superplasticizers are beneficial where very fine additions like silica fume
or pigments are to be effectively dispersed in a cementitious mix. Even though the direct
benefit of superplasticizer is to get desired workability with much less water content, concrete
mixes can be designed by making use this characteristic to obtain,

(1) High strength concrete;

(2) reduced cement content;

(3) reduced heat of hydration;

(4) reduced diffusivity and water permeability even under pressure; and

(5) increased strength at early age such as at 3 - 7 days without increasing cement content.

All those benefits are obtainable as a result of the possibility of reducing water in the mix at
proportioning stage, causing reduction of water-cement ratio. These benefits can be achieved to a
lesser degree with water-reducing or plasticizing admixture.

1.12.1 Effects of High range water reducing admixtures on concrete properties

(1) Slump

HRWRAs are often used in concrete mixtures. HRWRA is mainly affected to the loosing slump
with time which means workability of concrete is reduced. There are some reasons for the loss of
slump in these types of concrete mixtures such as type of the admixture, dosage, other admixture
dosage, properties of cement, strength of concrete and temperature of the mixture. These factors
can control manually. But environmental temperature can’t be controlled by designer. So, this
temperature is affected to the process of HRWRA reaction.

Rate of slump loss is depending on the dosage of HRWRA in concrete mixture. Rate of slump
loss can be reduced by using higher dosage of HRWRA ( Ravina et al. 1986). Manufacturers of
the admixture is giving a recommended dosage range to use with optimum conditions. If that
ranges are not considered, efficiency of HRWRA can be reduced.
 (2) Segregation

Separation of mixture components as a result of the differences in their particle size or density is
defined as the Segregation in concrete. HRWRA is reducing the water in the concrete. Therefore,
segregation will not occur in the cement paste. But segregation may occur if recommended
dosage ranges are not taken when using the admixtures to create flowing concrete. As a result of
poor proportioning and deficiency of mixing, localized excess fluidity and segregation may
occur.

(3) Compressive strength and Tensile strength

Main function of HRWRA is the reducing water from concrete mixture. As a result of reducing
water content, W/C ratio is decreased. Reduction of W/C ratio is affected to increase the cement
content. Cement content is mainly influenced to the strength of the concrete. When dosage of
HRWRA is increasing, strength of the concrete is increased. In the early age, rate of strength
increasing is slightly high.

When designing a concrete mix design with include HRWRA, W/C ratio should be found at the
beginning of the design. Then concrete strength should be assumed according to the
requirements. Cement dispersing is affected to the increase of the concrete strength. Therefore,
assumed concrete strength can be varied. Use of variation of W/C with strength for material is
most acceptable way to doing the mix design. Improvement of concrete strength at early age by
using HRWRA admixture can be shown from above data.

High range water reducing admixtures affect the tensile strength in the same way affect the
compressive strength. Standard laboratory tests are using to determine the tensile and
compressive strength of the concrete.
 (4) Drying shrinkage and creep

Laboratory studies indicate that adding a HRWRA to a cement paste increases the drying
shrinkage of the paste. Some laboratory data confirm that HRWRAs can increase concrete drying
shrinkage at a given water cement ratio and cement content (given paste content),
but this effect has not been definitively established. Therefore, the drying shrinkage of flowing
concrete should be similar to, or slightly greater than, that of the same concrete mixture without
any HRWRA. If there is a simultaneous reduction in cement content and w/cm when the
HRWRA is added, drying shrinkage can be reduced. If drying shrinkage is a critical factor for
the structure being built,’ the shrinkage (ASTM C 157) should be measured before the mix
proportions are finalized to ensure that the desired value is not exceeded. Shrinkage values of
concrete with and without HRWRA should be compared
at equal strength of the concrete, not equal time (age), so that concretes are compared at a similar
porosity. Although few studies have been made on creep characteristics, it is expected that
adding HRWRAs to concrete should affect creep to the same extent that they
affect shrinkage.

Figure 1.2 - Utilization of water reduction to gain high early as well as late strength
1.13 Specific performance admixture

Specific performance admixture (ASTM Type S) provides desired reduction of water content,
Changing the setting time of concrete or both of them together. This provision of uses are
without any adverse impacts on the properties of concrete such as life time, strength etc. The
specific performance characteristics are used for shrinkage reduction, mitigation of alkali-silica
reaction, and viscosity modification.

1.14 Shrinkage

Volume reduction of concrete causes the shrinkage and or volume reduction of concrete is time
dependent. Moisture is a major factor for the occurrence of autogenous shrinkage and drying
shrinkage. Thermal shrinkage is taken place due to the influence of temperature in concrete. Due
to the carbonation reaction a volume change in concrete is occurred. As a result of this volume
change, carbonation shrinkage is taken place. Both creep and shrinkage are not dependent on
stress in concrete. But there is a possibility of occurring a shrinkage when a concrete is
restrained.

1.14.1 Autogenous Shrinkage

Autogenous shrinkage is associated with the hydration, so that the major part develops in initial
days after casting. Since autogenous shrinkage is an effect of self-desiccation of cement paste

causing partially empty capillaries, the associated shrinkage takes place. Even if the concrete is
perfectly cured externally, preventing any moisture movement to the ambience. Autogenous
shrinkage is more prominent in concretes with low water-cement ratio, or in other words, in
concretes having high strength.

Figure 1.3 Autogenous shrinkage trends based on EN 1992 -1 -1

1.14.2 Drying shrinkage

Drying shrinkage is combined with the movement of moisture from cement paste to the
ambience. Hence, it depends on the ambient relative humidity and the surface to volume ratio of
the member. It also depends on the strength of the concrete, and the age at which the concrete
starts to expose to the drying environment. Drying shrinkage does not take place within the
period of water curing. Since the drying rate becomes higher with water-cement ratio, concretes
with lower strengths demonstrate a greater drying shrinkage. This behavior is opposite in the
case of autogenous shrinkage.
Set of curves shown in figure 1.4 illustrate the trends for the notional size(h 0) equals to 100mm,
relative humidity, 60% and the period of curing is 5 days. The notional size is defined by using
cross sectional area (Ac)and perimeter of the considering part of the cross section of the
structure(u)Notational size can be calculated by 2Ac/u.The physical meaning of the notional size
can be approximately described as the thickness of a member having large dimensions in the two
other directions, if the surfaces perpendicular to the thickness are open to ambience.

Figure 1.4 - Drying shrinkage trends based on EN 1992 -1 -1

1.14.3 Carbonation shrinkage

Carbonation in concrete is occurred when CO 2 is penetrated into the moist pores and then at first
it becomes carbonic acid and then it reacts with Ca(OH)2 to form CaCO3, increasing the density.
As a result of this, reduction of volume is taken place. Carbonation shrinkage will lead the
surface cracking(crazing), and also the warping of thin sheets of cementitious products if
different carbonation rates are prevailed on surfaces.

1.14.4 Plastic shrinkage

Water loss from fresh concrete can occur in two different ways which causes the plastic
shrinkage. Through evaporation from an exposed surface is the predominant mode. And also,
material of the formwork is highly influenced to the plastic shrinkage. The reason for this is the
loosing of water by suction of the formwork material. Water loss in such way will increase the
effects of surface evaporation. Generally accepted fact is that the water loss from paste fraction
of concrete due to external factors will generate negative capillary pressures and as a result the
volume of the paste to be contracted, hence it will cause the shrinkage. There are four main
factors which influence the water evaporation. They are wind speed, relative humidity and
temperature of environment and concrete.Even though these conditions are most likely to be
observed during the summer months, it is possible to occur at any time. The rate of the bleed
water transportation to the concrete surface will influence the potential for the phenomenon or
form of cracking which is generally called as plastic shrinkage cracking.Reserch studies have
reported that if the rate of surface evaporation exceeds about 0.1 lb/ft2 /h (0.5 kg/ m2 /h), the
moisture loss will exceed the rate of reaching the bleed water to the surface and with that setting
into motion the mechanisms causing plastic shrinkage.
In literature plastic shrinkage is defined as the fresh concrete shrinkage, exposed to
drying and which is taken place at the time when the concrete is ‘plastic’ ( Neville et al 2000).
Usually the duration is short and it ends when the concrete has come to its final set. Tensile
stresses will develop if there is a non-uniform shrinkage or restraint, which may cause cracking
due to the low tensile strength and strain capacity the concrete is having at this stage. Generally,
these cracks are called as ‘plastic shrinkage cracks’. Cracks caused by plastic shrinkage, thermal
dilution, early age drying and autogenous shrinkage cannot be differentiated.Eventhough
Crackings are problematic there are some crackings which does not affect negatively to the
structure.Influence of cracking is taken place when it is enlarged.

1.15 Setting Time and Strength of the concrete

The final decision on acceptance may be made even when the water fails to satisfy preliminary
inspections by performing test on setting time and 7-day compressive strength. Those tests may
be considered an alternative to the qualitative or quantitative chemical tests as well. Therefore,
the limits specified on setting time and strength are considered crucial requirements on
acceptance. Further, in ASTM 1602, the limits on the outcome of chemical tests are considered
as optional requirements.

1.16 Aim of the study

This study aims to investigate the effectiveness of shrinkage-reducing agents and water reducing
admixtures for reducing autogenous shrinkage, drying shrinkage and plastic shrinkage on
concrete mixtures made with different dosages of admixtures and also to study the effects of
shrinkage-reducing agents and water reducing admixture on other properties of concrete
including slump, air content, compressive strength and splitting-tensile strength.

1.17 Objectives of the study

• To determine the effectiveness of shrinkage-reducing agents and water reducing admixtures for
reducing autogenous shrinkage and drying shrinkage different concrete mixtures.

•To analyses the effect of shrinkage-reducing agents and water reducing admixture on other
properties of concrete.
1.18 Scope of the study

This study is limited to water reducing admixtures and shrinkage-reducing agents. The properties
of concrete will be tested considering the changes in slump during the first hour, initial setting
time, autogenous shrinkage, Compressive strength and splitting tensile strengths.